Modification of Petrol Engine to Kerosene Engine

Abstract:
In the modern era, one of the world’s main concerns is energy. With the
millennium just around the corner, new energy conserving ideas are being brought to the market.
In recent years, tendencies have just begun to, at times, favor alternative fuels to power
automobiles. Many of these alternative fuels are recognized with rising cost of crude oil and
availability. One among those alternative fuels chosen for this project, which can also be used to
power the vehicles is kerosene.

The main objective of this project is to use kerosene as an alternate fuel and make
bike run with kerosene which is less cost compared to other fuels. For this engine need to be
modified like adding preheating technique, which utilizes the heat from exhaust gases and
additional heating device should be provided in between carburetor and engine, for initially
attaining a favorable temperature to air-fuel mixture in the cylinder. The carburetor is to be
modified by varying air-fuel ratio in order to find its effect on the performance of the engine.
Additional fuel filter and water separator should be provided to minimize the carbon residue and
water content in the kerosene.

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KEY WORDS:
Preheating, lubrication, carburetion, compression ratio, Regenerative heating, Ohms law,
Stoichiometric ratio, Joule’s law.

NOMENCLATURE:

Vc = cylinder swept volume [cm3 (cc) or L]

Ac = cylinder area [cm2 or cm2/100]

dc = cylinder diameter [cm or cm/10]

L = stroke length (the distance between the TDC and BDC) [cm or cm/10]

BDC = Bottom Dead Center

TDC = Top Dead Center

Ve = engine swept volume [cm3 (cc) or L]

Vc = cylinder swept volume [cm3 (cc) or L]

Ac = cylinder area [cm2 or cm2/100]

dc = cylinder diameter [cm or cm/10]

r = compression ratio

Vs = cylinder swept volume (combustion chamber volume) [cc, L, or m3]

I mep = is the indicated mean effective pressure [N/m2

L = stroke length [m]

n = number of cylinders

N = engine speed [rpm]

z = 1 (for 2 stroke engines), 2 (for 4 stroke engines)

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Vc = cylinder swept volume [m3]

Ve = engine swept volume [m3]

Ti = engine indicated torque [Nm]

ω = engine angular speed [1/s]

nm = mechanical efficiency

Pb = engine brake power [kW]

Pi = engine indicated power [kW]

Pf = engine friction power [kW]

SFC = specific fuel consumption [(kg/h)/kW, kg/(3600 s x kW), kg/(3600 kJ)]

FC = fuel consumption [kg/h]

nth = thermal efficiency

FC = fuel consumption [kg/h = (fuel consumption in L/h) x (ρ in kg/L)]

CV = calorific value of kilogram fuel [kJ/kg]

ρ = relative density of fuel [kg/L]

θ = crank shaft angle [1/s]

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 1. INTRODUCTION:
Kerosene bike is nothing but petrol bike. In this providing some modifications
to convert the petrol engine to kerosene engine. To giving some initial temperature to
Air fuel mixture we can produce the more power, the auto ignition temperature of
kerosene more compare to petrol thus we require additional temperature to burn fuel.
It will burn by preheating methods; we are following three types of pre heating methods
there expressed in literature. Carburetor modification is done for kerosene engine air fuel
ratio 15:6 but petrol engine air fuel ratio 14:5.

1.1 Properties of Kerosene:

Kerosene is a combustible hydrocarbon liquid. The name is derived
from Greek: κηρός (keros) meaning wax. The word "Kerosene" was registered as a trademark
by Abraham Gesner in 1854, and for several years, only the North American Gas Light
Company and the Downer Company were allowed to call their lamp oil "Kerosene" in the United
States.Kerosene, a thin, clear liquid formed from hydrocarbons, with a density of 0.78–0.81
g/cm3, is obtained from the fractional distillation of petroleum between 150 °C and 275 °C,
resulting in a mixture of carbon chains that typically contain between 6 and
16 carbon atoms per molecule.

Regardless of the crude oil source or processing history, the major components of all
kerosene’s are branched and straight chainalkanes and naphthenes (cycloalkanes), which
normally account for at least 70% by volume. Aromatic hydrocarbons in this boiling range, such
as alkylbenzenes (single ring) and alkylnaphthalenes (double ring) do not normally exceed 25%
by volume of kerosene streams. Olefins are usually not present at more than 5% by volume.

The flash point of kerosene is between 37 and 65 °C (100 and 150 °F), and its auto
ignition temperature is 220 °C (428 °F).The pour point of kerosene depends on grade, with
commercial aviation fuel standardized at −47 °C (−53 °F).Heat of combustion of kerosene is
similar to that of diesel; its lower heating value is 43.1 MJ/kg (around 18,500 Btu/lb), and
its higher heating value is 46.2 MJ/kg.

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 Kerosene is immiscible in water (cold or hot), but miscible in petroleum solvents.
In the United Kingdom, two grades of heating oil are defined. BS2869 Class C1 is the lightest
grade used for lanterns, camping stoves, wick heaters, and mixed with gasoline in some vintage
combustion engines as a substitute for tractor vaporizing oil. BS2869 Class C2 is a heavier
distillate, which is used as domestic heating oil. Premium kerosene is usually sold in 5 or 20 liter
containers from hardware, camping and garden stores and is often dyed purple. Standard
kerosene is usually dispensed in bulk by a tanker and is undyed.

National and international standards define the properties of several grades of

kerosene used for jet fuel. Flash point and freezing point properties are of particular interest for
operation and safety; the standards also define additives for control of static electricity and other
purposes. Kerosene is a hydrocarbon fuel distilled from petroleum. The term kerosene was
trademarked in 1854, but has since become a generic term much like the word "zipper." Also
known as paraffin in some parts of the world, the fuel is used for heating, cooking and as a
component of jet engine fuel. Kerosene's chemical and physical properties make it different from
other fuels.

Solubility:

Although kerosene is insoluble in water, it does mix with other petroleum solvents.

Boiling Point:

Kerosene boils at very high temperatures ranging from 347 degrees to 617 degrees Fahrenheit.
The range is dependent on air pressure.

Flash Point:

Flash point is the minimum temperature at which vapors of a liquid will ignite. A substance with
a low flash point is easier to ignite than one with a higher flash point. Kerosene's flash point
ranges from 100 degrees to 185 degrees Fahrenheit, depending on the pressure the kerosene is
under. At sea level kerosene's flash point is 149 degrees Fahrenheit.

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Auto ignition Temperature:

The temperature at which a substance will ignite on its own at normal air pressure is the auto
ignition temperature. This temperature for kerosene is 444 degrees Fahrenheit.

Flammability:

Although kerosene has a high flash-point, it is very flammable compared to gasoline. Exposure
to any spark or lit heat source will cause a fire that spreads over the kerosene liquid. Fumes and
other noxious gases will emit from the fire. Kerosene's chemical make-up also allows the liquid
to expand when it is energized. So, even if the fire is contained in a non-flammable space, the
fire will spread since the liquid expands and thins out across a surface.

Chemical Properties:

Kerosene, like many hydrocarbons, comes from crude oil. Unlike other hydrocarbons,
kerosene has a relatively high flash-point. A flash-point is the lowest temperature at which a
compound will ignite. It is this reason why kerosene is used on transportation vehicles such as
airplanes. Gasoline burns much easier at a lower temperature than kerosene.

Kerosene is a mixture of hydrocarbons and does not have a single chemical formula. The
hydrocarbons in the mixture include compounds with 10 to 16 carbon atoms in both straight
chain and branched formations.

