ACADEMIC WRITING

UNIT #2

CLAUSES
THE SENTENCE

IN THIS UNIT: Clauses

Types of Clauses: Independent and Dependent
Kinds of Sentences:
(1) simple
(2) compound
(3) complex
(4) compound-complex
Sentences Types and Writing Style
CLAUSES: AN INTRODUCTION
Clauses are the building blocks of sentences. To understand how sentences work in English, it
is important to have a solid understanding of what a clause is. A clause is simply a group of
words that contains a subject and a verb. A clause may contain other elements, but every
clause needs at least a subject and a verb.

Clauses:
football is fun (Here, there is a subject, football, and a verb, is; therefore, it is a clause)
because dogs like bones (The subject is dogs; the verb is like. This is a clause)

Not clauses:
John, in his green suit (Here, there is a subject, John, but no verb. Therefore, it is not a
clause)
protect the ocean (Here, there is a verb, protect, but no subject. Therefore, it is not a clause)

EXERCISE 2A: Clauses

Decide if each of the following is a clause or not. Circle the correct answer.

1. the car stopped CLAUSE NOT A CLAUSE

2. the blue suit hanging in the closet CLAUSE NOT A CLAUSE
3. an interesting life CLAUSE NOT A CLAUSE
4. the short man sat CLAUSE NOT A CLAUSE
5. wasn’t very interesting CLAUSE NOT A CLAUSE
6. she told him everything CLAUSE NOT A CLAUSE
7. since it wasn’t very late CLAUSE NOT A CLAUSE
8. love is like a rose CLAUSE NOT A CLAUSE
9. the morning newspaper CLAUSE NOT A CLAUSE
10. the child played CLAUSE NOT A CLAUSE
INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT CLAUSES
There are two kinds of clauses: independent and dependent.

Independent Clauses
An independent clause contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought. It
can stand alone as a sentence by itself. An independent clause is formed with a subject and a
verb and often a complement.

Two examples:

Subject Verb (Complement)

The sun rose.
Water evaporates rapidly in warm climates.

Dependent Clauses
A dependent clause (also called a subordinate clause) begins with a subordinator such as
when, while, if, that, or who. A dependent clause does not express a complete thought, so it is
not a sentence by itself. A dependent clause is also called a sentence fragment. By itself, it is
an incomplete sentence, and it is an error. A dependent clause is formed with a subordinator,
a subject and a verb.

Some examples:

Subordinator Subject Verb (Complement)

... when the boy ran ...
... because he is a good singer …
… until I saw the doctor …
… so that the man understood …

Some common subordinators include:

after before that when which

although even though though whenever while
as how unless where who
as if if until wherever whose
because so that

* a “complement” is a word, phrase, or clause that follows a verb and which simply adds
further information concerning, usually, the verb's subject.
EXERCISE 2B: Independent and Dependent Clauses
Write Independent next to the complete sentences and put a period (.) after them. Write
Dependent next to the incomplete sentences. The first two have been done for you.

____________ 1. Globalization means more travel for businessmen and women

____________ 2. As business executives fly around the globe to sell their companies’
products and services
____________ 3. Jet lag affects most long-distance travelers
____________ 4. Which is simply the urge to sleep at inappropriate times
____________ 5. During long journeys through several time zones, the body’s inner clock is
disrupted
____________ 6. For some reason, travel from west to east causes greater jet lag than
travel from east to west
____________ 7. Also, changes in work schedules can cause jet lag
____________ 8. When hospital nurses change from a day shift to a night shift, for example
____________ 9. Although there is no sure way to prevent jet lag
____________10. There are some ways to minimize it
____________ 11. Because jet lag is caused at least partially by loss of sleep, not just a
change in the time of sleep
____________ 12. A traveler should plan to arrive at his or her destination as late as possible
____________ 13. Upon arriving, he or she should immediately go to bed
____________ 14. Then the traveler should start to live in the new time zone immediately
____________ 15. Even when the traveler arrives early in the morning and cannot go to bed
immediately

EXERCISE 2C: Independent and Dependent Clauses

Decide if each of the following is an independent or dependent clause. Circle the correct
answer.

1. Joe worried about his test INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT

2. before he returns to work INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT
3. after they completed the homework INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT
4. she doesn’t come to see him anymore INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT
5. who wore a red dress INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT
6. until Mr. Sanchez has his first cup of coffee INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT
7. which is why we believe in the project INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT
8. until someone does something INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT
9. she found it in the trash INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT
10. that ran in front of the truck INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT
11. after Amy sneezed all over the tuna salad INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT
12. because the one I have now isn't working INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT
13. I ate the chicken INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT
14. wherever you go INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT
15. time waits for no man INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT
KINDS OF SENTENCES
Sentences are formed by one or more clauses and express a complete thought. The four
basic kinds of sentences in English are:

(1) simple
(2) compound
(3) complex
(4) compound-complex

(1) Simple Sentences

A simple sentence is the same as an independent clause.

