Electronic Commerce Research and Applications: Jen-Ruei Fu, Pei-Hung Ju, Chiung-Wen Hsu

ELERAP 629 No.
of Pages 15, Model 5G

7 October 2015
Electronic Commerce Research and Applications xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Electronic Commerce Research and Applications

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecra
6
7
3 Understanding why consumers engage in electronic word-of-mouth

4 communication: Perspectives from theory of planned behavior and
5 justice theory
8 Jen-Ruei Fu a,⇑, Pei-Hung Ju b,1, Chiung-Wen Hsu a,2
9 a
Department of Information Management, National Kaohsiung University of Applied Sciences, 415 Chien Kung Road, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan, ROC
10 b
Department of Business Administration, National Kaohsiung University of Applied Sciences, 415 Chien Kung Road, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan, ROC
11
12
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
1
2 4
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15 Article history: Word-of-mouth has been recognized as a dominant factor in shaping consumer behavior. However, what 28
16 Received 3 March 2015 drives consumers to post their positive and negative purchasing experiences in the online environment 29
17 Received in revised form 17 September 2015 remains an important but largely neglected issue. Building on the theory of planned behavior, the justice 30
18 Accepted 17 September 2015
theory and the social psychology literature, this study aims to investigate the antecedents of consumers’ 31
19 Available online xxxx
intention to engage in eWOM communication. Specifically, we separate negative and positive eWOM into 32
two distinct concepts since the motivations underlying consumers’ decisions to post positive and nega- 33
20 Keywords:
tive eWOM are likely to be different. Through an experience survey, respondents were required to reflect 34
21 Electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM)
22 communication
on recent positive or negative shopping experiences. The findings reveal that intentions to engage in pos- 35
23 Theory of planned behavior itive and negative eWOM communication are associated with different antecedents. Consumers who 36
24 Justice theory intend to post positive eWOM appear to be more driven by underlying attitudinal factors, whereas those 37
25 Satisfaction who consider posting negative eWOM are more driven by social pressure. In addition, consumers’ feel- 38
26 ings of satisfaction are largely driven by their perception of distributive justice for negative shopping 39
experiences. In contrast, satisfaction is significantly influenced by the perceptions of interactional and 40
procedural justice for positive shopping experiences. Our results provide insights and implications for 41
scholars and managers. 42
Ó 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 43
44
45
46
47 1. Introduction significantly improve consumers’ perceptions of the trustworthi- 60
ness of the seller (Lee and Lee 2006). 61
48 Word-of-mouth (WOM) has long been recognized as an impor- In light of these developments, the business press has identified 62
49 tant factor in shaping consumer purchase behavior (East et al. electronic word-of-mouth (thereafter, eWOM) as a growing oppor- 63
50 2007). It is described as ‘‘a dominant force in the marketplace” tunity and a threat that deserves managers’ consideration (Ariely 64
51 and the ‘‘ultimate test of the customer’s relationship” (Bendapudi 2007). Yet, despite these warnings, to our surprise relatively few 65
52 and Berry 1997). This practice now extends into the online world. studies help practitioners understand the factors that influence 66
53 The increasing access to the Internet has transformed people from consumers’ intention to engage in eWOM communication. 67
54 passive consumers to active participants. While only a limited Although existing studies have advanced our knowledge of eWOM, 68
55 number of consumers may be exposed to WOM in the offline set- most of them have focused their attention on how consumers’ 69
56 ting, consumers at present have more convenient access to web- eWOM evaluations affect their purchase decisions (e.g., Utz et al. 70
57 sites where they are free to share positive or horrible 2012). Limited attention has been paid to the investigation of ante- 71
58 experiences with total strangers (Cheung and Lee 2012). These cedents of the two distinct types (positive and negative) of eWOM. 72
59 posted comments and evaluations will substantially damage or Past research has considered intention to engage in WOM com- 73
munication as an important dependent variable (e.g. de Matos 74
et al. 2009). Hennig-Thurau et al. (2004) report that due to the con- 75
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +886 7 3814526x7512. ceptual closeness of traditional offline and online WOM communi- 76
E-mail addresses: fred@cc.kuas.edu.tw (J.-R. Fu), peihung.chu@cc.kuas.edu.tw cation, factors which in the literature have been identified as 77
(P.-H. Ju), sandrahsu33@kuas.edu.tw (C.-W. Hsu). relevant in the traditional offline environment can also be antici- 78
1
Tel.: +886 7 3814526x7317. pated to be of relevance in the online setting. However, Brown 79
2
Tel.: +886 7 3814526x7510.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.elerap.2015.09.003
1567-4223/Ó 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article in press as: Fu, J.-R., et al. Understanding why consumers engage in electronic word-of-mouth communication: Perspectives from
theory of planned behavior and justice theory. Electron. Comm. Res. Appl. (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.elerap.2015.09.003
ELERAP 629 No. of Pages 15, Model 5G
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2 J.-R. Fu et al. / Electronic Commerce Research and Applications xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
80 et al. (2007) disagreed and insisted that existing offline research suggests that most research on eWOM intention remains explora- 146
81 may not be appropriate to describe eWOM and its influence on tory in nature. Thus, we contribute conceptually to enriching the 147
82 consumer behavior. We concur with Brown et al. (2007) since current eWOM literature with a more comprehensive model of 148
83 there are several incidents and issues unique to the online environ- the simultaneous effects of several key antecedents. Finally, East 149
84 ment. First, in the offline setting, exit can be seen as an economic et al. (2007) suggest that the motivations behind a consumer’s 150
85 action, whereas voice is more of a political statement (Fornell and decision to engage in positive vs. negative WOM communication 151
86 Wernerfelt 1987). However, in the online environment, voice turns are likely to differ. Therefore, we specifically separate negative 152
87 into not only a political movement, but also a significant economic and positive eWOM communication into two different concepts. 153
88 action, which can influence the decisions of other consumers (Lee Thus, the theoretical understanding of the eWOM intention is 154
89 and Lee 2006). Past research unanimously suggests that service extended by demonstrating how positive and negative eWOM 155
90 providers should encourage their customers to voice their com- are triggered by different antecedents. 156
91 plaints rather than exit silently (e.g., East 2000) because sellers
92 can benefit from direct complaints by receiving valuable feedback.
93 However, when it comes to online environments, negative eWOM 2. Literature review of eWOM communication 157
94 is likely to dissuade potential buyers from considering a particular
95 product or brand, thus damaging the company’s reputation and The topic of eWOM communication is attracting increasing 158
96 financial position (Pfeffer et al. 2014). Compared with offline attention in many research disciplines, such as marketing, con- 159
97 word-of-mouth, negative eWOM is mass-public oriented and is sumer behavior, computer-mediated communication, and eco- 160
98 likely to entail an explicit intent to ‘‘get the firm in trouble”. nomics. Several different definitions have been proposed for 161
99 Although this threat has been considered, what drives consumers behaviors related to eWOM communication. Sun et al. (2006) 162
100 to post eWOM online has seldom been investigated. defined eWOM communication as ‘‘online opinion leadership” 163
101 Second, eWOM communication is an observable, social activity which stressed the process by which people (opinion leaders) 164
102 (Mattila and Patterson 2004). Thus, the social and cultural effects influence the attitudes or behaviors of friends. It implies that 165
103 may keep consumers silent even if they are willing to put extra eWOM communication is an act by which individuals exert power- 166
104 effort into reporting their satisfactory/poor performing counter ful influences upon others. Hsiao (2011) defined ‘‘public online 167
105 parties (Hsiao 2011). Spreading eWOM is thwarted by the fact that consumer complaining behaviors” as seeking redress from the 168
106 the content is bound to, or is likely to be traced back to the name of company or resorting to the third party via the Internet. Negative 169
107 the person distributing it (Riivits-Arkonsuo and Leppiman 2013). eWOM communication was viewed as an action to recover losses 170
108 Thus, consumers’ concerns about their own reputations are impor- caused by unsatisfactory products or services. These definitions, 171
109 tant (Dellarocas and Wood 2008). however, imply certain motivations underlying a consumer’s 172
110 Third, substantial evidence in the literature suggests that social eWOM communication behaviors. A more holistic conceptualiza- 173
111 behavior is often motivated by the ‘‘need to help others” or by a tion, which was also adopted by the current study, was provided 174
112 desire to improve social welfare (Chelminski and Coulter 2011). by Hennig-Thurau et al. (2004), who defined ‘‘eWOM communica- 175
113 Consumers in communal relationship norms (especially on the tion” as any positive or negative statement made by potential, actual, 176
114 Internet) are likely to do something for other people without or former customers about a product or company, which is made 177
115 expecting anything in return. Thus, consumers may engage in available to a multitude of people and institutions via the Internet. 178
116 eWOM communication in anticipation of other people becoming To provide an overview of the eWOM communication research 179
117 aware of a company’s service failures to prevent them from expe- field, a systematic literature review was conducted. Key words 180
118 riencing similar situations. Most past research in offline settings such as ‘‘online word-of-mouth”, ‘‘ewom”, ‘‘owom” were searched 181
119 has neglected consumers’ social characteristic and assumes they in a number of academic databases (ABI/INFORM, ScienceDirect, 182
120 are rational; thus, there are limitations to our understanding of Emerald, EBSCOhost and Proquest). A few hundred journal articles 183
121 why consumers engage in eWOM communication with the intent were found. In the literature, we found that how eWOM influences 184
122 of low benefits but high costs, which is usually found in online consumers’ decisions is far more extensively studied than why 185
123 settings. consumers engage in eWOM communication. Studies unrelated 186
124 The objective of this study is to provide a better understanding to intention to engage in eWOM communication were excluded 187
125 of the motivations behind a consumer’s decision to engage in from the list. This resulted in a total of 11 relevant papers. 188
126 eWOM communication. Given its assigned importance, there is Drawing upon Table 1, two observations can be made. First, 189
127 clearly a gap in understanding the antecedents of consumers’ most past research has focused on the determinants of negative 190
128 intention to engage in eWOM communication, since several eWOM. These studies demonstrated that individuals are likely to 191
129 researchers have found that consumers increasingly place more disclose negative eWOM when they want to influence others and 192
130 weight on eWOM when making evaluations (e.g. Lee et al. 2008). gain revenge by exerting their power (Grégoire et al. 2010; Ward 193
131 In particular, since the motivations for individuals to engage in and Ostrom 2006), when they are motivated by altruism (e.g., 194
132 positive vs. negative eWOM communication are likely to be differ- warning other consumers) (Sparks and Browning 2010), when con- 195
133 ent, we separate negative and positive eWOM into two different sumers are part of an individualistic culture (Koh et al. 2010), and 196
134 concepts. This approach allows us to understand the relative when they are driven by negative emotions (Verhagen et al. 2013). 197
135 importance of different possible determinants. It will also be effec- It represents the efforts made by customers to cause inconvenience 198
136 tive for practitioners to identify which factors should be stressed in to or even punish the accused firm for the damages it caused them. 199
137 certain situations, and then to develop effective programs. The intention to engage in eWOM communication is motivated by 200
138 There are three reasons why we believe this study is important. a desire to ‘‘bring down” a firm in some fashion, or by an intention 201
139 First, it addresses an important topic yet largely ignored in the lit- to take possible means to ‘‘get even”. 202
140 erature. While eWOM today is an influential source of consumer Second, another stream of research focuses on motivations to 203
141 judgments and decisions, much of the research examines the recei- contribute to or participate in online communities. Desire for social 204
142 ver’s perspective rather than the senders’ views. What remains interaction (Hennig-Thurau et al. 2004), concern for other con- 205
143 unknown is why consumers are inclined to spend their own time sumers (Cheung and Lee 2012), the potential to enhance their 206
144 posting eWOM (Yap et al. 2013). The present study is an attempt own self-worth (Hennig-Thurau et al. 2004; Yoo and Gretzel 207
145 to address this research gap. Second, a review of the past literature 2008), and a sense of belonging (Cheung and Lee 2012) are distinct 208
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J.-R. Fu et al. / Electronic Commerce Research and Applications xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 3
Table 1
Overview of relevant research about eWOM communication.
Author(s) Theoretical eWOM Method Data collection Key finding(s)

