LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR TEACHERS REVIEWER

Biological Science
By: Myrna Paez-Quinto

./ Coverage: Plant and Animal Biology, Inorganic

and Organic Chemistry, Cell Biology, Microbiology,
Genetics and Evolution, Biochemistry, Anatomy and
Physiology

./ l 00 Rationalized Questions

./ 200 Additional Practice Test Questions

./ NCBTS Oriented

G/F Unit M Paseo del Colegio Bldg., SH Loyola car. R. Papa St. Sampaloc Manila
Tel No. 736-25-75 I 559-88-52
Email: met_review@yahoo.com Website: metreviewcenter.com
 Philippine Copyright 2013
Preface
by: MET Review Publishing House
and Myrna P. Quinto

This reviewer is designed to answer the needs of Biology teachers

ISBN : 978-971-9908-03-06
All rights reserved. _
No part of this book may be reproduced
In any form or by any means without the
Written permission of the copyright owner
and the publisher
Published and exclusively distributed by
MET Review Publishing House
4th Floor Rm. 409 CMFFI Bldg. ,
R. Papa St. Sampaloc Manila
Tel. 7362575 I 5598852
· Email add: met_review@yahoo.com
who prepare for the Licensure Examinations for Teachers (LET). It provides
complete review of material covered in the teacher's board examination.
There are short lecture notes for every concept in general biology such
as cell biology, chemistry of life, genetics, form and functions of plant and
animals and physiological processes. Likewise there are questions that
range from elementary and basic questions to advanced one. Answers
are provided for every question. The first one hundred questions are not
only provided with answers but with short explanations for the concept
being presented. Using this reviewer will make you well prepared for the
examination as you master the concept which makes you develop self
confidence.

Layout by: Johnely A. Lazatin

Printed by: MET Review Publishing House
Cover by: Bryan Ranara
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgement

The author would like to thank Nature of Biology

MET Re.viewCenter for giving her the opportunity to share

What is Biology 1
her knowledge to her fellow educators;
Branchesof Biology 1-2
Ms. Jennifer Alcoriza and all her staffs for the patience

in following up and in waiting for the final manuscripts; Characteristics of Living Things 2-4

MET reviewers for the friendship and camaraderie Cellular Basesof Life 4
that makes the work lighter;
Comparison between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells 5
Her family who serves as her inspiration;
Difference between Plant and Animal Cells 6-7
The Almighty God for the knowledge, strength and skills given her

to finish this manuscript Cell Structures and Functions 7-12

Cell Cycle 12-16

MYRNA PAEZ QUINTO
Comparison between Meiosis and Mitosis 17

Basic Cell Processes 18-24

Chemical Basis of Life 24-28

Plants 28-39

Animals 39..:..49
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NATURE OF BIOLOGY:

What is Biology?
Organ System 49-70 • It literally means "the study of life".
• It is the is the science of living things.
• It is such a broad field, covering the minute workings of chemical machines
Basic Genetics 70-77 inside our cells, to broad scale concepts of ecosystems and global climate
change.
100 Rationalized Questions 78-99 • It is traditionally divided into two major branches - Botany and Zoology. Botany
deals with the study of plant life and Zoologydeals with the study of animal
life.
Practice Test 1 100- 111
Branches of Biology
• Taxonomy/Systematics- deals with the identification, namingand classification
Practice Test 2 112-123
of organisms. Identification means determining the exact position of an
organism in the set plan of classification. Classification is the system of
Answer Key Practice Test 1 124 arrangement of organism into groups showing relationships. Naming means
giving scientific names to plants and animals.
• Morphology- deals with the form and structure of organisms.
Answer Key Practice Test 2 125 • Anatomy - the study of internal structure of plants and animals.
• Histology- is the study of tissues of plants and animals.
References 126 • Genetics - deals with the mechanism of inheritance and maintenance of
hereditary characters.
• Evolution - deals with study of the origin of life and process of gradual
Online Resources 127-130 transformation of simple life forms to complex to specialized forms.
• Paleobiology- deals with the origin, structure and growth of organisms of
the past based on fossils. Fossils are preserved remains, tracks or traces of
Appendix: LET Competencies Major in Biological Science 131-133 organisms that lived in the past.
• Ecology- the study of relationship of organisms to their physical environment
in which they are living and to one another. It may either be Autecology or
Synecology. Autecology refers to the ecological study of an individual organism
or a single species. Synecology refers to the ecological studies of groups of
organism.
• Marine Biology - the study of ocean plants and animals and the ecological
relationship among marine organisms.
• Physiology- deals with the study of various processes and functions of
organisms which includes vital activities such as feeding, digestion, excretion,
respiration, photosynthesis, transpiration absorption, circulation and others.
• Cytology(Cell Biology)- the study of the structure and functions of cells.
• Molecular Biology - deals with the study of molecular organization of cells.
• Biochemistry- deals with chemistry of biological systems and processes. It
is an interdisciplinary science of organic chemistry and Biology.
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3
2 ~'-'U_ft)J LET SPECIALIST
• Growth and Development
• Microbiology - deals with the study of microscopic organisms such protozoans,
o Growth is an increase in size. It requires an organism to take in material from
algae, fungi, bacteria and viruses. . . the environment and organize the material into its own structures.
• Embryology- deals with the study of embryonic development of organisms.
o Multicellular organisms grow by increasing the number of cells. They begin
as a single cell that repeatedly divides and progressively differentiates into
Specialized Branches of Biology tissues and organs.
• Entomology- the study of insects
o Even single-celled organisms grow. When first formed by cell division, they
• Herpetology - the study of reptiles and amphibians
are small, and must grow and develop into mature cells.
• Ichthyology- the study of fishes
• Mammology - the study of mammals
• Reproduction
• Mycology- the study of fungi
o Refers to the ability to produce copies of itself by the process, either
• Ornithology- the study of birds
• Parasitology- the study of parasites and parasitism asexually, sexually or both.
• Protozoology- study of protozoans . . o Asexual reproduction involves only one parent, and the resulting cells are
• Virology - the study of viruses and some other virus-like agents, usually generally identical to the parent cell. An example can be observed in
. considered part of microbiology or pathology bacteria. Bacteria grow and quickly reach maturity, after which they split
into two organisms by the process called binary fission.
The Characteristicsof Living Things o Sexual reproduction involves two parents that contribute to the formation
• Complex organization . of a new individual. During this process, a new combination of traits can be
0
Refers to the level of complexity and organization of the body of an organism. produced. It involves the process of fertilization.
0
A living thing is composed of one or more cells which are· organized into.
tissues. • Evolution
0
A tissue is a group of cells that perform a specific function. Group of tissues o A series of changes that occur in populations, and the organisms in the
in turn, form organs, such as the stomach and kidney. population over time to become better able to metabolize, respond, and
0
A number of organs working together compose an organ system. reproduce.
o An organism is a complex series of various organ systems. o Enable the organisms to adapt to their environment
o They develop abilities to cope with their environment that their ancestors
• Metabolism did not have.
0
Refers to the sum total of all the chemical changes and processes in the
cell. • Adaptation
0
It involves exchanges of chemical matter with the external environmen~~nd o The ability of living things to be suited to their mode of existence.
extensive transformations of organic matter within the cells of a living o It may be behavioral or structural. Presence of thick stem in cacti plants
· organism. . . . to have stored water is an example of structural adaptation while shedding
0
It may either be anabolism or catabolism. Anabolism rs any constructive of leaves of plants during summer to lessen the parts to use water is an
process by which large molecules are made from smaller ones. Example: example of behavioral adaptation.
protein synthesis, photosynthesis .
0
Cataboli s m is a metabolic process by which large molecules are broken • Homeostasis
down into smaller ones. Example : digestion o Refers to the maintenance of a constant internal environment in terms of
temperature, pH, water concentrations
• Responsiveness o Much of our own metabolic energy goes toward keeping within our own
o Ability to respond to stimuli in the external environment. . homeostatic limits. For example muscular activity generates heat as a
0
Stimuli are changes in the environment that causes the organisms to react. waste product. This heat is removed from our bodies by sweating. Some
Examples of stimuli: light, heat, sound, and chemica: and mechanicalcontact.
 f~'}MET REVIEW
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of this heat is used by warm-blooded animals, mammals and birds, to Comparison between Prokaryotic Cells and Eukaryotic Cells
maintain their internal temperatures.
Characteristics Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
• Genetic Control Nuclear Membrane Absent Present
o Refers to the transmission of genetic materials from generation to
generation to preserve the traits of the species. Single and composed of Multiple and composed of
Chromosomes
o Genetic materials are units of information package in the cells that direct nucleic acid nucleic acid and protein
organization, reproduction and environmental adaptation. Loop of DNA in the Thin, very long DNA
DNA cytoplasm organized into chromosomes
CELLULAR BASES OF LIFE in the nucleus
What are Cells? Both synthesized in the RNA synthesized in the
• All living things are made up of cells thus known as the basic structure and RNA and Protein
same compartments. nucleus; proteinsynthesized
function of all the living things. in the cytoplasm
• Some organisms are unicellular while others are multicellular. Unicellular
organisms or single celled organisms are made up of only one cell. Multicellular Endoplasmic reticulum,
Golgi apparatus, Absent Present
organisms are made up of countless number of cells.
Lysosome
Early Discoveries of the Cell Absent, the function of the
• Robert Hooke (1635 - 1703) - observed a thin slice of tlie cork under his Mitochondria mitochondria is performed Present
microscope and saw empty compartments which he named cell. by the plasma membrane
• Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1632 -1723) - invented the first simple microscope,
discovered bacteria and other microscopic organisms in rain water and studied Ribosomes Small Large
structure of plant and animal cell. Microtubules Usually absent Present
• Felix Dujardin (1801 - 1860) - discovered the internal substance of living
cells and named it sarcode. Cytoplasm No cytoskeleton, very few Cytoskeleton present;
• Jan Evangelista Purkinje (1787 - 1869) - gave the name "protoplasm" w/c organelles present many organelle present.
means prototype of living substance.
• Robert Brown (1773- 1858)-discovered the nucleus of cells Cellular organization Mainly multicellular with
Mainly unicellular
• Matthias Schleiden (1804 -1881) and Theodore Schwann (1810 - 1882) - differentiation of cells
developed the first cell theory which states that all living things are made up Photosynthetic May contain chlorophyll Chlorophyll contained in
of cells. Apparatus but not in chloroplast chloroplast
• Rudolf Virchow (1821 - 1902) - theorized biogenesis. He stated that cells
can only come from the division of the pre-existing cells. Generally 1 to 1 O Generally 10 to 100
• Louis Pasteur (1882 -1895) - supplied the proof for Virchow's theory of Cell size micrometer in linear micrometer in linear
biogenesis. dimension dimension

Kinds of Cells Taken from Functional Biology Modular Approach by Joaquin, et al. and Essentials of
• Cells differ in many ways and can be classified in a variety of ways. Bioioqice! Sciences by Hafa/la et al ..
• One way to classify them is as to prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
• Plant cells also differ from animal cells
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Diffences between Plant and Animal Cells
Centrosome Absent. Instead two small Present
clear areas called polar caps
Characteristics Plant Cell Animal Cell
are present.
Cell Size Large Smaller than plant cells
Present. Lysosomes are
Cell Shape Rectangular Circular Lysosomes Absent vesicles that contain enzymes
A single centrally located If any, there are a number that destroy dead cell
Vacuoles vacuole. It takes up almost of smalle vacuoles spread organelles and other cells
90% of the cell volume. The throughout the cytoplasm debis.
vauole stores water and that store water, ions and Golgi Bodies In place of golgi bodies, its sub Complex golgi bodies are
maintains turgidity of the cell. waste materials. units known as dictyosomes present close to the nucleus.
are present.
A Jigid cell wall (made of Cell wall is absent. This
Cell Wall cellulose) is present around allows animal cells to adopt Taken from: http:/lwww.buzzle.comlarticles!plant-cell-vs-animal-cell.html
a plant cell that helps it defferent shapes.
maintain its shape. Cell Structures and Functions

Present. Chlorophyll is the Absent. As animals lack this Cell Wall

pigment that traps sun's pigment, they cannot make
energy which is utilized their own food.
Chloroplasts
by plants to make food
through the process of
photosynthesis. This pigment
is present in the chloroplasts.
Cell division takes place by
the formation of cell plate in
the center of the dividing cell.
Cell Division
This becomes the cell wall
between the two daughter
cells.
Present only in lower forms.
Centrioles Plants instead have microtubule
organizing centers (MTOC)
that produce the microtubules.
Animal cells divide with the
formation of a cleavage
furrow. This is formed as
the chromosomes move to
the ends of the microtubule
spindle formed by the
centrioles.
Present. Centrioles help in
division of animal cells by
creating microtubule spindles
that pull the chromosomes to
oppostie ends for cell division
to occur.
• It is the outermost tough and rigid layer, which is made up of cellulose,
hemicellulose, pectin and at other times, lignin.
• It is always connected with the cell walls of other cells.
• It is responsible for protection, giving structural support and help in the
filter mechanism.
Cell Membrane/Plasma Membrane
• It is a semi-permeable membrane which means that it is selective of the
substances that will get in and out of the cell.
• It is a phospholipid bilayer, a double membrane composed of a unique type
of lipid that spontaneously organizes into two layers.
• It is located inside the cell wall and surrounds the cytoplasm.
• It connects the intracellular components (organelles and cytoplasm) with
the extracellular environment
• It serves as the boundary between the cytoplasm of the cell and the external
environment. It regulates the materials that enter or leave the cell and provides
mechanisms for cell-to-cell communication.
Plasmodesmata
• It is a small opening, which connects plant cells with each other.
• It is present only in some types of algal cells and plants cells
• It is a connecting channel that enables transport of materials and allows
communication between the sells.

