2.

Diffraction
1. What is diffraction? Explain different kinds of diffraction?

Thus when light falls on obstacles or small apertures whose size is comparable with the
wavelength of light, there is a departure from straight lines propagation, and the light bends
round the corners of the obstacles or apertures and enter in the geometrical shadow. This
bending of light is called diffraction.

Diffraction phenomenon can be divided into following two general classes

(1) Fresnel's diffraction. In this class of diffraction, source and creen are placed at
finite distances from the aperture of ob ·tacle having sharp edges. In this case no lenses are
used for making the rays parallel or convergent. The incident wave front i either spherical
or cylindrical.

(2) Fraunhofer's diffraction. In this class of diffraction source and the screen or
telescope through which the image is viewed are placed at infinity or effect ively at infinity.

2. Distinguish between interference and diffraction phenomena

lDec 06. May 07. Ap07Dec 2 marks]

following arc the differences between interference and diffraction phenomena

1. in the phenomenon of interference. the interaction takes place between two separate
'wave- fronts originating from the two coherent .ources while in the phenomenon of
diffraction the interaction takes place between the secondary wavelets originating from
different points of the exposed parts of the same wavefront.

2. In the interference pattern the regions or minimum intensity arc usually almost perfectly
dark while it is not so in diffraction pattern.
3. The widths of the fringes in interference mayor may not be equal or uniform while in
diffraction pattern fringe width ofvarious fringes arc never equal.
4. In an interference pattern all the maxima are o f sarne intensity but in a diffraction pattern
they arc of varying intensity.

3. Explain diffraction due to single slit'! Derive its intensity condition?

(8M June 2011, May 2009 & May 2007)

The above fig ... AB i a narrow slit ofwidth 'c' perpendicular to the plane ofthe paper. Let
a plane of wave front W~,I of W· I P
monochromatic light propagating normally Ar .~~;;:'_'--,
_
to the sl it. Let the d ilfract ed ; O~ ..... ".0,.. u '~ •••• ~
If
f}
Light be focused by means of a convex lens I: I IT .
o
on screen placed in the focal plane of the WI J..8~··-'::"":'~-·- .•..
lens. The secondary wavelets traveling I
normally to the slit, i.e. along the direction
OPo are brought to locus at Po by the lens. Thus Po is a bright central image. The secondary
wavelets traveling at an angel f) with the normal are focused at a point Pion the screen. The
 point PI is minimum intensity depending upon the path difference between the secondary
C)
waves originating from the corresponding points of the wave front.

In order to find out the intensity at PI, draw a perpendicular AC on BR. The path difference
between secondary wavelets form A and B in .. ~

r Path difference = Be = AB sin e = esin e

Corresponding 'phase difference is = 2n x path difference
A
j

2J[ . f)
=-xesm
A

Let us consider that the width of the slit is divided into '/1' equal parts and the amplitude of
the wave from each part i "a'. The phase difference between any two consecutive wave
form these parts is

I I 2Jr . ()
- (Total Phase) = -x-esll1 =d say
n 11 A

Using the method of vector addition of amplitudes, the resultant amplitude R is given by

R = a sin nd / 2 CR~tVrvf; t '-n Si~te

ort9
I

sin d / 2 .fIo.9-vm~c Hcfi;.

.
sln(n x - I x -- . fJ)
2Jr eSIll
Substitute value of 'd' then, R =a 2n A
. I
slll(-x-esm
2Jr . e)
2n A
sin(Jresin fJ / A)
=a-------
sin(ffesin fJ / nA}

considerlneSin () / A = a) then R
L-=(f---
sina/n
Sin a Sill a
=a--
a tn
(a / 11 Is very sma II, sin
neglected)

sma _- A Sin a
R =na-- (Where A = 017 )
a a

Now intensity is directly proportional to the Square of the Amplitude i.e. I o: R2