base(s) investigated
Hennig-Thurau et al. – WOM in virtual Experience Convenience sample Desire for social interaction, desire for economic
(2004) community survey (online questionnaire) incentives, concern for other consumers, and the
potential to enhance their own self-worth are the
primary factors leading to eWOM behavior
Sun et al. (2006) Diffusion Opinion Experience University Student eWOM is conceptualized as ‘‘online opinion leadership”.
theory of leadership survey Innovativeness, Internet usage, and Internet social
innovations connection are significant factors for eWOM behavior
Ward and Ostrom (2006) Protest‐framing Negative WOM Content Identify tactics (injustice, identity, and agency framing)
theory Analysis consumers used to mobilize mass audiences against a
firm. Consumers ‘‘frame” their corporate betrayal to the
public to demonstrate their power to influence others
and gain revenge
Yoo and Gretzel (2008) – WOM in virtual Experience TripAdvisor users Online travel review writers are mostly motivated by
community Survey helping a travel service provider, concerns for other
consumers, and needs for enjoyment/positive self-
enhancement
Grégoire et al. (2010) Customer Negative WOM Experience ConsumerAffaires.com Perceived greed predict customer desire to revenge. And
revenge model Survey users desire to revenge predicts direct and indirect revenge
behaviors
Sparks and Browning Negative WOM Qualitative Complainers tell highly persuasive and credible stories
(2010) often motivated by altruism and revenge
Koh et al. (2010) Hofstede’s Negative Online data Online Dataset & Consumers in individualistic countries are more prone to
theory, movie review analysis and Student sample engage in negative eWOM than consumers in
Survey collectivistic countries
Moldovan et al. (2011) Amount and Experiment University Student Product originality increases buzz (eWOM). And
Valence of originality enhances the effect of usefulness such that
WOM consumers spread relatively more, and more positively
valenced WOM about original and useful products
Cheung and Lee (2012) Public good WOM in virtual Experience Convenience sample To serve the public good, individuals engage in eWOM
community Survey communication in order to benefit oneself (egoism), a
group (collectivism), one or more others (altruism), or to
uphold a principle (principlism)
Yap et al. (2013) Characteristics Experience online consumer panel Cognitive and affective characteristics of messages were
of WOM Survey linked to different motivations to engage in electronic
word-of-mouth, which further differed across positive
and negative messages
Verhagen et al. (2013) Negative WOM Experience User in the consumer Negative eWOM is directly driven by positive and
Survey discussion forum negative emotions and is strongly predictive for the
sender’s intended conduct
209 reasons for posting eWOM online. These studies are largely of negative WOM. Therefore, a more comprehensive model would 233
210 exploratory in nature and tend to view eWOM communication as help to account for the variance beyond satisfaction. The theory of 234
211 a monolithic behavior. However, both positive and negative planned behavior is adopted to predict eWOM intention. Figs. 1 235
212 WOM communications have different implications for theory and and 2 present our proposed model. 236
213 practice (Sundaram et al. 1998). East et al. (2007) investigated
214 the relative incidence of positive and negative word-of-mouth to 3.1. Consumer satisfaction and justice perception 237
215 identify patterns across categories. Their results shed some light
216 on the issue that the motivation for individuals to engage in posi- Consumer satisfaction, defined as ‘‘the favorability of the indi- 238
217 tive word-of-mouth communication is likely to be different from vidual’s subjective evaluations of outcomes and experiences asso- 239
218 that of negative actions. ciated with his or her consumption activities” (Brown et al. 2005), 240
219 In sum, despite the considerable volume of studies on eWOM, it is a post-purchase response. Satisfaction with products or services 241
220 is important to acknowledge that intention to engage in eWOM is usually related to outcomes such as loyalty and positive WOM 242
221 communication still remains a very under-researched area. In par- (e.g., de Matos et al. 2009; Wangenheim and Bayón 2007). In the 243
222 ticular, what drives individuals to engage in different types (posi- shopping context, consumers perceive an emotional imbalance 244
223 tive vs. negative) of eWOM remains less explored. when their expectations are either surpassed (satisfaction) or not 245
met (dissatisfaction). They will strive to restore homeostasis by 246
224 3. Conceptual framework and hypotheses engaging in some post-purchase behaviors (e.g., word-of-mouth) 247
(Hennig-Thurau et al. 2004). 248
225 In order to develop our research framework, we begin by A consumer with a satisfactory service experience is more likely 249
226 examining the relationships between satisfaction and eWOM that to respond to the seller in a positive way. Past researchers provide 250
227 typically appear in the literature. We then discuss the role of empirical evidence of the significant impact of satisfaction on 251
228 justice perceptions which has been established as an important WOM in the offline settings (e.g., Wangenheim and Bayón 2007). 252
229 antecedent for satisfaction and its indirect effect on WOM inten- We propose that this reasoning can be extended to the online set- 253
230 tion. East (2000) found that although satisfaction may be a neces- ting, where the greater the satisfaction among customers, the 254
231 sary condition for WOM to occur, limited association has been greater the possibility that they will intend to engage in positive 255
232 found between the degree of dissatisfaction and the probability eWOM communication. Therefore, 256
7 October 2015
Beliefs Theory of Planned Behavior

Helping other H9 Attitude
Consumers
H5
H10 H7
Helping the H6 Positive

Subjective eWOM
Company Norm
H11 Intention
H8
Self Perceived
Enhancement Behavioral
Control H1a
Justice Theory
Distributive
Justice
H2
Past
Procedural H3 Experience
Satisfaction
Justice
H4
Interactional Product
Justice Involvement
.
Fig. 1. Research model (positive eWOM).