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Nucleus
• It is the most noticeable part that differentiates eukaryotes from prokaryotes.
• It is a membrane-bound central cell organelle which contains the genetic
material - DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
• It is the control center of the cell which regulates the cell cycle, growth, protein
synthesis and reproductive function.
• It has a dense, spherical body called nucleolus
Nuclear Membrane
• It is the outer covering of the nucleus.
• It separates the cytoplasmic contents from the nuclear contents.
• It has minute pores (nuclear pores) which allow exchange materials of
between the nucleus and cytoplasm.
Cytoplasm
• It is the jellylike materials that consist of the organelles outside the nucleus
and fluid portion called cytosol.
• It is the site for cell division, glycolysis and many other cellular activities.
• It is where the cytoskeleton elements (microtubules and microfilaments) are
present.
• The flowing movement of cytosol, known as cytoplasmic streaming, allows
organelles to interact with one another
Vacuoles
• They are large membrane-bound compartments, which store water and
compounds.
• They function as storage, excretory and secretory organelles.
• They are covered by a membrane called tonoplast.
• A mature plant cell has a single vacuole at the near center of the cell
(central vacuole), which contributes to about 30-80 percentof the cell's volume.
Plastids
• They are double membrane organelles present in plants and other
photosynthetic organisms
• They are organelles responsible for photosynthetic activity, manufacturing
and storage of chemical compounds.
• They can be classified into chloroplast, chromoplast and leucoplast.
• Chloroplast contains chlorophyll pigment, which helps in capturing light
energy and, converting it to chemical energy.
• Chromoplast is a colored plastids other than green that are specialized in
synthesizing and storing carotenoid pigments.
• Leucoplast is the colorless plastid that store food.
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Mitochondria
• They are dou~IE! mem?rane organelle, the inner membrane is thrown into
folds called cnstae. "'.'h1ch provide greater surface area for greater cellular
respiratory productivity. The inner cavity into which the cristae is present is
called the matrix.
• They are oblong also known as 'the powerhouse of the cell'.
• They are resp?nsible for breaking down complex carbohydrate and sugar
molecules to simpler forms.
: They are crucial for cell signaling, cycle, division, growth and death.
Th~y are the site of the final and most energy-productive steps of metabolism
which generate cellular energy (ATP).
Endoplasmic Reticulum
• It is a network of tubules and flattened sacs which is a continuation of the
outer nuclear membrane.
• I~ plays a major role in manufacturing and storage of chemical compounds,
like glycogen and steroids.
• It i~ also involved in translation and transportation of protein.
• It is also. connected to the nuclear membrane, so as to make a channel
between the cytoplasm and the nucleus.
• There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum, rough ER and smooth ER. The
granules that are attached to rough ER are the ribosomes that form granules
on the ~urface to give it a "rough" appearance. It is involved in the synthesis
of prote1.ns. Smooth .ER does not contain ribosome and it is involved with the
synthesis of fatty acids and membrane components such as lipids.
Golgi apparatus
• It is a system of fiattened, membrane-bound sacs.
• It is an organelle r~sponsible for processing of macromolecules (like
car~ohydrates, proteins and fats) and packaging them into membrane-bound
v~s1clesfor transportation purposes.
• It is associated with vesicles which are pinched off from the ends of flattened
sacs and are believed to be carriers of materials between the golgi bodies
and other parts of the cell.
• It is present near the nucleus of the plant cell.
Ribosome
• They are organelles, which are made up of 60% RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) and
40% protein, and play an important role in protein translation.
• !hey a:e the tiny cellular structures involved in making proteins under the
instruction of DNA. ,
• !hey are found attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum or floating free
in the cytoplasm
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Lysosomes . • This is a network of microtubules, intermediate filaments and microfilaments
• These are membrane-bound vesicles found in animal cell that contain
hydrolytic enzymes.
• They are known as digestive sacs of the cell.
• They contain hydrolytic enzyme or digestive enzymes for the breakdown of
carbohydrates, proteins and fats within the cell.
• They play an important role in the destruction or repair of defective parts of
the cell.
• They are also known as the suicide bag of the cell.
Centrioles
• They are cylindrically-shaped cell structure found in animal cells which play
a role in cell division.
• When a cell is about to divide, they replicate producing two pairs of centrioles,
right angle to each other. . . . • They are thin, filament like structures found in the cytosol, which contain
• They are believed to be responsible for the formation of spindle fibers during
cell division.
Cilia and Flagella
• These are externalappendages of the plasma membranethat aid in locomotion
of the cell, adhesion and movement of materials on the outside of the cell.
• Cilia are tiny hair like structures while fiagella are whip-like structure.
• Cilia are shorter than flagella and there are more cilia per cell compared to
flagella.
Microbodies
• They are single, membrane-bound, globular shaped organelles, which are
found in the cytoplasm.
• They range in size from 0.5-1 micrometer, and contain degradative enzymes.
Many kinds of microbodies are present in a plant cell, of which the two most
common types are peroxisomes and glyoxysomes.
Peroxisomes
• They are small, membrane-bound organelles that contain oxidative enzymes
which are involved in the breakdown of fatty acid molecules.
• They have enzymes for oxidizing certain organic molecules resulting in the
formation of hydrogen peroxide.
Cytoskeleton
• It is a network of interconnected protein filaments which extends throughout
the cytoplasm.
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which is the cellular "scaffolding" or "skeleton" within the cell.
• This scaffolding has various functions: maintains the cell's shape.protects
the cell, enables some cell motion (using flagella and cilia), plays important
role in intra-cellular transport (the movement of vesicles and organelles) and
it is involved in cellular division.
Microtubules
• These are straight, hollow, tubular cylinders'
• These structures are involved in synthesizing cell wall.
• They are importantfor structural support, cell division and transport of vesicles.
• They are simpler in plant cell than those of an animal cell.
Microfilaments
actin subunits.
• They are responsible for giving structural support, flexibility and shape to the
cell.
Cell Reproductions
• Cells come from pre-existing cells.
• Cells increase in number through cell division. Cell division results in the
formation of new cells.
• Prokaryotes and eukaryotes differ significantly in the processes. Eukaryotic
cell division is more complex than prokaryotes.
• Cell division involves the distribution of identical genetic material, DNA, to
two daughters cells
• Cell division in non-sex cells or somatic cells is called mitosis while cell
division involving sex cells is called meiosis.
Core Concepts
• All Organisms Consist of Cells and Arise from Preexisting Cells
o Mitosis is the process by which new cells are generated.
o Meiosis is the process by which gametes are generated for reproduction.
• The Cell Cycle Represents All Phases in the Life of a Cell
o DNA replication (S phase) must precede mitosis, so that all daughter cells
receive the same complement of chromosomes as the parent cell.
o The gap phases separate mitosis from S phase. This is the time when
molecular signals mediate the switch in cellular activity.
o Mitosis involves the separation of copied chromosomes into separate cells
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• Unregulated Cell Division Can Lead to Cancer
o Cell-cycle checkpoints normally ensure that DNA replication and mitosis
occur only when conditions are favorable and the process is working
correctly.
o Mutations in genes that encode cell-cycle proteins can lead to unregulated
growth, resulting in tumor formation and ultimately invasion of cancerous
cells to other organs.
Basic Terms
• gene - basic unit of heredity; codes for a specific trait
• locus - the specific location of a gene on a chromosome (locus - plural loci)
• genome - the total hereditary endowment of DNA of a cell or organism
• somatic cell - all body cells except reproductive cells
• gamete - reproductive cells (i.e. sperm & eggs)
• chromosome - elongate cellular structure composed of DNA and protein -
they are the vehicles which carry DNA in cells
• diploid (2n) - cellular condition where each chromosome type is represented
by two homologous chromosomes
• haploid (n) - cellular condition where each chromosome type is represented
by only one chromosome
• homologous chromosome - chromosome of the same size and shape which
carry the same type of genes
• chromatid - one of two duplicated chromosomes connected at the centromere
• centromere - region of chromosome where microtubules attach during
mitosis and meiosis
Cell Cycle
• It is referred to as the sequence of events being repeated from one mitotic
cell division to the next.
• It has two parts - the interphase and the mitotic phase.
• lnterphase is also known as the nondividing stage. It is devoted to cell
growth.
• Most actively dividing cell spend some 90% of their time in the interphase
stage.
• During interphase, there are sequence of events which are divided into three
- the gap 1 (G1) which is the longest phase, synthesis (or S phase) and gap
2 (G2).
• Mitotic (M) phase is a combination of mitosis and cytokinesis.
lnterphase Stage
•Gap 1 (G1) Phase
o It is the period of preparation for cell division.
o RNA and proteins necessary for making DNA are synthesized.
• Synthesis (S) Phase
o DNA is synthesized and chromosomes are replicated.
o Each strand of a double stranded chromosomes is called sister chromatids.
• Gap 2 (G2) Phase
o The cell continues to synthesize RNA and proteins and increase in size
o Before division the cell grows to its characteristic adult size.
o After division, the cell may go to G1 to prepare for the next cell division.
o Some cells go into an arrested stage known as GO state to undergo cell·
differentiation.
o Nerve cells and blood cells remain in GO throughout their lives.
Mitosis
• It i_s a cell division that involves somatic cells or body cells.
• It ts the process of forming identical daughter cells by replicating and
dividing the original chromosomes
• In this process, the resulting daughter cells have the same number of
chromosomes with the mother cell.
• It has different stages - prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
I 'rophase Stage
• Nuclear envelope and nucleolus disappear
• Chromatin materials thicken and shorten into double stranded chromosomes
with two chromatids joined by centromere.
• The centrioles divide and produce asters (asters are formed only for animal
cells).
• The centrioles move to the opposite poles of the cell.
• Spindle fibers are formed.
Motaphase Stage
• Th~ doublestranded chromosomes align themselves at the equatorial region.
• Spindles attach to the kinetochore fibers.
• This is the shortest stage of mitosis.
Anaphase Stage
• Centromere separates.