Today, kerosene is mainly used in fuel for jet engines in several grades. One form of the
fuel known as RP-1 is burned with liquid oxygen as rocket fuel. This fuel grade kerosene meets
specifications for smoke points and freeze points. The combustion reaction can be approximated
as follows, with the molecular formula C12H26 (dodecane)

2 C12H26(l) + 37 O2(g) → 24 CO2(g) + 26 H2O(g); ∆H˚ = -7513 kJ

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1.2 Properties of petrol:

Gasoline /ˈɡæsəliːn/, or petrol /ˈpɛtrəl/, is a transparent, petroleum-derived liquid that

is used primarily as a fuel in internal combustion engines. It consists mostly of organic
compounds obtained by the fractional distillation of petroleum, enhanced with a variety of
additives 42 gallon barrel of crude oil yields about 19 gallons of gasoline, when processed in an
oil refinery.

The 'anti-knock' characteristic of a particular gasoline blend, when used as a fuel in

internal combustion engines, is measured by its octane rating. Gasoline is produced in several
grades of octane rating. Tetraethyl lead and other lead compounds are no longer used in most
areas to regulate and increase octane-rating, but many other additives are put into gasoline to
improve its chemical stability, control corrosiveness and provide fuel system 'cleaning,' and
determine performance characteristics under intended use. Sometimes, gasoline also contains
ethanol as an alternative fuel, for economic or environmental reasons.

Gasoline, as used worldwide in the vast number of internal combustion engines used
in transport and industry, has a significant impact on the environment, both in local effects (e.g.,
smog) and in global effects (e.g., effect on the climate). Energy is obtained from the combustion
of gasoline by the conversion of a hydrocarbon to carbon dioxide and water. The combustion of
octane follows this reaction:

2 C8H18 + 25 O2→ 16 CO2 + 18 H2O

Gasoline contains about 42.4 MJ/kg (120 MJ/US gal, 33.3 kWh/US gal) quoting the
lower heating value. Gasoline blends differ, and therefore actual energy content varies according
to the season and producer by up to 4% more or less than the average, according to the US EPA.
On average, about 74 L of gasoline (19.5 US gal, 16.3 imp gal) are available from a barrel of
crude oil (about 46% by volume), varying due to quality of crude and grade of gasoline. The
remainder is products ranging from tar to naphtha. The density of gasoline ranges from 0.71–
0.77 kg/L (719.7 kg/m3 ; 0.026 lb/in3; 6.073 lb/US gal; 7.29 lb/imp gal), higher densities having
a greater volume of aromatics.

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1.3 Properties of Diesel:

Diesel fuel /ˈdiːzəl/ in general is any liquid fuel used in diesel engines, whose fuel
ignition takes place, without spark, as a result of compression of the inlet air mixture and then
injection of fuel. Diesel engines have found broad use as a result of higher thermodynamic and
thus fuel efficiencies. This is particularly noted where diesel engines are run at part-load; as their
air supply is not throttled as in a petrol engine, their efficiency still remains high.

The density of petroleum diesel is about 0.832 kg/l (6.943 lb/US gal), about 12% more
than ethanol-free petrol (gasoline), which has a density of about 0.745 kg/l .About 86.1% of the
fuel mass is carbon, and when burned, it offers a net heating value of 43.1 MJ/kg as opposed to
43.2 MJ/kg for gasoline. However, due to the higher density, diesel offers a higher volumetric
energy density at 35.86 MJ/L (128,700 BTU/US gal) vs. 32.18 MJ/L (115,500 BTU/US gal) for
gasoline, some 11% higher, which should be considered when comparing the fuel efficiency by
volume. TheCO2 emissions from diesel are 73.25 g/MJ, just slightly lower than for gasoline at
73.38g/MJ. Diesel is generally simpler to refine from petroleum than gasoline, and contains
hydrocarbons having a boiling point in the range of 180–360 °C (360–680 °F).

The viscosity of diesel noticeably increases as the temperature decreases, changing it

into a gel at temperatures of −19 °C (−2.2 °F) to −15 °C (5 °F), that cannot flow in fuel systems.
Conventional diesel flash points vary between 52 and 96 °C, which makes it safer than petrol and
unsuitable for spark-ignition engines. Unlike petrol, the flash point of a diesel fuel has no
relation to its performance in an engine nor to its auto ignition qualities. Conventional diesel
fuels vaporize at temperatures between 149 °C and 371 °C.

Stoichiometric Ratio of different fuels:

The Stoichiometric ratios of various fuels are as follows:

Gasoline has an air fuel ratio of 14.7: 1

Kerosene has an air fuel ratio of 15.6: 1

Natural Gas has an air fuel ratio of 17.2: 1

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Propane has an air fuel ratio of 15.5: 1

Ethanol has an air fuel ratio of 9: 1

Methanol has an air fuel ratio of 6.4: 1

Hydrogen has an air fuel ratio of 34: 1

Diesel has an air fuel ratio of 14.6: 1

Methane has an air fuel ratio of 17.4: 1

Biogas has an air fuel ratio of 10: 1

Bio Ethanol (22 % mix) has an air fuel ratio of 12.7 : 1 as it is an oxygenated fuel as compared to
Gasoline, and E85 has an air fuel ratio of 9.765.

1.4 Comparison between Petrol , Kerosene and Diesel:

Properties Petrol Kerosene Diesel
Flashpoint -45°C 37 and 65 °C 52 and 96 °C
Pour point - −47 °C -
Auto Ignition 280°C 220°C 280°C
temperature
Fuel charging system Vaporization Vaporization Atomization

Boiling point 80–437°C 74-344 °C 180–360 °C

Density 0.71–0.77 kg/L 0.78–0.81 kg/L 0.745 kg/L

Lower Heating value 18–19MJ/kg 43.1 MJ/kg 18-19MJ/kg
Higher heating value 18.8-20.2MJ/kg 46.2 MJ/kg. 19.2-20.4MJ/kg
Stoichiometric Air-fuel 14.7: 1 15.6: 1 14.6: 1
mixture ratio
Type of Ignition Spark ignition Spark ignition Compression ignition
Chemical Formula C8H18 C12H26 C12H23
Compression ratio 6:1 6:1 11:1

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1.5 Motivation:

Once upon a time petrol is used as fuel for all trucks & light motor vehicles.
Now a days diesel is used as fuel for heavy and some light motor vehicles. Because of less fuel
cost of diesel compare to petrol. Thus the cost vehicle maintenance is reduced in daily wise, but
kerosene is cheaper than diesel.

Kerosene is available at 4times lesser cost than petrol and 3times lesser than
diesel. But the carbon residue percentage inversely proportional to cost of fuel. Kerosene having
more carbon percentage than diesel and petrol.

By using kerosene as fuel to reduce the total consumption of petrol &diesel. The power
generated by kerosene is larger than petrol, it can know by chemical structures of both fuels.
The chemical property of petrol is C8H18 ,The chemical property of is C12 H26 .More power can
produced by carbon and hydrogen chemicals in fuel, By above chemical composition kerosene is
having more hydrogen and carbon. But the fuel auto ignition is to less for petrol and more for
kerosene.

The fuel consumption is increasing with increasing of technology in automobile,

increasing consumers for automobile vehicles. The fuel in the bottom of earth is decreasing with
increasing of consumption of fuel. Mainly the fuel is available in particular areas which are
having oil mines, That large quantity of fuel removing from earth at particular location its cause
earth quake near to that mines or some other location. If we can possible to give some other
source then reduce the level of consumption of particular fuel and also be reduce earth quakes.
The auto mobile totally depends on petroleum (Crude oil). The main characteristics of a good
fuel are :-

i) Is readily available.

ii) Is cheap.

iii) Is easy to store and transport.

iv) Burns at a moderate rate.

v) Produces a large amount of heat.

vi) Does not leave behind any undesirable substances.

vii) Does not cause pollution.