Subject Verb (Complement)

The boy ran.
He is a good singer.

A simple sentence can have one or more subjects. (When there is more than one subject, the
subjects are called a compound subject.) A simple sentence can also have one or more verbs.
(When there is more than one verb, the verbs are called a compound verb.)

Examples:

one subject, one verb Sally likes salad

one subject, compound verb Sally likes salad and eats it every day.
compound subject, one verb Sally and Roy like salad.
compound subject, compound verb Sally and Roy like salad and eat it every day.

(2) Compound Sentences

A compound sentence is two or more independent clauses joined together. There are
several ways to make a compound sentence, including using (a) coordinators,
(b) semicolons, and (c) semicolons with conjunctive adverbs.

(a) Coordinators
One way to join two independent clauses together is with a coordinator (also called
coordinating conjunctions). There are seven coordinators in English: for, and, nor, but, or, yet,
& so. You can remember these coordinators by the phrase FAN BOYS (using the first letter of
each of the coordinators). Coordinators are used in the following ways:
 CONJUNCTION FUNCTION EXAMPLE
Japanese people live longer than
FOR Meaning “because” most nationalities, for they eat
healthy diets.
They eat a lot of fish and vegetables,
To join two similar ideas and they eat lightly.
AND

They do not eat a lot of red meat, nor

To join two negative
NOR
independent clauses
To join two contrasting ideas
BUT
do they eat many dairy products.
(note: notice that question word order
is used after NOR.)
Diet is one factor in how long people
live, but it is not the only factor.

To add an alternative People should limit the amount of

possibility animal fat in their diet, or they risk
OR
getting heart disease.
To add an unexpected or Cigarette smoking is a factor in
surprising continuation longevity, yet Japanese have a high
YET
rate of tobacco use.
Shows that the second idea Doctors say that stress is another
is the logical consequence of factor, so try to avoid stress if you
SO
the first wish to live a long time.

Note that a comma is used after each coordinator.

EXERCISE 2F: More Coordinators

Write the correct coordinator in each blank space.

1. Alberto was cold, __________ he put on a coat.

2. Maria tried to read a novel in French, __________ it was too difficult.
3. I’m not going to Vancouver this year, __________ am I going to San Francisco.
4. To get from Vancouver to Victoria, you can fly, __________ you can ride the ferry.
5. I bought a bottle of wine, __________ we drank it together.
6. Tom felt terrible, __________ he had been out drinking all night.
7. The waiter was not very nice, __________ the food was delicious.
8. I went to buy a Rolling Stones CD, __________ the shop didn't have it.
9. Anna needed some money, __________ she took a part-time job.
10. He was the tallest player on the team, __________ he was a terrible basketball player.
11. There's so much rain lately! Maybe it's because of global warming, __________ maybe it's
just coincidence.
12. Julie has a guitar, __________ she plays it really well.
13. Bob can’t play the guitar, __________ can he play the drums.
14. The concert was cancelled, __________ we went to a nightclub instead.
15. He said he didn’t want to go, __________ he went anyway.
(b) Semicolons
Another way to create compound sentences is with semicolons. This kind of compound
sentence is possible only when the two independent clauses are closely related in meaning. If
they are not closely related, they should be written as two simple sentences, each ending with
a period.

The car has a large engine; this power is used to accelerate quickly.
We are unable to meet as planned; we will meet next week.

EXERCISE 2H: Semicolons

Place a semicolon in the correct place, below.

1. The practice of yoga strengthens the body and promotes flexibility it also strengthens the
mind and refreshes the spirit.
2. Motherhood causes some women to quit their jobs others continue working despite having
young children to care for.
3. Three hundred guests attended his wedding two attended his funeral.

(c) Conjunctive Adverbs

Another way to join two independent clauses and show the logical connection between them is
by using conjunctive adverbs. These provide some of the same logic as the coordinating and
subordinating conjunctions seen above, but generally are more formal.