• Spindle fibers pull the chromosomes to the opposite. pole
• Single stranded chromosomes migrate to the opposite poles.
Telophase Stage . . .
• The chromosomes reach the poles of their respective spindles
• The nuclear envelope reappears
• Chromosomes uncoil into chromatin form
• Nucleolus reappears. . . .
• Formation of two smaller cells each with exactly the same genetic information.
These cells may then develop into different adult forms via the processes of
development.
Meiosis
• ft is a special type of nuclear division which segregates one copy of each
homologous chromosome into each new "gamete".
• It reduces the number of sets of chromosomes by half, so that when
fertilization occurs the ploidy of the parents will be reestablished.
• It is divided into meiosis I and meiosis II.
• In Meiosis f, the homologous chromosomes separate giving rise to.two ~~p.lo1d
cells (N chromosomes, 23 in humans) and therefore called reduction division.
• A diploid human cell contains 46 chromosomes which are represen.te~ as
2N which denotes 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes. After meiosrs I,
the cell contains only 23 chromosomes. . .
• In meiosis II, the sister chromatids will split thereby creating 4 haploid cells.
First Meiotic Division
Prophase I
• Chromosomes begin to condense, .
• Synapsis occurs. In this process, homologous chrom?somes which are made
up of sister chromatids come together as pairs forming tetrad, a complex of
four chromatids.
• Criss-crossing in numerousplaces along the length of chromatidsof homologous
chromosomes occurs. This criss-crosses which are called cbiesmete, hold
homologous chromosomes together. . .
• The centriole pairs move away from each other and spindle rnicrotubules are
formed between them.
• Nuclear envelope and nucleolus disappear.
• Chromosomes begin to move to the equatorial region. . .
• This stage usually occupies more than 90% of the time required for rneiosrs
thus considered the longest stage.
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Metaphase I
• The homologous chromosomes are now arranged in the equatorial plane or
metaphase plate in the form of tetrad.
• Spindle fibers from one pole of the cell attach to one chromosome of each
pair, while spindle fibers from the opposite pole attache to the homologue.
• The random orientation of each bivalent along the metaphase plate and in
the equatorial plane is the basis of the chromosomal independent assortment.
Anaphase I
• Spindle apparatus pulled the chromosomes toward the poles.
• Sister chromatids remain attached at their centromeres and move as a single
unit toward the same pole.
• Homologous chromosome moves to the opposite pole.
Telophase I and Cytokinesis
• Spindle fibers apparatus continues to separate the homologous chromosomes
. until the chromosomes reach the poles of the cell.
• Each pole has a haploid chromosome set with two chromatids.
• Cleavage furrows form in animal cells and cell plates appear in plant cells
leading to the formation of two daughter cells .
• Nuclear membrane and nucleoli reappear.
.
econd Meiotic Division
~rophase II
• Spindle apparatus are formed.
• Chromosomes start to move towards the metaphase II plate.
Metaphase II
• Chromosomes align themselves along the metaphase plate with the
kinetochores of sister chromatids of each chromosome pointing towards the
opposite pole.
Anaphase II
• The centromere of sister chromatids separate.
• Sister chromatids of each pair are now individual chromosomes.
• Chromosome move toward the opposite pole of the cell.
Tolophase II and Cytokinesis
• Nuclei begin to form at opposite poles of the cell.
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Comparison Between Meiosis and Mitosis
• Cytokinesis begins.
• Four daughter cells are formed with haploid number of chromosomes.
Mitosis Meiosis
Summary of the Stages of Meiosis Mitosis takes place within somatic cells Meiosis takes place within gamete
(e lls that make up the body). cells (sex cells).
• Period of Multiplication and Growth . . One single division of the mother cell Two divisions of the mother cell result in
The primordial germ cell with diploid chromosomes (2N) multiplies by
0 I« ults in two daughter cells. four meiotic productsor haploid gametes.
mitosis. .
This takes in the gonads (testes and ovary) at the sexual maturity of the A mitotic mother cell can either be
0 A meiotic mother cell is always diploid.
individual. haploid or diploid.
The meiotic products contain a haploid
• First Meiotic Division lh number of chromosomes per (n) number of chromosomes in contrast
Two members_of each homologous chromosomes pair come together nucleus remains the same after to the (2n) number of chromosomes in
0
forming tetrad in a process called synapsis. division. mother cell.
o Crossing over of chromatid stands occur.
o This produce two cells, each has non-paired chromosome. ll I preceded by a S-phase in which In meiosis, only meiosis I is preceded
o This is called a reduction division.
1111 amount of DNA is duplicated. by a S-phase.
During prophase I, complete pairing 01
• Second Meiotic Division 111 mitosis, there is no pairing
all homologous chromosomes takes
Chromosomes promptly move to the middle line of the dividing cells and i 1 f' homologous chromosomes.
0 place.
their centromere divides.
One of the two chromatids passes to each daughter cell thus called the I h re is no exchange of DNA There is at least one crossing-over or
0
equational division. mossing-over) between chromosomes. DNA exchange per homologous pair
o This results to four haploid cells. of chromosomes.

lh centromeres split during anaphase. The centromeres do separate during

• Period of Maturation anaphase 11, but not during anaphase I.
0
In gametogene:>is, the haploid cells mature into sperms.
o In oogenesis, haploid cells mature into ova. 'h genotype of the daughter cells is Meiotic products differ in their genotype
id ntical to that of the mother cells. from the mother cell.
Aft r mitosis, each daughter cell has After meiosis, each daughter cell has
1 xactty same DNA strands. only half of the DNA strands.

I 1k · 11 from http://www.buzzle.com/articles/difference-between-mitosis-and-meiosis.html
 t,',l"~· MET REVIEW
18
1i~uw1!
,i~;\ MET REVIEW
LET SPECIALIST
'<ztfbJ LET SPECIALIST 19