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1.6 Engines:
The engine provides the power to drive the vehicle’s wheels. All automobile engines, both
gasoline and diesel, are classified as internal combustion engines because the combustion or
burning that creates energy takes place inside the engine. The biggest part of the engine is the
cylinder block. The cylinder block is a large casting of metal that is drilled with holes to allow
for the passage of lubricants The cylinder head fits on top of the cylinder block to close off and
seal the top of the cylinder. The combustion chamber is an area into which the air-fuel mixture is
compressed and burned. The cylinder head contains all or most of the combustion chamber. The
cylinder head also contains ports through which the air- fuel mixture enters and burned gases exit
the cylinder and the bore for the spark plug. The valve train is a series of parts used to open and
close the intake and exhaust ports. A valve is a movable part that opens and closes the ports. A
camshaft controls the movement of the valves. Springs are used to help close the valves. The up-
and-down motion of the pistons must be converted to rotary motion before it can drive the
wheels of a vehicle. This conversion is achieved by linking the piston to a crankshaft with a
connecting rod. The upper end of the connecting rod moves with the piston. The lower end of the
connecting rod is attached to the crankshaft and moves in a circle. The end of the crankshaft is
connected to the flywheel or flexes plate.

Four Stroke Engine Basics:

The four-stroke engine is used in all current mass-produced automobiles, most

motorcycles, and a few outboard motors. Technically speaking the four-stroke engine is called a
four-stroke cycle engine. Since we’re all friends here we’ll just call it a four-stroke. They’re
called four strokes because it takes four separate strokes of the piston (two complete revolutions
of the crankshaft) to complete the four cycles needed to make the engine run and accomplish one
combustion cycle. One piston stroke is the piston movement from the top of the cylinder to the
bottom or from the bottom of the cylinder to the top. When the piston has reached the extent of
its upward motion, in other words when it’s as close to the cylinder head as it’s going to get, it’s
said to be at top dead center, or TDC for short. When the piston reaches the bottom of its stroke,
(the point where it’s as far from the head as possible) it’s at bottom dead center (BDC).

The four-strokes are intake, compression, power, and exhaust. Here’s how they work
together on a running engine: on the intake stroke the piston heads toward BDC, the intake valve
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opens, and fuel-air mix flows into the cylinder. On the compression stroke, the piston rises
toward TDC, compressing the fuel-air mix. On the power stroke, the spark plug fires the
compressed mix, pushing the piston back down to BDC. On the exhaust stroke, while inertia
carries the piston back toward TDC again, the exhaust valve opens and the burned gases are
expelled. Let’s start with a look at the four cycles needed to make an engine run.

The Intake Stroke:

During the intake stroke the piston moves from top dead center to bottom dead center.
When the piston moves down it leaves an open space above it. That open space, until recently
occupied by the piston, is now empty, and because nothing has replaced the piston, that open
space is an area of low pressure or vacuum. The intake valve then opens and a mixture of air and
fuel from the carburetor flows into the cylinder. Why does the fuel/air mix flow into the
cylinder? As we all learned in high school physics (at least those of us not daydreaming about
motorcycles) nature abhors a vacuum. Because the downward movement of the piston has
created an area of low pressure between the closed intake valve and the piston, and the air on the
other side of the valve (in the intake port) is at atmospheric pressure, which is 14.7 pounds per
square inch. The instant the intake valve opens the higher pressure air in the inlet port will flow
toward the low pressure area in the cylinder. Now in reality, the process is slightly more
complicated. The intake valve actually opens before the piston reaches top dead center and it
closes sometime after the piston reaches bottom dead center in order to take advantage of the
inertial effects of the flowing air. But for the time being we’ll assume that the valve has opened
slightly after top dead center and closed slightly before bottom dead center.

The Compression Stroke:

The piston comes to a brief stop when it reaches the bottom of the intake stroke. It then
begins to travel upwards. Both the intake and exhaust valves are closed during the compression
stroke. The fuel-air mixture in the cylinder is compressed into an ever-decreasing volume as the
piston moves toward top dead center.

The Power Stroke:

This is when all the good stuff happens. As the piston reaches top dead center the
ignition system creates a spark at the spark plug tip. If every-thing goes according to plan the

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spark ignites the fuel-air mixture inside the cylinder. As the mixture burns it expands. The
expansion of the burning gas creates very high pressures inside the cylinder, pushing the piston
back down. How high? Anywhere from four to six tons depending on the engines design
parameters. Make no mistake about it, when I say the gases burn at a controlled rate they do just
that. The last thing you want and the very last thing an engine will tolerate is an explosion in the
cylinder. Engineers equipped with some very expensive and powerful computers spend
enormous amounts of time ensuring that what you get is in fact a controlled burn.

The Exhaust Stroke:

The piston has once again reached bottom dead center. It now starts to move
upward, and as it does the exhaust valve opens and the piston forces the spent gases from the
cylinder. When it reaches top dead center the whole process begins again. It may occur to you
that we need something to help keep the engine turning over smoothly between strokes. If we
relied solely on the inertia provided by the piston and crankshaft assembly, the rotary motion of
the crankshaft would proceed in fits and starts. It would be very difficult to keep the engine
running, particularly at low speed. A perfect example of this is a common get the thing to turn
over. Energy is stored in a large mass bolted to, or manufactured as, part of the crankshaft. This
mass is called a flywheel. The purpose of the flywheel is to store energy between power strokes.
Essentially it uses the stored energy to keep the engine turning over smoothly and prevent it from
stalling. The lighter the flywheel the less energy it stores. Bikes with light flywheels tend to stall
more often than engines with heavy flywheels, but an engine with a light flywheel will also
respond to changes in engine rpm a lot quicker.

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Four-stroke cylinders are nothing more than a precision machined tube surrounded by air cooling
fins or a water jacket.

Two Stroke Engine:

In two stroke cycle engines, the whole sequence of events i.e., suction, compression,
power and exhaust are completed in two strokes of the piston i.e. One revolution of the
crankshaft. There is no valve in this type of engine. Gas movement takes place through holes
called ports in the cylinder. The crankcase of the engine is air tight in which the crankshaft
rotates. Upward stroke of the piston (Suction + Compression) When the piston moves upward it
covers two of the ports, the exhaust port and transfer port, which are normally almost opposite to
each other. This traps the charge of air- fuel mixture drawn already in to the cylinder. Further
upward movement of the piston compresses the charge and also uncovers the suction port. Now
fresh mixture is drawn through this port into the crankcase. Just before the end of this stroke, the
mixture in thecylinder is ignited by a spark plug (Fig 2 c &d). Thus, during this stroke both
suction and compression events are completed.

Downward stroke (Power + Exhaust)

Burning of the fuel rises the temperature and pressure of the gases which forces the
piston to move down the cylinder. When the piston moves down, it closes the suction port,
trapping the fresh charge drawn into the crankcase during the previous upward stroke. Further

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downward movement of the piston uncovers first the exhaust port and then the transfer port.
Now fresh charge in the crankcase moves in to the cylinder through the transfer port driving out
the burnt gases through the exhaust port. Special shaped piston crown deflect the incoming
mixture up around the cylinder so that it can help in driving out the exhaust gases . During the
downward stroke of the piston power and exhaust events are completed

1.6.1 Petrol engine :

In a passenger car or truck, the engine provides the rotating power to drive the wheels
through the transmission and driving axles. All vehicle engines, both gasoline and diesel, are
classified as internal combustion because the combustion or burning takes place inside the
engine. These systems require an air-fuel mixture that arrives in the combustion chamber at the
correct time and an engine constructed to withstand the temperatures and pressures created by
the burning of thousands of fuel droplets. The combustion chamber is the space between the top
of the piston and the cylinder head. It is an enclosed area in which the fuel and air mixture is
burned.