Warning H12 Attitude
other
Consumers H5
H13 H7
Vengeance H6 Negative
Subjective eWOM
Norm Intention
H14
H8
Anxiety
Perceived
Reduction
Behavioral
Control H1b
Justice Theory
Distributive
Justice
H2 Past
Experience
H3 Satisfaction
Procedural
Justice
H4 Advice
Interactional Seeking
Justice
Fig. 2. Research model (negative eWOM).
257 H1a. Consumer satisfaction has a positive effect on positive that the less satisfied consumers are with the service, the more 268
258 eWOM intention. likely their intention to engage in negative eWOM communication. 269
Hence, it is hypothesized: 270
259 Prior research has confirmed that satisfaction is negatively
260 associated with complaining behavior (Zeelenberg and Pieters
H1b. Consumer satisfaction has a negative effect on negative 271
261 2004), which implies that consumers will be more likely to mani-
eWOM intention. 272
262 fest a negative eWOM communication if they are less satisfied with
263 the service. Thogersen et al. (2009) argued that consumers’ dissat- Researchers have investigated the formation of satisfaction per- 273
264 isfaction with the products or services is the basic antecedent of ceptions. While several theories exist regarding the process 274
265 consumers’ complaining intention. Similarly, Voorhees and Brady through which consumers reach satisfaction/dissatisfaction judg- 275
266 (2005) found that dissatisfaction would make future complaint ments, the perspective of justice theory seems particularly of rele- 276
267 intentions occur. Extending previous research, therefore, we argue vance in a service context (Maxham III 2001). Moreover, ample 277
7 October 2015
278 empirical evidence reveals that consumers’ justice perceptions are not specific to a certain episode of satisfaction. It is determined 337
279 critical to their satisfaction with a firm’s efforts (e.g., Tax et al. through an assessment of one’s beliefs with respect to the out- 338
280 1998). comes of a behavior and an evaluation of the desirability of these 339
281 The literature in social psychology indicates that consumers in a outcomes. Before posting their opinion or comments online, con- 340
282 service encounter base their justice perceptions on three dimen- sumers are likely to be concerned about whether or not such 341
283 sions: the perceived justice of the tangible outcome (distributive behavior is appropriate. Consumers may feel that they should dis- 342
284 justice), the perceived justice of the procedures leading to the out- close their opinion online because airing one’s discontent/content 343
285 come (procedural justice), and the perceived justice of the manners with products or services is one’s moral obligation to benefit the 344
286 (e.g., courtesy or rudely) in which consumers were treated public. Phau and Sari (2004) suggest that people are likely to com- 345
287 throughout the process (interactional justice). These dimensions plain if they believe it is appropriate. That is, consumers who have 346
288 have been hypothesized and demonstrated to act as significant a more favorable attitude towards eWOM communication are 347
289 cognitive antecedents to satisfaction (e.g., de Matos et al. 2009; more likely to express their opinion and comments on the Internet. 348
290 Tax et al. 1998; Wu 2013). Consumers will make judgments about Conversely, a consumer who has a negative attitude towards 349
291 the degree to which the products/services were just, and in turn eWOM communication would tend to do nothing, or may engage 350
292 form their satisfaction perceptions. That is, consumers will per- in a private action. Accordingly, we posit: 351
293 ceive more satisfaction if firms provide their service in a just man-
294 ner. Hence, it is hypothesized that: H5. eWOM Attitude has a positive effect on eWOM intention. 352
Subjective norm is a social pressure which represents an individ- 353