o The catabolic pathways of glycolysis is consists of 10 steps, each cataiyzed

BASIC CELL PROCESSES
o The ten steps are divided into two phases - the energy investment phase
CellularRespiration · f h
• Organisms, such as animals, fun+gi, protozoa. and a large portion o t e
bacteria cannot perform photosyn.hes1s.
• These depend on the carbohydrates formed in plants to support
0'rganisms
their metabolic processes. . which transfers a phosphate group from ATP to sugar .
• The process of converting carbohydrate from food (produced by plants) into
energy is known as cellular respiration.
• This process may be classified into two types depending on the need for
energy_ aerobic or anaerobic. Aerobic need the presence of oxygen while
anaerobic occurs in the absence of oxygen. . . . . . .
• Whether oxygen-dependent or oxygen independent: u 1.s divided into t~ree
metabolic processes- glycolysis, Krebs's cycle and oxidative phosphorylation.
Metabolic Pathways of Cellular Respiration
• Glycolysis . .
Glycolysis is the process that involved the cataboilsm of glucose into two
0
molecules of pyruvic acid. . • Step 5 lsomerization (catalyzed by Triose phosphate isomerase)
In aerobic metabolism, pyruvic acid is converted to acetyl CoA which then
0
enters the Krebs Cycle.
• The pyruvate produced in glycolysis undergoes furth~r breakdown through
a process called aerobic respiration in most organisms. . Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
• This process requires oxygen and yi~l~s mu.ch more energy tha~ an aerobic
respiration. Aerobic respiration is divided into two processes. the Krebs
cycle, and the Electron Transport ?h~in. . .
In anaerobic metabolism, pyruvic acid rs reduced to .lactic acid.
0
• Anaerobic respiration is less efficient because 1t produces only two
molecules of ATP. .
• The anaerobic glycolysis pathway that is commonly used b_Y arnm.al cells
is lactic acid fermentation. The generation of energy m lact1.c a~1d
fermentation is much faster than the Krebs cycle o.r oxidative
phosphorylation. It is the preferred pathway f~r 1mmed1ate energy
generation in muscle cells under strenuous exercise. ,
• Lactic acid fermentation also occurs in red blood cells (RBC). RSC doesn t
have mitochondria and cannot process pyruvate through ~rebs cycle and
electron transport chain. Though RBC transp,orts oxygen, it does not u.se
any of this oxygen thus it can only generate energy through anaerobic
respiration (lactic acid fermentation).
by a specific enzymes
and the energy pay off phase. The first five steps (1-5) are energy investing
phase and the next five (6-10) are energy investing phase.
• Step 1 Glucose phosphorylation (catalyzed by Hexokinase)
* Glucose enters the cell and is phosphorylated by the enzyme hexokinase
• Step 2 lsomerization (catalyzed by Phosphoglucoisomerase)
*Glucose 6-phophate is rearranged to convert it to its isomer fructose
6-phophate.
• Step 3 2nd Phosphorylation (catalyzed by Phosphofructokinase)
*Another molecule of ATP is invested in glycolysis. An enzyme transfers
a phosphate group to sugar. With phosphate groups on its opposite
ends, the sugar is now ready to split into half.
• Step 4 Cleavage to two triose phosphates (catalyzed by Aldolase)
*An enzyme splits the sugar molecule into two different 3-carbon sugars
- glyceraldehyde phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate. These
two sugars are isomers of each other
*An enzyme catalyzes the reversible conversion between the two
3 - carbon sugars.
• Step 6 Generation of 1, 3-bisphosphoglycerate (catalyzed by
dehydrogenase)
*An enzyme catalyzes two sequential reactions while it holds
glyceraldehyde phosphate in its active site.
* The sugar is oxidized by the transfer of electrons and H+ to NAD+
forming NADH.
• Step 7 Substrate-level phosphorylation (catalyzed by Phosphoglycerate
kinase)
*There is production of some ATP molecules.
* The phosphate group added in the previous step is transferred to ADP.
For each glucose molecule that begins glycolysis, two molecules of
ATP are formed.
*However, two ATP molecules were invested to get sugar ready for
splitting. This step ends by the production of two molecules of
3 - phophoglyceraldehyde.
• Step 8 Phosphate transfer (catalyzed by Phosphoglycerate mutase)
*Enzymes relocate the remaining phosphate group to prepare the
substrate for the next reaction.
 i~\' MET
20 ,i\~)
REVIEW
LET SPECIALIST
• Step g Synthesis of phosphoenolpyruvate (catalyzed by Eno.lase)
*An enzyme forms a double bond in the substrate by extracting a water
molecule to form phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP). . •Step 5: Substrate-level phosphorylation (catalyzed by Succinyl-CoA
• Step 1 o Substrate-level phosphorylation (catalyzed by Pyruvate kinase)
*There is production of more ATP by transferring the phosphate group
from PEP to ADP.
*A net of two ATP molecules are formed at the end of the process.
* Glucose has been broken down and oxidized to two molecules of
pyruvate, the end product of glycolysis.
• Krebs Cycle
o This is also known as citric acid cycle.
0 It is a series of chemical changes in which citric acid is broken down to
carbon dioxide and hydrogen with subsequent oxygen uptake and release
of energy in the form of ATP.
0 Two turns of the Krebs cycle produce two ATPs by substrate-level
phosphorylation. The process which involve~ the production of ATP from
direct transfer of phosphate group to ADP rs known as substrate-level
phosphoryiation. . . . • Electron Transport Chain
0 Reduced coenzymes produced by the Krebs cycle which include six NADH
and two FADH2 per glucose carry high energy electrons to the electron
transport chain.
0 This process involves 8 steps cataiyzed by different enzymes:
• Step 1: Condensation (catalyzed by citrate synthetase)
* Acetyl CoA adds it two carbon fragment to oxaloacetate, a four carbon
compounds. . a lower-energy molecule (the acceptor).
*The unstable bond of acetyl CoA is broken as oxaloacetate displaces
the coenzyme and attaches to the acetyl group. This leads to the
formation of six-carbon citrate.
* CoA is then free to prime another two carbon fragment from pyruvate.
• Step 2: Reversible isomerization (catalyzed by aconitase)
* A molecule of water is removed and another is added back. The result
is the conversion of citrate to its isomer, isocitrate.
• Step 3: Oxidative Decarboxylation/1 st oxidation (catalyzed by isocitrate
dehydrogenase) . . .
*The substrate loses a C02 molecule and the remaining five-carbon
compound is oxidized, reducing NAD+ to NADH.
• Step 4: Oxidative decarboxylation/2nd oxidation (catalyzed by
a-Ketoglutarate dehydrogenase)
* C02 is lost.
*remaining four carbon compound is oxidized by the transfer of
MET REVIEW
LET SPECIALIST 21
electrons to NAO+ to form NADPH, and is then attached to coenzyrne
A by an unstable bond.
synthetase)
*Substrate-level phosphorylation occurs.
* CoA is displaced by a phosphate group, which is then transferred to
GDP to from guanosine triphosphate (GTP).
* GTP is similar to ATP, which is formed when GTP donates a phosphate
qroup to ADP.
• Step 6: Oxidation (catalyzed by Succinate dehydrogenase)
*Two hydrogens are transferred to FAD to form FADH2.
• Step 7: Hydration (catalyzed by fumarase)
*Bonds in the substrate are rearranged by the addition of a water molecule
• Step 8: Final Oxidation (catalyzed by malate dehydrogenase)
*The last oxidative step produces another molecule of NADH and
regenerates oxaloacetate, which accepts a two-carbon fragment from
acetyl CoA for another turn of the cycle.
o It is called electron transport chain because the electrons are transported
to meet up with oxygen (from respiration) at the end of the chain.
o Electrons from NADH and FADH2 (produced from Krebs Cycle) are
transferred to 02 (final electron acceptor) through a series of carriers
organized into four protein complexes in the mitochondrial membrane.
e It involves transfer of electrons from a high-energy molecule (the donor) to
o Electrons are transferred to a series of carrier molecules. Each time that
the electrons are transferred, they lose some of the energy that they
originally contained.
o The electrons are pulled downhill towards the final electron acceptor which
is the oxygen because it has the highest electronegativity.
e As electron is being transferred, the electron donor becomes oxidized while
electron acceptor is reduced.
o The electron acceptor from the previous step becomes the electron donor
to the next step so it becomes oxidized.
o Therefore all carrier molecules become oxidized except the final electron
acceptor (oxygen) which is reduced.
o The electron transport chain does not make ATP directly. ATP is produced
through the process of oxidative phosphorylation which use energy derived
from the transfer of electrons in an electron transport system and occurs
by chemiosmosis.
 .;~;\MET REVIEW
22 '1Jfft
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§ LET SPECIALIST f~'~i· LET
\~~HfW MET REVIEW
SPECIALIST 23
0 In an electron transport system, energy from e.lectron transfer during Photosynthesis
oxidation-reduction reactions enables certain earners to transport protons • It Is a process wherein plants, protista (algae) and some bacteria utilize
(H+) across a membrane. . sunlight to make food.
0 As the H+ concentration increases on one side of the membrane, an
• It takes place inside the chloroplasts which are organelles inside the plant
electrochemical gradient develops. Re-e.ntryof the protons through AT~
synthase which is a protein complex provides the energy for the synthesis cells that contain the green pigment known as chlorophyll.
of ATP from ADP and phosphate. o Chloroplasts are specialized organelle found in higher plant cells that
0 The movement of ions across a selectively p~rmea~le membrane, down contains chlorophyll which is a green pigment that absorbs light energy
their electrochemical gradient is called chem1osm~s1s. . . from the sun to fuel photosynthesis.
0 It is the process involved in oxidative phosphorylation which occurs m the o Chloroplasts are not found in all parts of the plants but leaves contain many
inner mitochondrial membrane. . cells with chloroplasts.
This membrane has many copies of a protein complex, ATP. synthase. o Chloroplasts are found mainly in mesophyll cells (also known as the palisade
~ Cristae, or infoldings of tile inner mitochondrial membrane, increase the cells) forming the tissues in the interior of the leaf.
surface area for chemiosmosis to occur. o Chloroplast has two membranes: the outer and inner membrane. Inside the
chloroplast is an aqueous space called stroma. In the stroma is a system
· Id for one glucose molecule being fully oxidized into carbon dioxide.
Tota I ATP y1e of interconnectedmembranoussacs called the thylakoids. Thylakoids stacked
Into columns are called grana. Chlorophyll is located in the thylakoids.
Step Coenzyme Source of ATP
ATP Yield • It Is powered by sunlight, the green parts of plants which contain chlorophyll,
Yield