2 sma 2
=A -v--
I
4. Explain single slit diffraction
I (-;;-)

intensity
--------- ( I )

conditions

Condition for principle nt axim um : For Principle Maximum r ntensity must be Equal to A 2

2
 The expression for resultant amplitude R can be written with expansion of sin ex as

If the negative terms vanish, the value ofR will be maximum i.e. a = 0

a= 7lt-' sin B = 0 Or sin B =0 B.:;:O

A

This condition (j =: 0 means that this maximum is formed by tho e secondary wavelets
which travel normally to the slit. This maximum is known as Principal maxima

Condition for minima 'st-The intensity will be minimum when sin a =0

0<. -= -± 1\ ) ± 2.:1\ J.B n ,,± l\1\ d c~+ YI n
sin a = sin n n Or a = ± 11 J[ and values of n "-/, ], 3 _

For different value of 'n' we obtained the points of minimum intensity on either side of the
principal maximum.

Condition for secondary maxima '.'I

In addition to principal maximum at a -0, there are weak secondary maxima between
equally spaced minima. For Secondary maxima differentiating the expression of '/' with
respect to a and equating to zero, we
have y=Ton Q

dl =
da
.!!..-[A2(~)2J
da a
=0

Or A".2sina. (acosa;sina)-=o
a a
2
In above equation A cannot be zero because intensity will zero

Either sinac=O or (acosa-sina)_O or tana-a

The values of a ati fying the above equation arc obtained graphically by plotting the
curves y = a and y = tan a on the same graph

The points of intersection of two curves give the values of a, the points of inter .ect ions are

±37r +S7r
a = Q,--,--,etc.
2 2

Substituting approximate values of a in equation (L), we get the intensities in

various maxima as [u = A2 (Principal Maximum)

3
 I, = A2[Sin(3Jr/2)]2 = A2 A . (Fist Maximum)
3Jr /2 22 PP

'[Sil1(5Jr / 2)]2 A2 .
I, = A- = - App . (Secondary Maxima, --)
- 5Jr 12 66

Intensity distribution graph

A graph showing the variation of

intensity with a is shown in Fig. The
diffraction pattern consists of a central
principal maximum occurring in the
direction of incident rays. Then; arc
subsidiary maxima of decreasing
intensity on either sides of it at
positions a = ±3n 12,±5n 12, and so
on. Between subsidiary maxima, there
are minima at positions a a = ±n,±2JZ",±3JZ"

5. Expalin Diffraction due to double slit? Derive its intensity condition?

(Dec2008,Dec2006) 6M

In Fig. AB and CD are two rectangular slits parallel to one another and perpendicular to the
plane of the paper. The width of
each slit is 'e' and the width or
the opaque portion is'd'. L is a
collecting lens and IV-IN is a
screen perpendicular to the plane
of the paper. .. Let a plane wave
front be incident on the surface
of XY. All the secondary waves y ,N
traveling in a direction parallel to
OP come to focus at P. Therefore, P corresponds to the posit JOn of the central bright
maximum. And all diffracted rays come to focus at p1and pi corresponds to the position of
rmmrna.

Intensity Expression
According to above diagram AB= 'e' and BC='d' and draw perpendicular AE form' A'

'CE' is the path difference. According to 11 ACE

SLn
. e =--
CE
AC
CE=sinexAC
=sinex(e+d)

Path difference is given by (e -I d )sin B

4
 Phase Difference is 2ff
-- x path difference
A
.
=-
2ff

A
x (e + d )SIn
.
-~
(1

Now 'R' is the amplitude for single slit then, from vector addition method Resultant
Amplitude in double slit is given by

,,/
RI= .J R 2 + R 2 + 2 R 2 cas f3 1\
I
./
o
Where' fJ' is the pha e difference between two slits o

If '2 fJ 'is the phase difference (For mathematical simplification) then resultant amplitude is
given by R I = 2R cas /3

R'= 2Rcos /3 Sin a

but R= A--
a

SIn a
Resultant Amplitude given by R I =2A---cosfJ
a
Now intensity is the square of the amplitude

Then Resultant intensity due to double sl it is given by ~ 11 0' 4A' I. "i~-" r cos' fJ (I)

Where 4A2[ Si: a J due to diffraction and cas:' fJ due to Interference. Resultant

Intensity Depends on two factors a and fJ .