Here is a list of some of the most common conjunctive adverbs (followed by coordinating and
subordinating conjunctions that have similar meanings):

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB COORDINATOR SUBORDINATOR

accordingly
afterward after
also and
as a result for since, because
besides and
consequently so
earlier before
for example
hence so since, because
however but, yet although, even though
in addition and
later after
moreover and
nevertheless yet even though, though,
although
otherwise or
still yet
then after
therefore so
thus so

Here are some examples of how conjunctive adverbs are used:

To add a similar, equal idea

also Community colleges offer preparation for many occupations; also /
besides besides / furthermore / in addition / moreover, they prepare
furthermore students to transfer to a four-year college or university.
in addition
moreover

To add an unexpected or surprising continuation

however The cost of attending a community college is low; however /
nevertheless nevertheless / nonetheless / still, many students need financial
nonetheless aid.
still

To add a complete contrast

on the other hand Tuition at a community college is low; on the other hand / in
in contrast contrast, tuition at a private school is high.

To give an alternative possibility

otherwise Students must take final exams; otherwise, they won’t pass.

To add an expected result

accordingly Native and non-native English speakers have different needs;
as a result accordingly / as a result / consequently / hence / therefore /
consequently thus, most schools provide separate English classes for each
hence group.
therefore
thus

To add an example
for example Most colleges now have a writing requirement for graduation; for
for instance example / for instance, students at my college must pass a
writing test before they can register for their final semester.
The rule for using conjunctive adverbs is simple: when a conjunctive adverb joins two
independent clauses, place a semicolon before the conjunctive adverb and a comma after it:

Independent clause; accordingly, independent clause.

also,
as a result,
for example,
still,
therefore,
etc.

Here are two examples:

Independent clause; conjunctive adverb, independent clause.

Fifteen men quickly cleared consequently, the highways was open
the accident from the road; within an hour.
Dogs make good pets; however, elephants do not.

EXERCISE 2J: Conjunctive Adverbs

Combine the following pairs of sentences using conjunctive adverbs (note, many of these
could be joined with coordinators: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.)

1. Solar heating systems are economical to operate. The cost of installation is very high.
2. Burning fossil fuels causes serious damage to the planet. We need to develop other
sources of energy.
3. Ecologists know that burning fossil fuels causes holes in the ozone layer. People continue
to do it.
4. All nations of the world must take action. Our children and grandchildren will suffer the
consequences.

EXERCISE 2K: Compound Sentence Practice

Finish these compound sentences using conjunctive adverbs.

1. Fire destroyed the building; however,

2. She realized her cat was missing; therefore,
3. Jerry handed the clerk 20 dollars; then,
4. The man arrested for murder was found guilty; consequently,
5. She did not yell; nevertheless,
6. It is an old house;
7. He generally leaves home at 8:00;
8. First he kissed her;
9. Bill didn’t call his wife;
10. She didn’t love him anymore;
EXERCISE 2M: Compound Sentence Practice

Use what you have learned about forming compound sentences to improve the following
essay, which contains many short, simple sentences. Combine sentences wherever
appropriate. Try to use each of the three methods at least once. There are many possible
ways to combine the sentences.

(1) A robot is a mechanical device that can perform boring, dangerous, and difficult
tasks. (2) First of all, robots can perform repetitive tasks without becoming tired or bored. (3)
They are used in automobile factories to weld and paint. (4) Robots can also function in
hostile environments. (5) They are useful for exploring the ocean bottom as well as deep
outer space. (6) Finally, robots can perform tasks requiring pinpoint accuracy. (7) In the
operating room, robotic equipment can assist the surgeon. (8) For instance, a robot can kill a
brain tumor. (9) It can operate on a fetus with great precision.
(10) The field of artificial intelligence is giving robots a limited ability to think and make
decisions. (11) However, robots cannot think conceptually. (12) Robots cannot function
independently. (13) Humans have to program them. (14) They are useless. (15) Therefore,
humans should not worry that robots will take over the world -- at least, not yet.

(3) Complex Sentences

A complex sentence is a sentence with an independent clause and at least one dependent
clause (subordinating clause). The dependent clause is introduced by either a subordinator
such as although, while or because or a relative pronoun such as who or which.

Examples:

When I saw what you had done, I was happy.

Independent clause: I was happy.

Dependent clause: When I saw what you had done

It makes me happy that you love me.

Independent clause: It makes me happy.

Dependent clause: that you love me

Economists are concerned that the rate of inflation will double if the government does
not act.

Independent clause: Economists are concerned

Dependent clause 1: that the rate of inflation will double
Dependent clause 2: if the government does not act.

Engineers, who have an aptitude for mechanics, must also be artistic and imaginative.

Independent clause: Engineers … must also be artistic and

imaginative.
 Dependent clause: who have an aptitude for mechanics

EXERCISE 2N: Complex Sentences

Analyze the following sentences. Which are the independent clauses and which are the
dependent clauses.