th chloroplast produce organic compounds (glucose) and oxygen (02) from
Glycolysis Phosphorylation of glucose and fructose carbon dioxide (C02) and water (H20).
preparatory -2 6-phosphate uses two ATP from the
phase cytoplasm. • It Is consists of two sets of reactions: the light reaction and the Calvin cycle.
These two stages are linked by ATP and NADPH.
Glycolysis 4 Substrate-level phosphorylation • 111 the light reactions, water and light are inputs, and the gas oxygen and the
pay-off phase Oxidative phosphorylation. Only 2 ch mical energy molecules ATP and NADPH are produced. This reaction
2NADH 4
ATP per NADH since the coenzyme occurs in the grana. It is also called the photophase. The following are the
must feed into the electron transport t vents in this phase:
chain from the cytoplasm rather than
the mitochondrial matrix o The chlorophyll traps the light energy from the sun which results to the
ejection of some electrons (energized) from the chlorophyll molecule.
Oxidative 2NADH 6 Oxidative phosphorylation o 'The energized chlorophyll flow through a series of electron acceptors.
decarboxylation
o Some energy is lost as heat as energized electrons move from one accept
Krebs cycle 2 Substrate-level phosphorylation or to another, but portion of the energy is used in the formation of two
6NADH 18 Oxidative phosphorylation compounds - a high energy molecule, ATP and a hydrogen carrier, NADPH.
o The hydrogen atoms and electrons replace those ejected electrons from
2FADH2 4 Oxidative phosphorylation the chlorophyll upon absorption of light.
From the complete oxidation of one o Hydrogen ion from water together with an energized electrons reduced
Total Yield 36ATP glucose molecule to carbon dioxide and NADP+ to NADPH2.
oxidation of all the reduced coenzymes. o Oxygen is formed from the splitting of water molecule. It leaves the
Taken from: http:l/human.freesc1ence.org!htmx/cellular_resp1rat10n.php chloroplast finds its way out to the atmosphere.
o ATP and NADPH2 move to the stroma of the chloroplast to be used in the
Calvin cycle.
 /.~\MET REVIEW
24 ·~~~~
'tfft !/LET SPECIALIST
• Calvincycle is a light independent reaction that produces glucose molecules
from carbon dioxide using the energy-carrying products of the light reactions,
the ATP and NADPH. It occurs in the stroma. It has the following events:
o Carbon dioxide combines with 5-carbon sugar, RuDP and forms a very
unstable 6-carbon compound.
o The unstable 6-carbon eventually forms two molecules of 3-carbon acid,
phophoglyceric acid, PGA.
o The 3-carbon acid is reduced by NADPH with the use of energy from ATP
into 2 molecules of a 3-carbon sugar phosphoglyceraldehyde, PGAL.
o Some of these 3-carbon molecules is converted to glucose, a 6-carbon
sugar while some are used to form the 5-carbon sugar Ru DP which
combines with carbon dioxide.
o Calvin cycle completes the transformation of light energy to chemical energy
stored in glucose or sugar.
CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE
• Matter that makes up the universe is the same matter that makes up living
things.
• All living things are made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H2), oxygen (02), and
Nitrogen (N2) combined in various ways in definite proportion forming variety
of compounds.
• Some compounds contain carbon and is classified organic substances and
some do not contain carbon classified as inorganic.
Inorganic Compounds
• Oxygen (02) is involved with the extraction of energy from food molecules to C rbohydrates
make ATP
• Carbon Dioxide (C02) is a by-product of the breakdown of food molecules;
it is one of the raw materials in the process of photosynthesis.
• Water (H20) has many important properties for living organisms and is
• essential
Acids are for life.
molecules that dissociate in solution and give rise to hydrogen ions.
Hydrogen ion is one of the most important ions in living systems.
• Bases or alkali molecules accept proton or hydrogen ion.
• Salts are compounds
acid and a base. resulting from the chemical interaction between an
• Ac.ids, bases and salt regulate hydrogen ion concentration in extracellular I lpld
• fluids.
Acids, bases and salts when dissolved in water separate into ions and serve
as electrolytes or conductors of electrical impulses in response effectors.
r pertles of Water
• It stabilizes body temperature.
0 The high heat capacity of water allows it to absorb and release large
amou~ts of heat before changing temperature.
o The.high heat of ~aporization allows great cooling effect.
o Its high heat offu~1on prevents organisms from freezing at low temperature.
• It serves as protection for organisms.
o It acts as lubricant or cushion for organisms.
• It Is necessary in c~emical reactions within the organism.
o Most of t~e chemical reactions necessary for life do not take place unless
the reacting molecules are dissolved in water
o Water also directly participates in many chemical reactions
• It serves as transport molecules in the body of an organism.
o ~olar solvent properties: dissolves ionic substances, forms hydration layers
arou.nd large charged molecules, and serves as the body's major transport
medium.
r nlc Compounds
• They are molecules unique to living systems.
• There are fou~ ~ain classes of organic compounds in organisms -
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.
• ome organic compounds may form part of the organism or some may be
products of cell metabolism.
• They contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of 1 :2:1 (C:H:O)
• They play the following roles:
o Chief sources of energy in organisms.
e Serve as backbone of other molecules.
0
Combime with proteinsto form the structural componentof the living cell.
• xamples of carbohydrates
o M onosaccharides - glucose and fructose
0 Disaccharides _sucrose and lactose
0 Poly a
s cch anid es - starch and glycogen
• c ontain
· · C, H, and 0, but the proportion of oxygen in lipids is less than in
• carbohydrates.
Dissolve in nonpolar solvents, such as alcohol or acetone, but not in polar
solvents, such as water.
26
t'·'•:~'
~~)',MET REVIEW
LET SPECIALIST
,~~no,ir~;:;. ""
.r:.,J:}\ MET REVIEW
'.~~~LET SPECIALIST 27
• Lipids have the following roles in the body of an organism • Proteins perform the following roles
o Serve as the highest energy source. o regulate chemical reactions (enzymes)
o Act as insulators to protect animals from extreme cold. o structural proteins provide the framework for many of the body's tissues
o Serve as building blocks of many steroids. o responsible for muscle contraction
• Examples of lipid and their corresponding functions o serve as food reserves and as transport molecules
o Fats or triglycerides- gives energy o form antibodies which protect the body against diseases
o Phospholipids - serve as structural components of cell membranes o form genes that make organisms different from one another.
o Eicosanoids - regulate physiological processes
o Steroids: - regulate physiological processes Nucleic Acids
• Examples of lipids found in the body • Composed of C, 0, H, N, and P
o Fats - found in subcutaneous tissue and around organs • T~e basic unit of nucleic acids is the nucleotide, which is a monosaccharide
o Phospholipids - chief component of cell membranes with an attached phosphate and organic base
o Steroids - cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D, sex hormones, and adrenal • Five nitrogenous bases contribute to nucleotide structure
cortical hormones o adenine (A)
o Eicosanoids - prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and thromboxanes o guanine (G)
o Fat-soluble vitamins - vitamins A, D, E, and K o cytosine (C)
o Lipoproteins - transport fatty acids and cholesterol in the bloodstream o thymine (T)
o uracil (U)
Proteins • There are two major classes of nucleic acids - Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
• Macromolecules that contain C, H, 0, N, and some S and Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
• Composed of 20 basic types of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds
• It may be dipeptide, containing two amino acids: tripeptide containing three I> oxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
amino acids; polypeptide containing many amino acids • Double-stranded helical molecule found in the nucleus of the cell
• Proteins are polypeptides of hundreds of amino acids • Contains the genetic material of the cell
o Amino acids are the building blocks of protein molecules. • Repl~cate~ itself before the cell divides, ensuring genetic continuity
o It has the following parts • Provides instructions for protein synthesis
• amino group (-NH2) • Contains the monosaccharide deoxyribose and the organic bases
• a carboxyl group (COOH) o adenine
• a hydrogen atom o thymine
• a side chain designated by the symbol R attached to the same carbon o guanine
atom as the hydrogen o cytosine
• Proteins have different structural levels
o Primary: determined by the number, kind, and arrangement of amino acidt t«lbonucleic Acid (RNA)
0 Secondary: results from folding or bending of the polypeptide chain causer • Single-stranded molecule found in both the nucleus and the cytoplasm of a
by the hydrogen bonds between amino acids (helices and pleated sheets c 11
0 Tertiary: results from the folding of the helices or pleated sheets and the • Composed of the monosaccharide ribose and uses the organic base uracil
hydrogen bonds formed with water Instead of thymine
0 Quaternary: spatial relationships between two or more proteins that • There are three kinds of RNA- messenger RNA transfer RNA and ribosomal
associate to form a functional unit RNA '
e Messenger RNA(mRNA) - synthesized from DNA in the genetic material
28 'lw ffflp~~~llW I
MET REVIEW
LET SPECIALIST 29
ots
-that attaches ribosomes in the cytoplasm and specifies the primary
structure of protein. . · d t · • Roots are the descending portion of the plant body, generally located below
ground.
T f RNA (tRNA)- an interpreter between nucleic acid an pro .em
o lanquaqe by picking up specific amino acids and recognizing the appropriate • Roots anchor the plant and are responsible for the absorption of water,
codons in the mRN. . t th minerals, and other important materials.
0 Ribosomal RNA- it forms the structure the structure of ribosomes age er lo t Systems
with nucleic that coordinate the sequential coupling of tRNA molecules to • Taproot systems
the series of mRNA codons. o Composed of a large central root, or primary root, off of which smaller roots
and root hairs grow.
Differences between DNA and RNA o They have a relatively small surface area and so are not as effective at
absorbing water and nutrients from the soil.
Bases of Comparison DNA RNA
Location
- Nucleus Nucleus and Cytoplasm
o The large taproot can store nutrients and water - an advantage to plants
that grow in regions of minimal water or little sunlight for photosynthesis.
Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose o Carrots and oak trees are examples of plants with taproot systems.

