CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Composites
Ever since it was recognized that combination of different materials often resulted in superior
products, materials have been combined to produce composites. Mud bricks reinforced with straw
were known to have been made hundreds of years B.C., as were laminated woods. Early history
reports Mongol bows made from cattle tendons, wood and silk bonded together with adhesives. Other
examples include Japanese ceremonial swords and Damascus gun barrel fabricated from iron steel
laminates. This introduction, however, deals with more recent composites, dating primarily from after
World War II. Contemporary composites range from Glass/fiber reinforced automobile bodies to
Graphite and Aluminum particulate reinforced for light weight space and military application. Other
modern composites include plywood, plaster board concrete fiber/reinforced pneumatic tiers, and
many other important materials.
At present there is no universally accepted definition of term “composite material”, one
definition might be “any materials that consists of two or more identifiable constituents”. Natural as
well as man-made composites could be considered by this definition and might include plants such as
wood, animals (a composite of bone and tissue), or even many rocks and minerals. Since this
definitions could include almost everything except single or homogenous materials, this book will
consider only composites that consist of materials deliberately combined to form heterogeneous
structures with desired or intended properties. Although this considerably narrows the scope of
materials that may be considered composites, it would still be too all inclusive for this introduction.
Metal alloys, dispersion/strengthened materials, copolymers, conventional cements, rubber tire
materials, plywood asphalt, some glasses, nuclear materials, and many other such materials might
technically be considered composites, but will not be discussed.
However, following types of composites and some their constituents will be included in this
introduction: fiber and whisker/reinforced, directionally solidified, filled, flake, particulate and
laminar composites.
Perhaps the most typical types of composites are composed of an additive constituent such as
fibers or particles embedded in a matrix. Usually these are structural materials, but they can also be
1
special materials such as electrical conductors. Some composites have no matrix and are composed of
one or more constituent forms consisting of two or more different materials. Sandwiches and
laminates, for example, are composed entirely of layers which, taken together, given the composites
its form. Many felts and fabrics have nobody matrix, but consist entirely of fibers of several
composites, with or without bonding phase. Reinforcing or additive constituents used for its structural
materials usually carry most of the load, or furnish the dominant properties.
The mechanical properties and composition of FRP composites can be tailored for their
intended use. The type and quantity of the materials selected in addition to the manufacturing process
to fabricate the product, will affect the mechanical properties and performance.
Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) composites is defined as a polymer (plastic) matrix, either
thermoset or thermoplastic, that is reinforced (combined) with a fiber or other reinforcing material
with a sufficient aspect ratio (length to thickness) to provide a discernable reinforcing function in one
or more directions. FRP composites are different from traditional construction materials such as steel
or aluminum. FRP composites are anisotropic (properties only apparent in the direction of the applied
load) whereas steel or aluminum is isotropic (uniform properties in all directions, independent of the
applied load). Therefore, FRP composite properties are directional, meaning that the best mechanical
properties are in the direction of the fiber placement.
Composites materials are extending the horizons of designers in all branches of engineering,
and yet the degree to which this is happening can easily pass unperceived. In composites, materials
are combined in such a way as to enable us to make better use of their virtues while minimizing to
some extent the effects of their deficiencies.
This process of optimization can release a designer from the constraints associated with the
selection and manufacture of conventional materials. It can make use of tougher and lighter materials,
with properties that can be tailored to suit particular design requirements. Because the ease with which
complex shapes can be manufactured, the complete rethinking of an established design in terms of
composites can often lead to both cheaper and better solutions.
The simple term composites give little indication of the vast range of individual combinations
that are included in this class of materials. Metallic, Ceramic and Polymeric there are already certain
familiar materials, which can be described as composites. Polymers, too, are often two phased,
consisting of a matrix of one polymer with distributions of harder or softer particles contained within
it; wood is a perfect example of this, as we have seen.
Concrete is the classic example of a ceramic composite, with the particles of sand and
aggregate of graded sizes in a matrix of hydrated Portland cement. A composite is consists of plastics,

2
ceramics and metals. Plastics are of low density and have good short-term chemical resistance but
they lack thermal stability. They have poor mechanical properties, but are easily fabricated and
jointed. Ceramics may be low density. They have great thermal stability and are resistant to most
forms of attack (abrasion, wear, corrosion). Metals are mostly of medium to high density. They have
good thermal stability and may be made corrosion resistant by alloying.
Epoxy-based film adhesives are being used increasingly for the fabrication and joining of
aluminum and polymeric composites parts in the aircraft industry because of problems associated with
conventional fasteners. While these materials must be stable in high service temperature
environments, they must also be resistant to failure resulting from vibration and fatigue loading. This
typically requires the addition of modifiers to base epoxy formulations to increase the adhesion,
toughness, and peel strength of the materials. Previous research has been investigating epoxy
modifiers that promote increased fracture toughness and provide better adhesive characteristics.
Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) composites is defined as a polymer (plastic) matrix, either
thermoset or thermoplastic, that is reinforced (combined) with a fiber or other reinforcing material
with a sufficient aspect ratio (length to thickness) to provide a discernable reinforcing function in one
or more directions. FRP composites are different from traditional constructions materials such as steel
or aluminum.
FRP composites are anisotropic (properties only apparent in the direction of the applied load)
whereas steel or aluminum, is isotropic (uniform properties in all directions, independent of applied
load). Therefore, FRP composite properties are directional, meaning that the best mechanical
properties are in the direction of the fiber placement. FRP composites are anisotropic (properties only
apparent in the direction of the applied load) whereas steel or aluminum is isotropic (uniform
properties in all directions, independent of applied load). These materials are being considered for
primary (loading bearing) structural applications in commercial and military aircraft.
1.2 Classification of composites
Fibers or particles embedded in matrix of another material are the best example of modern-day
composite materials, which are mostly structural. Laminates are composite material where different
layers of materials give them the specific character of a composite material having a specific function
to perform.
Fabrics have no matrix to fall back on, but in them, fibers of different compositions combine
to give them a specific character. Reinforcing materials generally withstand maximum load and serve
the desirable properties. Further, though composite types are often distinguishable from one another,

3
no clear determination can be really made. To facilitate definition, the accent is often shifted to the
levels at which differentiation take place viz., microscopic or macroscopic.
In matrix-based structural composites, the matrix serves two paramount purposes viz., binding
the reinforcement phases in place and deforming to distribute the stresses among the
constituent reinforcement materials under an applied force. The demands on matrices are many. They
may need to temperature variations, be conductors or resistors of electricity, have moisture sensitivity
etc. This may offer weight advantages, ease of handling and other merits which may also become
applicable depending on the purpose for which matrices are chosen. Solids that accommodate stress to
incorporate other constituents provide strong bonds for the reinforcing phase are potential matrix
materials. A few inorganic materials, polymers and metals have found applications as matrix materials
in the designing of structural composites, with commendable success. These materials remain elastic
till failure occurs and show decreased failure strain, when loaded in tension and compression.
Composites cannot be made from constituents with divergent linear expansion characteristics.
The interface is the area of contact between the reinforcement and the matrix materials. In some cases,
the region is a distinct added phase. Whenever there is interphase, there has to be two interphases
between each side of the interphase and its adjoint constituent.
Some composites provide interphases when surfaces dissimilar constituents interact with each
other. Choice of fabrication method depends on matrix properties and the effect of matrix on
properties of reinforcements. One of the prime considerations in the selection and fabrication of
composites is that the constituents should be chemically inert non-reactive.