The piston fits into a hollow metal tube, called a cylinder. The piston moves up and down
in the cylinder. This reciprocating motion must be converted to a rotary motion before it can
drive the wheels of a vehicle. This change of motion is accomplished by connecting the piston to

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a crankshaft with a connecting rod. The upper end of the connecting rod moves with the piston as
it moves up and down in the cylinder. The lower end of the connecting rod is attached to the
crankshaft and moves in a circle. The end of the crankshaft is connected to the flywheel, which
transfers the engine’s power through the drive train to the wheels. In order to have complete
combustion in an engine, the right amount of fuel must be mixed with the right amount of air.
This mixture must be compressed in a sealed container, then shocked by

the right amount of heat (spark) at the right time. When these conditions exist, all the fuel that
enters a cylinder is burned and converted to power, which is used to move the vehicle.
Automotive engines have more than one cylinder.

Each cylinder should receive the same amount of air, fuel, and heat, if the engine is to run
efficiently. Although the combustion must occur in a sealed cylinder, the cylinder must also have
some means of allowing heat, fuel, and air into it. There must also bea means to allow the burnt
air-fuel mixture out so a fresh mixture can enter and the engine can continue to run. To
accommodate these requirements, engines are fitted with valves. There are at least two valves at
the top of each cylinder. The air-fuel mixture enters the combustion chamber through an intake

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valve and leaves (after having been burned) through an exhaust valve. The valves are accurately
machined plugs that fit into machined openings. A valve is said to be seated or closed when it
rests in its opening. When the valve is pushed off its seat, it opens. A rotating camshaft, driven
and timed to the crankshaft, opens and closes the intake and exhaust valves.

Cams are raised sections of a shaft that have high spots called lobes. Cam lobes are
oval shaped. The placement of the lobe on the shaft determines when the valve will open. The
height and shape of the lobe determines how far the valve will open and how long it will remain
open in relation to piston movement. As the camshaft rotates, the lobes rotate and push the valve
open by pushing it away from its seat. Once the cam lobe rotates out of the way, the valve,
forced by a spring, closes. The camshaft can be located either in the cylinder block or in the
cylinder head. When the action of the valves and the spark plug is properly timed to the
movement of the piston, the combustion cycle takes place in four strokes of the piston: the intake
stroke, the compression stroke, the power stroke, and the exhaust stroke. The camshaft is driven
by the crankshaft through gears, or sprockets, and a cogged belt, or timing chain. The camshaft
turns at half the crankshaft speed and rotates one complete turn during each complete four-stroke
cycle. Four-Stroke Cycle A stroke is the full travel of the piston either up or down in a cylinder’s
bore. The reciprocal movement of the piston during the four strokes is converted to a rotary
motion by the crankshaft. It takes two full revolutions of the crankshaft to complete the four-
stroke cycle. One full revolution of the crankshaft is equal to 360 degrees of rotation; therefore, it
takes 720 degrees to complete the four-stroke cycle. During one piston stroke, the crankshaft
rotates 180 degrees.

Intake Stroke The first stroke of the cycle is the intake stroke. As the piston moves
away from top dead center (TDC), the intake valve opens. The downward movement of the
piston increases the volume of the cylinder above it, reducing the pressure in the cylinder. This
reduced pressure, commonly referred to as engine vacuum, causes the atmospheric pressure to
push a mixture of air and fuel through the open intake valve. (Some engines are equipped with a
super- or turbocharger that pushes more air past the valve.) As the piston reaches the bottom of
its stroke, the reduction in pressure stops, causing the intake of air-fuel mixture to slow down. It
does not stop because of the weight and movement of the air-fuel mixture. It continues to enter
the cylinder until the intake valve closes. The intake valve closes after the piston has reached

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bottom dead center (BDC). This delayed closing of the valve increases the volumetric efficiency
of the cylinder by packing as much air and fuel into it as possible.

Compression Stroke the compression stroke begins as the piston starts to move from
BDC. The intake valve closes, trapping the air-fuel mixture in the cylinder. The upward
movement of the piston compresses the air-fuel mixture, thus heating it up. At TDC, the piston
and cylinder walls form a combustion chamber in which the fuel will be burned. The volume of
the cylinder with the piston at BDC compared to the volume of the cylinder with the piston at
TDC determines the compression ratio of the engine.

Power Stroke the power stroke begins as the compressed fuel mixture is ignited
(Figure 9–8C). With the valves still closed, an electrical spark across the electrodes of a spark
plug ignites the air-fuel mixture. The burning fuel rapidly expands, creating a very high pressure
against the top of the piston. This drives the piston down toward BDC. The downward
movement of the piston is transmitted through the connecting rod to the crankshaft.

Exhaust Stroke the exhaust valve opens just before the piston reaches BDC on the
power stroke. Pressure within the cylinder causes the exhaust gas to rush past the open valve and
into the exhaust system. Movement of the piston from BDC pushes most of the remaining
exhaust gas from the cylinder. As the piston nears TDC, the exhaust valve begins to close as the
intake valve starts to open. The exhaust stroke completes the four-stroke cycle. The opening of
the intake valve begins the cycle again. This cycle occurs in each cylinder and is repeated over
and over, as long as the engine is running.

1.6.2 Diesel Engine:

Diesel engines represent tested, proven technology with a long history of success.
Invented by Dr. Rudolph Diesel, a German engineer, and first marketed in 1897, the diesel
engine is now the dominant power plant in heavy-duty trucks, construction equipment, farm
equipment, buses, and marine applications. Diesel engines in cars and light trucks will become
more common soon. There are many reasons for this, one of which is that low-sulfur diesel fuel

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will be available in the United States. Diesel vehicles are very common in Europe and other
places where cleaner fuels are available.

The operation of a diesel engine is comparable to a gasoline engine. They also have a
number of components in common, such as the crankshaft, pistons, valves, camshaft, and water
and oil pumps. They both are available as two- or four-stroke combustion cycle engines.
However, diesel engines have compression ignition systems. Rather than relying on a spark for
ignition, a diesel engine uses the heat produced by compressing air in the combustion chamber to
ignite the fuel. The compression ratio of diesel engines is typically three times (as high as 25:1)
that of a gasoline engine. As intake air is compressed, its temperature rises to 1,300°F to 1,650°F
(700°C to 900°C). Just before the air is fully compressed, a fuel injector sprays a small amount
of diesel fuel into the cylinder. The high temperature of the compressed air instantly ignites the
fuel. The combustion causes increased heat in the cylinder and the resulting high pressure moves
the piston down on its power stroke.

Construction:

Diesel engines are heavier than gasoline engines of the same power. A diesel engine must be
made stronger to contain the extremely high compression and combustion pressures. A diesel
engine also produces less horsepower than a same-sized gasoline engine. Therefore, to provide
the required power, the displacement of the engine is increased. This results in a physically
larger engine. Diesels have high torque outputs at very low engine speeds but do not run well at
high engine speeds. On many diesel engines, turbochargers and intercoolers are used to increase
their power output.

Diesel combustion chambers are different from gasoline combustion chambers because diesel
fuel burns differently. Three types of combustion chambers are used in diesel engines: open
combustion chamber, pre-combustion chamber, and turbulence combustion chamber. The open
combustion chamber is located directly inside the piston. Diesel fuel is injected directly into the
center of the chamber. The shape of the chamber and the quench area produce turbulence. The
pre-combustion chamber is a smaller, second chamber connection to the main combustion
chamber. On the power stroke, fuel is injected into the small chamber. Combustion is started

Page | 19
there and then spreads to the main chamber. This design allows for lower fuel injection pressures
and simpler injection systems. The turbulence combustion chamber creates an increase in air
velocity or turbulence in the combustion chamber. The fuel is injected into the turbulent air and
burns more completely.