295 H2. Distributive justice has a positive effect on consumer
ual’s perception of whether significant referents think the behavior 354
296 satisfaction.
should be performed. Chu and Kim (2011) identified normative 355
interpersonal influence as an important driver of eWOM behavior. 356
297 H3. Procedural justice has a positive effect on consumer Riivits-Arkonsuo and Leppiman (2013) found that consumers do 357
298 satisfaction. not want to share their negative consumption experiences on Face- 358
book since negative comments are bound to or are likely to be 359
traced back to the name of the person who posted them; thus they 360
299 H4. Interactional justice has a positive effect on consumer
prefer to avoid negative posts since these are public – instead they 361
300 satisfaction.
would rather share their comments via offline WOM. Consumers 362
may hesitate if they perceive others’ negative reactions to such 363
behavior. Stated differently, the possibility of losing face is conceiv- 364
301 3.2. Theory of planned behavior (TPB)
ably emotionally undesirable. Richins (1982) noted that some feel 365
they do not like to be seen or to see themselves as nuisances/trou- 366
302 Singh and Wilkes (1996) suggested that complaining behavior
blemakers or recommenders/opinion leaders. This would inhibit 367
303 is goal directed. Extending this reasoning, we propose that
them from posting their opinions or comments about their satisfac- 368
304 individuals would consider the consequences and implications of
tory/unsatisfactory experiences. Therefore, 369
305 the eWOM communication to decide whether or not to do it. Thus,
306 eWOM communication is the product of an individual’s
H6. Subjective norms have a positive effect on eWOM intention. 370
307 consequent actions and therefore can be treated as a planned
308 behavior in order to maximize its utility by fulfilling the obligation Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) have admitted that attitudinal and 371
309 and disposing of any sanctions or consequences (Merchant and normative influences might be dependent on each other. Drawn 372
310 Van der Stede 2007). from persuasion theory and cognitive dissonance theory, Lim and 373
311 Based on the TPB, intention signifies the motivational compo- Dubinsky (2005) provide explanations of the relationship between 374
312 nents of a behavior. It represents the conscious effort that a per- subjective norms and attitudes. In order to associate oneself with 375
313 son is willing to invest in a behavior. Human action is guided significant others, cognitive dissonance theory predicts that an 376
314 by three kinds of readily accessible beliefs: behavioral beliefs are individual’s attitude toward a specific behavior may change. In 377
315 those about the likely consequences of the behavior, normative contrast, a person’s attitude toward carrying out a behavior can 378
316 beliefs are those about the normative expectations and actions of be influenced through the internalization process of recommenda- 379
317 important referents, and control beliefs are those about the pres- tions and arguments received from important others, as suggested 380
318 ence of factors that may facilitate or impede performance of the by persuasion theory. Thus, positive attitudes may arise directly 381
319 behavior (East 2000). In their respective aggregates, behavioral out of advice or information from others. 382
320 beliefs bring on a favorable or unfavorable attitude (ATT) toward Evidence in past research indicates that attitudes are influenced 383
321 the behavior; normative beliefs give rise to subjective norms (SN) by subjective norms. Chang (1998) found that the model fit was 384
322 or perceived social pressure (which also contribute to the forming significantly improved when the causal path from subjective 385
323 of attitudes); and control beliefs result in perceived behavioral norms to attitudes was added. For these reasons, we conclude that 386
324 control (PBC). consumers’ attitudes toward eWOM communication are influ- 387
325 Drawing from the complaint literature in offline settings, sev- enced by subjective norms. 388
326 eral studies provide empirical support for the impact of the three
327 variables on consumers’ complaint intention. For example, con- H7. Subjective norms have a positive effect on eWOM attitude. 389
328 sumers’ attitude towards complaining significantly influences
Perceived behavioral control is the perception of the ease or dif- 390
329 complaining intentions (East 2000; Hansen et al. 2011). It has been
ficulty of performing a particular behavior. The more opportunities 391
330 shown to significantly influence customers’ decisions as to
and requisite resources (e.g., information technology, knowledge, 392
331 whether or not to voice a complaint. Likewise, subjective norms
ability) consumers believe they have, the greater their perceived 393
332 were found to be significant in predicting consumers’ complaining
behavioral control over eWOM communication should be. Empiri- 394
333 intentions (East 2000), and perceived control was positively
cal evidence suggests that the inclusion of perceived behavioral 395
334 related to voicing (Bodey and Grace 2006).
control in the TPB model has resulted in significant improvements 396
335 Attitudes toward eWOM communication is defined as the over-
in the prediction of intentions (Ajzen 1991). Accordingly, we posit: 397
336 all affect of ‘goodness’ or ‘badness’ of eWOM communication and is
7 October 2015
398 H8. Perceived behavioral control has a positive effect on eWOM Yap et al. (2013) work and separate this altruistic belief into 437
399 intention. ‘‘helping other consumers” and ‘‘warning other consumers”. Thus, 438
consumers with a favorable experience are likely to display 439
concern by helping others make the right decision. Conversely, 440
400 3.3. Antecedents of attitudes toward eWOM communication consumers with an unfavorable experience are concerned about 441
warning other consumers to prevent them from experiencing 442
401 Ajzen (Ajzen 1991) suggested that the TPB is open to expansion. the same problems. Therefore, a consumer who believes that 443
402 To improve its explanatory power, many new predictors have been voluntarily helping or warning others with his/her experience is 444
403 integrated into the original TPB by researchers. In this study, sev- appropriate will tend to have a more favorable attitude towards 445
404 eral additional variables were incorporated into the model in order eWOM communication. 446
405 to improve its predictive power and to enhance the relevance of
406 the TPB to the particular context under examination. Past studies H9. Helping other consumers has a positive effect on eWOM 447
407 have suggested a range of factors relating to consumers’ engage- attitude. 448
408 ment in WOM (e.g., Dichter 1966; Hennig-Thurau et al. 2004;
409 Sundaram et al. 1998; Yap et al. 2013). Based on these studies,
410 we examined variables which are relevant to consumers’ attitudes H12. Warning other consumers has a positive effect on eWOM 449
411 toward eWOM communication. Three of the variables were identi- attitude. 450
412 fied to explain positive eWOM communication (i.e., helping the
413 company, helping other consumers, and self-enhancement), while
414 the other three variables give reasons for negative eWOM commu- 3.3.2. Reciprocity 451
415 nication (i.e., warning other consumers, vengeance, and anxiety Reciprocity is the belief or norm that we should do to others as 452
416 reduction). Furthermore, based on the social psychology literature, they do to us, calling for positive responses to favorable treatment 453
417 three perspectives were identified to explain consumers’ attitudes and negative responses to unfavorable treatment (Tedeschi et al. 454
418 towards eWOM communication: altruism, reciprocity, and egoism. 1985). In reciprocity, the more one receives, the more one is obli- 455
gated to give to the other party. We separate this reciprocity belief 456
into ‘‘helping the company” and ‘‘vengeance”. 457
419 3.3.1. Altruism
A very positive consumption experience creates a consumer’s 458
420 Numerous studies testing TPB have included a measure of
true wish to help and promote the company (Riivits-Arkonsuo 459
421 moral obligation. A moral obligation is a duty or responsibility that
and Leppiman 2013). Therefore, we posit that consumers who 460
422 someone feels bound to perform because of personal beliefs and
believe that ‘‘a good social institution is worthy of support” tend 461
423 values. Altruism is a belief which holds that individuals have a
to hold a favorable attitude toward eWOM communication in order 462
424 moral obligation to help, serve or benefit others, if necessary at
to give the firm ‘‘something in return” and to reward the company 463
425 the sacrifice of self-interest (Shechter and Freeman 1994). The
by referring it to others. 464
426 inclusion of moral obligation as an antecedent of attitude has been
427 justified on the basis that some behaviors are likely to be regarded
H10. Helping the company has a positive effect on eWOM attitude. 465
428 as inherently right or wrong by individuals (Manstead 2000).
429 Yap et al. (2013) suggested that altruists recognize that the On the contrary, people who are unhappy with a consumption 466
430 best way to be helpful in WOM communication is to be informa- experience may want to convince others to boycott the offending 467
431 tive and functional. Hennig-Thurau et al. (2004) conceptualized organizations, intending to seek vengeance and punish the organi- 468
432 ‘‘concern for others” in terms of both help and warning other con- zation (Sundaram et al. 1998; Ward and Ostrom 2006). There is 469
433 sumers. ‘‘Concern for others” implies an element of altruism, evidence to suggest someone looking to punish an organization 470
434 which is a voluntary act benefiting others without expecting or vent negative feelings is likely to word his/her eWOM message 471
435 something in return. However, Yap et al. (2013) posited that with strong emotional language (Yap et al. 2013). This suggests 472
436 ‘‘concern for others” is not likely to be uni-dimensional. We follow that consumers who believe that a bad company should get what 473
Table 2
Sample demographics.
Positive eWOM, n = 404 Negative eWOM, n = 365

N % N %
Gender Male 195 48.3 171 46.8
Female 209 51.7 194 53.2
Internet Experience Less than 1 year 2 0.5 2 0.5
1–2 years 4 1.0 4 1.1
2–4 years 15 3.7 15 4.1
4–6 years 40 9.9 36 9.9
More than 6 years 343 84.9 308 84.4
Past experience of Posting Never 101 25.0 101 27.67
WOM online Very few (one time) 128 31.7 110 30.14
A few (2–3 times) 104 25.7 87 23.84
Frequently (4–5 times) 44 10.9 35 9.59
Often (more than 5 times) 27 6.7 32 8.77
Where to Post WOM online Never 56 13.9 51 14.0
Blog 101 25.0 96 26.3
Online Community 116 28.7 104 28.5
Message board 20 5.0 18 4.9
BBS 103 25.5 88 24.1
Others 8 2.0 8 2.2
7 October 2015
Appendix A
Questionnaire of this study.
Distributive Justice (adapted from Grégoire and Fisher (2008)) Strongly disagree Strongly agree
dj01. Overall, the outcomes I received from the seller were fair 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
dj02. Given the time, money and hassle, I got fair outcomes 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
dj03. I got what I deserved 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
Procedural Justice (adapted from Grégoire and Fisher (2008))
pj01. The seller gave me an opportunity to have a say in the handling of the problem 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
pj02. In the handling of my purchase, the seller gave me accurate information 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
pj03. In the handling of my purchase, the seller answered my request in a timely manner 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
pj04. In the handling of my purchase, the seller was flexible in the way it responded to my concerns 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
Interactional Justice (adapted from Grégoire and Fisher (2008))
ij01. The seller who interacted with me gave me detailed explanations and relevant advice 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
ij02. The seller who interacted with me treated me with respect 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
ij03. The seller who interacted with me treated me with empathy 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
Satisfaction with the service experience (Adapted from de Matos et al. (2009))
Based on this experience, how do you evaluate your decision to choose this seller?
sa01. a terrible choice 1–2–3–4–5–6–7 A wonderful
choice
sa02. I am very unsatisfied 1–2–3–4–5–6–7 I am very
satisfied
sa03. Service is awful 1–2–3–4–5–6–7 Service is great
sa04. I feel very unhappy with its service 1–2–3–4–5–6–7 I feel very happy
with its service
Attitude Toward Positive (Negative) eWOM communication (adapted from Kim et al. (2003))
att01. Not posting positive (negative) comments online about this satisfactory (unsatisfactory) experience makes me uneasy 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
att02. It is my duty to post positive (negative) comments online about this satisfactory (unsatisfactory) experience 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
att03. I rarely post positive (negative) comments online when products or services are satisfactory (unsatisfactory) (R) 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
att04. I feel uncomfortable when I tried to post positive (negative) comments online about this satisfactory (unsatisfactory) 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
experience (R)
Subjective Norm (adapted from Liao et al.(2007))
sn01. People important to me supported my posting this positive (negative) experience online 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
sn02. People who influence my behavior would want me to post this positive (negative) experience online 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
sn03. People whose opinions I valued preferred that I post my positive (negative) experiences online 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
Perceived Behavioral Control (adapted from Liao et al.(2007))
pbc01. Posting comments online is entirely within my control 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
pbc02. I would be able to post comments online well 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
pbc03. I have the resources, knowledge, and ability to post comments online 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
Help other Consumers (Adapted from Hennig-Thurau et al. (2004))
hoc01. It my duty to help other consumers with my own positive experiences 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
hoc02. I want to give others the opportunity to buy the right product 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
hoc03. I feel that companies deserve free positive publicity for good service 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
Help The Company (Adapted from Hennig-Thurau et al. (2004))
htc01. If I had positive consumption experience with the company, I should help the company to be successful 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
htc02. In my own opinion, good companies should be supported 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
htc03. It is right to support the company and the product that I like 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
Self Enhancement (Adapted from Hennig-Thurau et al. (2004))
se01. I feel good when I can tell others about my buying successes 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
se02. With my contributions, I can show others that I am a clever customer 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
se03. This way I can express my joy about a good buy 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
Warning other Consumers (Adapted from Hennig-Thurau et al. (2004))
wa01. It’s my duty to warn others of a bad seller 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
wa02. I want to save others from having the same negative experiences as me 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
wa03. I want to warn others of bad product and services 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
Vengeance (Adapted from Hennig-Thurau et al. (2004))
ven01. It is righteous to take actions to get a bad seller in trouble 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
ven02. It is proper to punish a bad seller in some way 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
ven03. I think it is legitimate to cause inconvenience to a bad seller 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
ven04. It is a right thing to do to get even with a bad seller 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
ven05. I want to make a bad seller get what it deserved 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
Anxiety Reduction (Adapted from Hennig-Thurau et al. (2004))
ar01. My contributions help me to shake off frustration about bad buys if I post negative comments online about this 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
experience
ar02. It will get anger off my chest if I post negative comments online about this experience 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
ar03. It helps me reduce frustration after the bad experience If I post negative comments online about this experience 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
Product Involvement (Adapted from Hennig-Thurau et al. (2004))
pi01. I have a strong interest in the product I bought 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
pi02. The product is very important to me 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
pi03. For me, the product does not matter. (R) 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
Advice Seeking (Adapted from Hennig-Thurau et al. (2004))
adv01. I expect to receive tips or support from other users 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
(continued on next page)
7 October 2015
adv02. I hope to receive advice from others that helps me solve my problems 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
adv03. I heard about something new and I want to find out more about it 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
eWOM intention (positive/negative) (adapted from Ajzen (2006))
pw01. I intend to post this positive (negative) buying experience online 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
pw02. I will try to post this positive (negative) buying experience online 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
pw03. I plan to post this positive (negative) buying experience online 1–2–3–4–5–6–7
474 it deserves would have a more favorable attitude toward posting or relevant tend to create excitement and employ eWOM to vent 524
475 their eWOM to express their anger, frustration, and irritation to their positive feelings (Sundaram et al. 1998). 525
476 strike back at the company associated with a negative shopping
477 experience. Therefore,
4. Method 526
478 H13. Vengeance has a positive effect on eWOM attitude.
4.1. Data collection 527
479 3.3.3. Egoism A cross-section survey design was used to assess the reaction of 528
480 Egoism is defined as ‘‘one’s self is, or should be, the motivation the respondents to a self-reported consumption experience in the 529
481 and the goal of one’s own action” (Brandt 1972). A belief is near-past (within the past 3 months). Data were collected from 530
482 regarded as egoistic if the ultimate goal is to enhance one’s own students in the computer classrooms in a University. After obtain- 531
483 welfare or interest (Cheung and Lee 2012). As rational people, indi- ing the consent of the instructors, three to four trained research 532
484 viduals try to maximize their benefits and minimize their cost for assistants administered the surveys to students in the computer 533
485 returns (e.g., recognition, reputation, and pay). While a person can classrooms. Student participation was voluntary. To encourage 534
486 have multiple ultimate goals, the beliefs of altruism and egoism response, participants who complete the survey will have a chance 535
487 can co-occur (Batson 2010). to win a lottery for supermarket vouchers by entering their email 536
488 Stern (2000) asserted that the self-enhancement dimension address. Using a student sample to investigate consumer behavior 537
489 includes egoistic value orientations. Individuals with self- is not uncommon in the literature and is in line with many of the 538
490 enhancement value desire positive recognition from others. studies which address consumer word of mouth behaviors (e.g., 539
491 Wojnicki and Godes (2008) found that consumers’ propensities Alexandrov et al. 2013; Davidow 2003; Mdakane et al. 2012; Sun 540
492 to generate positive word-of-mouth (WOM) are affected by their et al. 2006) because college-aged students comprise an important 541
493 motivation to self-enhance, that is, to seek experiences that bolster segment to marketers (Howard et al. 2001; Sun et al. 2006). Basil 542
494 the self-concept and seek opportunities to enhance their own self- et al. (2002) suggested that correlation research is accurate enough 543
495 worth. A desired outcome commonly associated with positive self- with convenience samples. Since our study is not of the propor- 544
496 enhancement is to present oneself as an intelligent or discerning tions of the target audience but of the relationship between vari- 545
497 shopper (Hennig-Thurau et al. 2004; Yap et al. 2013). Therefore, ables, we used convenience sampling to collect our data. In the 546
498 we posit that consumers with higher self-enhancement value are survey, the students were required to recall a recent positive or 547
499 inclined to have a more favorable attitude toward posting their negative consumption experience. The data were collected online 548
500 positive eWOM. by assigning respondents randomly to one of the two scenarios. 549
As an example, in the negative scenario group, respondents were 550
501 H11. Self-Enhancement has a positive effect on eWOM attitude. instructed to recall a recent negative consumption experience 551
502 Alicke et al. (1992) suggested that a desire for catharsis is con- before answering the questions. Respondents wrote the product 552
503 sidered as a primary driving force for the relief of negative emo- or service they had consumed on the survey and were asked to 553
504 tion. Venting negative feelings through articulation and sharing answer all questions with that specific consumption experience 554
505 of negative consumption experiences online can help consumers in mind. East and Uncles (2008) have argued that retrospective 555
506 reduce their anxiety and lessen the frustration associated with surveys are a useful way of studying WOM because it is difficult 556
507 the events (Sundaram et al. 1998). Thus, consumers who consider to study WOM communication when it occurs. Similar recall 557
508 negative eWOM as an effective avenue to ease their anger, anxiety, approaches have been used by Wu (2013), Yap et al. (2013) and 558
509 and frustration are likely to have a more favorable attitude toward Thogersen et al. (2009). 559
510 negative eWOM communication. All contacted students agreed to participate. Respondents were 560
assured of anonymity without disclosing their identity by inform- 561
511 H14. Anxiety reduction has a positive effect on eWOM attitude. ing them that any information provided would be used only for 562
academic purposes. The initial number of responses was 842 563
(417 for the positive version, and 425 for the negative version). 564
512 3.4. Control variables Due to missing data, 23 samples were eliminated from the dataset. 565
To make sure that respondent answers were reliable and authentic, 566
513 We used several control variables which in theory are influen- respondents who did not have positive/negative shopping experi- 567
514 tial in consumers’ eWOM intention. The first is the past experience ences and those who had not shopped within the past three 568
515 of posting WOM online. The uncertainty involved in eWOM com- months were also excluded. In sum, a total of 404 subject 569
516 munication would be lowered if consumers were knowledgeable responses with positive service experiences, and 365 subject 570
517 or experienced about eWOM communication. The second variable responses with negative consumption experiences, were deemed 571
518 is the post-purchase advice-seeking for negative shopping encoun- valid for analysis. Although there is little consensus on the recom- 572
519 ters. Consumers who encounter negative experiences tend to share mended sample size for SEM (Sivo et al. 2006), Garver and Mentzer 573
520 their experience to obtain advice on how to resolve their problems (1999), and Hoelter (1983) proposed a ‘critical sample size’ of 200. 574
521 (Hennig-Thurau et al. 2004). The final control variable is product In other words, as a rule of thumb, any number above 200 is con- 575
522 involvement for positive shopping encounters. Consumers whose sidered to provide sufficient statistical power for data analysis. 576
523 purchase and use of products are perceived as highly important Another rule of thumb, as proposed by Bagozzi and Yi (1988), sug- 577
7 October 2015
Table 3
Measurement model.
Positive eWOM scenario Negative eWOM scenario

Construct Indicator Mean stdev Loading t (for k) CR Construct Indicator Mean stdev Loading t CR
Distributive Justice dj01 4.87 1.00 0.88 0.92 Distributive Justice dj01 2.53 1.05 0.91 0.93
(DIST) (DIST)
dj02 4.68 1.02 0.84 14.92 dj02 2.61 1.13 0.90 16.33
dj03 4.89 1.06 0.93 15.93 dj03 2.42 1.04 0.90 17.08
Procedural Justice pj01 5.59 0.99 0.88 0.90 Procedural Justice pj01 2.90 1.28 0.85 0.89
(PROC) (PROC)
pj02 5.68 0.99 0.87 14.81 pj02 2.68 1.30 0.74 8.99
pj03 5.70 1.02 0.85 17.31 pj03 2.76 1.34 0.85 14.42
pj04 5.59 1.03 0.85 16.72 pj04 2.65 1.24 0.82 14.14
Interactional Justice ij01 5.54 1.05 0.89 0.93 Interactional Justice ij01 2.72 1.24 0.78 0.90
(INTER) (INTER)
ij02 5.73 1.00 0.90 19.19 ij02 2.67 1.34 0.92 12.41
ij03 5.48 1.06 0.93 16.96 ij03 2.55 1.20 0.90 12.23
Satisfaction (SAT) sat01 4.60 1.20 0.87 0.91 Satisfaction (SAT) sat01 2.61 1.33 0.98 0.92
sat02 4.62 1.18 0.93 31.56 sat02 2.79 1.29 0.96 31.42
sat03 5.98 1.19 0.90 31.00 sat03 2.82 1.29 0.95 31.34
sat04 5.52 1.29 0.92 30.98 sat04 2.76 1.24 0.91 29.27
Attitude (PATT) patt01 3.43 1.29 0.75 0.83 Attitude (NATT) natt01 4.03 1.39 0.77 0.86
patt02 3.95 1.07 0.76 9.36 natt02 4.31 1.22 0.78 9.13
patt03 3.32 1.24 0.71 6.72 natt03 3.63 1.24 0.75 8.34
patt04 4.59 1.15 0.79 10.04 natt04 4.48 1.21 0.83 11.39
Subjective Norm (SN) sn01 4.20 1.06 0.87 0.93 Subjective Norm (SN) sn01 4.17 1.26 0.96 0.94
sn02 3.98 1.15 0.93 16.67 sn02 4.12 1.25 0.98 30.84
sn03 3.92 1.21 0.90 15.62 sn03 4.11 1.27 0.95 25.70
Positive eWOM pw01 4.63 1.23 0.93 0.96 Negative eWOM nw01 4.66 1.29 0.92 0.96
intention (PWOM) intention (NWOM)
pw02 4.75 1.14 0.94 24.30 nw02 4.64 1.22 0.94 27.27
pw03 4.78 1.11 0.91 22.74 nw03 4.92 1.24 0.89 22.89
pw04 4.39 1.25 0.90 21.46 nw04 4.58 1.25 0.90 23.99
Perceived Behavioral pbc01 5.54 1.21 0.90 0.94 Perceived Behavioral pbc01 5.55 1.18 0.90 0.93
Control (PBC) Control (PBC)
pbc02 5.68 1.10 0.94 18.13 pbc02 5.69 1.06 0.94 16.35
pbc03 5.65 1.13 0.90 16.58 pbc03 5.68 1.08 0.88 15.44
Self Enhancement(SE) se01 5.75 1.06 0.91 0.90 Anxiety Reduction (AR) ar01 4.95 1.24 0.91 0.92
se02 5.36 1.13 0.85 13.82 ar02 5.36 1.18 0.94 18.48
se03 5.41 1.04 0.89 16.87 ar03 5.02 1.05 0.89 19.79
Product Involvement pi01 5.82 0.93 0.86 0.76 Vengeance (VEN) ven01 4.08 1.44 0.92 0.96
(PI)
pi02 5.19 1.03 0.93 10.06 ven02 4.13 1.43 0.93 23.29
pi03 3.93 1.38 0.28 3.09 ven03 3.86 1.51 0.95 26.28
Helping other hoc01 5.34 1.01 0.93 0.93 ven04 3.60 1.49 0.90 22.47
Consumers (HOC)
hoc02 5.32 1.09 0.94 18.14 ven05 3.66 1.42 0.91 19.84
hoc03 5.28 1.10 0.90 18.50 Warning other wa01 5.48 1.19 0.95 0.95
Consumers (WA)
Helping the company htc01 5.49 0.92 0.91 0.95 wa02 5.55 1.17 0.94 21.50
(HTC)
htc02 5.34 0.88 0.93 23.27 wa03 5.23 1.06 0.86 24.52
htc03 5.52 0.97 0.88 18.94 Advice seeking (ADV) adv01 5.17 1.19 0.95 0.94
adv02 5.31 1.16 0.93 20.89
adv03 5.20 1.09 0.91 22.38
Model fit index for CFA Model fit index for CFA
v2 (df) 1264.724 v2 (df) 1293.19
(701) (782)
GFI .946 GFI .940
AGFI .931 AGFI .929
CFI .962 CFI .960
IFI .967 IFI .961
NFI .950 NFI .948
NNFI .957 NNFI .953
RMSEA .039 RMSEA .040
Composite reliability (CR) computed as: qc = (Rk)2/[(Rk)2 + Rvar(e)].
578 gests that there should be at least five cases for each latent variable 4.2. Measurement of the constructs 582
579 in the model for successful model fit. Therefore, our sample sizes
580 for both groups are acceptable. Table 2 summarizes the demo- The measurement items for the constructs were mostly adopted 583
581 graphic characteristics of the respondents. or adapted from previous related studies. The preliminary version 584
7 October 2015
Table 4.1
Correlation of latent variables (positive eWOM condition).
The shaded numbers on the leading diagonal are the square root of the variance shared between the constructs and their measures. Off diagonal elements are the correlations
among constructs. For discriminant validity, diagonal elements should be larger than off-diagonal elements.
AVE is average variance extracted (i.e., Proportion of variance in construct that is not due to measurement error) = (Rk2)/[(Rk2)+Rvar(e)].
Table 4.2
Correlation of latent variables (negative eWOM condition).
585 of this questionnaire was created after conducting literature modeled as a reflective indicator of its hypothesized latent con- 608
586 reviews and in-depth discussions with three senior professionals. struct. The constructs were allowed to co-vary in the CFA model. 609
587 Then the survey instrument was reviewed and discussed by The measurement models were evaluated using maximum likeli- 610
588 practitioners and peers within the e-commerce industry. The items hood estimation. Internal consistencies and item loadings greater 611
589 measuring eWOM intention were adapted from Ajzen (2006). than 0.70 are considered acceptable (Fornell and Larcker 1981). 612
590 Items measuring distributive, procedural, and interactional justice The results of the SEM analysis (as shown in Table 3) revealed an 613
591 were developed by Grégoire and Fisher (2008). The items measur- acceptable fit (v2(701) = 1264.72, GFI = 0.946, CFI = 0.962, 614
592 ing satisfaction were taken from de Matos et al. (2009). Items RMSEA = 0.039 for the positive eWOM scenario, and v2(782) 615
593 assessing attitude toward eWOM communication were adapted = 1293.19, GFI = 0.940, CFI = 0.960, RMSEA = 0.040 for the negative 616
594 from Kim et al. (2003). Subjective norms and perceived behavioral eWOM scenario). The composite reliability (CR) scores suggested 617
595 control were measured with the scale developed and validated by that the constructs exhibit good internal consistency. Moreover, 618
596 Liao et al. (2007). Finally, the items measuring helping other con- each item demonstrates high loading on its respective construct. 619
597 sumers, helping the company, self enhancement, warning other To assess discriminant validity, Chin suggested that all con- 620
598 consumers, vengeance, anxiety reduction, product involvement, structs should share more variance with their assigned items than 621
599 and advice seeking were adapted from Hennig-Thurau et al. with other constructs. In Tables 4.1 and 4.2, the diagonal elements 622
600 (2004). The measurement items for the constructs are given in represent the square root of average variance extracted (AVE). A 623
601 Appendix A. rule for evaluating discriminant validity is that the AVE square root 624
should exceed the inter-construct correlations, i.e., the off-diagonal 625
602 4.3. Scale validation elements (1998). All constructs meet this requirement. The rule 626
suggests that items should load more highly on their respective 627
603 Before testing the hypotheses, the adequacy of the measure- construct than on others. The results of the exploratory factor anal- 628
604 ment model was examined by confirmative factor analysis (CFA) ysis (EFA) also show that each item loaded more strongly on its 629
605 using the EQS 6.1 program (Bentler and Chou 1987). CFA was con- corresponding construct than on others. Thus these results provide 630
606 ducted to assess internal consistency (reliability), item loadings evidence of the acceptable discriminant validity of our measures. 631
607 (convergent validity), and discriminant validity. Each item was Finally, using Harmonís’ single factor test, we examined whether 632
7 October 2015

0.297
Helping other (5.257) Attitude
consumers 0.405
R2=0.445 (7.354)
0.117
(1.570) 0.451 Positive
Helping the (8.096)
0.213 eWOM
Company
Subjective (4.287) Intention
0.199 Norm R2=0.550
(3.386)
0.081
Self (1.990)
Enhancement Perceived
Behavioral 0.188
Control 0.115
(4.299)
(2.473)
Justice Theory 0.063

(1.598)
Distributive
Justice 0.050 Past
(0.339) Experience
0.134
Satisfaction
Procedural R2=0.166
Justice (1.980)
Product
0.286
Involvemen
Interactional (3.760)
Justice
1.
Structural path estimates are the standardized parameter estimates, and the associated t-values are in
parentheses. Solid-lines stand for significant paths and dotted-lines for non-significant ones.
Measurement model is not shown above for purposes of clarity.
2.
The strength of the relationships among the constructs is represented by standardized path coefficients.
3.
χ2(721)=1323.102, GFI=.941, AGFI=.921, CFI= .959, IFI=0.947, NFI= .949, NNFI=.943,
RMSEA=0.042.
Fig. 3. Result of SEM analysis (positive eWOM).

0.314
Warning other (7.429) Attitude
Consumers R2=0.552 0.369
0.149 (6.647)
(3.294) 0.496 Negative
(10.974)
Vengeance 0.248 eWOM
0.048 Subjective (4.652) Intention
Norm R2=0.646
(0.884)
0.134
(2.527)
Anxiety Perceived
Reduction Behavioral
Control -0.205
0.002
(4.153)
(0.715)
Justice Theory
0.089
Distributive (1.650)
Justice 0.440
(7.848) Past
Satisfaction Experience
Procedural 0.095 R2=0.218
Justice (1.069)
Advice
Seeking
Interactional 0.125
Justice (1.401)
χ (804)= 1523.759, GFI=.939, AGFI=.918, CFI= .950, IFI=.949, NFI= .947, NNFI=0.945, RMSEA=0.048.
. 2
Fig. 4. Result of SEM analysis (negative eWOM).
7 October 2015
Table 5
Direct and in-direct effect of structural model.
Positive eWOM Negative eWOM

Antecedent Direct effect Indirect effect Total effect Antecedent Direct effect Indirect effect Total effect
HTC 0.033n.s. 0.033n.s. WA 0.116 0.116
SE 0.050 0.050 REV 0.055 0.055
n.s.
HOC 0.094 0.094 AR 0.018 0.018n.s.
DIST 0.004n.s. 0.004n.s. DIST 0.090 0.090
n.s.
PROC 0.027 0.027 PROC 0.019 0.019n.s.
n.s.
INTER 0.058 0.058 INTER 0.026 0.026n.s.
SAT 0.188 0.188 SAT 0.205 0.205
PBC 0.081 0.081 PBC 0.134 0.134
SN 0.213 0.086 0.299 SN 0.248 0.123 0.431
PATT 0.405 0.405 NATT 0.369 0.369
EXP 0.115 0.115 EXP 0.002n.s. 0.002n.s.
PI 0.063n.s. 0.063n.s. ADV 0.053n.s. 0.002n.s.
633 our data suffered from common method variance (CMV) (Podsakoff communication are 45.3% and 55.2%, respectively. For positive 679
634 et al. 2003). A principal component analysis was conducted on all eWOM, helping other consumers (b = 0.297, p-value < 0.01) and 680
635 indicators. The results suggested that CMV was not significant in self enhancement (b = 0.199, p-value < 0.01) significantly influence 681
636 our data because no single factor emerged to account for the attitude, supporting H9 and H11. Helping the company failed to 682
637 majority of covariance among variables. achieve statistical significance (b = 0.117, p-value > 0.1), indicating 683
that H10 is not supported. For negative eWOM, warning other con- 684
sumers was significant (b = 0.314, p-value < 0.01) as was ven- 685
638 5. Hypothesis testing geance (b = 0.149, p-value < 0.01), which supported H12 and H13. 686
Finally, anxiety is not significantly related to attitude (b = 0.048, 687
639 The fourteen hypotheses were tested collectively using struc- p-value > 0.1), thus H14 is not supported. The predicting variables 688
640 tural equation modeling (SEM). SEM can support simultaneous of the endogenous constructs and their direct, indirect, and total 689
641 latent variables with multiple indicators, mediating effects, and effects on the dependent variable are presented in Table 5. 690
642 causality hypotheses. The results of the SEM analysis revealed an
643 acceptable fit (v2(721) = 1323.102, GFI = .941, RMSEA = .042 for
644 the positive eWOM scenario, and v2(804) = 1523.759, GFI = .939, 6. Discussion and conclusion 691
645 RMSEA = 0.048 for the negative eWOM scenario). Figs. 3 and 4
646 summarize the results. 6.1. General discussion 692
647 The variance explained (R2) for the structural equations for
648 intention to engage in positive and negative eWOM communica- This empirical study manifests the magnitude and relative 693
649 tion is 55.0% and 64.6%, respectively. First, for consumer satisfac- importance of various antecedents for intention toward con- 694
650 tion, the coefficients between satisfaction and positive eWOM sumers’ eWOM communication. It significantly contributes to the 695
651 (b = 0.188, p-value < 0.01), and negative eWOM (b = 0.205, p- current eWOM literature in several ways. First, the findings reveal 696
652 value < 0.01) are significant, indicating that H1 is supported. that satisfaction shows limited association with eWOM intentions. 697
653 Inspection of the antecedents of satisfaction suggests that the three This result confirms East (2000) observation which postulated that 698
654 justice perceptions seem to have inconsistent influence across the models that rest largely on satisfaction/dissatisfaction are unlikely 699
655 two conditions. For the positive eWOM condition, procedural jus- to account for much effect in WOM intentions. This study further 700
656 tice (b = 0.134, p-value < 0.01, supported H3) and interactional jus- extends past research to the online environment and concludes 701
657 tice (b = 0.286, p-value < 0.01, supported H4) significantly that, although satisfaction/dissatisfaction may be a necessary con- 702
658 influence satisfaction, but distributive justice fails to reach statisti- dition for eWOM to occur, it is far from sufficient to explain con- 703
659 cal significance (b = 0.05, p-value > 0.1, H2 is not support). In consumers’ eWOM intention. 704
660 trast, for the negative eWOM condition, distributive justice is Second, with its ability to account for a substantial variance in 705
661 significantly related to satisfaction (b = 0.440, p-value < 0.01, H2 the dependent variable, the current study offers evidence of the 706
662 is support), but procedural justice (b = 0.095, p-value > 0.1, H3 is applicability of the TPB in understanding consumers’ eWOM 707
663 not support) and interactional justice (b = 0.125, p-value > 0.1, H4 intention, and provides new theoretical insights. It suggests that 708
664 is not support) are not. Therefore, we conclude that H2, H3, and consumers would consider the consequences and implications of 709
665 H4 are partially supported. eWOM communication before engaging in it. Furthermore, the rel- 710
666 Second, for the hypotheses related to TPB, subjective norms ative importance is not consistent across the two conditions, which 711
667 appears to be a strong predictor of positive eWOM (b = 0.213, suggests that consumers’ decisions to engage in positive vs. nega- 712
668 p-value < 0.01) and negative eWOM (b = 0.248, p-value < 0.01) tive eWOM communication seemed to be based on different crite- 713
669 intention, thus H6 is supported. Subjective norm also strongly ria. The results in Table 5 reveal that attitude appears to be the 714
670 influences attitude (b = 0.451, p-value < 0.01 for positive eWOM, primary determinant of positive eWOM intention, followed by 715
671 b = 0.496, p-value < 0.01 for negative eWOM), providing support subjective norms then satisfaction. In contrast, for negative 716
672 for H7. Attitude (b = 0.405, p-value < 0.01 for positive eWOM, eWOM, subjective norms is the most important determinant, while 717
673 b = 0.369, p-value < 0.01 for negative eWOM) and perceived behav- attitude represents the second largest determinant. This suggests 718
674 ioral control (b = 0.081, p-value < 0.01 for positive eWOM, that the effect of social approval and pressure will be more salient 719
675 b = 0.134, p-value < 0.01 for negative eWOM) are significantly when the consumer claims that a seller did not perform as 720
676 related to intention, which supports H5 and H8. promised, while the spreading of positive eWOM depends mainly 721
677 Third, examining the antecedents of attitude, the variance on the assessment of whether such behavior is appropriate. In 722
678 explained for attitudes toward positive and negative eWOM addition, perceived behavioral control significantly improves 723
7 October 2015
724 explanatory power in predicting eWOM intention, in spite of the the antecedents of positive and negative eWOM intention in the 786
725 limited amount of variance explained. online environment. The existence of inconsistent relative impact 787
726 Third, while a means of enhancing satisfaction is through the regarding the relationships between eWOM intention and its ante- 788
727 perception of justice, it is worth noting that the three justice per- cedents for positive and negative conditions underscore the impor- 789
728 ceptions have differential effects on consumers’ satisfaction across tance of investigation aimed at understanding these distinctions. 790
729 the two conditions. For negative shopping experience, the feeling These distinctions shed new light on understanding why con- 791
730 of satisfaction is largely driven by their perception of distributive sumers engage in eWOM communication. 792
731 justice, that is, the degree to which the exchange was perceived We believe our study makes some meaningful extensions and 793
732 as justice in the light of tangible matters. This is consistent with contributions to the literature in various ways. First, it contributes 794
733 Wu (2013) and Martinez-Tur et al. (2006) in the consumer com- to the theory by developing a research model anchored in the TPB, 795
734 plaint literature. In contrast, for positive shopping experience, sat- and extends it by integrating the justice theory and the social psy- 796
735 isfaction is significantly influenced by the perceptions of chology literature. By treating eWOM intention as a focal con- 797
736 interactional and procedural justice. Thus, when forming percep- struct, this research goes beyond the traditional WOM and 798
737 tions of satisfaction for a positive encounter, consumers seem to responds to the call of Wien and Olsen (Wien and Olsen 2012) to 799
738 weigh buyer–seller interaction and policies more heavily. examine the determinants of eWOM. Second, we found that satis- 800
739 Finally, extending the original TPB with consumers’ beliefs of faction exerted a limited influence on consumers’ eWOM intention. 801
740 altruism, reciprocity and egoism was deemed valuable. Across Consumers seemed to place more weight on the consequences and 802
741 the two conditions, altruism (helping or warning other consumers) implications of the eWOM communication behavior before posting 803
742 is the most important determinant of attitude towards eWOM their opinion or comments online. This finding contributes to clar- 804
743 communication. In addition, for positive shopping experience, ifying the relatively small influence of satisfaction. Finally, we 805
744 consumers with higher self-enhancement value (egoism) tend to found that consumers’ positive vs. negative eWOM intentions are 806
745 have a more favorable attitude towards eWOM communication. associated with different antecedents. This has been implied in 807
746 For negative shopping experience, consumers report more favor- East et al. (2007) research, but to the best of our knowledge has 808
747 able attitudes toward eWOM communication when they believe never been explicitly examined in the word-of-mouth literature. 809
748 that a bad seller should get what it deserves (reciprocity). How- The findings in this study advance the existing theories and con- 810
749 ever, helping the company (reciprocity) and anxiety reduction tribute to future research aimed at enhancing our understanding 811
750 (egoism) seem to be irrelevant to consumers’ attitudes. of consumers’ eWOM intentions. In sum, we believe such a deeper 812
understanding of antecedents of eWOM intention would assist 813
751 6.2. Limitations and future research managers in designing appropriate management policies to 814
increase favorable outcomes. 815
752 The findings of this study should be interpreted in light of a From a managerial standpoint, it is imperative for marketers to 816
753 number of limitations. create an environment that is conducive for stimulating positive 817
754 First, out study asked respondents to recall a recent shopping eWOM and decreasing negative eWOM as well. For practitioners, 818
755 experience before answering the questionnaires. Their evaluations the implications of this study are noticeable. First, our findings 819
756 were based on a transaction-specific experience (Oliver 2010) suggest that cultivating positive normative beliefs of significant 820
757 which was limited to a given occasion or period. However, con- members’ motivation to comply, as well as positive attitudes is 821
758 sumers’ eWOM intention may also be triggered by cumulative important for fostering favorable outcomes. Attitude toward 822
759 evaluations (Wien and Olsen 2012) which have developed over eWOM communication is largely driven by altruism. In addition, 823
760 time according to the experiences individuals have had with a consumers who intend to post positive eWOM appear to be more 824
761 seller. It is suggested that future research test empirically how driven by underlying attitudinal factors, whereas consumers who 825
762 these differences might affect consumers’ eWOM intention. Sec- consider posting negative eWOM are more driven by social pres- 826
763 ond, although common method bias was not significant, the use sure. While companies cannot directly control consumer-to- 827
764 of a post hoc self-report design does not rule out the presence of consumer messages, they are still in a position to influence the 828
765 common method variance. Future research can adopt procedural conversations among consumers (Riivits-Arkonsuo and Leppiman 829
766 methods to reduce this potential threat. Third, another weakness 2013). Marketers should try to identify ‘social influencers’ in social 830
767 of the study is the cross-sectional nature of the research design. media by encouraging users to spread positive eWOM and discour- 831
768 Thus, caution must be exercised in the interpretation of these aging them from sharing negative information within their per- 832
769 observed associations. Future research can use a longitudinal sonal networks (Chu and Kim 2011). 833
770 design to better understand the causal relationships among vari- Third, for companies striving to encourage positive eWOM, our 834
771 ables. Fourth, the generalizability of the study is limited by the studies suggest that judgment of the process – the procedural and 835
772 use of a convenience sample of university students since the use interactional aspects – is more likely to enhance satisfaction and in 836
773 of the student sample is likely to impede concluding how con- turn trigger positive eWOM intention. As such, it appears that jus- 837
774 sumers other than students would respond. However, given that tice policies and procedures, as well as courteous employee- 838
775 university students tend to be heavy users of the Internet and com- consumer interactions, influence consumer perceptions of satisfac- 839
776 prise an important segment to marketers, we believe the use of a tion. Although companies should strive to provide distributive jus- 840
777 student sample is justified. Finally, a substantial proportion of tice, they may see a greater impact by concentrating on procedural 841
778 the variance in eWOM intention remained unexplained. It is possi- and interactional justice. From a procedural and interactional jus- 842
779 ble that some variable not included in the models would account tice perspective, clear job descriptions and specific training, as well 843
780 for substantial variance. Hence, the research of eWOM intention as compensation policies, would be helpful in providing better 844
781 can be enriched if additional theories are applied to the integration service. 845
782 of our research framework. Finally, for companies trying to reduce negative eWOM, 846
distributive justice is the key antecedent of satisfaction. As such, 847
783 6.3. Implications companies suffering from negative eWOM should invest more 848
resources in fixing their failures (such as offering refunds, 849
784 The study aims to build on the well-developed theory, TPB, the discounts, and compensation) than in employee communication 850
785 justice theory and the social psychology literature, to investigate skills and customer service training. While service policies and 851
7 October 2015
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ELERAP 629 No.

of Pages 15, Model 5G

Electronic Commerce Research and Applications xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Electronic Commerce Research and Applications

3 Understanding why consumers engage in electronic word-of-mouth

Author(s) Theoretical eWOM Method Data collection Key finding(s)

Beliefs Theory of Planned Behavior

Helping the H6 Positive

Beliefs Theory of Planned Behavior

Fig. 2. Research model (negative eWOM).

Subjective norm is a social pressure which represents an individ- 353

Positive eWOM, n = 404 Negative eWOM, n = 365

(continued on next page)

Positive eWOM scenario Negative eWOM scenario

Composite reliability (CR) computed as: qc = (Rk)2/[(Rk)2 + Rvar(e)].

Beliefs Theory of Planned Behavior

Justice Theory 0.063

Beliefs Theory of Planned Behavior

Fig. 4. Result of SEM analysis (negative eWOM).

Positive eWOM Negative eWOM

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