Figure 1.1: Classification of Matrices

4
1.3 Behavior of composites
The performance of an engineering material is judged by its properties and behavior under
tensile, compressive, shear, and other static or dynamic loading (impact) conditions in both normal
and adverse test environment. This information is essential for selecting the proper material in a given
application as well as designing the structure with the selecting materials. Composite materials made
of increasing acceptance in aerospace structures due to potential weight saving and efficient design
considerations. The increased use of fiber reinforced polymer composite for primary structural
applications has resulted in increased need to characterize and predict the mechanical behavior of
these materials. These materials are being considered for primary (loading bearing) structural
applications in commercial and military aircraft. Specific strength and specific modulus (stiffness) are
usually the first two properties to be considered when selecting a structural material.
Nevertheless, the damage tolerance of brittle polymer composites such as glass fiber
reinforced epoxy, in response to a low energy impact, has been a major concern for both composite
users and manufacturers. The mechanical properties of glass fiber reinforced laminates are excellent
particularly when compared on strength for weight basis is of great importance in aircraft
construction.
Specific tensile strength of these laminates is higher than that of the aluminum, magnesium
alloys and mild steel. Impact strength is also in favor of these laminates when compared them to metal
on an equal weight basis. The energy between the reinforcement and the matrix and the geometry of
reinforcement are the deciding factors of the strength and stiffness of the composites. In general, a
hard dispersion when used as the reinforcement in soft matrix reduces the impact strength of the
matrix and at the same time improves other mechanical properties.
We will consider the results of incorporating fibers in a matrix. The matrix, besides holding
the fibers together, has the important function of transferring the applied load to the fibers. It is of
great importance to be able to predict the properties of a composite, given the component properties
and their geometric arrangement.
1.3.1 Rules of Mixtures
The Rule of Mixture is a rough tool that considers the composite properties as volume
weighted averages of the component properties. It is important to realize that this rule works
accurately only in certain simple situations, such as determining composite density and elastic
modulus. For most properties, this provides only a rough estimate for initial design purposes. The
principle used is that longitudinal direction, both fibers and matrix have the same stress (iso-strain)
and in transverse direction, both fibers and matrix have the same stress (iso-strain).
5
 Ec = Ef * Vf + Em * Vm
Where
Ec: Elastic modulus of composites.
Ef: Elastic modulus of fiber.
Vf: Volume fraction of the fiber.
Em: Elastic modulus of matrix.
1.3.2 Thermal Expansion
This section deals with the deformations produced in a polymeric composite by the
temperature changes and absorption of moisture; thus by atmospheric temperature changes. A change
of temperature in a free body produces thermal strain, while moisture absorption produces swelling
strains. The relevant physical parameters to qualify this phenomenon are Coefficients of Thermal
Expansion (CTE) and coefficients of swelling. Fibers have significantly smaller CTE than do
polymeric matrices. The CTE of glass and carbon fibers are 5.0 x 10-6/K and 0.2 x 10-6/K respectively.
While a typical epoxy value is 54 x 10-6/K. It follows that a Unidirectional composite will have very
small CTE in the fiber direction because the fibers will restrain matrix expansion. On the other hand,
transverse CTE will be much larger because the fibers move with the expanding matrix and thus
provide less restrain to matrix expansion. These phenomena have considerable practical importance
because it may lead to the generation of internal stress particularly for laminates made of
unidirectional layers.
1.3.3 Moisture Swelling
A physically similar situation arises with moisture swelling. Polymers absorb moisture in a
wet environment and can consequently swell. When the swelling is restrained, stresses are generated.
If a Unidirectional composite is placed in a wet environment, the matrix swells and the fibers do not
(with the exception of Aramid). Therefore the fibers restrain the swelling in the fiber direction, but not
in the direction transverse to the fibers. Thus the unidirectional composite is highly anisotropic with
respect to moisture swelling.
1.3.4 Matrix
In those structural composite that consists in part of matrixes, the matrix serves too very
important functions and they holds the reinforcement phase in place, and under an applied force it
deforms and distributes the stress to the reinforcement constituents. Sometimes the matrix itself is a
key strengthening element. This occurs in certain metal matrix composites. In other cases, a matrix
may have to stand up to heat or cold. It may conduct or resist electricity, keep out moisture, or protect
against corrosion. It may be chosen for its weight, ease of handling, or any of many other properties.
6
 Any solid that can be processed so as to embed and adherently grip a reinforcing phase is a
potential matrix material. Metals have been very successful in this role; inorganic materials such as
glass, plaster, Portland cement, carbon and silicon have also been used as a matrix material with
varying success. These latter materials remains elastic up to their points of failure and
characteristically exhibit low failure strains under tensile loading, but are strong under compression.
One important consideration in composite production is how the constituents of a composite
interact during fabrication process. They should not react chemically or metallurgical in a way that
harms either. In general, they should not have great different coefficience of linear expansion. The
area of contiguous contact between the matrix and reinforcing material is called as the interface,
which in some way is analogous to the grain boundaries in monolithic material. In certain cases,
however, the contiguous region is a distinct added phase, called an Interphase. Examples are the
coating on the glass fiber in reinforcement plastics, and adhesive that bonds the layers of a laminate
together.
The primary function of the resin are to transfer stress between the reinforcing fibers, act as a
glue to hold the fibers together, and protect the fiber from mechanical and environmental damage.
Resins are divided into two major groups known as thermosets and thermoplastic. Thermoplastic resin
become soft when heated, and may shaped or molded while heated semi field state and become rigid
when cooled. Thermosets resins, on other hand, are usually liquids or low melting point solids in the
initial form. When used to produce finished goods, these thermosetting resins are “cured” by the use
of catalyst, heat or combination of the two. Once cured, solid thermoset cannot be converted back to
their original liquid form. Unlike thermoplastic resins, cured thermosets will not melt and flow but
will often when heated (and lose hardness) and once formed they cannot replaced.
Any resin system for use in a composite will require the following properties, good mechanical
properties, adhesive properties, toughness properties, and resistance to environmental degradation.
Matrix in the composite serves the functions such as, it binds the fibers together, transfers
applied load on the fibers, protect the individual fibers from surfaces damages as a result of
mechanical abrasion or chemical reaction with the environment and separates the fibers and virtue of
its plasticity and prevents the propagation of brittle cracks from the fiber which and result in failure.
1.3.4.1 Epoxy
The large families of epoxy resins represent some of the highest performance resins of those
available at this time. Epoxies generally out-perform most other resin types in terms of mechanical
properties and resistance to environmental degradation, which leads to their almost exclusive use in
aircraft components. As a laminating resin their increased adhesive properties and resistance to water

7
degradation make these resins ideal for use in applications such as boat building. Here epoxies are
widely used as primary construction material for high-performance boats or as a secondary application
to sheath a hull or replace water degraded polyester resins and gel coats. The ‘epoxy’ refers to a
chemical group consisting of an oxygen atom bonded to two carbon atoms that are already bonded in
some way. The simplest is a three member ring structure known by the term ‘alpha-epoxy’ or ‘1, 2-
epoxy’.
Epoxy resins are formed from a long chain molecular structure similar to vinyl ester with
reactive sites at either end. In the epoxy resin, however, epoxy groups instead of ester groups form
these reactive sites. The absence of ester groups means that the epoxy resin has particularly good
water resistance. The epoxy molecule also contain two ring groups at its center which are able to
absorb both mechanical and thermal stresses better than linear groups and therefore give the epoxy
resin very good stiffness, toughness and heat resistant properties.
Epoxies differ from polyester resins in that a ‘hardener’ rather than a catalyst cures them. The
hardener, often an amine, is used to cure the epoxy by an ‘addition reaction’ where both materials take
place in the chemical reaction. The chemistry of this reaction means that there are usually tow epoxy
sites binding to each amine site. Since the amine molecules ‘co-react’ with the epoxy molecules in a
fixed ratio, it is essential that the correct mix ratio is obtained between resin and hardener to ensure
that a complete reaction takes place.
1.3.4.2 Polyurethane
Since the 1970s, polyurethane resin plastic thermal insulation, including polyurethane, has
become an important element in the building envelope and is specifically regulated by current
building codes. This document gives an overview of the building code fire performance provisions
that control how resin plastic insulation is used and how it must be protected in use. While
information on tests mandated by the building codes to measure the fire performance of resin plastic
insulation used in building codes such as physical properties of products. Model building codes are
“living documents” that are updated and changed on a regular basis. The information presented here is
believed to be current as of the date of publication. Some of the most efficient thermal insulation
materials available are rigid Polyurethane Resin Insulations (PUR).
These resins are used in many different thermal insulation applications for both residential and
commercial buildings because of their versatility and high performance. In homes, polyurethane resin
insulation is found in several resins or remodeling, and many entry doors and garage doors are
insulated with rigid polyurethane resin, Spray polyurethane resin. Wall insulation can be supplied in
panels, or ‘Polyiso’ laminates, that are applied to the wall framing at the time of construction (SPR) is

8
also used for wall insulation and provides the additional benefits of reducing air infiltration to the
building for increased energy efficiency. SPR is also used for sealing and insulating eaves and sills of
homes. Commercial buildings are also insulated in many ways using PUR. Low slope commercial
roofing uses both polyisocyanurate (PIR) panels and SPR for insulation. PIR panels are used in
exterior walls such as cavity wall, curtain wall and other exterior applications. Many door applications
also use PUR and some buildings exteriors are constructed entirely from metal faced PUR core
panels.
PIR or ‘‘Polyiso’’ resins generally are considered synonymous with PUR within the context of
the building codes. The two different types of resins are often made using the same or similar raw
materials but the “recipes” vary in accordance with the requirements of the production process and the
final application. American Society for Testing Materials International (ASTM) products or systems
and are developed through a consensus process. This process typically involves producers, users and
other interested parties who meet at least twice a year for standard development purposes.
The standards are resined through a balloting process that allows all interested parties to
participate. The process provides for updates on a regular basis to insure the latest technology and test
requirements are incorporated. In addition ASTM consensus process requires the standards be
reviewed and brought up to date at least every five years.
1.3.5 Reinforcement
Reinforcement is a substance added in combination with the matrix to produce a composite
material. Reinforcements like glass fiber gives strength, stiffness and other mechanical properties and
to certain extend field properties like hardness, electrical and thermal conductive etc.
These need not be in the form of long fibers; one can have in the form of particles, flakes,
whiskers, short fibers, continuous fibers. The reinforcements used in composites have a fiber form
because materials are stronger, stiffer in the form of fibrous than many other forms. They serve certain
additional purpose of heat resistance or conduction, resistance to corrosion and provide rigidity. The
standards are resined through a balloting process that allows all interested parties to participate. The
process provides for updates on a regular basis to insure the latest technology and test requirements
are incorporated.

9
1.3.5.1 Fibers
Reinforcement plastics are made of almost all the fibers that have been so far produced. A
fiber may be a continuous one or discontinuous. A fiber is any polymer, metal or ceramic, which can
be drawn into long and thin filament. Fibers are the principle load carrying component in a fiber
reinforced composite material. The effectiveness of reinforcement depends on the type, length,
volume fraction and orientation of fibers in the matrix. Fibers are most effective when used in long
continuous lengths than in short discontinuous lengths.
1.3.5.2 Glass Fiber
Glass fiber is the reinforcing medium which gives strength, stiffness and other mechanical
properties like hardness, electrical and thermal conductivities etc. the other constituent namely, the
matrix gives shape to the composite, offers corrosion and weathering resistance and protects the fiber
from the environment and also acts as a medium to transfer the land from one fiber to another.
Glass fibers are silica based (nearly 50% to 60% SiO2) and contain a host of other oxides of
calcium, sodium, aluminum and iron. One of the commonly used glass fiber is E-glass, which is a
borosilicate having a low alkali content. Glass reinforcements used in GFRP are formed from very
thin filaments in the range of 5 to 14mm in diameter, which are assembled in different forms of
strand, mat or cloth. Because filaments of this size cannot be handled separately, they are combined in
various forms suitable for use in reinforced plastics manufacture. Even other fibers like carbon,
aramid are available, but these fibers are out of the scope of this thesis.
Glass fibers comprise well over 90% of the fibers used in reinforced plastics because they are
inexpensive to produce and possess high strength, high stiffness (relative to plastics), low specific
gravity, chemical resistance and good insulating characteristics. One problem with glass, however, is
that when subjected to tensile loads for prolonged periods of time, glass brakes at stress level much
below those measured in short time (2 to 5 minutes) laboratory tests. This behavior, known as static
fatigue (actually it is more like a stress rupture phenomenon), effectively reduces the useful strength
of glass if it is intended to sustain such loads for months or years in service. Common applications for
glass reinforced plastics or automobile bodies and large boats hulls.
The reduction can be as much as 70-80% depending on the load duration, temperature,
moisture condition, and other factors, and if fracture occur, it gives little or no prior warning since
glass is a brittle material. Conservative design practices and periodic inspection are recommended
preventive measures in such applications where failure would have critical consequences. Because
they are available in so many different forms, glass fibers lend themselves to a variety of fabrication
processes. e.g., filament winding, matched die molding, lay-up, etc.
10
1.4 Selection of Matrix Materials
1.4.1 Thermosets
Thermosetting materials, or ‘thermosets’, are formed from a chemical reaction in situ, where
the resin and hardener or resin and catalyst are mixed and then undergo a nonreversible chemical
reaction to form a hard, infusible product. In some thermosets, such as phenolic resins volatile
substances are produced as by products (a ‘condensation’ reaction). Other thermosetting resins such as
polyester and epoxy cure by mechanisms that do not produce any volatile by products and thus are
much easier to process (‘Addition’ reactions). Once cured, thermosets will not become liquid again if
heated, although above a certain temperature their mechanical properties will change significantly.
This temperature is known as the Glass Transition Temperature (Tg), and varies widely according to
the particular resin system used, its degree of cure and whether it was mixed correctly. Above the TG,
the molecular structure of the thermosets changes from that of a rigid crystalline polymer to a more
flexible, amorphous polymer.
This change is reversible on cooling back below the TG, above the TG properties such as resin
modulus (stiffness) drop sharply, and as a result the compressive and shear strength of the composite
does too. Other properties such as water resistance and color stability also reduce markedly above the
resin’s TG.
Epoxy resins place a major role in filament – wound composites, and are well suited for use in
molding compounds and pre pages. They also have good chemical stability and flow properties, and
exhibit excellent adherence and water resistance, slow shrinkage during cure (about 3%) ,and freedom
from gas evolution. However, the epoxies are relatively expensive and are generally limited to
services temperatures below 150o C (300o F). This restricts many aerospace applications, where higher
use temperatures are required. Although many types of plastic resins both thermosets plastic are being
reinforced with glass fibers, polyurethane resins are the most widely used, especially for low
performance applications.
In the cured state, polyurethane is hard, light – colored, which is rigid. There are resistant to
water, weather, aging, and a variety of chemicals. They can be used temperatures up to about 80 o C
(175o F) or higher, depending on the formulation of the resin or service requirement of the application.
Other principle advantages polyester are that they combine easily with glass fiber reinforcement and
can be used with all types of reinforced plastic fabrication equipment. This advantage of
polyurethanes includes vulnerability to some chemical and a tendency to burn easily.

11
1.4.2 Thermoplastic resins
The dual goal of improving both hot/wet properties and impact resistance of composite
matrices has to the development, and limited use of high–temperature thermoplastic resin matrices.
These materials are very different from the commodity thermoplastics (such as polyethylene,
polyvinyl chloride, and polystyrene) that are commonly used as plastic bags, plastic piping, and
plastic tableware. The commodity thermoplastics exhibit very little resistance to elevated
temperatures; the high performance thermoplastics exhibit resistance that can be superior to that of
epoxy.
Thermoplastic matrix materials are tougher and offer the potential of improved hot/wet
resistance and long term room temperatures storage, because of their high strains to failure, they also
are the only matrices currently available that allow, at least theoretically the new intermediate
modulus, high strength (and strain) carbon fibers to use their full strain potential in their composite.
Thermoplastics are generally considered to be semi crystalline (meaning the atoms in the
polymer chains arrange themselves in regular arrays to some degree) or amorphous (meaning there is
no local order to the molecular chains). These materials include such resins as Polyether Ether Ketone
(PEEK), polyphenylene sulfide, polyetherimide (all of which are intended to maintain thermoplastic
character in the final composite) and others, such as polyamide, which is originally molded as a
thermoplastic but is then post cured in the final composite to produced partial thermosetting
characteristics (and thus improved subsequent temperature resistance).
At normal temperature, however, thermoplastic composite offer through rigidity, and
resistance to creep. The auto industry uses about 50% of the thermoplastics reduces in the United
States. Appliances on business-machines makers use another 30%.
Auto mobile instrument panels and pump bodies, computer and appliances housings, and
washing machine or typical thermoplastic composite product. Several recent developments promise to
widen the use of thermoplastics. For example reinforced thermoplastic or now available in large
sheets, which can be stamped or heated and formed in models.
Large parts can be more easily fabricated from this sheet material then form molding
compounds. Newly developed reinforced thermoplastics forms are also suited to the molding of large
parts and filament winding of thermoplastics materials is in development. Listed below table is
different applications of resin in aircraft industry.

12
Applications in Aircraft Industry
POLYMER TYPE APPLICATIONS
 Airbus A320 Vertical stabilizer brackets
 EH-101 helicopter floor
 F-117 rudder assembly
PEEK
 F-22 weapons bay doors
 F-22 access covers
 OH-58d helicopter horizontal stabilizer
 Airbus A320-200 rudder nose ribs
POLY-PHENYLENE-
 Airbus A340 aileron ribs
SULPHIDE

Table 1.1 lists of applications in Aircraft Industry

1.5 Properties of Metal Matrix Composite
Metal matrix composites, at present though generating a wide interest in research fraternity,
are not as widely in use as their plastic counterparts. High strength, fracture toughness and stiffness
are offered by metal matrices than those offered by their polymer counterparts. They can
withstand elevated temperature in corrosive environment than polymer composites. Most metals and
alloys could be used as matrices and they require reinforcement materials which need to be stable
over a range of temperature and non-reactive too. However the guiding aspect for the choice depends
essentially on the matrix material. Light metals form the matrix for temperature application and the
reinforcements in addition to the aforementioned reasons are characterized by high moduli.
Most metals and alloys make good matrices. However, practically, the choices for low
temperature applications are not many. Only light metals are responsive, with their low density
proving an advantage. Titanium, Aluminum and magnesium are the popular matrix metals currently
in vogue, which are particularly useful for aircraft applications. If metallic matrix materials have to
offer high strength, they require high modulus reinforcements. The strength-to- weight ratios of
resulting composites can be higher than most alloys.
The melting point, physical and mechanical properties of the composite at various
temperatures determine the service temperature of composites. Most metals, ceramics and
compounds can be used with matrices of low melting point alloys. The choice of reinforcements
becomes more stunted with increase in the melting temperature of matrix materials.
The matrix phase for a MMC is a metal often which is ductile. MMCs are manufactured
13
with aims to have high strength to weight ratio, high resistance to abrasion and corrosion, resistance
to creep, good dimensional stability, and high temperature operability. The main advantages that
MMCs possess over CMCs are the usability at high temperatures, and resistance to corrosion by
organic fluids. MMC’s are used in industries like automobile and aerospace. Mainly Aluminum
and Copper are used as the metal matrix.
The primary advantage of MMCs over counterpart organic-matrix composites is the
maximum operating temperature. DWA Aluminum composites has produced MMCs using 6092 and
2009 matrix alloys for the best combination of strength, ductility, and fracture toughness, and 6063
matrix alloy to obtain high thermal conductivity. Similarly, Metal Matrix Cast Composite (MMCC)
Inc. The reinforcement materials used should be able to fulfill certain conditions like having low
density, good chemical and mechanical compatibility, high strength (both compressive and tensile),
high temperature stability and economic cost of production and processing. These demands can be
mostly satisfied by non-metallic reinforcements. Depending upon the reinforcement phases MMCs
can be classified into dispersion hardened and particle composites, layer composites or laminates,
fiber composites and infiltration composites.

1.6 Applications of Composites

Because of their good strength, stiffness and light weight the composites are used widely used
in wide range of applications, such as they are used in trusses and benches in satellite for space
applications because of their low weight. Abrasive grinding and cutting wheels are manufactured by
using the composites because of their good wear characteristics. They are also used in the electrical
contacts in switches and relays. Carbon composites are used in rocket motors, abrasive shield for re-
entry vehicles, gas turbine engine parts. Bimetallic composites are very often used in circuit breakers
and in temperature control devices like heaters, refrigerators.
1.6.1 Polymer Matrix Composites
Polymer matrix composites are consisting of resin system is either thermosets or
thermoplastics type such as epoxy, polyester, polyethylene, polystyrene etc. with the reinforcement
materials such as glass fibers, carbon fibers, boron fibers have find various application in many fields
like, panels of floorings of aircraft and elevators of aircrafts, rotor blades of helicopters, automobiles
bodies, rail cars bodies, marine applications, tennis rockets, golf club shafts, bicycle frames. High
modulus, strength and dimensional stability during large change in large temperature in space make
composites the material of choice in space applications. The X-ray tables are made of graphite/epoxy;
facing sandwiches are used.
14
 Polymer are particularly attractive as matrix materials because of their relatively easy
processibility, low density and good mechanical and dielectric properties. High temperature resins for
use in composites are particular interest to high speed aircraft, rocket, space and electrical fields. The
temperature capability or a matrix resin is determined by its softening temperature, its oxidant
resistance, or its intrinsic thermal break down.
They are two principle types of polymers:
 Thermoplastic
 Thermosets.
The thermoplastic are largely one or two dimensional in molecular structure. At high
temperature they softened and show a discrete melting point. The process of softening at temperature
and regaining rigidity upon cooling is a reversible one. These molding compounds are processed by
use of conventional techniques of compression, transfer, or injection molding or extrusion.
Polyethylene, polystyrene, polypropylene, polyimides, and nylon are examples of thermoplastics.
1.6.2 Metal Matrix Composites
Metal matrixes are strong and tough and can be plastically deformed easily. Because of such
properties they are widely used in many fields such as in piston rings, connecting rods and pistons of
internal combustion engines with aluminum oxide or silicon carbide fibers in Ai alloys composites.
Glass fibers in lead composites are used in battery plate’s connecting rods and pistons of I.C engines.
Silicon carbide coated boron fibers in Al matrix are used in compressor blades, stainless steel wires in
nickel alloys are used in rocket engines, tungsten carbide particulates in cobalt matrix is used in high
speed tools and abrasive grinding wheels, particulates of nickel, chromium, aluminum, in nickel alloy
matrix are used in sealing elements in turbines.
1.6.3 Ceramic Matrix Composites
Ceramics are hard and brittle material and it consists of one or more metal chemically
combined with a non-metal. Silicon carbide particulates in alumina matrix is used in tool materials,
heat engines, energy conversion systems, silicon carbide particulates in silicon carbide matrix is used
in cutting tool inserts, glass fibers in alumina matrix used in aircraft ceramic matrix composites are
used in cutting tools where they are replacing carbide-cutting tools. Sic/alumina is used as a cutting
tool material.
CMS’s can find applications in heat engines, components requiring resistance to aggressive
environments, special electronic/electrical applications, and energy conversion and military systems.
They are used in high temperature application such as heat shields, rotor blades, hot pressing dies,
nozzles, and as wind shields, cargo bay doors, booster rocket castings etc. CMC’s are used in leaf
15
springs, drive shafts, and various chassis parts, turbine blades, shafts of compressor, windmills, in
ultra-centrifuges and flywheels. CMC’s are used in the manufacturing of precision equipment’s, X-ray
film film holders, etc.
Fibrous reinforcements of ceramic matrices present some unusual problem. It is generally
understood that reinforcement of material is undertaken primarily for the sake of utilizing the tensile
strength of the fiber so as to produce an increase in the load bearing capacity of the matrix. However,
the addition of a higher strength fiber to a relatively weak ceramic does not always result in a
composite with a tensile strength greater than of the ceramic alone. In many cases it will actually
result in a weaker composite.
The combination of low tensile strain and high modulus of elasticity exhibited by more
ceramics is a primary reason for failure to obtain strength improvement by the addition of
reinforcement. That is, at stress levels sufficient to rupture the ceramic, the elongation of the matrix
resin is sufficient to transfer a significant amount of the load to the reinforcement, and the composite
will fail unless the volume percentage of the fiber extraordinarily high. This difficulty can be
mitigated to some extent, of course, by using reinforcement with an unusual high modulus of
elasticity. Another, and perhaps a more satisfactory, solution is to pre stress the fiber in the ceramic
matrix This may accomplished by utilizing reinforcement with a co-efficient of thermal expansion
higher than that of matrix. If such a system brought to a “no stress” condition at high temperature
solution require, of course, that a sufficient bond be established ceramic and reinforcement to affect
the necessary bond transfer.
1.7 Particulates Composites
Low cost particulate fillers are added plastics in commercial production primarily for reasons
of economy and improvement in molding characteristics. The influence of the filler on mechanical
properties is regarded as of minor importance. Commercial fillers varies widely in particle size and
shape. The strength and toughness of the composite depends upon the shape and size of the filler, the
amount which is compounded with the plastics, the bonding between the filler and the plastics, the
toughness of the plastics, and sometimes the toughness of the filler.
Particulates composites consists of particles of one or more materials suspended in a matrix of
another material. The particles can be either metallic or non-metallic as for the matrix. The
characteristics of the particulates are dependent on the size and distribution of the particles, type of the
matrix and the particles and the interface bond strength. Smaller size and increased volume fraction
lead to improve d properties. These are very popular in case of MMC’s and CMC’s than in PMC’s.

16
1.8 Thermal and electrical properties of Metal Matrix Composites
The thermal conductivity of the conventional aluminum based MMCs was investigated by
many workers. It has been found that the thermal conductivity of MMCs is mainly governed by the
conductivity of the individual phases, their volume fraction and shape, and also by the size of the
inclusion phase due to a finite metal/ceramic interface thermal resistance. Beside these factors, the
results obtained from the current work showed that the agglomeration % of the particulates has a
significant influence on the thermal conductivity of the MMCs. Increasing the volume fraction of the
particulates increases the amount of agglomeration % of the particles which can lead to disturbing
results of the average thermal conductivity of the MMCs. Particles free zones have higher thermal
conductivity than the particles clustered zones.
Another important factor that plays an important role on the thermal conductivity of the
MMCs is the fabrication technique and its processing conditions. The casting techniques have several
advantages than other fabrication techniques such as powder metallurgy. These advantages include
lower cost and the capability of production of large components. However, MMCs cast components
suffer from several defects such as particles segregation and high porosity content. The choice of
the proper process parameters of the casting technique has a significant effect in reduction, but not
elimination, of the particles segregation and porosity content.
Increasing the volume fraction reduces the electrical conductivity of the MMNCs. Moreover,
the increasing the size of the nanoparticles from 60 to 200 nm reduced significantly the electrical
conductivity of the MMNCs. The reduction of the electrical conductivity of the A356 due to the
addition of the Al2O3 nanoparticles may be attributed to the clustering of the nanoparticles which are
in fact insulations sites that reduce the electrical conductivity. Moreover, it has been observed that
the nanoparticles are positioned and clustered at the grain boundaries of Al grains and decrease the
electrical conductivity. The morphology, and size of the eutectic silicon is believed to have an
effect on the electrical conductivity also and any improvement on the eutectic morphology is believed
to induce a significant effect on the electrical conductivity of the A356 alloy. The significant effect
induced on cast alloys by adding Al2O3 particulates has been dis- cussed and reported recently by
some researchers. Generally, the electrical conductivity of the MMC’s is mainly decided by the
conductivity of the matrix alloy as well as the shape, size and volume fraction of hard ceramic
alumina particles.

17
1.9 Wear Properties of MMC’s
Wear is the progressive loss of material from the operating surface of a solid occurring as a
result of relative motion between two surfaces. Wear appears as if it occurs due to relative motion
between two bodies which are solid. There can be different modes or forms of wear such as abrasion,
adhesion (scuffing, wiping, welding, galling and scoring), erosion and fatigue. When two surfaces
which appear smooth macroscopically are brought together then contact occurs at isolated asperities
on the surfaces. According to profilometry studies most of the solid surfaces inherently have
roughness with varying degrees. For the cases of abrasive and adhesive wear, it is assumed by
the models that wear volume (wear rate) is proportional to the number of asperities in contact and
related to load applied the and yield strength of the asperities . As the yield strength becomes
higher, the lesser will be the number of asperities that will be required for supporting of the applied
load. As a result lower amount of the material is lost as the number of asperities in contact is less. It
is often found that wear volume or wear rate is inversely proportional to hardness of the materials
which are in contact given that hardness is proportional to the yield strength of the same materials.
1.9.1 Types of wear
 Adhesive wear
 Abrasive wear
 Erosive wear
 Surface fatigue
 Fretting
Wear can also be classified in to three categories:
 One term is the appearance of the scar, (e.g. pitted, spilled, scratched and polished).
 The second is in terms of physical mechanisms which removes the material or causes the
damage, (e.g. adhesion, abrasion and oxidation).
 The third is the condition surrounding the wear situation (e.g. lubricated wear, unlubricated
wear, metal to metal sliding wear, rolling wear and high temperature metallic wear).
1.10 Processing of MMC’s
We will see in the following section that are an extensive range of well-established processing
methods available for MMC’s. This technique includes simple to complex methods. These varies from
simple labour intensive methods suitable for one-offs to automated methods for rapidly producing
large number of complex components. The method of production and MMC’s selected by a
manufacturer will depend on factors such as cost, shape of component, number of components and
required performance.
18
1.10.1 Stir casting method
The simple and most commercially used technique is known as stir casting technique and
vortex technique. It involves the reinforcement of Aluminum Oxide and silicon carbide into liquid
aluminum melt with and allowing the mixtures to solidify. During process reinforcement particles are
preheated to 600o C to 650o C for half an hour to remove the volatile substances. In the molten metal
of aluminum oxide and silicon carbide are uniformly feed after that the stirrer action are performed to
maintain the particles temperature closer to the melting temperature of 700 o C. The stir operation was
performed for 10 minutes at an average speed of 300 rpm. After effective degassing the molten metal
was poured into permanent molds for casting.
1.10.2 Hot pressing method
Hot pressing is a high pressure, low strain rate powder metallurgy process for forming of a
powder or powder compact at a temperature high enough to induce sintering and creep process. This
achieved by the simultaneous application of heat and pressure. Hot pressuring is mainly used to
fabricate hard and brittle materials. One large use is in the consolidation of diamond metal composite
cutting tools and technical ceramics.
The densification works through particle rearrangement and particle flow at the particle
contacts. The loose powder or the pre compacted part is in most of the cases filled to a graphite mold
that allows induction or resistance heating up to temperature of typically 2400 0 C. pressure of up to
50mpa can be applied. Other great use is in the pressing of different types of polymers. Within hot
pressing technology, these three distinguishes that different types of heating can be found in use:
induction heating, indirect resistance heating and FAST/ direct resistance hot pressing.

1.10.2.1 Inductive Heating

In this process heat is produced within the mold when it is subjected to high frequency
electromagnetic field, generated by induction coil coupled to an electronic generator. The mold made
out by one or two cylinder onto the punches. The mold is positioned within the induction coil. The
advantage of here that the pressure and the induction power are completely independent. Even powder
with a liquid phase is amenable to this process and low pressures are possible too. Among the
disadvantages or the expensive of high frequency generator and need for proper alignment. If the
mold is of center, the heat distribution is uneven. But the main disadvantage is the depends of process
on good inductive coupling and thermal conductivity of the mold. The magnetic can be penetrator the
mold only 0.5 mm to 3mm from there on the heat has thermal conductivity of the mold material.
Uniform heat is much more difficult air gap between the mold and inductive coil is not the same all
19
among the mold profile. Another potential problem is heating rate. Too high the heat up rate will
result in high temperature differences between the surface and core that can destroy the mold.

1.10.2.2 Indirect Resistance Heating

With indirect resisting technology, the mold is paced in hearting chamber. The chamber is
heated by graphite heating elements. These elements are heated by electric current. The heat is
transfer into mold by convection. As the electrical energy heats the heating elements that then heat the
mold in secondary manner, the process is called resistance heating. Advantages are high achievable
temperatures, independent from the conductivity of the mold and independent from heat and pressure.
Main disadvantages is the time that to take heat up the mold. It make relatively long for heat transfer
to take place from the furnace atmosphere to the mold surface and subsequently throughout the cross
section of the mold.

1.11 Objective

Metal matrix composites (MMCs) with the matrix material as base metal possess the
improvements in mechanical and physical properties such as high specific modulus; thermal stability
and strength have been documented extensively. MMCs combine both the metallic (base material)
properties (ductility and toughness) with ceramic (reinforcement material) properties (high strength
and high modulus), leading to improved strength in compression and shear and higher service
temperature capabilities. Applications of MMCs for aerospace, automotive and in structural field have
rapidly increased from last few years. Since the reinforcement is relatively inexpensive, and in the
development new techniques provides a way to reproduce the identical microstructure and properties.
Mainly in aviation applications the reduction in structural weight can be achieved by low density and
high modulus alloy.

20
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

INTRODUCTION
Composite materials have emerged as the materials of choice for increasing the
performance, reducing the weight and he cost of military and general aviation, transport aircraft
and space launch vehicle. Major advancements have been made in the ability to design, fabricate,
and analyse large complex aerospace structures. The development of high performances
composite has been a primary research activity of many different organizations worldwide for
more than 4 decades.

Unmanned Air Vehicles (UAVs) play a predominant role in the modern day warfare
where emphasis is on surveillance, intelligence –gathering and dissemination of information.
Within a few decades, these systems have evolved from performing a single role /mission to
performing multiple missions like surveillances, monitoring, acquiring, tracking and destruction
of target with the use of advanced technologies. UAV’s serve as unique tools, which broaden
battlefield situational awareness and the ability to see, target and destroy the enemy by providing
actionable intelligence to the lowest tactical levels.

A distinct advantage of UAVs is their cost-effectiveness. They can be developed,

produced, and operated at lower costs compared to the cost of manned aircraft. The relative
savings in engine, airframes, fuel consumptions, pilot training, logistics, and maintenance are
enormous. The biggest advantages of UAVs, however, are that there is no risk to human lives
way the armed forced now prosecutes operations.

21
SYNTHESIS OF BORIDE AND NITRIDE CERAMICS IN MOLTEN ALUMINIUM BY
REACTIVE INFILTRATION

The infiltration of solid powder mixtures with molten aluminium has been investigated as
potential route for the synthesis of ceramic/metal composites. Either titanium or tantalum powder
was mixed with boron nitride flakes for the reaction powder mixture. The infiltration occurred
spontaneously at 1473K for both [Ti] [BN] and [Ta] [BN] powder mixtures. Owing to reactions
between the starting materials, both boride and nitride ceramics were produced in molten
aluminium. TiB2 and A1N were produced from the [Ti] [BN] powder mixture, andTaB2 and A1N
were produced from the [Ta] [BN] powder mixture. When the [Ti] [BN] powder mixture was
used, a reaction producing Al3Ti took place immediately after the infiltration of the molten
aluminium, and a subsequent reaction producing TiB2 and A1N proceeded gradually. The time
required to convert BN flakes to TiB2 and A1N particles at 1473K was in the range of 1800–3600
s. On the other hand, when the [Ta] [BN] powder mixture was used, there was an initial
incubation period to allow the tantalum and molten aluminium to react with each other. The
reaction between tantalum, [BN] and aluminium took place after this incubation period.
M. Kobashi and T. Choh (1997)

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES, CORROSION BEHAVIORS AND

MICROSTRUCTURES OF 7075 ALUMINUM ALLOY WITH VARIOUS AGING
TREATMENTS

The influence of two novel aging treatments, T6I6 (130 ℃, 80 min + 65 ℃, 240
h+130 ℃, 18 h) and high-temperature pre-precipitation(HTPP) aging (445 ℃, 30 min+120 ℃, 24
h) on the tensile properties, intergranular corrosion, exfoliation corrosion behaviours and
microstructures of 7075 Al alloy was studied, that was compared with the T6, T73 and RRA
treatments. Fine η′ precipitate with high density was obtained in the alloy with the T6 and RRA
treatments. The η′ precipitate density in the HTPP aged alloy is decreased due to the formation of
coarse particles during the pre-precipitation process at high temperature of 445 ℃. The 7075-
T6I6 alloy possesses higher precipitate density and whole precipitate volume fraction within the
grain than the 7075-T73 alloy, and its whole precipitate volume fraction is even greater than that
of the 7075-T6 alloy. Compared with T6 treatment, the RRA, T73, T6I6 and HTPP aging

22
treatments cause the discontinuous distribution of the η precipitates at the grain boundary, which
decreases the intergranular corrosion and exfoliation corrosion susceptibility of the alloy.
Meanwhile, the T6I6 and RRA treatments can keep the high strength of the 7075 Al alloy, but
the studied HTPP aging and T73 treatments lower its strength. LI Jin-Feng, et al., (2007)

WEAR PROPERTY OF METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE

The purpose of this paper was to study the wear property of Cu-SiC composite
manufactured by powder metallurgy route with varying compositions and sintering
temperatures. 12 different samples (SiC compositions 0, 5, 10 and 15 Vol. %) of the composite
were made by mixing, cold pressing and sintering at three different temperatures (700, 775 and
8500C). The change in densities and hardness values were noted and studied. Then XRD and
SEM analysis of the samples were done to study the phases present and their distributions along
with idea of composition. Hardness and wear studies were carried out to judge the surface
mechanical properties of the composites prepared. Wear mechanism was also studied using the
scanning electron microscope. Avinash Kumar and Satyajeet Singh (2011)

MICRO STRUCTURAL ASPECTS OF ALUMINUM SILICON ARBIDE METAL

MATRIX COMPOSITE.

The role of engineering materials in the development of modern technology need

not be emphasized. As the levels of technology have become more and more sophisticated, the
materials used also have to be correspondingly made more efficient and effective. The
increasing use of Aluminium alloy materials in structural and space applications generated
considerable interest for the development of techniques to predict the response under various
loading conditions. In this paper micro structural behaviour of Aluminium with Silicon Carbide
(grit size 60) has been studied by varying mass fractions of 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%. In all
microstructures consist of coarse grains of aluminium solid solution iron-rich (silicon carbide)
inter metallic particles in the grain boundaries and this can influence the fracture behaviour.
C.Neelima Devi, et al., (2012)

23
SILICON CARBIDE REINFORCED ALUMINIUM METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES
FOR AEROSPACE APPLICATION

The potential of use Al-SiC metal matrix composite (MMC) with particular reference to
the aerospace industry. Initially, the required properties are identified, after which, the work
explores pure aluminium and its importance in the industry along with its limitations. Using
these limitations, MMC’s were recommended as a possible replacement for aluminium and it is
seen that the exact set of properties depend on certain factors. Therefore these factors such as
reactivity at the interface, volume fraction of the reinforcing material, type of the reinforcing
material and distribution of the reinforcing material are reviewed using the existing literature.
Using the information available, the paper advocates the use of Al-SiC metal matrix composite
in the fuselage skins of high performance aircrafts. However, it must be noted that the
commendations are purely based on the data available and the author’s interpretation of it
although every effort has been made to be as logical as possible. Suryanarayanan K., et al.,
(2013)

PRODUCTION AND PROPERTIES OF SILICON CARBIDE PARTICLES

REINFORCED ALUMINUM ALLOY COMPOSITES

Metal matrix composites (MMC’s) are known to have wide application in parts of
transportation devices such as automobiles and aircraft. In this paper, the Al–Si / SiC composites
containing three different volume fractions 7, 14 and 21 weight percentage of SiC have been
fabricated by stir casting technique. The results have shown an increasing in mechanical
properties such as ultimate tensile strength, yield strength and hardness at the expense of impact
energy for composite material with increasing reinforcement materials content. Micro structural
studies have been carried out to understand the nature of structure. Dr. Jameel Habeeb Ghazi
(2013)

24
ALUMINUM METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES - A REVIEW
Aluminium matrix composites (AMC’s) are potential materials for various applications
due to their good physical and mechanical properties. The addition of reinforcements into the
metallic matrix improves the stiffness, specific strength, wear, creep and fatigue properties com-
pared to the conventional engineering materials. This paper presents the overview of the effect of
addition on different reinforcements in aluminium alloy highlighting their merits and demerits.
Major issues like agglomerating phenomenon, fibre matrix bonding and the problems related to
distribution of particles are discussed in this paper. Effect of different reinforcement on AMCs
on the mechanical properties like tensile strength, strain, hardness, wear and fatigue is also dis-
cussed in detail. Major applications of different AMCs are also highlighted in this work.
B. Vijaya Ramnath, et al., (2013)

WEAR AND FRICTION BEHAVIOR OF AL 6061 ALLOY REINFORCED WITH

CARBON NANOTUBES

Friction and wear behaviour of Al 6061 monolithic alloy and 1% CNT’s reinforced Al
6061 composites prepared through ball milling and spark plasma sintering was investigated. It
was found that, under mill wear conditions, the composite displayed lower wear rate and friction
co-efficient compared to the monolithic alloy. However, for severe wear condition, the
composite displayed higher wear rate and friction coefficient compared to the monolithic alloy.
Analysis of worn surfaces revealed that, at lower loads, abrasion was the dominant wear
mechanism for both materials. At higher loads, adhesion was found to be dominant for the
monolithic alloy while excessive surface fracturing and delamination where mainly absorbed for
the composites. Also, it was clarified that the friction and the wear behaviour of Al-CNT is
largely influenced by the applied load and there exists a critical load beyond which CNT’s could
have a negative impact on the wear resistance of aluminium alloy.A.M. Al. Qutub, et al., (2013)

CHARACTERIZATION OF SILICON CARBIDE REINFORCED ALUMINIUM

COMPOSITES

The Characterization of silicon carbide reinforced aluminium matrix composites with

mechanical properties and wear characteristics of as cast silicon carbide (SiC) reinforced
aluminium matrix composites (AMCs). AMCs of varying SiC content (0, 5, 10 and 20 wt. %)

25
were prepared by stir casting process. Microstructures, Vickers hardness, tensile strength and
wear performance of the prepared composites were analysed. The results showed that
introducing SiC reinforcements in aluminium (Al) matrix increased hardness and tensile strength
and 20 wt. % SiC reinforced AMC showed maximum hardness and tensile strength.
Microstructural observation revealed clustering and non-homogeneous distribution of SiC
particles in the Al matrix. Porosities were observed in microstructures and increased with
increasing wt. % of SiC reinforcements in AMCs. Pin-on-disc wear test indicated that
reinforcing Al matrix with SiC particles increased wear resistance. Md. Habibur Rahmana,
et al., (2014)

DEVELOPMENT OF ALUMINIUM BASED SILICON CARBIDE PARTICULATE

METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE FOR SPUR GEAR

MMC’s are made by dispersing a reinforcing material into a metal matrix. They are
prepared by powder metallurgy and casting, although several technical challenges exist with
casting technology. Achieving a homogeneous distribution of reinforcement within the matrix is
one such challenge, and this affects directly on the properties and quality of composite. The
aluminium alloy composite materials consist of high strength, high stiffness, more thermal
stability, more corrosion and wear resistance, and more fatigue life. Aluminium alloy materials
found to be the best alternative with its unique capacity of designing the materials to give
required properties. In this work a composite is developed by adding silicon carbide in
Aluminium metal by mass ratio 2.5%, 5%, 7.5% and 10%. The composite is prepared by stir
casting technique. Mechanical tests such as hardness test, microstructure test are conducted. It is
proposed to use this material for power transmitting elements such as gears which are subjected
to continuous loading. Finally modelling and finite element analysis of gear is done using
CATIA and ANSYS 14.0.In case of increased silicon carbide content, the hardness, and material
toughness are enhanced. From the results it is concluded that composite material such as
aluminium silicon carbide is one of the option as a material for power transmission gears.
P.B.Pawar, et al., (2014)

26
ALUMINUM BASED METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES FOR AEROSPACE
APPLICATION - A LITERATURE REVIEW
Aerospace is a material intensive industry. Inadequacy of a single or a group of
materials to fulfil all the stringent requirements of aerospace industry along with the dual
demand of economy and performance have led the researchers to look for new material.
Composite is the answer. Although aircraft utilizes numerous elements in their construction, the
most important of these is aluminium because of its low density, good cast ability, high strength,
corrosion resistant and good fatigue strength. However its usage is constrained due to its limited
strength and hardness. To overcome this, aluminium is combined with various other elements.
An example of this includes a family of materials known as aluminium metal matrix composites
(Al-MMCs). Of all criteria of material selection for aerospace application, the most important is
strength to weight ratio i.e. high specific modulus (E/ρ). Because of its high specific modulus,
good mechanical and thermal properties aluminium based metal matrix composites are natural
choice for aerospace applications. Amitesh, and Prof V. C. Kale (2015)

WEAR BEHAVIOR OF ALUMINUM METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE PREPARED

FROM INDUSTRIAL WASTE

With an increase in the population and industrialization, a lot of valuable natural

resources are depleted to prepare and manufacture products. However industrialization on the
other hand has waste disposal issues, causing dust and environmental pollution. In this work,
Aluminium Metal Matrix Composite is prepared by reinforcing 10 wt% and 20 wt% of wet
grinder stone dust particles an industrial waste obtained during processing of quarry rocks which
are available in nature. In the composite materials design wear is a very important criterion
requiring consideration which ensures the materials reliability in applications where they come in
contact with the environment and other surfaces. Dry sliding wear test was carried out using pin-
on-disc apparatus on the prepared composites. The results reveal that increasing the
reinforcement content from 10 wt% to 20 wt% increases the resistance to wear rate. L. Francis
Xavier, and Paramasivam Suresh (2015)

27
SILICON CARBIDE BASED ALUMINIUM METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES UNDER
DRY AND LUBRICATED ENVIRONMENT

Friction and wear behaviour of Silicon Carbide based Aluminium Metal Matrix
Composites and aluminium matrix alloy have been studied for sliding speeds of 3.14 m/s and
3.77 m/s and load range from 10 N – 30 N under Dry and lubricated environment, respectively.
The experiments were performed on pin on disk tribometer. The composites was fabricated by
stir casting process and has several challenges like inferior bonds and interfacial reaction
products which will deteriorate the mechanical and tribological properties, Therefore, addition of
reactive metal like magnesium should be done which will lead to reduce solidification shrinkage,
lower tendency towards hot tearing, and faster process cycle. Results have revealed that the
developed composites have lower coefficient of friction and wear rates when compared with
aluminium matrix alloys under Dry and lubricated environment. Experimental results show that
under dry condition coefficient of friction of both matrix alloy and the composite decreased with
increasing in load, whereas it increases with increase in sliding speeds; on the other hand wear
rates of both aluminium matrix alloy and the composite increase with increase in load as well as
sliding speeds. FESEM of worn surfaces are also used to understand the wear mechanisms.
Kalyan Kumar Singh, et al., (2015)

ALUMINIUM COMPOSITES MATERIALS USING STIR CASTING PROCESS

The effect of aluminum base metal with the different percentage of reinforcement of SiC
(3, 6, and 9) and Cu (0.5, 0.75, and 1) with Mg (2 gram) in each. The basic reason of metal
reinforced is to improve the properties then its original materials like hardness, cutting force, etc.
The paper content of experimental work as stir casting process and preparation of aluminum
matrix composites material by using aluminum as matrix form and Sic and Cu as reinforcement
by varying proportion. Here hardness decreases on increase percentage of reinforcement. X-Ray
Diffraction test shows degree of angle is between 35to45. Scanning Electron Microscope test
shows electron variation at different magnification it also shows the distribution of Sic and cu
particles in aluminum alloy. Sonu Kumar, and Dhruv Kumar (2015)

28
 CHAPTER 3

MATERIAL SELECTION AND FABRICATION

3.1 Material Selection

The Metal Matrix Composites have many advantages as compared to monolithic metals
as discussed above so their applications are increasing day by day in various fields. Various
processes are used to manufacture MMCs which are described here. These processes are
classified on the basis of temperature of the metallic matrix during processing. The material
which suits MMC’s for the fabrication are Aluminum Oxide, BAM, and Silicon Carbide.

3.1.1 Aluminium Oxide

Alumina is one of the most cost effective and widely used material in the family of
engineering ceramics. The raw materials from which this high performance technical grade
ceramic is made are readily available and reasonably priced, resulting in good value for the cost
in fabricated alumina shapes. With an excellent combination of properties and an attractive price,
it is no surprise that fine grain technical grade alumina has a very wide range of applications.

Aluminum oxide, commonly referred to as alumina, possesses strong ionic interatomic

bonding giving rise to its desirable material characteristics. It can exist in several crystalline
phases which all revert to the most stable hexagonal alpha phase at elevated temperatures. Alpha
phase alumina is the strongest and stiffest of the oxide ceramics. Its high hardness, excellent
dielectric properties, refractoriness and good thermal properties make it the material of choice for
a wide range of applications.

High purity alumina is usable in both oxidizing and reducing atmospheres to 1925°C.
Weight loss in vacuum ranges from 10–7 to 10–6 g/cm2.sec over a temperature range of 1700° to

29
 2000°C. It resists attack by all gases except wet fluorine and is resistant to all common reagents
except hydrofluoric acid and phosphoric acid. Elevated temperature attack occurs in the presence
of alkali metal vapors particularly at lower purity levels.

The composition of the ceramic body can be changed to enhance particular desirable
material characteristics. An example would be additions of chrome oxide or manganese oxide to
improve hardness and change color. Other additions can be made to improve the ease and
consistency of metal films fired to the ceramic for subsequent brazed and soldered assembly.

3.1.2 Borides of Aluminium and Magnesium

Aluminum and magnesium borides or BAM of aluminum, magnesium and boron is a

chemical compound of aluminum, magnesium and boron. It is a ceramic alloy that is highly
resistive to wear and has a low coefficient of sliding friction, reaching a record value of 0.02 in
lubricated AlMgB14−TiB12composites.

BAM has an orthorhombic with four isohedral B12 units per unit cell. This ultra-hard
material has a coefficient of thermal expansion comparable to that of other widely used materials
such as steel and concrete. BAM films can be coated on silicon or metals by pulsed laser
deposition, using AlMgB14 powder as a target, whereas bulk samples are obtained by sintering the
powder. BAM usually contains small amounts of impurity elements (e.g., oxygen and iron) that
enter the material during preparation. BAM is thought that the presence of iron (most often
introduced as wear debris from mill vials and media) serves as a sintering aid. BAM can be
alloyed with silicon, phosphorus, carbon, aluminum (AlN), titanium carbide (TiC) or boron
nitride (BN).

Figure 1.2: Borides of Aluminium and Magnesium

30
3.1.3 Silicon carbide

Silicon carbide also known as carborundum of silicon and carbon with chemical
formula SiC. It occurs in nature as the extremely rare mineral moissanite. Silicon carbide powder
has been mass produced since carbide can be bonded together by sintering to form very hard

Figure 1.3: Silicon Carbide

ceramics that are widely used in application requiring high endurance, such as car brakes, car
clutches and ceramic plates in bulletproof vests. Electronic application of silicon carbide such as
light emitting diodes and detectors in early radios were first demonstrated around 1907. SiC is
used in semiconductor electronic devices that operate at high temperatures or high voltages, or
both. Large single crystal of silicon carbide can be grown by the Lely method; they can be cut
into gems known as synthetic moissanite. Silicon carbide with high surface area can be produced
from SiO2 contained in plant material.

Silicon carbide exists in about 250 crystalline forms. The polymorphism of SiC is
characterized by a large family of similar crystalline structures called poly types. They are
variations of the same chemical compound that are identical in two dimensions and differ in the
third. Thus, they can be viewed as layers stacked in a certain sequence. The high sublimation
temperature of SiC makes it useful for bearings and furnace parts. Silicon carbide does not melt
at any known pressure. It is also highly inert chemically. There is currently much interest in its
use as a semiconductor materials in electronics, where it is thermal conductivity, high electric
filed breakdown strength and high maximum current density make it more promising than silicon
for high powered devices. SiC also has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion and
experience no phase transitions that would cause discontinues in thermal expansion.

31
3.2 Fabrication Process

There are several fabrication methods are available for ceramic composite fabrication, but
the present research deals only with thermal analysis and thermal capability of material, so the
procedure involved are as follows and the method used here was made by the facility availability
in use.

3.2.1 Stir Casting Method

The simple and most commercially used technique is known as stir casting
technique and vortex technique. It involves the reinforcement of Aluminum Oxide and silicon
carbide into liquid aluminum melt with and allowing the mixtures to solidify. During process
reinforcement particles are preheated to 600o C to 650o C for half an hour to remove the volatile
substances. In the molten metal of aluminum oxide and silicon carbide are uniformly feed after
that the stirrer action are performed to maintain the particles temperature closer to the melting
temperature of 700 o C. The stir operation was performed for 10 minutes at an average speed of
300 rpm. After effective degassing the molten metal was poured into permanent molds for
casting.

Figure 1.4: Stir Casting Machine

32
3.2.2 Hot pressing method

Figure 1.5: Hot Pressing Machine

A hot press is a machine engineered to imprint a design or graphic on a substrate, such as

a t-shirt, with the application of heat and pressure for a preset period of time. While heat presses
are often used to apply designs to fabrics, specially designed presses can also be used to imprint
designs on mugs, plates, jigsaw puzzles, caps, and other products.

Both manual and automatic heat presses are widely available. A new style of press that is
semi-automatic has entered the market as well, allowing for a manual closing process with an
automatic, electromagnetic opening. Digital technology in newer machines enables precise
control of heat and pressure levels and timing. The most common types of heat press employ a
flat platen to apply heat and pressure to the substrate. In the "clamshell" design, the upper heat
element in the press opens like a clamshell, while in the "swing-away" design, the heat platen
swings away from the lower platen. Another design type a "draw style press" allows for the
bottom platen to be pulled out like a drawer away from the heat for preparation of the graphic.
Vacuum presses utilize air pressure to provide the necessary force and can achieve high psi
ratings.

Most heat presses currently on the market use an aluminum upper-heating element with a
heat rod cast into the aluminum or a heating wire attached to the element. For high-volume
operations involving the continuous imprinting of items, automatic shuttle and dual platen

33
transfer presses are used. The substrates to be imprinted are continuously loaded onto the lower
platen and shuttled under the heat platen, which then applies the necessary heat and pressure.

A heat press is used to permanently apply a heat transfer to a surface. Common transfer
types are Heat Transfer Vinyl cut with a Vinyl Cutter, Printable Heat Transfer Vinyl, Inkjet
Transfer Paper, Laser Transfer Paper, Plastisol Transfers, and Sublimation. Using a Heat Press to
apply a heat transfer is a way to ensure accurate time, temperature, and pressure, which are all
essential to the transfer process.

34
 CHAPTER 4

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

From literature, it seems that composite can been manufactured by either solid or liquid
phase methods. But for effective results, factors such as interface reaction, volume fraction of
reinforcing material, type of reinforcing material and its distribution in the matrix must be taken
into consideration during design, material selection and fabrication process. Also, MMC’s have
varied applications in the ground transportation (auto and rail), thermal management, aerospace,
industrial, recreational and infrastructure industries are been enabled by functional properties.

Selection of exact material in aviation industry is role specific however certain properties
such as high specific modulus, good fatigue performance, and high wear and corrosion resistant
are seen as universal requirements. Al/SiC MMC’s, BAM looks promising. The main reasons for
its considerations are due to its strength to weight ratio, ductility, high tensile strength, thermal
stability, and corrosion and wear resistant.

So on fabrication of this type of potential materials each other include transverse

modulus, shear modulus, inter-laminar shear strength, and thermal expansion coefficient. For the
above mentioned criteria we use stir casting technique for the combination of SiC and Aluminum
Oxide then the product in turn are combined with BAM by Hot Pressing. After fabrication,
experiments are there to be conducted by varying weight fractions of BAM while keeping all
other parameters constant.

35
 REFERENCE
 L. Francis Xavier Paramasivam Suresh (2015) Wear Behavior of Aluminum Metal
Matrix Composite prepared from industrial waste,The Scientific World Journal,vol-2016,pp
262-270.
 B. Vijaya Ramnath, C. Elanchezhian, R.M. Annamalai, S.Aravind, (2013) Aluminum
Metal Matrix Composites, Advances Material Sciences, vol -38,pp 55-60.
 Li Jin-Feng, Peng Zhuo-Wei, Li Chao-Xing, Jia Zhi-Qiang, Chen Wen-Jing, Zheng Zi-
Qiao1, (2007) Mechanical Properties, Corrosion Behaviors and Microstructures of 7075
Aluminum alloy with various aging treatments,Advance Materials,Transaction of Non-
ferrous metal society of china,vol-18,pp-755-762.
 M. D. Habibur Rahman, H. M. Mamun Al Rashedb (2014) Characterization of Silicon
Carbide Reinforced Aluminium Composites, Procedia Engineering, vol-90, pp-103-109.
 P.B.Pawar, Abhay A (2014) Development of Aluminium based Silicon Carbide Particulate
Metal matrix composite for spur gear,Procedia MaterialsScience,vol-6,pp-1150-1156.
 M. Kobashi, T. Choh (1997) Synthesis of Boride and Nitride Ceramics in Molten
Aluminum by reactive infiltration, Journal of Material Science, vol-32, pp-6283-6289.
 Suryanarayanan K, R. Praveen, S. Raghuraman (2013) Silicon Carbide Reinforced
Aluminium Metal Matrix composites for Aerospace Application, Inernational journal of
Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology, vol-2, pp-6336-6344.
 Amitesh, Prof.V.C, Kale (2015) Aluminum based Metal Matrix Composites for Aerospace
application,IOSR journals of Mechanical and Civil Engineering,vol-12,pp-31-36.
 C.Neelima Devi, N.Selvaraj, V.Mahesh (2012) Micro Structural aspects of Aluminum
Silicon Arbide Metal Matrix Composite, International Journal of Applied Sciences and
Engineering Research, vol-1, pp-250-254.
 Dr. Jameel Habeeb Ghazi (2013) Production and Properties of Silicon Carbide Particles
Reinforced Aluminum Alloy Composites, International Journal of Metallurgy,vol-1,pp-191-
195.

36
37