Adenine, Thymine, Adenine, Uracil, Guanine, • Fibrous root systems

Organic Bases
Guanine, Cytosine Cytosine
e Composed of a diffuse system of roots and root hairs, with no single major
root.
A-T (Adenine- Thymine) A-U (Adenine-Uracil)
Base Pairing
G-C (Guanine-Cytosine) G-C (Guanine-Cytosine) o They have a greater surface area and can extend away from the plant,
allowing the plant to absorb more water and nutrients.
Double helix- made up Ferns, grasses, and chives are examples of plants with fibrous root systems.
Consists of single chain
Structure of two spiraling chains of
of polynucleotides. llfli luros of a Root System
polynucleotides
• J >rlmary root - central root of the plant, extending from the plant's stem.
Transfer the genetic code
• l nteral roots - roots growing directly off of the primary root.
Function Storage and transmission needed for the creation of
of genetic information proteins from the nucleus • Apical root meristem - zone of cell growth at the tip of the primary root. It
produces new cells required for growth of the plant body.
to the ribosome
• Hoot hairs - extend from the root and greatly increase the surface area for the
11J orption of water and nutrients.
PLANTS • r~oot cap - structure at the far end of the apical meristem that provides
protection as the apical meristem pushes through the soil. Cells at the root
Plant Structure 1. 1p are continually lost and replenished as the plant grows.
• Vu cular tissue - cells arranged to form tubes through which water, minerals,
Th lant body is divided into two main parts: llld the products of photosynthesis (sugars) can flow through the plant.
e ~Roots: The structure that anchors the plant to the ground and absorbs watel Xylem conveys water and minerals up from the roots; phloem conveys the
products of photosynthesis.
and minerals from the surrounding environment . .
• Shoots: The aboveground plant structure that includes the stem, which is a
framework for leaves, flowers, and fruits
 ,f.~)· MET REVIEW
30 '\~/LET SPECIALIST

The Stem . • There are different tissues that make up the leaves - the epidermis, the
• The stem acts as the structural support for the plant and provides the spongy mesophyll and the palisade mesophyll.
framework for leaves, flowers, and fruits .
o Epidermis covers the upper and the lower surfaces of the leaf. It is
• They also serve as the passageway of substances in moving through the
responsible for protecting the cells by preventing the entry of harmful
different parts of the plant body. substances and microorganisms in the cell.
Features of the Stem . • The upper epidermis is often lined with waxy substance called the cuticle.
• Vascular tissue - cells arranged to form tubes through which water, minerals, It is made up only of a single layer of cells for easy penetration of sunlight.
and the products of photosynthesis (sugars) can flow through the plant. • The lower epidermis is lined with guard cells. Guard cells regulate the
Xylem conveys water and minerals up from the roots; phloem conveys the opening and closing of the stomata.
products of photosynthesis down from the leaves. . o !he spongy mesophyll are made up of irregularly shaped cells with large
• Nodes/ lnternodes - points at which leaves are connected to the stem, 1ntercellular spaces to facilitate movement of gases and water .
internodes are stretches of stem between the nodes. · . o Pa_lis.ade lay~r is consists of elongated ceils with numerous chloroplast.
• Terminal buds - undeveloped shoot at the tip of the stem. They can remain This is the primary photosynthetic region of the leaf .
dormant or grow into a shoot at a later time .
• Axillary buds -undeveloped shoot located where a petiole, or _leaf sta_lk, meets tures of the leaf
the stem. These buds usually remain dormant but can grow into a ~1de ster:1. • Blade - flat expanded part of the leaf
Apical dominance refers to a process in which growth of the main stem is • Petiole - also known as the leaf stalk, can be long or short. It is attached to
primary, and growth of side sterns is inhibited. . . terns at nodes .
• Apical shoot meristem - zone of cell growth at the tip of the stem. The apical • Cuticle - waxy coating on aboveground plant structures that help to prevent
meristem produces new cells required for growth of the plant body. loss of water to the air. It also protect the plant from damage and contaminants,
• These are the three major tissues that make up the sterns - dermal, ground, uch as bacteria, viruses, and dust.
and vascular. . • ' tomata - tiny pores on the leaf surface that allow substances such as water,
0
Dermal tissue protects the plants from mecha~ical injury and excessive loss oxygen, and carbon dioxide to pass through as they either enter or leave the
of water. It consists of epidermis covered with waxy covering called the plant.
cutin. .
0 Ground tissue is made up of pith and cortex which is responsible for storing low rs
foodand water. · .
0 Vascular tissue is responsible for the distribution of food, water and dissolved • lowers are collections of reproductive and sterile tissue.
minerals in the plant body. • hterile parts of flowers are the sepals and petals.
o Sepals - green, leaflike structures that enclose the flower and protect it
leaves when closed.
• Leaves extend from a plant's apical shoot meristem. Petals - colorful structures that attract pollinators to the flower.
• Leaves can take a variety of forms, sizes, and arrangements and can vary • R productive parts of the flower are the stamen and carpel.
greatly in internal structure . . . . Stamen is a male reproductive organ, at the ends of the stamen are
• All leaves serve the primary function as the principal sites of photosynthetic anthers, the sites of meiosis and pollen grain development. Male
reactions. . reproductive organs are collectively termed the androecium.
• Leaf is generally flattened and expanded thus allows exposure to sunlight.
o Pistil is the female reproductive organ, made up of the stigma, a sticky or
• It is considered the food manufacturing organs of the plants. It rs wh~re
photosynthesis takes place. Water from the soil reaches the leaf by passing feathery surface that receives pollen grains during pollination; the ovary,
through xylem vessel. Plants are capable of capturing the sun's light energy the site of the reproductive ovules; and the ovule, which houses the
because of the chlorophyll in the chloroplast developing egg. The female parts are collectively termed the gynoecium.
 MET REVIEW
i~"'' MET REVIEW
32 ,~·ffit}} LET SPECIALIST
.LET SPECIALIST 33
~~..¥'
• Periderm is the protective covering that replaces epidermis when roots
F ·t · and stems undergo secondary growth. Cells of the periderm are not alive
rut • The ovary wall, after fertilization has occu~red, develops into~ fr~1t. and the
• Fruits may be fleshy, hard, multipl~ or single. Seeds germina e, at maturity but the walls form a tissue called cork. The walls of the cork
are covered with suberin, a waxy material that acts as a waterproof
embryo grows into the next generation.
membrane of the cell.
o Fundamental tissues are composed mostly of a single layer of cells although
Plant Tissues . d. · · lied mitosis in some cells are complex in form. There are three types of fundamental
: ~~~~tp~~~~~~~::~l~st~netR~o~eu~~p~tc~~~n,1v~~~~~e~~iat.ionand specialization of tissue - parenchyma, collenchyma and the sclerenchyma cells.
f ells Cells are grouped together to form tissues. . • Parenchyma cells are alive at maturity. They are made up of cells with
• r~~iu~ isc a gr~up of cells and intracellular substances that performs essentially thin primary cell walls and large vacuoles. They function as storage of
nutrients and perform photosynthesis.
the sar:ne functions. d into two major categories - meristematic tissues • Collenchyma cells support the plant. These cells are more elongated than
• Plant tissues are groupe
and the pormanent tissues. the parenchyma cells characterized by thickenings of the wall.
• Sclerenchyma cells have thick and rigid cell wail thus capable of giving
support to the plant. They often occur as bundle cap fibers. They are dead
Meristematic Tissues . . . .
• These are composed of actively d1v1dmg cells.. . at maturity. A common type of scierenchyma cell is the fiber.
• Cells are thin-walled with small vacuoles but rich in cytoplasm. Vascular tissues are the conducting tissues of plant responsible for the
• They give rise to other types of tissues. . r s of plants such as the distribution of food, minerals and water throughout the plant body. They are
of two types, the xylem and the phloem.
• S~rn~ ~~r~~~t~~~~~~~~=~~~~~l~~~~~aT~::i~Ie~s and they are primarily • Xylem is responsible for transporting water and dissolved substances
s oo a . . 1 th nd height of the plant body.
from the roots to the leaves.
resp?nsible f~r tmhcrleansg1tnhgat~~ h~?gght :y the apical meristematic cells is known
• The increase m e e • Phloem transports organic substances such as glucose from the leaves
as the primary growth of plants. · f th roots and lo other parts of the plant body. Phloem cells are usually located outside
• Some rneristematic cells are located along the periphery o e ible for the xylem. The two most common cells in the phloem are the companion
stems and they are called the lateral meristems. These are respons1 cells and sieve cells. Companion ceiis retain their nucleus and control
the adjacent sieve cells. Dissolved food, as sucrose, flows through the
• : i~~~:::ei?n~~~~ ~rr ~~~~;r~: t~~i:;~~~~~ secondary plant grow~.
sieve cells.
There are two lateral rneristems that give .nse to plant secondary growth
the vascular cambium and the cork cambium. ln•1ulr ments for Plant Growth
• In order to grow and develop, plants need some materials and energy.
Permanent Tissues
• ~:~se~ a;::~~~~~~at
d f matured cells that stop dividing because they have
~e~ome highly differentiated and are already ready to
. r d f ctions.
• 1;ome of the materials act as reactants in a chemical reaction to produce
Important products needed by plants to grow. Examples are carbon dioxide
111d water which are acting as raw materials in the production of glucose.
perform sp~cia.~ed into surface tissues, fundamental tissues and vascular • iom are needed as energy to drive the chemical reactions in the plant body.
• ~hey are c asst re 1 1 h following are the requirements by plants in order to grow and develop:
~s~~~:~ce tissues are the outer pr~tective covering of the plant body. it
includes the epidermis and the penderm. . luht
E id rmal cells are compactly packed. To protect the plants from.excessiv~ • I 1l1111ts are capable of capturing the light energy from the sun because of the
• ~s eof water epidermal cells are covered by a waxy covering calle 110 n coloring pigment chlorophyll.
1
~uticle. ' • 11 ht is one of the requirements of plants for photosynthesis.
34
i~?j.
·-~t!bti MET REVIEW
LET SPECIALIST

• Light, carbon dioxide and water are used by plants in the manufacture of II
organic compound glucose. • Soil itself is not necessary for lant r .
• During the process of photosynthesis, light is converted into chemical energy.

Water and Minerals

• Water is one of the raw materials in the process of photosynthesis.
c:
supplying the basic nutrients a~ moi~ owth but it serves as the medium for
This is evident from the fact that plan~urefor gro~th and development.
gardening) and soilless culture provide~~~n e gro~n in water (hydroponic
to the plants. ' e essential nutrients are supplied
• Water and dissolved minerals are absorbed by plants from the soil through
• Soil, in its natural habitat and a ard
their roots. These substances reach the leaf of the plants, where photosynthesis plant as a whole. A well-drained, f~rtileen, supports the root ~y.stemand the
is taking place, by passing through the xylem in the stem and veins of the healthy growth of plants. ' and good textured soil rs required for
leaf.