Phase Difference is 2 fJ - 2ff x path difference

A

2Tr
2/3 -=-(e+d)Sll1 . (J ff .

A Or {J = -(e+ d)sIn (J----- (2)

/l

6. Explain intensity conditions of double slit diffraction?

It is ob ious from eq (I) that the intcnsity in the resultant pattern depends upon the
following two factors

(i) A2[ s: a J Which is the same as derived Cor a single slit diffraction. Thus this gives the

intensity distribution in the diffraction pattern due to any individual slit.

5
 (ii) cos ' fJ Which gives the interference pattern due to waves starting form two parallel
slits.

The resultant intensity at any point on the screen is given by the product of these two
factors. Let us now examine each factor separately

Due to Diffractioll

Intensity condition given by form equation (I) is I = A 2[Si: a J

For maximum Intensity (Principle Maxima)

F " Tntensrty
. _sma =0 and .
or mmunurn - a = ±nlr (from singleslit)
a
For Secondary Maximum

dI =
do
~[A2(Sin 0)2J
do 0
= 0

A22sina (acosa-sina)=o
• • J
a a-
(acosa-sLna)=O or tana=a

±3lr ±5lr TI d
a =O,--,--,etc. rese are secon ary
2 2
maxima's

Intensity Condition for Interference fringes

For Maximum Interference Fringes cos ' fJ =1 and fJ = Lm r: (m = 0, 1,2, )

Resultant intensity distribution

In resultant intensity
distribution there will be
interference fringes ID

diffi'action pattern

The intensities of the :"~:~Of' . - - ~ - _ .... '"IIIIIIHI'

interference maxima are not Slngi" Silld.rtroction patterns 1)~'.J<Ji" "I' J""c: "'~r PO"le"';
constant but decrease to zero
on either side of the central maximum. This is becau e of domination of diffraction factor.
The spacing of diffraction maxima and minima and the spacing of interference maxima and
minima depends on slit width 'c ' and opaque spacing.

6
 7. Derive the expression for missing orders in double slit diffraction?
Missing Orders: From above data
= ±n st and f3 = xm r:

But fJ = ff (e + d)sin (J from equation (2) and a = ffesin (J (form single slit diffraction)
A A
now substitute a and fJ values then

±nm = 7[ (e+d)sin(J Or
A l11)c=(e-J d)sin(J-----(4)

ne in (J
±nff= Or
A ± nA = e S in (J ---------- (5)

Divide Eg (4) and (5) we get (e+d)sin(J _ mA = In == nx (e+d)

e in(J I1A e

Ifd=le then nt = nx-

(e + e) = 211
e

[fn= ±J then m== ±2 so 'rn' values are m= -2,-1,0, -II. 2

That means at J 51 minima of dim-action' j 2 and -2 interFerence Fringes will be missing and
left of3 interference fi-inges will in principle lllaxima

If d=2e than (e + 2e)

m = n x --- =n X 3
e

Ifn=±1 then m=±3 so 'rn' valuesarem=-3,-2,-1,0,+I,+2,-'-3

51

That means at 1 minima of diffraction '+3 and -3 interference fr-inges will be missing and
Ieft 5 interference fi-ingcs will in principle maxima, like this interference t1-inges will come
in diffi-action pattern

8. Derive intensity condition for diffraction due to N slits? (Dec2008,Dec2006) 6M

Fig-_Represents the section of a plane
transmission grating placed perpendicular to
the plane of the paper. Let e be the width of
each slit and d is the width of each opaque
part. Then (e + d) is known as grating
element. Suppose a parallel beam of
monochromatic light of wavelength be
incident normally on the grating,
v
The secondary wavelet traveling in the same direction of incident light will come to
a focus at a point p() of the screen as the screen is placed at the IDeal plane or the convex
lens, The point Po will be a central maximum. ow consider the econdary waves traveling
in a direction irrclined at an angle (J with the direction of the incident light. These waves

7
 reach point Pion passing through the convex lens in different phases. As a result dark and
bright bands on both sides of central maximum are obtained.

Determining the Intensity By the method of vector addition of Amplitudes

R = a sin nd 12 where 'a' is amplitude of each waveforrng each single slit.

sin d 12

According to single slit amplitude is given by _Asma

a- for sits n=
a

And Common Phase difference is 2;{ffx common path difference = 2/3 = ~ff (e + d)sin B ,

Substitute above values in R then R = Asina sin N/3

and Intensity given by
a sin /3

J ~ R' ~ [ A s~n a J[ ;~n::l-----------------------

s (2)

9. Explain intensity conditions of -slit diffraction?

The Factor [ A s~n a J gives the distribution of intensity due to single slit while the factor

[Si~N~l2
Sin jJ _
give the distribution of intensity due to combined effect ofall slits.

Due to Diffraction Intensity condition

given by form equation (I) .

IS 1= A- ~,[Sin aJ2
for maximum Intensity (Principle Maxima)

I=A2 [Si: a J = 1 and for minimum

Intensity. Stn a --0 and v rom sing !e

a = xnr: If.'
a
slit)

For Secondary Maximum

e: = ~[A2(Sin a)2J =0
cia o:d a

sina (acosa-sina)_O
A 2 .2--. J _

a a-
(acosa-sina)=O or tana=a

±3ff ± 5.1r .
a = 0 -- --,etc. These are secondary rnaximas
' 2 ' 2

8
Due to interference

Condition for Principal Maxima

.
Resultant Intensity
. .
ISgIven by 1= R"
,Slna
=t-. a
]2[.swv. fJ ]2
N
SIn fJ _

sin NfJ
Already we did in single slit ~sin a = 1 at the same time ----'-- al 0 equal to I; for that;
a sin fJ
apply Hospital's rule , according to that

d .
(Sin NfJ)
. sin NfJ . dfJ
Lim fJ~±1/1f .
SIn
fJ = Lint fJ~=I/,'

--d (In. fJ )
dfJ

= Lim Ncos NfJ = ±N = . .

NSIn ]2 = N- ,
[J->=I/,T cos fJ Hence Limp
-
.+
I/If [ infJ
fJ

The resultant intensity for principle maxima is I- A2 N~

J[
The maxima are obtained for fJ = ±17J[ or -(e ~d)SlD. ()
-= 1.1117
A

(e+d)sin(}=..LnA Wheren-O.1.2,3,--------

n=O corresponds to zero order maximum. Fro n= 1, 2, 3---ctc, we obtained first, second third,
etc, Principal maxima respectively

Condition Secondary minima A series of minima OCClIr.when sin NfJ:- a or

J[
NfJ = +m r: substitutefJ value then N-(e d)sin(}=..LnJJ[ or
A
N(e + d)sin () = ±mA.

Where 'rn' has all integral values except 0, ,2 ,-----n ,because for these values sin fJ
become zero and we get principal maxima. Thus rn= 1, 2, 3----- ( -I) secondary minima
between two adjacent principle maxima.

Condition for Secondary Maxima

As there are ( -1) minima between two

adjacent principle maxima, there must be ( -
2) other maxima between two principle
maxima. These, are known as secondary
maxima. To find out the position at" these

9
 secondary maxima; we differentiate equation (2) with respect to and then equate it to zero.

Thus

d!
djJ
=( A sin a)2.(sin NjJ)x[N
a smjJ
cos NjJsin.jJ -sin NjJcos jJ]
sin ' jJ
=0
N cos NjJsin jJ +sin NjJcos jJ =0
NtanjJ = tan NfJ

The roots of this equation give the position 0f secondary maxima's 0f interference

Intensity Distribution is given by Fig (a) , (b) and (c) shows the graph of variation of
. . sin ' a and _.
mtensity due to the factors -2-
sin '_,NjJ
_
a SIn - jJ

,,-/ FEW SOLVED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE A parallel beam of odium l(~ht I' al-
12
lowed to be incident normally on a plane grating having
4250 line per ern and a second order spectral line l~
observed to be deviated through 30 Calculate the v
• r
wavelength a/spectra! line.
Solution We know that (e 1- d) sin e ::::n A.

A = (e + d) si~
n

Here (e 1
d) = 4250 ern, e = 30·, and 11 :::: 2

1 x sin 30°
A = -----1
4250 x 2 4250 x 2 x 2

= 5883 x 10- 8 em.

EXAMPLE 13 Monochromatic light of wave/en th
6560 x 10- 8 m falls normally on a grating 2 em wide.
Thefirst order spectrum is produced at an angle 18° 14;
from the normal. What is the tota/number of lines 011
the grating? Given sin 18" 14' ::::0.3129.
Solution: We know that (t' + d) sin e ::::n A

10
 or (e + d) ==
lIA

sin 8
•
Here II - 1.e - 18·14' or sin 18· 14' == 0.3129
and A == 6560 x 10- 0 em

(e + d) == 1 x 6560 x 1O-~
.. 0.3129 em

The number of lines per em on the grating

1 0.3129
== - .-
(t' + d) 6560--,. X 1O-1-i As the grating b:2 em
wide, hence the total number:, of line on it is
given by

N ::: 2 x 0.3129 == 9541

6560 10- s
EXAMPLE A diffraction ~7£llJng used at normal in-
]4
cidence gives a line (5400 A) III a certain order Super-
posed 011 the violet l t n e (4050 A) of the next higher
order. lf the angle o/diffraction is 30° , how many lilies
per em are there in the grating
Solution: We know that (e + d) sin e = 11 A.
Let nth order maxima of Al coincide with
(n + 1)th rder rrrax irrra c.f A2, then

(e d) sin e = Il Al arrd (e '+ d) SHl e - (1'1 + 1) Az

ow (e 'T" d) sin e n Al

o. of lines per cm 1
---. Sin e (At - )~2)
(e + d) Al A2)
54CX) x ] 0- em,

o. of lines per em

sin 30° x (5400 - 4050) 10

5400 x H x 10-
x 10 H 4050 = 3086.

EXAMPLE A plane trU11.

15 ...rn i..•:-,101l grating lra'PlnS
6000 lines per em I::>use d to obtain a spectrum of Irght
from a sodium light ill the econd order. FInd the an-
gular separ at io n between the two scrd t u rn lines whose
l.oavelengths are 5890 A and 5 <.)bA reSI)edlvely.
Solution: In <l pbne tran.snll~Slon gr'lting.
(e -1- d) sin e = n A
 Herv e r cl I
- 0000' II - 2 P'(AMPlF I'" I It I,'! IIltll/lt ,lytiC', 11Iif" ;1-/1'1<'/" I1t'

./,', It'll ,/11 ot tire ill, ••/t'II! uuiun u», /' -UI\\! A .1/1.1 :/"
A] = ;:') 90A ::::- 5 90 x]O s
~m 1I1tlllllt'r " 11/l"~')11 tlt-: "I"itlll\ t- 2h20 In "'ll' 111.."/1

A~ z; S 46 !- t: 5H% . io s
, n) ~dllllf'll V\l' ~Ih'\\ th.it (t' ••• ) •...11' f:l II I.

Tlw m.: \ irnum P ''' ....It'll· \ "/Ut' -in H 1. hl'fh

Let e ;.. tj, tor A:::.~.] and e 9: for" till 11),1.i murr, n urnlu-r ,'I \'rJl'r'"
(If

I" ~I\ en b\ II<

For AI "'pn's"1l11l

It' • ,I J II I. If
I, ' .1 J
~ 5H90, 10 •..
i
-- - - -
(l/OOtlO)
or e 1 Il'll' 'I - ,II
Fur A:>,
). - HIP \
". /{I \ m .Hllil/

sm 8, - /I ~ 2 x Sh9b x 10 '< -l-t,

1/ ;:
•.. (e+d) 1;6000
2/)~11 • ., • In
Angular ::>t>p..ll ation of lines == 8: (j, .",
I h:'nll' the hl~hl'''t 01...1"1 \ ,t th,' "pl'ctn,m whJ( h
EXAMPLl: 16 /1 Xratll1S unth 150( ) r I:mg~ J'1'r III J, c an be -ven 1'•. III
l~ JllllIJWlII(Ct/ lIormal/1I totl]: 11111/1' hxht t xt, nJIIf,\ irun; ['AMPlE:
4{)(X) A-7000 A, Slun» tu. 'I (II/Iv thc tl1~1 t rdcr
-pcct uon i I:.,)la/t't! but th» ,t'l(lllci 1/11.1 :111.,11),.11" ",,"
lap ; (J t ~.1, i J. ',! ,': t), i •. j \

~(Jltl t 1()/1
(1.1(, I ,tIt' 11'11111 j,,:.. J '1/_/1; I
,(l....
(y ,. ,i

'\;1< :It 21l !,"tlc' I'll

sin e.::. 11 A
: •d i t 'I J I Ji: -t ./1 •..
....
: I " ,
....
t·nt ) .t;
(I" J)
11er<' \t' .•. d) .:: :2 "j I I ')(lOO
\ ,,,,hit, ',\ Ifh.1 ~r.ltlll~
ForA == 4000" W ' ern.
fI' , .t
...in e :::. II x -iO<Xl x 10
-
'
- - .:: 021 It
II -

2.54; 1-000
I It-nu' I'll third order '" t h-> hi 'h<"'t
e - ..•in-] (l}.2:i6 /I) \1~lhk
('ld.,(

:.in-] (O.2..~6)< L 2, i TI1" (llhJltl<l11 f.'r thl '1'1, tr u 1,1 \ r ter II h' b,
.ib-cnt h

where II ::: I,!. - 2, // :::.:i lonl'''p~)f)J tl) fllst It' .. iI

s ({ nd, third etc order-, \\\ IIl'fl' II. 1 -, ,
I!I
e", /3',20',45', .
I kll' ,I
i:
For), = 7000 x 10- em. /"0

Sin 6' .:: ------

'I 7000 x 10 ' \
- (J,4 1.1/1 J hl'1 l'tdll' ,rd, nth
2::q 115000 'tll.", (lr\.l.'r-.. It't'<,\JI.l\\'i11
h· J".,I'ld
l·/ tf - III J(OAl~)( J, 2,.), 24,:;6.
.
.,., , 1.1 " ....: l" I,. j :

Thus the angular posittons for ·WOOA <Inti 7UlJ.J ((,III," in..« h .'(', '('Iii II\il' .'; , :/.( t. /1":/1 :; A III
A hnes In th v ariou . ord 'r~ come ou t a. tollows : (In hi J/I(',IIt •.. :' ,: ,,":11:., ,.,,, l{ (, lm '... 11 .1.'. ,I
I order 13 ,~-t 1 olated
ill/"/I/(' 7/',1, t'/"/I";III' ,1.1'"
.m - :-1'. IP ',m

12
DlfFERACTION 27.';'

,I ..,11, U
11-
; no
~OO() x \5 '" 10
I lcnce the hlglw ...t tlrdt'l" whit h 1n.1\ t t' "t:en 1-, (1
,
The dir ec non 0 llt the fifth t'!dt'l ill ~, '/ ' Ii) 'V \1 '-om- IJI ,W
-pectrum ot wa\'C'lt'ngth 5 • 10 r; l rn !~ ~I\t'n b\ 11

I
(t'~ {)s)nH:=:;. (:;;< In \ 't" ill \1 .i0
I .ct i:
be tlw otlwr \, •.1\ t'I('n>!th t.rlhru; III the
ame .lllt'diun H Th.-n or di,
I!

(c" ell ..,in e -:: ('i :: 111) I,' whcr« '11 - I, 2 ':;
j I" t t· I .. ,II .m ~
!
(;;: III)t: )\~. II I

2'1 10; r. :;"y ; H I in

or em,
f:; ~ HI)
.ind ,18
Putting III :; L 2, 1, hd

(4 L '12,'-; ,~,:~,"< L 12:;

c, '--","--'"-:- -, ~ '"
\' I _-, """',', 'l' i", ;\.~Jt
--- -- -"".
) 10 ern
..,-; . I oJ.;:,; "Il)
f"lll'\\ ing ,It'l' Iw \\"\\','kn~;lh:- which Ill' In tlu-
\ isiblv r'·~h.n ••
:;"1,, III ',m
",6.2 10 ; COli

l XAMI'l[::O '\ .llifmdlOll :-.;rallll\': ,i1j,iI II.;" ~i)lK)

/1 A ; .1t'pr"\lmdtt·l~
lrr«: ... t 1.\ ern " 01', d ,it I!{)rlli,l! iIlC;.!(IIV (ili 1t..I!,· ,I!(, r \'\\11'1 L 2: A l'i.lll, ,iw'r'h:1 • ,r.IIII1" Irll ·jll,,·t-,Il\J\,

j!~r<.""'·l"t Ji:.~-;•. 't'r (I' tilt' ~'\ltlll" Il! t'ht tft;rd ,)I,J(', lint)':). ern I .... ;~'tl: (0 J1llfltp',t,dlh t1 -"pf'(tnln. ·"lllil.lft

,,]1(,( :na'. ;/1 :1;, 'dj.,<,;'I/,th r.\'I,HI ;tltl() .>\ tl: .U';, uliu :i!...:"I"'.~~!' )j' ;~. t.u: It \:( to)! ....j'{·p'id ordc
"';,l!uf"1! Tilt' dl"per:>l\ t' Pl)\', VI dt ..l ~r,ltlf1L: I..,
,<{\,) IClIi ,II ({{11dt'II,\'1I '" Y • I,) 'm ir tilt' C"IIIl",;

~I\ en by
;t:l'" {u. .i! !('rh:!it 2; cru. \ ti!l !f1';!I' tlu: itnr.tr J]';'l}('r~u"'H P1

tlu: "IJ('cirt'X'(lpil (/1I.i a] .•, , ti»: ~epar.lt/"II betti !'t?l

dn 11
<pc. tlll! ill1l'" ;Sull :\ .UI,! t;xlih \ '" Ill" ~,·,',)nd or.icr
d~, (,- .f j ,(l;" 'i

,10 Ii

di t,· ·.f ,(I" tJ

.\ x :; >- 1 U ~ ~ ·WOO I{ . .i
:In 0 -
/I

\low cos B = \J

d6 :i x 4{ )0
t: 15000.
,iI.
EXAMPLE 21 The ";{'iit/filiwl! ot' tlu: -o.t ntn: III; "111(';/1
..,
/, == ;qt)?, x 1(1 1'>ern) III the <crond , rdrr "flt'lt III ~p of:i
df:)
tran,ml;;S/t'l1 ,'?'.ifltlg ;(ll1tilHW1,\ :;O(ll) lines per \ III /, z:
s:
~::; rrunutc- ~!- norl1I~lf :tl~ i.icn«, ~\h I: :~ jUt .ft~ I
('r,,'Jh'e In :~ a~'t,;lt''1,\th \" n,l f~;, -,1 1I()!: 'li IuH ....') \j
/),1\ It I , ~ 'f
~('!lIfl(1n \\,' '"O\\,'·lh.:l(

13