Fuel injection is used on all diesel engines. Older diesel engines had a distributor-type injection
pump driven and regulated by the engine. The pump supplied fuel to injectors that sprayed the
fuel into the engine’s combustion chamber. Newer diesel engines are equipped with common rail
systems. Common rail systems are

Direct injection (DI) systems. The injectors’ nozzles are placed inside the
combustion chamber. The piston top has a depression where initial combustion takes place. The
injector must be able to withstand the temperature and pressure inside the cylinder and must be
able to deliver a fine spray of fuel into those conditions. These systems have a high-
pressure(14,500_ psi or 1,000_ bar) fuel rail connected to individual solenoid-type injectors. The
injectors are controlled by a computer that attempts to match injector operation to the operating
conditions of the engine. Newer diesel fuel injectors rely on stacked piezoelectric crystals rather
than solenoids. Piezo crystals quickly expand when electrical current is applied to them. The
crystals allow the injectors to respond very quickly to the needs of the engine. With this new-
style injector, diesel engines are quieter, more fuel efficient, cleaner, and have more power.

Advantages:

When compared to gasoline engines, diesel engines offer many advantages. They are
more efficient and useless fuel than a gasoline engine of the same size. Diesel engines are very
durable. This is due to stronger Construction and the fact that diesel fuel is a better lubricant than
gasoline. This means that the fuel is less likely to remove the desired film on oil on the cylinder
walls and piston rings of the engine. Diesel engines are also better suited for moving heavy load
sat low speeds.

Disadvantages:

The primary disadvantages of using diesel engines in passenger cars and light trucks include:

■ Low-power output

Page | 20
■ difficult cold weather starting

■ Noise

■ Exhaust emissions.

1.6.3Kerosene engine:
The engine which runs by using kerosene as fuel is called kerosene Engine. It
is also like petrol engine but initial temperature needed to rise for total fuel burning that means
providing some modifications into petrol engine to generate heating in air fuel mixture before
entering into combustion chamber. This phenomenon of heating is called preheating.

The preheating is done in three locations

1. In between the air filter and Carburetor.

2. In Fuel

3. In between the Carburetor and Engine.

A compression ratio of 6.5 or lower is desired for operation on Kerosene. The petrol-
paraffin engine version of the Ferguson TE20 tractor had a compression ratio of 4.5:1 for
operation on tractor vaporizing oil with an octane rating between 55 and 70. On the other hand,
kerosene is a common liquid fuel used in many applications.

However, there is little useful data on the high-pressure and high-temperature

evaporation and combustion. The evaporation of commercial fuels has been studied at 400_C
and atmospheric pressure by Elkotb et al. (1991). They examined heavy diesel fuel, light diesel
fuel, kerosene, gasoline, and their blends. In their study it was found that the evaporation does
not follow the d2-law and the rate changes with time.

The main purpose of this work is to experimentally observe the evaporation

behavior of kerosene droplet in high-pressure and high-temperature environments. Experiments
were performed with an individual suspended droplet at the tip of quartz fiber. The initial
diameter of droplets range between 1.0 and 1.2 mm. Temporal variations of droplet diameter
were measured for several ambient pressures and temperatures.

Droplet evaporation rates are obtained by examining the measured temporal

variations of droplet diameter. In this study, temperature and pressure ranges are from 500 to
1000_C and 0.1 to 3MPa, respectively. The effects of temperature and pressure on evaporation
are discussed and presented in more details. In addition, the vapor film formation around the

Page | 21
droplet under high evaporation rate is reported. In this also having four strokes there are suction,
Compression, power, Exhaust Strokes. Vaporization system is used in carburetor to supply fuel
into engine & Homogeneous mixture is produced in carburetor by mixing of air and fuel. Air
fuel ratio is controlled by increasing the venture in carburetor to perform efficiently. Petro
lubrication system is additionally added for effective lubrication.

1.7 Pre-heating:

Preheating involves heating the base metal, either in its entirety or just the region
surrounding the joint, to a specific desired temperature, called the preheat temperature, prior to
welding. Heating may be continued during the welding process, but frequently the heat from
welding is sufficient to maintain the desired temperature without a continuation of the external
heat source. The inter pass temperature, defined as the base metal temperature between the first
and last welding passes, cannot fall below the preheat temperature. Inter pass temperature will
not be discussed further here. Preheating can produce many beneficial effects; however, without
a working knowledge of the fundamentals involved, one risks wasting money, or even worse,
degrading the integrity of the weldment.

There are four primary reasons to utilize preheat: (1) it lowers the cooling rate in the
weld metal and base metal, producing a more ductile metallurgical structure with greater
resistant to cracking (2) the slower cooling rate provides an opportunity for any hydrogen that
may be present to diffuse out harmlessly without causing cracking (3) it reduces the shrinkage
stresses in the weld and adjacent base metal, which is especially important in highly restrained
joints and (4) it raises some steels above the temperature at which brittle fracture would occur in
fabrication. Additionally, preheat can be used to help ensure specific mechanical properties, such
as notch toughness.

1.7.1 Air preheating:

The intake air is heated in between the air filter and carburetor by providing heating
coil. This heating coil is immersed inside of the intake hose and that can stores the heat. It’s
coated with heat insulated material around its circumference. Once heat is generated that will not

Page | 22
escape into the surroundings and maximum temperature is maintained. The heating coil is
connected to the battery and nickel chromium is used as heating coil.

In this system 12 volts and 6 amps battery input is converted into 27 volts of output that
is used for nickel-chromium coil and it is done by amplifying .The main principle involved is
ohm’s law

Ohm's law:

This states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly
proportional to the potential difference across the two points. Introducing the constant of
proportionality, the resistance, one arrives at the usual mathematical equation that describes this
relationship.

V=IR

Where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential
difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the
conductor in units of ohms. More specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in this relation is
constant, independent of the current.

The law was named after the German physicist Georg Ohm, who, in a treatise published
in 1827, described measurements of applied voltage and current through simple electrical circuits
containing various lengths of wire. He presented a slightly more complex equation than the one
above (see History section below) to explain his experimental results. The above equation is the
modern form of Ohm's law.

Page | 23
 In physics, the term Ohm's law is also used to refer to various generalizations of the law
originally formulated by Ohm. The simplest example of this is:

Where J is the current density at a given location in a resistive material, E is the electric
field at that location, and σ (Sigma) is a material dependent parameter called the conductivity.

Joule heating, also known as ohmic heating and resistive heating, is the process by which
the passage of an electric current through a conductor releases heat. The amount of heat released
is proportional to the square of the current such that

1.7.2 Fuel preheating:

The fuel can be heated in fuel tank itself by filament heating method with source of
battery. The filament is immersed inside the fuel totally and some heat is generated in the fuel.
That heat is low to raise temperature of kerosene. That heated kerosene will perform more
effectively. This filament is also heated using a battery.

1.8 Regenerative Heating:

Regenerative heating is a process-oriented systems theory based approach to design. The

term "regenerative" describes processes that restore, renew or revitalize their own sources of
energy and materials, creating sustainable systems that integrate the needs of society with the
integrity of nature. The basis is derived from systems ecology with a closed loop input–output
model or a model in which the output is greater than or equal to the input with all outputs viable
and all inputs accounted for. In this method burnt exhaust gasses heat is utilized to raise the
temperature of air-fuel mixture before entering the combustion chamber, for this purpose an
additional device is equipped in between the carburetor and engine on intake manifold. By this

Page | 24
process the intake manifold is heated up with this device. The heat transfer takes place from
intake manifold to air-fuel mixture, thus the intake manifold should be made of Aluminum
material in kerosene engine so that maximum amount of heat transfer takes place.