Carbon Dioxide J'C gulators of Plant Growth and Development

• Carbon dioxide is required by plants as one of the raw materials for • Hormones are chemicals produced b I ·.
development. Hormones are roduce~ _Pants ~~at regul~te their growth and
photosynthesis. Together with water, they react in the presence of :>unlighl
to form the end product of photosynthesis, the glucose. transported to other parts of ~e pf t in spec1f1c areas in the plants and are
• H ans.
• This gas enters the plant body through the tiny openings in the leaves c<lle( • Plormones may promote or inhibit growth and development
the stomata. ants. have five classes of hormones - a . . .. . .
flbsc1s1c acid and ethylene. · uxins, gibberelfins, cytokinms,
Oxygen
• Plants require oxygen for respiration to carry out their functions of water an
nutrient uptake.
• This is needed by plants in aerobic respiration because glucose needs to b
broken down to release ATP molecules.

Temperature
• Plants grow well only within a limited temperature range. Temperatures th
are too high or too low will result in abnormal development and reduct
production.
• Warm-season vegetables and most flowers grow best between 60° and 7
or 80° F. Cool-season vegetables such as lettuce and spinach should I
grown between 50° and 70° F.

Mineral Nutrients
• Green plants must absorb certain minerals through their roots to survive.
• These minerals are supplied by the soil and by the addition of fertilizers su
as manure, compost, and fertilizer salts.
• The essential elements needed in large quantities are nitrogen, phosphor
potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur.
• Micronutrients - iron, manganese, boron, zinc, copper, molybdenum, a
chlorine are also needed but in very small amounts.
 .[~;;,);MET REVIEW
~~'LET SPECIALIST 37

Hormones and Their Functions in Plant Growth • Stimulates flower opening

• Stimulates flower and leaf senescence
Plant Where They Plant Hormones Function • Stimulates fruit ripening
Hormone are Found
Absicisic acid is • Stimulates closing of stomata
Abscisic Acid found mostly near • Inhibits shoot growth
leaves, stems, • Induces seeds for synthesizing storage of
unripe fruit proteins

This hormone The gibberellins • Stimulates stem elongation

Auxin is present in the are present in • Leads to development of seedless fruits
seed embryo, the meristems • Delays senescence in leaves and citrus
young-leaves Gibberellin of apical buds fruits
and apical buds ' and roots, • Ends seed dormancy in plants that require
meristem young leaves, light for induction of germination
embryo

(Taken from: http:llwww.buzzle.com!articles/plant-hormones-and-their-functions.

html)

Tropism
• Stimulates II <Jlvl:,I< 11, 11 owlh of lateral • It is the ability to respond to external signals.
buds and pie I lrn1111 Hlt:i • Turning or bending movement toward or away from an external stimulus,
• Stimulates shoot lnlt.l itlon u 1d buo such as light, heat, gravity, or touch is an example of tropism.
Cytokinins are formation in tis LI 011llu11 • There are three main plant tropisms, each of which are facilitated by the
synthesized in • Stimulates leaf cell c Ill 11 It Iii! nt that
Cytokinin production of specific hormones:
roots and then stimulates leaf expan .Ion
o Phototropism: Plants grow, or bend, toward light. A type of auxin, a plant
transported to • Enhances of stomal. I op1 11 ll I In some
hormone called IAA (indole-3-acetic acid), is involved in phototropism.
other plant parts plant species
• Stimulates chlorophyll t y11lt11 I that leads o Gravitropism: The shoots or roots of a plant bend in response to the pull
to the conversion of l upl 1 t Into of gravity. IAA is also involved in gravitropism.
chloroplasts o Thigmotropism: Plants grow in response to touch, as when a vine grows
up a fence or wall. It is controlled by the production of IAA and ethylene.
• Leads to release of dorm IIH .y i t rte
Ethylene is present Internal Clocks of Plants
• Stimulates shoot and root 11 owlh olong
in the tissues of • Plants operate on both twenty-four-hour cycles called circadian rhythms,
Ethylene with differentiation
ripening fruits, which continue even in the absence of environmental cues to guide them, and
• Stimulates leaf and fruit 1 llJ• :I :ii n
nodes of stems, biological clocks, internal monitors that depend on the environmental cues of
• Stimulates flower inducll 11 In Hromlliad
senescent leaves daytime and nighttime.
• Stimulates the femalen H of rtlooclous
and flowers • Biological clocks are thought to influence major events in a plant's life cycle,
flowers
such as flowering, growth of stems, loss of leaves, and seed germination.
 rf'.l'j MET REVIEW
38 .:tff.~1
~~,,
....
1
LET SPECIALIST
• Plants use the photoperiod, the duration of the day and night, to detect the o Fragmentation - pieces of a parent plant break off and give rise to a new
season. plant.
• The flowering in angiosperms provides a clear example of a plant's reliance o Runners - horizontal stems radiate out from the parent plant and grow along
on the photoperiod. the surface of the ground. New plants are fared from nodes in these stems.
• Biologists divide angiosperms into three categories based on when they o Rhizomes - horizontal stems, similar to runners, grow underground,
flower: generally close to the surface, from a parent plant. Nodes on the horizontal
0 Short-day plants, such as strawberries and tobacco, flower in the late stem give rise to new plants.
summer, fall, or winter, when the duration of daylight is shorter. o Suckers - produced at the roots of a parent plant. These suckers can
o Long-day plants, such as clover, flower in the summer or early spring, when develop into new plants.
the duration of daylight is longer. o Adventitious plantlets - meristematic tissue located along notches on the
0 Day-neutral plants, such as roses, flower regardless of day length, provided parent plant's leaves either drop or are broken off and take root in the soil
there is sufficient light for normal growth. to form a new plant.
o Some flowering plants do not fit into any of these three categories. These • Apomixis is a form of asexual reproduction in which seeds genetically
plants, such as ivy, flower at two photoperiods during each year, when the identical to the parent are formed. Plants reproducing by this method, such as
day is not too long or too short. Kentucky bluegrass and dandelions, take advantage of the protective and
dispersal properties of seeds, an adaptation generally exclusive to sexually
Plant Reproduction reproducing plants.
• Plants are capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction. • This form of reproduction is most common in harsh environments, where
• Asexual reproduction eliminates the need to search for a mate, sexual genetic variation can be a disadvantage, and where embryo protection is vital.
reproduction provides the advantage of genetic variation through the
combination of gametes from two separate individuals. ANIMALS
• Genetic variation has paved the way for the evolution of new plant structures
• They are made up of highly-organized eukaryotic cells; from the zygote
that, in turn, have resulted in further adaptations of sexual reproductive
stage, cells gradually differentiate into various tissues which ultimately
methods. provide specialized structure and function to the adult animal.
• They are multicellular; various tissue and organ systems are constructed to
Sexual Reproduction
• Sexual reproduction in plants evolved over time to adapt to the unique barriers provide the specializations needed for day-to-day survival as well as survival
of the species.
and hazards of life.on land.
• Three major evolutionary innovations have resulted in landmark changes in • They perform aerobic metabolism which means animals breakdown food in
plant sexual reproduction. the presence of oxygen and acquire ATP energy needed to do all of their
o The alternation of generations functions.
o The development of seeds • The survival of animal species is accomplished through sexual reproduction,
o The development of the flower where specialized organs called gonads (ovaries and testes) through meiosis
produce gametes, sperms for males and egg for females.
Asexual Reproduction • Most animals are capable of movement; this allows animals to be distributed
• Some plants reproduce asexually through tl1 p odu ,11011 of clones: throughout the land as well as marine habitats around the world.
individuals genetically identical to their parent. • Most of the early, evolutionary forms of animals were aquatic; however
• Asexual reproduction in plants can take sever I dlff r 1 t f r m c s , evolutionary time, several animals groups adapted to and colonized the land
• Vegetative reproduction is a common form of _ xu 11 r< p1oductlon in which masses.
pieces of a parent plant form cloned individual . h< 11 t111 l v1 in In methods
of vegetative reproduction exist among plant u Ii 1 :
 f~Jf')1MET REVIEW
40 ·•:Ubt1 LET SPECIALIST
Animal Tissues
• Animals are made up of cells.
• These cells are group together according to structure and function.This
group cells is called tissue.
• The structure of animal tissue is directly related to its function. There are four
major types of tissues: epithelial tissue, connective tissue, nervous tissue,
and muscle tissue. Tissues are woven together with a sticky extra cellular
matrix.
EpithelialTissues
• These are tissues that are made up of tightly packed cells that line organs and
body cavities. They are tightly packed because they act as a barrier against
mechanical injury, invading microorganisms, and fluid loss.
• The cells vary in shape. Some cells are thin and flat called squamous epithelial
cells; some are square in shape called cuboidal epithelium; and some are tall
and narrow called columnar epithelium.
• Epithelial cells may also be classified according to the number of layers of
cells, stratified if they are made up of several layers of cells and pseudostratified
which is single layered but appears to be stratified because the cells vary in
length.
ConnectiveTissues
• These are animal tissues that function mainly for binding and supporting
other tissues.
• They are made up of scattered populations of cells in the extracellular matrix.
This extracellular matrix is composed of web of fibers woven in a homogeneous
ground substance that can be liquid, solid or jellylike. This extracellular
matrix is usually secreted by the connective cells themselves.
• Connective tissues are classified according to the types and relative
abundance of cells, fibers and ground substance, and the organization of
fibers. Connective tissues can be a loose connective tissue, dense irregular
connective tissue, dense regular connective tissue, bone and cartilage and
blood.
o Loose connective tissue is located beneath epithelial cells that line the
internal surfaces of the body. It is characterized with abundant ground
substance and relatively thin fibers. It has a viscous gel-like consistency
and is responsible for the diffusion of oxygen and nutrients from small
vessels and the diffusion of metabolites back to the vessels.
o Adipose tissue stores fat in adipose cells that is distributed throughout the
matrix. These tissues are responsible in storing fuel molecules and
insulating and padding the body.
l::J!i-.'-\ MET REVIEW
\~!,t,~~LET SPECIALIST 41
o Dense irregular connective is located on the outside of many organs, in the
dermis of the skin and as a the submucosa within various organs. It has
little ground substance. Most of the tissue is made up of collagenousfibers.
The abundance of collagenous fibers gives the tissue strength. It is found
in tendons and ligaments.Tendons connect muscles to bones while ligaments
connect bones to bones. In dense connective tissue, collagenous fibers are
packed in dense regular arrays and in between rows of cells are found.
o Cartilage is a connective tissue with cells that secrete a very specialized
matrix.
o Boneis a connective tissue that is characterizedby a mineralizedextracellular
matrix. The matrix is secreted by bone cells called osteocytes. It consists
mostly of mineralized collagen fibers arranged in lamellae.
o Blood is a fluid connective tissue that circulates throughout the body. It is
responsible for distributing nutrients and oxygen to different tissues,
removing waste products of metabolism, transporting a large number of
products including hormones and maintaining homeostasis.
Nervous Tissue
• The nervous tissue is the tissue that is responsible for receiving stimuli and
transmitting the signal from one part of the animal to another. The impulse or
signal passes on to the neuron.
• The neuron is the functional unit of the nervous tissue or the nerve cell which
is specialized in transmitting the impulse.
• Neuron has the following parts: dendrites and axons.
o The dendrites transmit an impulse that is sent towards the cell body, and
the axons transmit impulses away from the cell body.
Muscle Tissue
• This type of tissue is responsible for movement which is made possible by
contraction, thus this is made up of long, excitable cells. Since this is needed
for movement it is one of the most abundant tissues in most animals.
• The vertebrate body has three types of muscle tissue - skeletal, smooth, or
cardiac.
o Skeletal muscles are attached to the bones or skeleton.Skeletal muscle
cells have a characteristic dark and light bands called striations. They are
considered voluntary muscle which means their actions are controlled by
the will.
o Smooth muscles are muscles that make up the internal organs. The cells
that make up muscle tissue are not striated. They are involuntary muscles
because their movement is not controlled by the will.
o Cardiac muscle is the type of muscle found in the heart. Cardiac muscle
exhibits striations because it also has actin and myosin filaments.Cardiac
muscle is involuntary.
 (!l'\ MET REVIEW
42 ·>~~;LET SPECIALIST
Classification of Animals
• Animals are classified into two major groups - vertebrates and invertebrates
• Animals that lack backbone are called as invertebrates and those with
backbone are called vertebrates.
Vertebrates
• Porifera
o These are the salt-water sponges.
o They are very primitive, considered barely as animals.
o They don't have true organs or nerve or muscle cells.
o They do not have nervous, digestive, excretory and circulatory system.
o They can maintain the constant water flow through their body in order to
get the food, oxygen and also to remove the wastes from their body.
o They do not have definite symmetry.
o They are sessile animals (live attached to something as an adult.)
o They reproduce sexually or asexually
• Cnidaria
o They do not have any definite shape thus seen in various shapes.
o They have gastovascular cavity which is used for digestion.
o Their body is composed of three layers - the outer epidermis, the middle
mesoglea and the inner gastrodermis.
o Their movement is carried out by the epitheliomuscular cells, which give
rise to other cells like sperm, egg, cnidocytes and mucus-secreting cells.
o The sac like body is seen in two forms - polyp and medusa.
o They do not have difinite shape; they are seen in varous shapes.
o They are radially symmetrical.
o Their mouth is covered oy tentacles which bear the cnidocytes.
o They reproduce both sexually and asexually. Sexual reproduction consumes
a cycle with both polyp and rnedusa stages.
• Platyhelminthes
o These are the flatworms which inhabit both marine and freshwater habitats.
o They are relatively simple, bilaterally symmetrical and unsegmentedworms.
o The shape of the body is necessarily flattened because of the lack of cavity.
o They do not have any circulatory and respiratory organs.
o They do not have the body cavity and anus. The pharyngeal opening serves
the dual role as intake of food and removal of waste.
o They can respire only through diffusion.
o They are said to be triploblastic because they are composed of three
fundamental layers of cells - epidermis, mesoderm and gastrodermis.
f?~·>. MET REVIEW
'~lt!!t~ LET SPECIALIST 43
o They can be categorized into parasitic and non-parasitic animals. Planarians
are examples of non-parasitic flatworm. Cestoda, Trematoda and
Monogenea are the three entire parasitic group.
o Most flatworm species can reproduce either sexually or asexually.
• Nematoda
o Nematodes are also called roundworms.
o They have a tube like digestive system at both ends.
o They have successfully adapted to all the surroundings from marine to the
fresh water, from polar to the tropic and as well as to the highest to the
lowest elevation.
o Nematodes are slender multicellular organisms that are less than 2.5 mm. The
smallest nematodes species are microscopic and the largest can grow up
to 5 cm.
o Their body is bilaterally symmetrical whereas the head is radially symmetrical.
o The body is tapered at both ends. And in many species solid head shields
radiating which is projected outwards is found around the mouth.The mouth
has either three or six lips with a series of teeth at the inner edge.
o They are mostly hermaphroditic - both the male and female reproductive
organs are found in an individual.
o The parasitic nematodes are found in all most all the organs of the body.
But the most common organs where these species can be found are the
alimentary, circulatory, and respiratory systems.
o Someof the common roundworms are the hookworms, lungworms,pinworm,
eelworm, whipworm, and threadworm. They have the ability to cause
many diseases like filariasis, ascariasis, and trichinosis. These parasitic
species may also cause damage to the plant and animals.
o They reproduce by laying eggs. The egg or larvae can be found in the soil
and get into the person body that comes in contact with it. The parasitic
infections are most common in warm tropical climate.
• Rotifers
o These are mostly freshwater invertebrate which comprise of microscopic
and near-microscopic pseudocoelomate animals. Some species are found
in saltwater and there are some that can be found in moist soil,where they
live in the thin films of water formed around soil particles.
o Some species are free swimming and are called plank-tonic and some other
species move by inch-warming.
o They are small in size and have soft-body, so they are not highly favored
for the fossilization. The only hard part within the body of the rotifers is their
jaws, and that can be preserved in the fossil record.
/~-.:,MET REVIEW
\L:ibt'' LET SPECIALIST
o The body is mainly divided into head, trunk and the foot regions. The wheel
organ in the head is also called as corona, which is used for both locomotion
and feeding. The trunk may be of various shapes like elongated form.
o They are dioecious and the female ones are always larger than the male
ones.
• Mollusca
o These are soft bodied invertebrate animals that belong to the phylum
Mollusca.
o Mollusks have soft bodies with 3 parts or three regions - head, visceralmass,
and a foot. The brain and sensory organs are found in the head region
while the internal organs are found in the visceral mass. The foot is the
lower muscular part of the body which has contact in the floor and is used
in movement. A thick flap called a mantle, which covers the body and in
most species produces a heavy shell of calcium compounds.
o Most of the mollusks have an external hard shell to protect their soft skin
like organs. Some species of mollusks have internal shells then external
shells.
o They pump water through gills. This is how food is also ingested for clams
and oysters. Squid and octopuses use the pump for jet propulsion through
the water in search of prey.
o They can be grouped into three. They are:
• Hatchet foot - the mollusks that have two shells and the shells are
connected with the muscular hinge which helps the shells to open and
close. The mollusks that belong to this group are called bivalves.
• Belly foot - the mollusks have one spiral shell and have their shells at the
back. These are called as univalves.
• Head foot - the mollusk will have a definite head that is surrounded by
tentacles.
o Though mollusks are small species they have well-developed body organs.
Their bodies are not segmented. They have a tongue of sorts called as
radula.
o Snails, clams, scallops, mussels, oysters, squid, and octopus are the most
popular mollusks
•Annelida
o They have elongated and bilateral body which is segmented. Each segment
is separated from its neighbors by a membrane and has its own excretory
system and branches of the main nerves and blood vessels that run the
length of the animal.
t:.:i~\,MET REVIEW
·~Uh""/ LET SPECIALIST 45
o They have true body cavity.
o They have a circulatory system which is complete.
o They can either be aquatic or terrestrial.
o They do not have any limbs. They have well developed internal organs.
o They have bristles which might be long for some species and short and
soft for bristles.
o The worms measure in the range of about an inch to several inches long.
The worms like ribbon worms have the ability to grow about 100 ft in length.
o Some worms are parasites.
• Arthropoda
o They are highly diverse group that is characterized by the bilateral body.
o They have an exoskeleton, segmented body and jointed legs.
o They have heads with many sensory organs.
o They have simple and complex eyes that detect only light intensity and
form images. They have antennae that smell chemical substances in the
environment.
o They reproduce sexually, where sperm is released inside the female's
body, not in water.
o They undergo metamorphosis. Larvae of many species develop into very
different adults.
o They can be found every where in the world. They can be seen in water,
land, air, tree and even underground.
o They shed their exoskeleton during the molting stage and regain a larger
one in order to house their large size.
o There are five significant classifications of arthropods. They are lnsecta,
Arachinda, Chilopoda, Diplopoda, and Crustacea.
Echinodermata
o They are spiny skinned animals. Common examples are starfish; sea stars
and sea urchins.
o They reproduce sexually. Sperm and eggs are released in water, where
they meet and join.
o They have radial symmetry which means that these species have
appendages that point outwards from the centre of the body. Generally
these appendages are five in number. The larvae of the Echinoderms are
bilaterally symmetrical as they reach their adulthood they become radially
symmetrical.
o Most of the Echinoderms have suckers at the end of the feet which they
use to capture and hold the prey.