1. Please tell me where the post office is.

2. Engineers, who have an aptitude for mechanics, must also be artistic and imaginative.
3. Even though students declare a major now, they can change it later.
4. Economists are concerned that the rate of inflation will double if the government does not
act.

EXERCISE 2O:  Complex Sentences (cont.)
Add a logical independent clause to each of the dependent clauses.

1. ________________________________________________________ until I pay my tuition.

2. Unless I take 12 units each term _______________________________________.
3. ___________________________________________ that computer engineering is a
popular major at this school.
4. ___________________________________________ who taught this course last term?
5. Because I had to look for a part-time job __________________________________.
6. ___________________________________________ if I want to get to school on time.
7. ________________________________________ whether I should take advance calculus.
8. __________________________________________ whom I met at the math club last
week.
9. When I left my country ________________________________________________.
10. __________________________________________ that my college advisor
recommends.

REVIEW: Simple, Compound, & Complex Sentences

EXERCISE 2P: Review

Decide if each of the following sentences is Simple, Compound, or Complex.

1: The teacher walked into the classroom, greeted the students, and took attendance.
2: Juan played football while Juanita went shopping.
3: Juan played football, but Juanita went shopping.
4: Although Mexico has the better football team, it lost.
5: The island was filled with many trails winding through the thick underbrush, a small lake,
and dangerous wild pigs.
6: Naoki passed the test because he studied hard and understood the material.
EXERCISE 2Q: Review
Decide if each of the following sentences is Simple, Compound, or Complex.

1: Helen Keller was born in Tuscumbia, Alabama, in 1880 and died in 1968.
2: Until she was 19 months of age, her sight and hearing were normal.
3: When she was 19 months old, a severe illness left her deaf and blind.
4: When she was seven, she began her education in reading and writing with Anne Sullivan of
the Perkins Institute for the Blind.
5: Through persistence and stubbornness, Anne breaks through Helen's walls of silence and
darkness and teaches her to communicate.
6: Helen Keller learned to read by the Braille system, and she learned to write by using a
specially constructed typewriter.
7: Later, she entered Radcliffe College and graduated with honors in 1904.
8: Helen Keller's story needed to be told, so in 1962, a beautiful movie was made about her
life.
9: "If there were only joy in the world, we could never learn to be brave and patient." -- Helen
Keller
10: "Life is either a daring adventure, or it is nothing." -- Helen Keller

(4) Compound-Complex Sentences

You should practiced simple sentences, compound sentences, and complex sentences until
you feel comfortable with these sentence types and can begin to write them with accuracy.
However, you should be aware that there is one more type of sentence: compound-complex.
Exercises are provided below for those students who may want extra practice with more
difficult sentence types.

A compound-complex sentence has two independent clauses, and one (or more) dependent
clauses. Or, said another way, it is a compound sentence in which at least one complex
sentence is joined with another sentence using a coordinator, a semicolon, or a conjunctive
adverb.

The following are some examples:

Note: independent clauses are in bold, dependent clauses are underlined.

1. The first part is a complex sentence; it is added to an independent clause

using the conjunctive adverb “however”, forming a compound sentence:

I wanted to travel after I graduated from college; however, I had to go to

work immediately.

2. The first part is a complex sentence; it is added to an independent clause

using the coordinator “but”, forming a compound sentence:

After I graduated from college, I wanted to travel, but I had to go to work

immediately.
 3. Here, two complex sentences are joined by the coordinator “but” to form a
compound sentence:

I wanted to travel after I graduated from college, but I had to go to work

immediately because I had to support my family.

More Examples:

I admire Tim, but he doesn't admire me, although I try hard to impress him.

Independent clauses: I admire Tim

he doesn’t admire me
Dependent clause: although I try hard to impress him

Even if you fail, at least you tried, and you're a better person for it.

Independent clauses: at least you tried

you’re a better person for it
Dependent clause: even if you fail

The dog lived in the backyard, but the cat, who thought she was superior, lived inside
the house.

Independent clauses: the dog lived in the backyard.

the cat lived inside the house.

Dependent clause: who thought she was superior

Though the movie had been tested on the market, The Last Shadow did not fare well in
the United States, but it did develop a huge following in Europe, which usually does not
go for this movie genre.

Independent clauses: the Last Shadow did not fare well in the United
States.
it did develop a huge following in Europe.

Dependent clauses: though the movie had been tested on the market
which usually does not go for this movie genre

EXERCISE 2R: Clauses

Identify the types of clauses in the following Compound-Complex Sentences: Dependent or
Independent. Circle dependent clauses; underline independent clauses.

1. John went to school, but James remained at home because he had a sore throat.
2. If he changes his mind, we will know for sure that Joe has learned his lesson, but only time
will tell.

3. Those clouds look like rain; we should hurry before we get caught in bad weather.

4. Here is the money that I owe you, and I am happy to be free of debt.

5. Were you ever in a storm that was full of lightning, or don't you remember?

EXERCISE 2S: Clauses

Identify the types of clauses in the following Compound-Complex Sentences: Dependent or
Independent. Circle dependent clauses; underline independent clauses.

1. Since we had gone only a mile from camp, we could return before dark, and we would not
become lost.

2. After the tornado had hit, my house was gone, but my neighbor's house was not touched.

3. Mary heard the frightening noise again, and the sound was one that would frighten the
bravest of people.

4. The route can be changed, but I know several people who will not like the change.

5. Dr. Mathews did what could be done, but it simply was not enough to save John’s life.

REVIEW: Simple, Compound, Complex, & Compound-

Complex Sentences

EXERCISE 2U: Review

The following sentences are either a simple sentence, a compound sentence, a complex
sentence or a compound-complex sentence. Identify the sentences.

1. Jim and his friend Ryan had planned to return to Canada.

2. Although we searched everywhere, Curtis could find no trace of his shoes.

3. Alaina wrote an original poem, and her mother corrected her spelling.

4. Since he was entrusted with the secret, Fred became very serious, and he was no longer a
practical joker.

5. The real story is that he was injured while he was hiking.

6. None of the other jurors asked me to change my mind.

7. Barbara and Jeanne whispered and giggled all night.

8. It cannot be denied.

9. The boy who is speaking is my brother, and he will be staying with us.

10. I know you don't like him, but that doesn't matter.

SENTENCE TYPES AND WRITING STYLE
EXERCISE 2V

Writing that uses only one kind of sentence is boring and may not convey the message that
you intend. As you read the model paragraph below, answer the following questions: Which
paragraphs have too many compound sentences? Which paragraph has too many simple
sentences? Which paragraph uses a good mixture of sentence type?

Rosa Parks is a famous African-American woman, and she is often called

“the mother of the civil rights movement.” She was born into a poor but
hardworking African-American family in Alabama, and no one suspected that she
would become the spark that ignited the civil rights movement in the United
States. This movement changed U.S. society forever, and it helped African-
Americans attain equal rights under the law.
Parks became famous quite be accident. One day in 1955, she was on
her way home from her job in a Montgomery, Alabama, department store. She
boarded a city bus with three other African-Americans. They sat in the fifth row.
The fifth row was the first row African-Americans were allowed to sit in. A few
stops later, the front rows filled up. A white man was left standing.
According to the laws of that time, African-Americans had to give up their
seats to whites, so the bus driver asked Parks and the three other African-
Americans to get up and move. Although the others complied, Parks refused.
She later said she was not tired from work, but tired of being treated like a
second-class citizen. The bus driver called the police, who arrested Parks and
took her away in handcuffs.
Over the weekend, a protest was organized, and the following Monday,
African-American people in Montgomery began a boycott of the public buses,
and the boycott was tremendously successful, and it lasted more than a year.
The Supreme Court of the United States finally ruled that segregation on public
transportation was unconstitutional. African-Americans had won a huge victory,
and they realized their power to change the system.
EXERCISE 2W: HOMEWORK Sentence Type and Style

Use different kinds of sentences to improve this short essay, which contains too many simple
sentences. (Rewrite the essay on a separate sheet of paper.)

Nonverbal communication is used everywhere in the world. It is also

called “body language.” It is a very powerful means of communication. It
communicates much more than spoken words.
One example of nonverbal communication is what occurs between
parents and child. Parents smile at their child. They communicate love. They
communicate acceptance. And they communicate reassurance. The child feels
comfortable and safe. The parents’ smile signifies approval. The child is happy
and well adjusted.
Another example of nonverbal communication is the image a person
shows in public. A woman is walking alone. She is walking on an unfamiliar
street. The street is possibly dangerous. She wants to appear confident. So
she walks quickly. She may be tired. But she walks with her shoulders straight.
She walks with her head held high. Her eyes are focused straight ahead.
Someone is looking at her. She returns the glance without hesitation. In
contrast, a nervous woman appears afraid. She walks slowly with her shoulders
and eyes down.
Indeed, body language can express more than spoken language. Merely
by raising an eyebrow, a person can express disapproval. They can express
anger. They can even express love. One can also express these things by
clenching a jaw or softening the eyes. It is a very strong method of
communication.

Taken from: Richter, K. (2009). W1 Unit 2 Student Copy. Class material. Guanajuato, Gto.: Universidad 
de Guanajuato.