Fig: Regenerator

1.9 Carburetion:
It is a chamber which is used to mix the air and fuel with desired ratio in a closed system
without disturbing air flow, this process is called carburetion

Carburetor- Constant Vacuum Carburetor :

A vacuum actuated valve for a constant vacuum type carburetor is formed with a first
guide hole, a jet needle engaging step portion and a jet needle insertion hole therein. A spring
seat has an outer cylindrical portion in an upper portion thereof, and an inner cylindrical portion
and a jet needle supporting cylindrical portion therein. The outer cylindrical portion of the spring
seat is arranged on the outer circumference of a diaphragm plate. The jet needle supporting

Page | 25
cylindrical portion is inserted within a first guide hole. A lower end of a vacuum actuated valve
return spring engages with a spring seating flange of the spring seat. A flange portion of a jet
needle is restricted by the jet needle engaging step portion and the jet needle supporting
cylindrical portion.

Air–fuel ratio (AFR):

Air–fuel ratio (AFR) is the mass ratio of air to fuel present in a combustion process such
as in an internal combustion engine or industrial furnace. If exactly enough air is provided to
completely burn all of the fuel, the ratio is known as the Stoichiometric mixture, often
abbreviated to stoic. For precise AFR calculations, the oxygen content of combustion air should
be specified because of possible dilution by ambient water vapor, or enrichment by oxygen
additions. The AFR is an important measure for anti-pollution and performance-tuning reasons.
The lower the AFR, the "richer" the mixture.

Page | 26
1.9.1 Stoichiometric ratio:

In theory a Stoichiometric mixture has just enough air to completely burn the available
fuel. In practice this is never quite achieved, due primarily to the very short time available in an
internal combustion engine for each combustion cycle. Most of the combustion process
completes in approximately 4–5 milliseconds at an engine speed of 6,000 rpm. (100 revolutions
per second; 10 milliseconds per revolution) This is the time that elapses from when the spark is
fired until the burning of the fuel–air mix is essentially complete after some 80 degrees of
crankshaft rotation. Catalytic converters are designed to work best when the exhaust gases
passing through them are the result of nearly perfect combustion.

A Stoichiometric mixture unfortunately burns very hot and can damage engine
components if the engine is placed under high load at this fuel–air mixture. Due to the high
temperatures at this mixture, detonation of the fuel–air mix shortly after maximum cylinder
pressure is possible under high load (referred to as knocking or pinging). Detonation can cause
serious engine damage as the uncontrolled burning of the fuel air mix can create very high
pressures in the cylinder. As a consequence, Stoichiometric mixtures are only used under light
load conditions. For acceleration and high load conditions, a richer mixture (lower air–fuel ratio)
is used to produce cooler combustion products and thereby prevent detonation and overheating
of the cylinder head

The Stoichiometric mixture for a gasoline engine is the ideal ratio of air to fuel that
burns all fuel with no excess air. For gasoline fuel, the Stoichiometric air–fuel mixture is about
15:1 i.e. for every one gram of fuel; 15 grams of air are required. The fuel oxidation reaction is:

1.9.2Lean mixture & Rich mixture

Any mixture greater than ~15 to 1 is considered a lean mixture; any less than ~15 to
1 is a Rich mixture – given perfect (ideal) "test" fuel (gasoline consisting of solely n-

Page | 27
heptanes and iso-octane). In reality, most fuels consist of a combination of heptanes, octane, a
handful of other alkanes, plus additives including detergents, and possibly oxygenators such as
MTBE (methyl tert-butyl ether) or ethanol/methanol. These compounds all alter the
Stoichiometric ratio, with most of the additives pushing the ratio downward (oxygenators bring
extra oxygen to the combustion event in liquid form that is released at time of combustions;
for MTBE-laden fuel, a Stoichiometric ratio can be as low as 14.1:1). Vehicles that use
an oxygen sensor or other feedback loop to control fuel to air ratio (lambda control), compensate
automatically for this change in the fuel's Stoichiometric rate by measuring the exhaust gas
composition and controlling fuel volume. Vehicles without such controls (such as most
motorcycles until recently, and cars predating the mid-1980s) may have difficulties running
certain fuel blends (especially winter fuels used in some areas) and may require different jets (or
otherwise have the fueling ratios altered) to compensate. Vehicles that use oxygen sensors can
monitor the air–fuel ratio with an air–fuel ratio meter.

Page | 28
1.9.3Compression Ratio:

An engine’s stated compression ratio is a comparison of a cylinder’s volume when the

piston is at BDC to the cylinder’s volume when the piston is at TDC. The compression ratio is a
statement of how the air-fuel mixture is compressed during the compression stroke. It is
important to keep in mind that this ratio can change through wear and carbon and dirt buildup in
the cylinders. For example, if a great amount of carbon collects on the top of the piston and
around the combustion chamber, the volume of the cylinder changes. This buildup of carbon will
cause the compression ratio to increase because the volume at TDC will be smaller. The higher
the compression ratio, the more power an engine theoretically can produce. Also, as the
compression ratio increases, the heat produced by the compression stroke also increases.
Gasoline with a low-octane rating burns fast and may explode rather than burn when introduced
to a high compression ratio, which can cause pre ignition. The higher a gasoline’s octane rating,
the less likely it is to explode. As the compression ratio increases, the octane rating of the
gasoline should also be increased to prevent abnormal combustion. to power the vehicle. The rest
is lost to the surrounding air and engine parts and to the engine’s coolant. Obviously, when less
combustion heat is lost, the engine is more efficient.

1.10 Lubrication:

Lubrication is the process, or technique employed to reduce wear of one or both

surfaces in close proximity, and moving relative to each other, by interposing a substance
called lubricant between the surfaces to carry or to help carry the load (pressure generated)
between the opposing surfaces. The interposed lubricant film can be a solid, (e.g. MoS 2)[1] a
solid/liquid dispersion, a liquid, a liquid-liquid dispersion (a grease) or, exceptionally, a gas. In
the most common case the applied load is carried by pressure generated within the fluid due to
the frictional viscous resistance to motion of the lubricating fluid between the surfaces.

Lubrication can also describe the phenomenon where such reduction of wear occurs
without human intervention (hydroplaning on a road). The science of friction, lubrication
and wear is called tribology. Adequate lubrication allows smooth continuous operation of
equipment, with only mild wear, and without excessive stresses or seizures at bearings. When

Page | 29
lubrication breaks down, metal or other components can rub destructively over each other,
causing destructive damage, heat, and failure.

1.10.1 Splash Lubrication System:

The splash system is no longer used in automotive engines. It is widely used in small
four-cycle engines for lawn mowers, outboard marine operation, and so on. In the splash
lubricating system, oil is splashed up from the oil pan or oil trays in the lower part of the
crankcase. The oil is thrown upward as droplets or fine mist and provides adequate lubrication to
valve mechanisms, piston pins, cylinder walls, and piston rings.

In the engine, dippers on the connecting-rod bearing caps enter the oil pan with each
crankshaft revolution to produce the oil splash. A passage is drilled in each connecting rod from
the dipper to the bearing to ensure lubrication.

This system is too uncertain for automotive applications. One reason is that the level
of oil in the crankcase will vary greatly the amount of lubrication received by the engine. A high
level results in excess lubrication and oil consumption and a slightly low level results in
inadequate lubrication and failure of the engine. In force-feed lubrication, pressure forces oil
around the engine. In a wet-sump system, oil is kept in the sump ready for the next use. In a dry
sump system, oil falls to the bottom of the engine and a scavenge pump sends it to an oil tank.

Page | 30
1.10.2 Pressure Lubrication System :

Modern vehicle engines use a pressure or force-feed lubrication system where the oil is
forced around the engine under pressure. Let’s look at gasoline engines first. Oil won’t flow up
into the engine by itself so a pump collects it through a pickup tube and a strainer, and forces it
through an oil filter, then into passageways in the engine block, called galleries.

The galleries allow oil to be fed to the camshaft bearings, the valve mechanism, and the
crankshaft main bearings. Holes drilled in the crankshaft webs allow the main bearings to supply
oil to the big-end bearings. After circulating through the engine, the oil falls back to the sump to
cool. This is called a wet-sump lubrication system because the oil is kept in the sump ready for
the next time it’s used. Some special engines use a dry sump lubrication system. It uses all of the
parts that make up a wet sump system and it lubricates the engine in the same way. It differs

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from the wet sump system in the way the oil circulates. In a dry sump system, the oil falls to the
bottom of the engine into an oil collection pan. A scavenge pump then pumps it to an oil tank
where it is stored until the normal oil pump collects it and pumps it through the filter and engine
in the normal way.

Because there is no oil storage sump under the engine, the engine can be mounted much
lower than in a wet sump system. The oil tank can be positioned away from the engine where it
can get best cooling. And the amount of oil in the system can be much greater than in the wet
sump system. Diesel engines are lubricated in much the same way as gasoline engines but there
are differences. Diesel engines typically operate at the top end of their power range so their
operating temperatures are usually higher than those in similar gasoline engines, so the parts in
diesel engines are usually more stressed. As a result, diesel oils need a different range of
properties and are classified differently. It’s common for some diesel engines to use an oil cooler
to cool the oil in the engine. The cooler and oil filter are usually on the same mounting on the
cylinder block.

1.10.3 Petro-oil lubrication :

In this system same like petrol engine splash lubrication system is used the
bottom of the piston the engine oil is carried with sump, but kerosene has property of coring the
materials thus splash lubrication is not enough to produce effective lubrication in kerosene
engine, because additional lubrication system is required to run the system, now petrol
lubrication is added and this lubrication system full fill the fault of kerosene. In this system
engine oil is mixed with the kerosene and commonly splash is running in the system both these
systems are used for effective lubrication system

Page | 32
Vehicle details:

Vehicle name : Hero Honda Splender

Engine 4 Stroke, Single Cylinder, Air Cooled

Displacement 97.2 cc
Bore and Stroke 50 X 49.5
Compression Ratio 9:1
Max. Power 7.5 PS (5.5 KW) @ 8000rpm
Max. Torque 7.95 Nm @ 8000rpm
Transmission 4 Speed, constant mesh, 4 up
Clutch Multiplate Wet
Ignition CDI
Fuel Supply Carburettor Side draft, variable venturi type

Page | 33
Thermal conductivity of materials :

Thermal conductivity –k = W/(m.K)

Temperature -C
Material/substance 25 125 225
Air ,atmosphere 0.024
aluminum 205 215 250
Aluminum brass 121
Aluminum oxide 30
benzene 0.16
beryllium 218
brass 109
cadmium 92
carbon 1.7
Carbon dioxide 0.0146
Carbon monoxide 0.0232
Chrome nickel 16.3
steel
propane 0.015
Rock, solid 2-7
silver 429
sawdust 0.08
sodium 84
cobalt 69
Copper 401 400 398
Carbon steel 54 51 47
Glass 1.05
Gold 310 312 310
Iridium 147
Iron 80
Cast iron 55
Lead 35
Magnesium 156
Molybdenum 138
Nickel 91
Platinum 70 71 72
Steel, carbon1% 43
Tin 67
Tungsten 174
Uranium 27.6
Zinc 116

Page | 34
 Among these materials nickel chromium alloy is suited as it has high electrical
resistance and can conduct the electricity within less time dissipating more heat

Nickel-Chromium Alloy (Ni Cr) Description:

The nickel-chromium system shows that chromium is quite soluble in nickel. This is a
maximum at 47% at the eutectic temperature and drops off to about 30% at room
temperature. A range of commercial alloys is based on this solid solution. Such alloys have
excellent resistance to high temperature oxidation and corrosion and good wear resistance.

Nickel-Chromium Alloy (Ni Cr) Chemical Properties Available:

Nickel-chromium steels

31xx Ni 1.25%, Cr 0.65% or 0.80%

32xx Ni 1.25%, Cr 1.07%
33xx Ni 3.50%, Cr 1.50% or 1.57%
34xx Ni 3.00%, Cr 0.77%

Page | 35
Nickel-Chromium Alloy (Ni Cr) Properties:

Material Nickel Chrome Alloys

Composition: Ni/14-46Cr + some combination of Fe Mo Cu Co Si Ti W Al + others

Minimum Maximum Units Minimum Maximum Units

Property
Value (S.I.) Value (S.I.) (S.I.) Value (Imp.) Value (Imp.) (Imp.)

Atomic Volume (average) 0.0065 0.0072 m3/kmol 396.654 439.371 in3/kmol

Density 7.75 8.65 Mg/m3 483.817 540.002 lb/ft3
Energy Content 40 200 MJ/kg 4333.55 21667.7 kcal/lb
Bulk Modulus 110 205 GPa 15.9541 29.7327 106 psi
Compressive Strength 170 2100 MPa 24.6564 304.579 ksi
Ductility 0.005 0.7 0.005 0.7
Elastic Limit 170 2100 MPa 24.6564 304.579 ksi
Endurance Limit 130 1150 MPa 18.8549 166.793 ksi
Fracture Toughness 65 150 MPa.m1/2 59.153 136.507 ksi.in1/2
Hardness 1000 6000 MPa 145.038 870.227 ksi
9e-
Loss Coefficient 0.0013 9e-005 0.0013
005
Modulus of Rupture 170 2100 MPa 24.6564 304.579 ksi
Poisson's Ratio 0.26 0.325 0.26 0.325
Shear Modulus 55 100 GPa 7.97707 106 psi
14.5038
Tensile Strength 330 2300 MPa 47.8625 333.587
ksi
Young's Modulus 150 245 GPa 21.7557 106 psi
35.5342
Glass Temperature K °F
Latent Heat of Fusion 275 320 kJ/kg 118.228 137.575 BTU/lb
Maximum Service
1070 1473 K 1466.33 2191.73 °F
Temperature
Melting Point 1475 1710 K 2195.33 2618.33 °F
Minimum Service
0 0 K -459.67 -459.67 °F
Temperature
Specific Heat 380 500 J/kg.K 0.294066 0.386929 BTU/lb.F
Thermal Conductivity 8 17 W/m.K 14.9763 31.8246 BTU.ft/h.ft2.F
Thermal Expansion 9 16 10-6/K 16.2 28.8 10-6/°F
Breakdown Potential MV/m V/mil
Dielectric Constant
10-8 10-8 ohm.m
Resistivity 84 240 84 240
ohm.m Source

Page | 36
  Nickel-Chromium Alloy (Ni Cr) Typical Applications:

a) Oxidation Resistance

b) Heating Elements

c) Thermocouples

d) High Temperature Corrosion Resistant Alloys

e) Wear Resistant Alloys

 Nickel-Chromium Alloy (Ni Cr) Packaging:

Drums or boxes

 Nickel-Chromium Alloy (Ni Cr) TSCA (SARA Title III) Status:

Listed. For further information please call the E.P.A. at +1.202-554-1404

 Nickel-Chromium Alloy (Ni Cr) CAS Number:

CAS# 11106-97-1

The properties of Nichrome vary depending on its alloy. Figures given are
representative of typical material and are accurate to expressed significant figures. Any
variations are due to different percentages of nickel or chromium.

Nichrome Material property Value Units

Modulus of elasticity 2.2 × 1011 Pa
Specific gravity 8.4 None
Density 8400 kg/m3
Melting point 1400 °C
Electrical resistivity at room temperature 1.0 × 10−6 to 1.5 × 10−6 Ωm
Specific heat 450 Jkg−1°C−1
Thermal conductivity 11.3 Wm−1°C−1
Thermal expansion 14 × 10−6 °C−1

Page | 37
Literature review:

Pre-heating is a method of heating air fuel mixture before entering into the
combustion chamber

Pre-heating is done by three ways:

Pre-heating of air:-

In this, heating takes place in between the carburetor and air filter. Nickel-Chromium coil
is used as a heating element; this system is used for heating of atmospheric air coming into the
engine

Fuel heating:-

Fuel in the fuel tank is heated for the proper fuel burning, it is done by dipping filament
into the fuel

Regenerative heating:-

The exhaust wastage heat is used for heating the air fuel mixture by providing extra
device

Carburetor:

The constant vacuum carburetor is using in Splender plus two wheeler the carburetor
Stoichiometric air fuel mixture ratio is 14.5:1 is converted into 15.6:1 by doing modification in
carburetor

Lubrication system:

Both splash lubrication and petro oil lubrication is used for effective lubrication and to
reduce coring of engine by the kerosene fuel

Special muffler is design for to control pollution and sound

Page | 38
3. METHODOLOGY INVOLVED:
When the piston moves from one end of the cylinder to the other, it will sweep or
displace air equal to the cylinder volume between TDC and BDC. Thus the full stroke movement
of the piston is known as either the swept volume or the piston displacement.

The swept or displaced volume may be calculated as follows:

Pd2L V ¼ 4000

Where V ¼ piston displacement (cm3)

p ¼ 3:142

d ¼ cylinder diameter (mm) and L ¼ cylinder stroke (mm)

3.1 Mean Effective Pressure:

Mean effective pressure is an important term for measuring engine performance. The
cylinder pressure varies considerably while the gas expands during the power stroke. Peak
pressure will occur just after TDC, but this will rapidly drop as the piston moves towards BDC.
When quoting cylinder pressure, it is therefore more helpful to refer to the average or mean
effective pressure throughout the whole power stroke. The units used for mean effective pressure
may be either kilo Newton per square meter (kN/m2) or bars (note: 1 bar ¼ 100 kN/m2).

3.2 Engine Formulas:

Cylinder Swept Volume (Vc):

* Increase the diameter or the stroke length will increase the cylinder volume, the ratio between
the cylinder diameter/cylinder stroke called “bore/stroke” ratio.

Page | 39
Engine Swept Volume (Ve):

* The units of cylinder swept volume is measured in (cm3, cubic centimeter (cc), or liter)

- Ve for small engines, 4 cylinder engines is (750 cc: 1300 cc)

- Ve for big engine, 8 cylinder engines is (1600 cc: 2500 cc)

Compression Ratio (r):

* Increase the compression ratio increase engine power

- r (gasoline engine) = 7:12, the upper limit is engine pre ignition

- r (diesel engine) = 10:18, the upper limit is the stresses on engine parts

Engine Volumetric Efficiency (hv):

Page | 40
* Increase the engine volumetric efficiency increase engine power

- Engine of normal aspiration has a volumetric efficiency of 80% to 90%

- Engine volumetric efficiency can be increased by using:

(turbo and super charger can increase the volumetric efficiency by 50%)

Engine Indicated Torque (Ti):

Engine Indicated Power (Pi):

Engine Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC):

Page | 41
Engine Indicated Power (Pi):

Engine Mechanical Efficiency (hm):

Engine Thermal Efficiency (hth):

Page | 42
Air–fuel ratio (AFR) :
The air–fuel ratio is the most common reference term used for mixtures in internal
combustion engines. The term is also used to define mixtures used for industrial furnace heated
by combustion. The AFR in mass units is employed in fuel oil fired furnaces, while volume
(or mole) units are used for natural gas fired furnaces.

Air–fuel ratio is the ratio between the mass of air and the mass of fuel in the fuel–air mix at
any given moment. The mass is the mass of all constituents that compose the fuel and air,
whether combustible or not. For example, a calculation of the mass of natural gas—which often
contains carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen (N2), and various alkanes—includes the mass of the
carbon dioxide, nitrogen and all alkanes in determining the value of .
For pure octane the Stoichiometric mixture is approximately 14.7:1, or λ of 1.00 exactly.
In naturally aspirated engines powered by octane, maximum power is frequently reached at
AFRs ranging from 12.5 to 13.3:1 or λ of 0.850 to 0.901.
Fuel–air ratio (FAR):
Fuel–air ratio is commonly used in the gas turbine industry as well as in government
studies of internal combustion engine, and refers to the ratio of fuel to the air.

Air–fuel equivalence ratio (λ) :

Air–fuel equivalence ratio, λ (lambda), is the ratio of actual AFR to Stoichiometric for a
given mixture. λ= 1.0 is at Stoichiometric, rich mixtures λ < 1.0, and lean mixtures λ > 1.0.
There is a direct relationship between λ and AFR. To calculate AFR from a given λ, multiply the
measured λ by the Stoichiometric AFR for that fuel. Alternatively, to recover λ from an AFR,
divide AFR by the Stoichiometric AFR for that fuel. This last equation is often used as the
definition of λ:

Because the composition of common fuels varies seasonally, and because many modern vehicles
can handle different fuels, when tuning, it makes more sense to talk about λ values rather than
AFR.
Most practical AFR devices actually measure the amount of residual oxygen (for lean mixes) or
unburnt hydrocarbons (for rich mixtures) in the exhaust gas as know in PPCHS.

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Fuel–air equivalence ratio (ϕ) :
The fuel–air equivalence ratio, ϕ (phi), of a system is defined as the ratio of the fuel-to-oxidizer
ratio to the Stoichiometric fuel-to-oxidizer ratio. Mathematically,

where, m represents the mass, n represents number of moles, suffix st stands for Stoichiometric
conditions.
The advantage of using equivalence ratio over fuel–oxidizer ratio is that it takes into account
(and is therefore independent of) both mass and molar values for the fuel and the oxidizer.
Consider, for example, a mixture of one mole of ethane (C2H6) and one mole of oxygen (O2).
The fuel–oxidizer ratio of this mixture based on the mass of fuel and air is

and the fuel-oxidizer ratio of this mixture based on the number of moles of fuel and air is

Clearly the two values are not equal. To compare it with the equivalence ratio, we need to
determine the fuel–oxidizer ratio of ethane and oxygen mixture. For this we need to consider the
Stoichiometric reaction of ethane and oxygen,

This gives

Thus we can determine the equivalence ratio of the given mixture as

or, equivalently, as

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 Another advantage of using the equivalence ratio is that ratios greater than one always
mean there is more fuel in the fuel–oxidizer mixture than required for complete combustion
(Stoichiometric reaction), irrespective of the fuel and oxidizer being used—while ratios less than
one represent a deficiency of fuel or equivalently excess oxidizer in the mixture. This is not the
case if one uses fuel–oxidizer ratio, which take different values for different mixtures.
The fuel–air equivalence ratio is related to the air–fuel equivalence ratio as follows:

Mixture fraction:
The relative amounts of oxygen enrichment and fuel dilution can be quantified by the mixture
fraction, Z, defined as

, where

,
and represent the fuel and oxidizer mass fractions at the inlet, and are the
species molecular weights, and and are the fuel and oxygen Stoichiometric coefficients,
respectively. The Stoichiometric mixture fraction is

The Stoichiometric mixture fraction is related to (lambda) and (phi) by the equations

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