46
"~~··MET REVIEW
lfft;;!!'!; LET SPECIALIST
~\<;;:;_.
o They are entirely marine species. They are mostly seen in the inter-tidal
zones deep in the ocean and they are also found in the cold and tropical
seas.
o The body wall has a limestone skeletal system called stereom. The
echinoderms have a special ligament that helps them to stiffen or loosen
their body without spending much energy.
o Echinoderms have tube feet which helps them in many purposes.
• Chordata
o This group of animals are classified on the basis of possessing 3 common
embryological features - dorsal nerve cord, supportive structure called the
notocord, and pharyngeal gill pouches.
o The chordates are divided into three subphyla - Urochordata,
Cephalochordata and Vertebrata.
o Subphylun Urochordata includes tunicates and salps. The adults of this
group are specialized for being sessile and have no notochord or nerve
cord, or tail, but all the chordate characteristics are present in the tadpole-
like larva.
o Subphylum Cephalochordata, the lancelets, are somewhat eel-like in
appearance and have well-developed chordate-characteristics.The
immature lancelets are smaller than, but otherwise identical to the adult.
o Subphylum Vertebrata includes the highly-advanced group called the
vertebrates which include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
This group has members with the nerve cord enlarges anteriorly to form a
brain and vertebrae surround or replace the notocord. They are commonly
called vertebrates. They possess the following charateristics:
• They are bilaterally symmetrical.
• They have two pairs of jointed appendages such as fins (pectoral and
anal/dorsal fins), and (forelimbs and hindlimbs)
• They have outer protective covering the skin, which can be modified
into special structures such as scales, hair and feathers.
• They have well-developed coelom, or body cavity completely lined with
epithelium.
• They have well-developed internal skeleton of cartilage and bone, divided
into axial skeleton (skull, vertebrae, ribs, sternum) and appendicular
skeleton (girdles and appendages).
• They have highly developed brain enclosed by skull, and nerve cord
enclosed by vertebrae ..
• Their respiratory system, includes either gills or lungs.
,.·..~!~.i<.~---
\~u.~~;
rt:i:,..£~)\, MET REVIEW
LET SPECIALIST 4 7
•They have closed circulatory system with ventral heart and median
dorsal artery.
• They are grouped into - Class Chondrichthyes - cartilaginous fishes;
Osteichthyes - bony fishes; Amphibia - frogs, toads, salamanders;
Reptilia - turtles, snakes, lizards, crocodilians; Aves - birds; and
Mammalia - mammals
* Amphibians
> They live both on land and in water.
> They are cold-blooded animals
>They have three-chambered heart.
>Most of them have soft, smooth skin, which is kept moist by mucous
glands. Some, however, such as the toad, have dry, bumpy skin.
>They absorb oxygen into their bodies through their skin but they also
have lungs, which are used in respiration, but they are not as highly
developed as those of the higher vertebrates.
»They usually live in damp places, which help to keep their skin from
drying out. They need a watery environment for mating.
> They are mostly oviparous. They develop from eggs hatched outside.
>Amphibian eggs undergo many cell divisions. In time they will develop
into fishlike larvae called tadpoles. In their younger stages, tadpoles
use gills for respiration.
* Birds
> They have feathers, which come in all shapes, sizes, and colours, and
are important distinguishing characteristic of birds.They serve many
useful purposes, including insulation for the body and protection from
moisture. Their special coloration may be useful for concealment or
for attracting a mate.
»They are warm-blooded. The temperature of a bird's body remains
the same regardless of the surrounding air temperature.
»They have a highly efficient respiratory system.
>They have four-chambered heart.
> Most birds are capable of flight, although a few, such as the ostrich
and penguin, do not have this ability.
> They have no teeth, their beaks have undergone certain modifications
required for survival. Some beaks are used for ripping flesh, some
for cracking seeds, and some for boring in wood or capturing fish.
>They are oviparous and lay eggs with brittle shells which must be
incubated while they develop. Most young birds require parental care
until they are old enough to fly and get their own food.
48 1,'tfftl; MET
'.f~\ REVIEW
LET SPECIALIST
~~~~~
>They have keen eyesight, which is helpful in protection and in
obtaining food, such as small animals and insects.
*Mammals
}r Young are nourished with milk secreted by the mammary glands of
their mothers. It is for this unique characteristic that mammals are
named.
}r They possess hair that can cover all or part of their bodies.
}r They are mostly viviparous. This means that mammalian young
develop inside the mother's body rather than outside, such as in an
egg. Mammalian offspring are born in a form resembling an adult.
}r They have well-developed nervous and reproductive systems, thus
generally considered the most advanced members of the animal
kinqdorn,
»They are warm-blooded and are able to maintain a fairly constant
body temperature.
> They have four-chambered heart.
s-They have muscular diaphragm that separates the abdominal and
thoracic cavities.
> Most of them have two sets of limbs, which have adapted for special
needs such as grasping, flying, swimming, and walking.
-,. They come in all sizes, from tiny rodents to enormous elephants.
>They live in a variety of habitats with bodies that are adapted to meet
many environmental conditions. Some aquatic mammals,such as
the seal and the sea otter, have adapted to life in salt water, while
others, such as beavers, make their homes in freshwater. Some
mammals live in treetops where it is useful to possess grasping
hands, feet, and tails.
* Reptiles
-,. They have either an outer covering of scales or thick, leathery plates.
> They live on land or in water.
s-They breathe by means of well-developed lungs. Reptiles such as
ORGAN SYSTEMS
turtles, alligators, and certain snakes spend most of their lives in
water. But even aquatic reptiles must come to the surface for an
occasional breath of air.
}r They are cold-blooded animals.Their body temperature changes
with the temperature of the environment in which they live.
> They are sluggish in cold weather. They like to warm their bodies in
the sunshine. In very hot climates, reptiles seek shade to keep from
overheating. During cold winters, they become inactive and hibernate.
They emerge from their burrows only after the earth warms in
springtime.
}r They are oviparous, which means that their young develop from eggs
which are laid outside the mother's body. However, there are also
certain snakes which are viviparous, meaning that the mother's eggs
hatch inside her body. These offspring are delivered alive.
*Fish
}r The first group of fishes is the Class Chondrichthyes which includes
the sharks, rays, and skates. Members of this class do not have bone
in their skeletons but a cartilage thus called cartilaginous fishes.
}r The second group is the Class Osteichthyes which includes fishes
with bony skeletons. Members of this class include most of the familiar
fishes, such as salmon,milkfish, trout etc.
»They have the tail as a chief "organ" of locomotion, and the fins are
used to steer, swim, and maintain balance.
}r They have overlapping scales that cover the bodies of most fish,
although some fish, like sharks, have a rough leathery skin.
}r They have gills which enable them to obtain oxygen dissolved in the
water. In most fishes the gills are protected by covers called
opercula. When water enters a fish's mouth, it passes over the gills
where tiny blood vessels absorb oxygen from the water and release
carbon dioxide into it. Water is then expelled through the gill slits.
}r They have a two-chambered heart, a liver, and, in many cases, an
air bladder, which is used to regulate depth.
> They are cold-blooded organisms thus their body temperature is
similar to the water they live in.
-,. Most of them are oviparous, or egg-laying. The female lays eggs in
water where they are fertilized and left to hatch.Certain sharks are
ovoviviparous. This means their eggs remain within the mother's body
until they hatch into baby fish, after which they are born.
• These groups of organs working together to perform major activities of the
body.
• There are ten organ systems - skeletal, muscular, respiratory, circulatory,
integumentary, endocrine, excretory, reproductive, digestive and nervous.
These systems work independently but coordinating with one another in
order to give life to an organism.
 ,:/~"'MET REVIEW
'~\~~1 LET SPECIALIST
eletal System
• The skeletal system comprises the bones, cartilage and joints which serves
as the framework of the body.
• It performs the following functions:
o Skeletal system protects the soft and delicate internal organs of the body.
The brain is protected by the skull, spinal column by the vetebrae, heart
and lungs by the rib cage.
o Bones store minerals like calcium and phosphorus.
o The bone provides attachment for the muscles, thus helps in movement.
o Stores chemical energy. Example is the yellow marrow in bones.
o Bones such as the red bone marrow are also involved in the production of
red blood cells.
o The bones and cartilage provide support and provide points of attachment
to many soft tissues, muscles and ligaments in the body. There are 206
bones that provide support to the body. Bones and cartilage also provide
rigidity and body shape. They also support the weight of muscles and
internal organs. There are different types of bones all giving support to the
body - the long bones, short bones, flat bones, irregular bones and
sesamoid bones.
• Long bones are those whose length is greater than their width. An
example is the bones in the limb except carpals or wrist bones and
tarsals or foot bones
• Short bones are those whose length and width are approximately equal.
Examples are carpals and tarsals.
• Flat bonesare those that are flat and act as a base for muscle attachments.
Examples are sternum or breast bone, scapula or shoulder blade and the
skull:
• Irregular bones are those that show irregular shapes. Examples are the
bones in the vertebral column and mandible.
• Sesamoid bones are the small bones present in the joints that protect the
tendons. Examples are patella or knee cap.
• Skeletal system is divided into two groups - axial and appendicular.
o The axialskeletonis made up of 80 bones. Its main function is to provide
protection for delicate organs, like heart, brain and lungs and for maintaining
the upright position of the body. It is consists of the skull (29 bones),
backbone (26 bones), ribs (24 bones), and sternum (1 bone).
o The appendicular skeleton is made up of 126 bones and is attached to the
axial skeleton. Body movements are possible because of these bones. It
is consists of pectoral girdles (4 bones), upper limbs (60 bones), pelvic
girdle (2 bones), lower limbs (60 bones).
t::if·),MET REVIEW
'i:!ffix1 LET SPECIALIST 51
• Body movement is possible because of joints. Joints are points where two
bones meet or where bones join a cartilage. There are joints that are movable
and there those that are immovable. The suture bones of the skull are an
example of immovable joints. Examples of movablejoints are the ball-and-socket
joint, hinge joint, pivot joint and gliding joint.
o The ball-and-socket has the greatest freedom of movement. The rounded
surface of one bone moves within a cup shaped depression of the other
bone. An example is the joint in the shoulder girdle.
o The hinge joint allows movement in only one direction, either forward or a
backward movement. An example is the joint between the humerus and
the ulna.
o Pivot joint allows rotary movement. The joint between the radius and ulna
and the joint between the first and the second neck vertebrae are examples
of pivot joints.
o Gliding joint allows limited motion as the bones slide against each other.
This joint is seen when the surfaces of adjoining bones are flat or only
slightly curved. Joints between vertebrae are examples of gliding joint.
Muscular System
• Animals move because of muscles. Movement is brought about by the
contraction and relaxation of muscles.
• Based on action, muscles are classified as either involuntary or voluntary.
Involuntary muscles function within the body automatically, it is not controlled
by our will. Voluntary muscles are under the control of our will.
• Based on appearance and location, muscles are classified into three - the
skeletal muscle, the cardiac muscle, and the smooth muscle.
o Skeletal Muscles
• They are muscles attached to the bones. Tendons attach the muscles to
the bones.
• They are long and with many nuclei.
• They appear to have stripes,or striations. They are called striated muscles.
•Their movement is under the control of our will thus classified as
voluntary muscles.
• They are of different shapes and sizes, which enable them to perform a
variety of tasks.
• Examples of skeletal muscles are: gluteus maximus, or the muscle that
occurs in the buttocks, the largest skeletal muscle; the deltoid muscle in
the shoulders; the biceps and triceps in the arm; the pectoralis in the
chest; the rectus abdominus in the abdomen.
 :~),MET REVIEW
52 tt:tfl/ LET SPECIALIST
o Cardiac Muscles
• They are muscles that make up the heart.
• They are thick and contract in order to pump out the blood and then relax
in order to allow more blood in.
• They are s~riated involuntary muscle. They appear to have stripes and
movement rs not controlled by the will.
o Smooth Muscles
• They are the muscles that make up the internal organs.
• They do not have stripes or striations thus known as non-striated muscles
• They are involuntary muscles. · molecules of the disaccharide maltose.
• They generally occur in layers or sheets, with one muscle layer behind
another.
• Some of the 'examples .of sn:ioothmuscles are the muscles that make up
the stomach and the diqestive system, which contract and relax in order
to pass food through the alimentary canal of the body; the muscles that
make up the bladder and the muscles that make up the uterus in women.
Jigestive System
• It is a system responsible for breaking down large organic molecules into
smaller particles that the body can use as fuel. The breakdown of food involves
two phases - mechanical phase and chemical phase.
o Mechanical phase involves the breaking down of food into smaller pieces.
It sta.rts rn the mouth where four kinds of teeth tear the food to pieces. It
also involves the pushing of food down to the food tube to be mixed with
digestive juices.
o Chemical phase involves the further breakdown of food into simple forms
that can pass through the plasma membrane. It requires the action of
several diqestive enzymes secreted from specialized cells within the
mouth, stomach, intestines, and the pancreas.
• It_ is also responsible for the absorption of digested food for distribution to the
different cells.
• It _is also in charge of excreting waste especially the undigested food.
• Digestion of food takes place in the different parts of the digestive system.
The following are the parts of the human digestive system.
o Mouth or Oral Cavity
• It is a specialized organ for receiving food and breaking down large
organic molecules.
• It is where food is changed mechanically through biting and chewing.
~t'.:i).'.'.; i MET REVIEW
',\-~~oe~
'tfft} LET SPECIALIST 53
Chewing is made possible by the teeth and tongue. There are four kinds
of teeth - incisors for biting; canines for tearing; and premolars and
molars for grinding, pounding, and crushing food. Tongue pushes the
food to the molars and premolars for chewing.
• It is where food is moistened by saliva, a sticky fluid that binds food
particles together into a soft mass. Saliva is secreted by salivary glands.
There are three pairs of salivary glands - the parotid glands, the
submaxillary glands, and the sublingual glands.The saliva contains an
enzyme called amylase, which digests starch molecules into smaller
• During chewing, the tongue moves food about and manipulates it into a
mass called a bolus. The bolus is pushed back into the pharynx (throat)
and is forced through the opening to the esophagus.
o Esophagus
• It is a long narrow pipe that connects the mouth to the stomach.
• It transports or pushes the soft mass of chewed food called bolus and
liquid from the mouth to the stomach. It is made possible by the wavelike
contraction of its wall called peristalsis. Peristalsis is a process which
consists of rhythmic contractions of the muscles in the inner wall of the
esophagus to push the food down to the stomach.
o Stomach
• It is located on the left side of the body below the diaphragm.
• It has a valve like ring of muscle surrounding its opening called the
cardiac sphincter. This muscle pushes the bolus into the stomach. The
sphincter relaxes as the bolus passes through and once all the bolus is
transported to the stomach the muscle closes and the stomach begins
its process of churning the food.
• Layers of stomach muscle contract, the bolus of food is mixed with gastric
juices to form a soupy liquid called chyme. Gastric juices and enzymes
are released in the stomach which aid in the further digestion of the bolus.
• It also plays a role in protein digestion. Gastricglands secrete pepsinogen.
Pepsinogen is an inactive form, and is converted to the active enzyme
pepsin in the presence of hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric acid is secreted
by parietal cells in the stomach lining. The pepsin converts the large
protein molecules into smaller proteins called polypeptides.
o Small Intestine
• It is where final digestion of all the nutrients takes place and also where
all the nutrients from the food are absorbed.
 ,(l~l,MET REVIEW
54 ,\.,~! LET SPECIALIST
• The digested food is then assimilated in the small intestine and the waste
is passed on to the large intestine.
• It is divided into three sections - the first 10 to 12 inches form the
duodenum; the next 1 O feet form the jejunum; and the final 12 feet form
the ileum.
• Its inner surface contains numerous fingerlike projections called vifli.
Each villus has projections of cells called microvifli to increase the
surface area.
• Most chemical digestion takes place in the duodenum. Intestinal glands
secrete different enzymes to digest different nutrients. Enzymes digest
nutrients into simpler forms that can be absorbed. Intestinal enzymes are
supplemented by enzymes from the pancreas. Bile enters the small
intestine from the gall bladder to assist in fat digestion. The following are
the result of digestion in the small intestine:
~ Carbohydrate digestion is made possible by the enzyme amylase
(for starch), maltase (for maltose), sucrase (for sucrose) and lactase
(for lactose).
~ Fats are digested by the enzyme lipase. Before this enzyme can act,
the large globules of fat must be broken into smaller droplets by bile.
Bile is a mixture of salts, pigments, and cholesterol produced by
the liver and stored in the gall bladder.
>-- Protein digestion is done by several enzymes, includingtwo pancreatic
enzymes: trypsin and chymotrypsin.These enzymes convert protein
into polypeptides. Peptidase, another enzyme, breaks down
polypeptides into amino acids.
• