Chapter 4

Amplitude Modulation
Baseband vs Passband Transmission
 Baseband signals:
 Voice (0-4kHz)
 TV (0-6 MHz)
 A signal may be sent in
its baseband format
when a dedicated wired
channel is available.
 Otherwise, it must be
converted to passband.
Modulation: What and Why?
 The process of shifting the baseband signal to
passband range is called Modulation.
 The process of shifting the passband signal to
baseband frequency range is called
Demodulation.
 Reasons for modulation:
 Simultaneous transmission of several signals
 Practical Design of Antennas
 Exchange of power and bandwidth
Types of (Carrier) Modulation
 In modulation, one characteristic of a signal
(generally a sinusoidal wave) known as the
carrier is changed based on the information
signal that we wish to transmit (modulating
signal).
 That could be the amplitude, phase, or frequency,
which result in Amplitude modulation (AM),
Phase modulation (PM), or Frequency
modulation (FM). The last two are combined as
Angle Modulation
Types of Amplitude Modulation (AM)
 Double Sideband with carrier (we will call it AM):
This is the most widely used type of AM modulation.
In fact, all radio channels in the AM band use this type
of modulation.
 Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC):
This is the same as the AM modulation above but
without the carrier.
 Single Sideband (SSB): In this modulation, only half
of the signal of the DSBSC is used.
 Vestigial Sideband (VSB): This is a modification of
the SSB to ease the generation and reception of the
signal.
Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC)
 Assume that we have a message signal m(t) with
bandwidth 2 B rad/s (or B Hz). m(t)  M().

 Let c(t) be a carrier signal, c(t) = cos(ct), c >> 2B

 gDSBSC (t) = m(t)cos(ct)

 (1/2) [M( – c) + M( + c)].

Time and Frequency Representation of DSBSC
Modulation Process
DSBSC Demodulation
e(t)
HLPF( )
gDSBSC(t) X BW = 2 B
f(t)

c(t)
 e (t)=gDSBSC(t)cos(ct)
= m(t)cos2(ct) DSBSC Demodulator (receiver)

= (1/2) m(t) [1 + cos(2ct)]

= (1/2) m(t) + (1/2) m(t) cos(2 ct)
 E() (1/2) M() + (1/4) [M( – 2 c) + M( + 2 c)].
 The output signal f(t) of the LPF will be
f (t) = (1/2) m(t)  (1/2) M().
Time and Frequency Representation of DSBSC
Demodulation Process
Modulator Circuits
 Basically we are after multiplying a signal with
a carrier.
 There are three realizations of this operation:
 Multiplier Circuits
 Non-Linear Circuits
 Switching Circuits
Non-Linear Devices (NLD)
 A NLD is a device whose input-output relation is non-
linear. One such example is the diode (iD=ev /v ).
D T

 The output of a NLD can be expressed as a power

series of the input, that is
y(t) = ax(t) + bx2(t) + cx3(t) + …
 When x(t) << 1, the higher powers can be neglected,
and the output can be approximated by the first two
terms.
 When the input x(t) is the sum of two signal, m(t)+c(t),
x2(t) will have the product term m(t)c(t)
Non-Linear Modulators

x1 (t )  c(t )  m(t )  cos( C t )  m(t ) y1 (t )  acos(C t )  m(t )  bcos(C t )  m(t )

2

x1 (t )  c(t )  m(t )  cos( C t )  m(t )

 a cos(C t )  am(t )  bm 2 (t )  2bm(t )  cos(C t )  b cos 2 (C t )
b b
 am(t )  bm 2 (t )  2bm(t )  cos(C t )  a cos(C t )   cos(2C t )
               
Undesired Undesired Desired Undesired 2 2    
Undesired Undesired

y2 (t )  acos(C t )  m(t )  bcos(C t )  m(t )

2
z (t )  y1 (t )  y2 (t )
 2am(t )  4bm(t )  cos(C t )
     
 a cos(C t )  am(t )  bm 2 (t )  2bm(t )  cos(C t )  b cos 2 (C t )
Undesired Desired
b b
  am(t )  bm 2 (t )  2bm(t )  cos(C t )  a cos(C t )   cos(2C t )
                
Undesired Undesired Desired Undesired 2 2    
Undesired Undesired
Switching Modulators
 Any periodic function can be expressed as a
series of cosines (Fourier Series).
 The information signal, m(t), can therefore be,
equivalently, multiplied by any periodic
function, and followed by BPF.
 Let this periodic function be a train of pulses.
 Multiplication by a train of pulses can be
realized by simple switching.
Switching Modulator Illustration
Switching Modulator: Diode Bridge
Switching Modulator: Ring
Demodulation of DSBSC
 The modulator circuits can be used for demodulation, but
replacing the BPF by a LPF of bandwidth B Hz.
 The receiver must generate a carrier frequency in phase
and frequency synchronization with the incoming carrier.
 This type of demodulation is therefore called coherent
demodulation (or detection).
From DSBSC to DSBWC (AM)
 Carrier recovery circuits, which are required for
the operation of coherent demodulation, are
sophisticated and could be quite costly.
 If we can let m(t) be the envelope of the
modulated signal, then a much simpler circuit,
the envelope detector, can be used for
demodulation (non-coherent demodulation).
 How can we make m(t) be the envelope of the
modulated signal?
Definition of AM
 Shift m(t) by some DC value “A”
such that A+m(t) ≥ 0. Or A ≥ mpeak

g AM (t )  [ A  m(t )] cos(C t )
 A cos(C t )  m(t ) cos(C t )
 Called DSBWC. Here will refer to
it as Full AM, or simply AM
 Modulation index m = mp /A.
 0≤m≤1
Spectrum of AM
1
g AM (t )  A (  C )   (  C )  M (  C )  M (  C )
2
 Efficiency of AM transmission
 Efficiency = Useful power/Total power
 Assume that the message signal is cos(mt) (what
is called a single–tone signal) with amplitude Am
where 0  m  1 (i.e., a fraction m of the amplitude
of the carrier component in the AM (m is called the
modulation index)), or
z ( t )  A m cos( m t ) cos( C t )
Am
  cos ( C   m ) t   cos ( C   m ) t 
2
Am Am
 cos ( C   m ) t   cos ( C   m ) t 
2 2
 Efficiency of AM transmission
 The power of this signal is the sum of the two powers
of the two sinusoids (because they have different
frequencies (“Parseval’s Theorem”)
2 2
 Am  Am
    2
2 2  Am
Pz      
2 2 2
 The power of the carrier term in the modulated signal
is w(t )  A cos( t ) P 
A 2

C w
2
 Efficiency of AM transmission
 Therefore, the efficiency  of the AM transmission
2
 Am 
becomes P 
 2 
z
 m 2
   2
 2
P z  Pw  Am  A2 m  2
  
 2  2

 Since 0  m  1 to avoid the touching of the upper and

lower envelopes of the modulated signal, the MAXIMUM
efficiency of the AM signal is   112  0.333 33.3%
max

 So, no matter what we do, we cannot bring the efficiency

of AM modulation to more than one third, or stated in other
words, at least 2/3 of the power of the AM signal is wasted.
The “Buy” and “Price” of AM
 Buy: Simplicity in demodulation.
 Price: Waste in Power
gAM(t) = Acosct + m(t) cosct
Carrier Power Pc = A2/2 (carries no information)
Sideband Power Ps = Pm/2 (useful)
Power efficiency =  = Ps/(Pc + Ps)= Pm/(A2 +Pm)
 Tone Modulation
 m(t) = Bcos(mt)
 g(t)=[A+ Bcos(mt)] cosct = A[1+m cos(mt)] cosct
  = (B2/2)/(B2/2 + A2) = m2/(2+m2)
 Under best conditions, m=1   max =1/3 =33%
 For m = 0.5,  = 11.11%
 For practical signals,  < 25%

? Would you use AM or DSBSC?

Generation of AM
 AM signals can be generated by any DSBSC
modulator, by using A+m(t) as input instead of
m(t).
 In fact, the presence of the carrier term can
make it even simpler. We can use it for
switching instead of generating a local carrier.
 The switching action can be made by a single
diode instead of a diode bridge.
AM Generator

 A >> m(t)
(to ensure switching
at every period).
A

 vR=[cosct+m(t)][1/2 + 2/p(cosct-1/3cos3ct + …)]

=(1/2)cosct+(2/p)m(t) cosct + other terms (suppressed by BPF)
 vo(t) = (1/2)cosct+(2/p)m(t) cosct
AM Modulation Process (Frequency)
AM Demodulation: Rectifier Detector
 Because of the presence of a carrier term in the
received signal, switching can be performed in
the same way we did in the modulator.
Rectifier Detector: Time Domain
Rectifier Detector
 If the AM signal is applied to a diode and a
resistor circuit the negative part of the AM
wave will be suppressed. The output across the
resistor is a half wave rectified version of the
AM signal. In essence, the AM signal is
multiplied by w(t).

31
Rectifier Detector
 The voltage across the resistor will be
 VR ={[A+m(t)]cosωct}w(t)

= [A+m(t)]cosωct[cosωct-1/3cos3ωct +1/5
cos5ωct-…….]

= 1/π[A + m(t)]+ other higher terms.

32
Rectifier Detector
 The higher terms can be suppressed by passing
VR through a low pass filter with cutoff
frequency B Hz. Further the DC term A/π can
be suppressed by a capacitor to give the desired
output m(t)/π. The output can be doubled by
using a full wave rectifier.

33
Rectifier Detector
 It is interesting to note that rectifier detection is
in effect synchronous detection without using a
local carrier. The high carrier content in AM
ensures that its zero crossings are periodic and
the information about the frequency and phase
of the carrier at the transmitter is built into the
AM signal itself.

34
Rectifier Detector (Frequency Domain)
Envelope Detector

 When D is forward-biased, the capacitor charges and

follows input.
 When D is reverse-biased, the capacitor discharges
through R.
Envelope Detection
 The operations of the circuit requires
careful selection of t=RC
 If RC is too large, discharging will be
slow and the circuit cannot follow a
decreasing envelope.
 When RC is too small the ripples will
be high.
 1/(2pB) << t << 1/c
 The ripples are finally removed by
LPF.
 The DC value is blocked by a capacitor.
Envelope Detection
 Positive cycle of modulated signal makes diode
to conduct and capacitor c charges to maximum
value of input signal.
 As the input falls below this peak diode stops
conducting since capacitor voltage is nearly
equal to the peak voltage of input signal.

38
Envelope Detection

39
Envelope Detection
 The capacitor now discharges through resistor
at a slow rate (with a time constant RC). The
output voltage Vc(t) thus closely follow the
envelope of modulated signal. Capacitor
discharges between positive peaks this causes a
ripple signal of frequency ωc in the output.

40
Envelope Detection

41
Envelope Detection
 This ripples in the output can be reduced by
increasing the time constant RC so that
capacitor discharges very little between the
positive peaks (RC>>1/ωc).
 However RC can can’t be increased beyond
1/2πB ,where B is the highest frequency in
m(t), otherwise it will become impossible for
capacitor to follow envelope of m(t).

42
Envelope Detection
 The envelope detector output is Vc(t) =
A+m(t) with ripple frequency of ωc.
 The dc term A can be blocked by a low
pass filter.

43
44
 RC Selection
Assume that the capacitor is charged to voltage E (the envelope voltage at the instant)at the instant
when the diode turns OFF.
The capacitor begins to dischrage through the resistor according to
t
vc (t )  Ee RC
 E (1  RCt ) for RC  1c .
dvc ( t ) E
dt   RC
E
The slope of the capacitor discharge is - RC .
For the capacitor discharge to follow the envelope, the magnitude of the
capacitor discharge slope must be greater than the envelpe slope.
dvc ( t ) E dE
dt  RC  dt .
1  1 m2 
RC   
E(t)=A(1+cos(ωct)) c  m 

NOTE
 Both Rectifier detector and Envelope detector
seems to be equivalent but they are distinct and
operate on different principles.

46
 Difference
 The rectifier detector is basically a synchronous
detector while envelope detector is non linear
detector. It can be observed that low pass filter in
rectifier detector is designed to filter m(t) from terms
like m(t) cosnωct ; it does not depend on the value of
µ. However in case of envelope detector the time
constant for low pass filter does depends on µ.

47
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
 In DSBSC or AM the modulated signal
occupies double the bandwidth of the baseband
signal.
 It is possible to send two signals over the same
band, one modulated with a cosine and one
with sine.
 Interesting enough, the two signals can be
received separately after demodulation.
EFFECT OF LACK OF PHASE
SYNCHRONISATION IN DSBSC
Let the received DSB-SC signal be
s DSB  SC ( t )  s m ( t ) cos  c t   ) A c
if  is unknown,
v ( t )  s DSB  SC ( t ) cos  c t
 Ac s m ( t ) cos  c t   ) cos  c t
Ac
 s m ( t ) cos   cos 2 c t   )
2

Output of LPF Ac
vo (t )  sm (t ) cos 
2
Contd…
But we want just Ac
vo (t )  sm (t )
2
Due to lack of phase synchronization, we will see that
the wanted signal at the output of LPF will be
attenuated by an amount of cosq.
In other words, phase error causes an attenuation of
the output signal proportional to the cosine of the
phase error.
The worst scenario is when q=p/2, which will give rise
to zero or no output at the output of the LPF.
EFFECT OF LACK OF PHASE
SYNCHRONISATION IN DSBSC
Suppose that the local oscillator is not stable at fc but
at fc+D f, then
v(t )  sDSB  SC (t ) cos c   )t
 Ac sm (t ) cos  ct cos c   )t
Ac
 sm (t )cos t  cos2 c t   )
2
Ac
Output of LPF vo (t )  sm (t ) cos t
2
Thus, the recovered baseband information signal will
vary sinusoidal according to cos D wt
Solution
one can overcome this problem by adding an extra
synchronization circuitry which is required to detect q
and D wt and by providing the carrier signal to the
receiver.
A synchronizer is introduced to curb the
synchronization problem exhibited in a coherent
system.

Let the baseband signal be sm (t )  Am cos  mt

Received DSB-SC signal s (t )  Ac sm (t ) cos  c t

 SYNCHRONISER
( )2 PLL BPF 2

Mathematical analysis of the synchronizer is shown

below:
s 2 (t )  Ac2 Am2 cos 2  mt cos 2  c t
Ac2 Am2
 1  cos 2 mt 1  cos 2 ct 
4
Ac2 Am2
 1  cos 2 mt  cos 2 ct  cos 2 mt cos 2 ct 
4
Ac2 Am2  1 1 
 1  cos 2 t  cos 2 t  cos 2    )t  cos 2    )t
4 
m c c m c m 
2 2 
Output of BPF Ac2 Am2
cos 2 c t
4
 SYNCHRONISER
Output of frequency divider
k cos  c t
where k is a constant of proportionality.
DISADVANTAGE OF USING COHERENT SYSTEMS
• The frequency and phase of the local oscillator signal
must be very precise which is very difficult to achieve.
It requires additional circuitry such as synchronizer
circuit and hence the cost is higher.
Single-Side Band (SSB) Modulation
 DSBSC (as well as AM) occupies double the
bandwidth of the baseband signal, although the two
sides carry the same information.
 Why not send only one side, the upper or the lower?
 Modulation: similar to DSBSC. Only change the
settings of the BPF (center frequency, bandwidth).
 Demodulation: similar to DSBSC (coherent)
Advantages of SSB Transmission

 Bandwidth conservation - Only half the bandwidth is required.

 Power conservation - Only one sideband with carrier removed or

suppressed. Hence total transmitted power will be less. This
allows smaller transmitters to be used.

 Selective fading - In double sideband, the two sidebands may

experience different impairments as the propagate along
different paths in the medium. This could result in carrier phase
shift. This cannot happen if only one sideband is transmitted.

 Noise Reduction - Thermal noise is reduced to half, because the

bandwidth is also half.

58
Disadvantages of SSB Transmission

 Complex receivers – Require more expensive receivers

because envelope detection cannot be used
 Tuning Difficulties - More difficult to tune than
conventional AM receivers. Receivers need a precise
tuning.

59
SSB Representation
How would we
represent the SSB signal
in the time domain?
gUSB(t) = ?
gLSB(t) = ?
Time-Domain Representation of SSB (1/2)
M() = M+() + M-()
Let m+(t)↔M+() and m-(t)↔M-()
Then: m(t) = m+(t) + m-(t) [linearity]
Because M+(), M-() are not even
 m+(t), m-(t) are complex.
Since their sum is real they must be
conjugates.
m+(t) = ½ [m(t) + j mh(t)]
m-(t) = ½ [m(t) - j mh(t)]
What is mh(t) ?
Time-Domain Representation of SSB (2/2)
M() = M+() + M-()
M+() = M()u(); M-() = M()u(-)
sgn()=2u() -1  u()= ½ + ½ sgn(); u(-) = ½ -½ sgn()
M+() = ½[ M() + M()sgn()]
M-() = ½ [M() - M()sgn()]
Comparing to:
m+(t) = ½ [m(t) + j mh(t)] ↔ ½ [M() + j Mh()]
m-(t) = ½ [m(t) - j mh(t)] ↔ ½ [M() - j Mh()]
We find
Mh() = - j M()∙sgn() where mh(t)↔Mh()
Hilbert Transform
 mh(t) is known as the Hilbert Transform (HT) of m(t).
 The transfer function of this transform is given by:
H() = -j sgn()

 It is basically a /2 phase shifter

 Hilbert Transform of cos(ct)
cos(ct) ↔  ( – c) + ( + c)]
HT[cos(ct)] ↔ -j sgn()  ( – c) + ( + c)]
= j sgn()  ( – c)  ( + c)]
= j  ( – c) + ( + c)]
= j  ( + c) - ( - c)] ↔ sin(ct)

Which is expected since:

cos(ct-/2) = sin(ct)
Time-Domain Operation for Hilbert
Transformation
For Hilbert Transformation H() = -j sgn().
What is h(t)?
sgn(t) ↔ 2/(j) [From FT table]
2/(jt) ↔ 2 sgn(-) [symmetry]
1/( t) ↔ -j sgn()
Since Mh() = - j M()∙sgn() = H() ∙ M()
1
Then mh (t )  * m(t )
t

1 m( )
  d
  t  
Finally …
gUSB (t )  m (t )e j C t  m (t )e  jC t
g LSB (t )  m (t )e  j C t  m (t )e jC t
1 1
gUSB (t )  m(t )e jC t  jmh (t )e jC t
2 2
1 1
 m(t )e  jC t  jmh (t )e  jC t
2 2
 m(t ) cos(C t )  mh (t ) sin(C t )
1 1
g LSB (t )  m(t )e jC t  jmh (t )e jC t
2 2
1 1
 m(t )e  jC t  jmh (t )e  jC t GUSB ( )  M  (  C )  M  (  C )
2 2
 m(t ) cos(C t )  mh (t ) sin(C t ) GLSB ( )  M  (  C )  M  (  C )
Generation of SSB
 Selective Filtering Method
Realization based on spectrum analysis
 Phase-Shift Method
Realization based on time-domain expression
of the modulated signal
Selective Filtering
Phase Shifting
gUSB (t )  m(t ) cos(C t )  mh (t ) sin(C t )
g LSB (t )  m(t ) cos(C t )  mh (t ) sin(C t )
Phase-shifting Method:
Frequency-Domain Illustration
SSB Demodulation (Coherent)
g SSB (t )  m(t ) cos(C t )  mh (t ) sin(C t )
1 1
g SSB (t ) cos(C t )  m(t )[1  cos(2C t )]  mh (t ) sin(2C t )
2 2
1
LPF Output  m(t )
2
Advantages of SSB Transmission
 Bandwidth conservation - Only half the bandwidth is required.

 Power conservation - Only one sideband with carrier removed or

suppressed. Hence total transmitted power will be less. This
allows smaller transmitters to be used.

 Selective fading - In double sideband, the two sidebands may

experience different impairments as the propagate along
different paths in the medium. This could result in carrier phase
shift. This cannot happen if only one sideband is transmitted.

 Noise Reduction - Thermal noise is reduced to half, because the

bandwidth is also half.

72
 MULTIPLEXING

 Multiplexing – methods of transmitting more than one signal along a

single transmission path/stream i.e many to one.
 Demultiplexing – separate the stream back into its component
transmission i.e one to many.
 Path– refers to the physical link.
 Channel – refers to a portion that carries a transmission between a
given pair of devices. One path can have many channels.

73
 MULTIPLEXING
 Two common form of multiplexing are Frequency Division
Multiplexing(FDM) and Time Division Multiplexing(TDM).
 Advantages:
 Increase number of channels so that more info can be transmitted
 Save cost by using one channel to send many info signals

74
 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
 FDM – multiple sources that originally occupied the same frequency
spectrum are each converted to different frequency band and
transmitted simultaneously.
 FDM is an analog technique – the information entering an FDM
system must be analog. If the source is digital, it must be
converted to analog before being frequency-division multiplexed.
 Split the total channel bandwidth into several smaller channels of
different frequencies.
 Different signal travel over the medium concurrently.
 Guard bands keep the modulated signals from overlapping and
interfering with one another.
 Modulation is used to lift the centre freq of the baseband signal up
into a preassigned freq slot.

75
FDM

 In communication systems, Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

is a method in which each signal (channel) is allocated a frequency
slot within the overall line/transmission bandwidth.
 In other words the total available frequency bandwidth on the
transmission line is divided into frequency channels and each
information signal occupies one of these channels
 The signal will have exclusive use of this frequency slot all the time
(i.e. each subscriber occupies his/her own slot).
FDM of Three Voiceband Signals
The bandwidth of a voice signal
is taken to be 4kHz, with an
effective spectrum of 300 to
3400Hz.
If this signal is used to amplitude
modulate a 64 kHz carrier, the
spectrum becomes the modulated
signal which has a bandwidth of 8
kHz, extending from 60 to 68kHz.

To make efficient use of bandwidth,

we transmit only the lower sideband.
If three voice signals are used to
modulate carriers at 64, 68, and 72
kHz, the spectrum output is as
shown.
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
A number of signal, mi(t), i=1..,n are to be
multiplexed onto the same Tx medium.

Each signal mi(t),is modulate onto a

carrier fi, refers as subcarrier.
Modulated signals are then summed to
produce a composite signal mb(t).

Figure (b) shows the result – signal mi(t)

is shifted to be centered of fi.

fi must be chosen so that the BW of the

various signals do not overlap i.e channel
must be separated by unused BW (guard
band).

At the Rx end, the FDM signal is

demodulated to retrieved mb(t), which is
78
then passed through n BPF.a
With FDM, each
narrowband channels are
stacked on top of one
another in the frequency
domain.

Figure shows a simple

FDM system where
four 5kHz channels are
frequency-division
multiplexed into a
single 20kHz combined
channel.
Figure (a) shows how a group is formed with A-type channel bank.
Each voice band channel is bandlimited with an antialising filter prior to
modulating the channel carrier.
Figure (b) shows the output spectrum.
 Analog Hierarchy

▀ Figure shows first stages of telephone mux

▀ Group multiplexer takes 12 voice ch and puts them on subcarriers at 64,
68,…108kHz using LSB.
▀ The resulting spectrum extends 48kHz starting at 60kHz.
▀ Five such carriers are combined by LSB on subcarriers at 420, 468,…
612kHz to produce a supergroup from 312 to 552kHz an contains 60
voice channels. 82
Analog Hierarchy

 If the BW of the tx medium permits, 10 supergroups can be

combined to form a mastergroup.
 For a wider BW applications such as satellite links, it is
possible to form a jumbogroup (6 mastergroups)…

83
 FDM in Telephone System

 The original signal voice is in 300 to 3000Hz range.

 The voice is used to modulate subcarrier. Each subcarrier is on different
frequency.
 These subcarriers are then added together to form a single channel.

Voice fv+fc
Balance
fv Modulator
fv-fc fv-fc
0 - 4 kHz Ch 12 BPF 60 – 64kHz
56 – 64kHz

fc = 60kHz
0 - 4 kHz Ch 11 BPF Linear
Mixer
fc = 64kHz

104– 108kHz
100– 108kHz SSBSC
0 - 4 kHz Ch 1 BPF
DSBSC
Selects USB
fc = 104kHz
 FDM in Telephone System

 Voice signal amplitude modulates 1 of 12 ch’s in the 60 to 108kHz range.

 The carrier freq begin at 60kHz with a spacing of 4kHz.(slightly higher
than the highest typical freq of voice)
 Output of the balance modulator – DSBSC. The output of the filter is the
SB containing the original voice signal.
 All 12 SSB signals are then summed in a linear mixer to produce a single
frequency multiplexed signal – basic group.
 Basic group freq spectrum for FDM telephone mux system is shown below.
4kHz
Channel
12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 No.

f (kHz)
60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 100 104 108
Carrier frequencies

85
If more than 12 voice channels are needed, multiple basic groups are
used.
 Example – For a particular telephone company, the first sub
carrier frequency is at 60 kHz and the total bandwidth is 96 kHz.
Design a FDM system, given a general rule of 12 channels per
basic group and 4 kHz per channel applies to the design.
i. How many basic groups are required?
ii. Draw the circuit diagram of your design
iii. Draw the frequency spectrum of your multiplexed system
Solution
i. Given BWtotal = 96kHz;12 channels/basic group
1 channel = 4 kHz,
then 12 channels = 12x4 = 48kHz/basic group
Thus 96/48 = 2 basic group

86
 ii. Block Diagram

Ch 12 BPF
fc = 60kHz Linear
Voice Mixer

Ch 1 BPF
Linear
fc = 104kHz Mixer
Ch 24 BPF
fc = 108kHz Linear
Mixer

Ch 13 BPF
fc = 152kHz

iii. Frequency Spectrum

48 kHz 48 kHz

87
f (kHz)
60 104 108 152
FDM in Telephony
 FDM is done in stages
 Reduce number of carrier frequencies
 More practical realization of filters
 Group: 12 voice channels  4 kHz = 48 kHz
occupy the band 60-108 kHz
 Supergroup: 5 groups  48 kHz = 240 kHz
occupy the band 312-552
 Mastergroup: 10 S-G  240 kHz = 2400 kHz
occupy the band 564-3084 kHz
FDM Hierarchy
108 k 552 k
12 5
11 4
10 3
9 2
8 1 312 k
7
6 Supergroup
5
4
3
2
1 60 k
4
0 Group
 Vestigial Side Band Modulation (VSB)
 What if we want to generate SSB using selective
filtering but there is no guard band between the two
sides?
We will filter-in a vestige of the other band.
 Can we still recover our message, without distortion,
after demodulation?
Yes. If we use a proper LPF.
 Filtering Condition of VSB
g DSBSC (t )  2m(t ) cos(C t ) gDSBSC(t)
HVSB( )
G DSBSC ( )  M (   C )  M (   C )
m(t) X (BPF)
gVSB(t)

GVSB ( )  H VSB ( )M (   C )  M (   C )

2cos( ct)
 
X ( )  H VSB (  C )  M (  2C )  M ( )  VSB Modulator (transmitter)
  at  2  Baseband
 
 C 
 
 H VSB (  C )  M ( )  M (  2C )
 baseband
       
 at  2C 
Z ( )  H LPF ( )H VSB (  C )  H VSB (  C )M ( )
1
H LPF ( )  ; || ≤ 2  B
H VSB (   C )  H VSB (   C )
VSB Filtering
VSB Filter: Special Case
 Condition For distortionless demodulation:
1
H LPF ( )  ; || ≤ 2  B
H VSB (  C )  H VSB (  C )
 If we impose the condition on the filter at the modulator:

HVSB(-c) + HVSB( c) = 1 ; || ≤ 2  B

Then HLPF = 1 for || ≤ 2  B (Ideal LPF)

 HVSB() will then have odd symmetry around c over the
transition period.
AM Broadcasting
 Allocated the band 530 kHz – 1600 kHz (with
minor variations)
 10 kHz per channel. (9 kHz in some countries)
 More that 100 stations can be licensed in the
same geographical area.
 Uses AM modulation (DSB + C)
AM station Reception
 In theory, any station can be extracted from the stream of spectra by
tuning the receiver BPF to its center frequency. Then demodulated.

 Impracticalities:
 Requires a BPF with very high Q-factor (Q = fc / B).
 Particularly difficult if the filter is to be tunable.
 Solution: Superheterodyne receiver
 Step 1: Frequency Translation from RF to IF
Shift the desired station to another fixed pass band (called
Intermediate Frequency IF = 455 kHz)
 Step 2: Bandpass Filtering at IF
Build a good BPF around IF to extract the desired station.
It is more practical now, because IF is relatively low
(reasonable Q) and the filter is not tunable.
 Step 3: Demodulation
Use Envelope Detector
The Local Oscillator
 What should be the frequency of the local
oscillator used for translation from RF to IF?
fLO = fc + fIF (up-conversion)
or fLO = fc - fIF (down-conversion)
 Tuning ratio = fLO, max / fLO, min
 Up-Conversion: (1600 + 455) / (530+455) ≈ 2
 Down-Conversion: (1600–455) / (530–455) ≈ 12
 Easier to design oscillator with small tuning ratio.
Image Station Problem
 While up-converting the desired station to IF, we are,
at the same time, down-converting another station to IF
as well.
 These two stations are called image stations, and they
are spaced by 2x455=910kHz.
 Solution:
Before conversion, use a BPF (at RF) centered at fc of
the desired station.
The purpose of the filter is NOT to extract the desired
station, but to suppress its image. Hence, it does not
have to be very sharp.
Superheterodyne Receiver Block Diagram

Notes:
• With one knob, we are tuning the RF Filter
and the local oscillator.
•The filter are designed with high gain
to provide amplification as well.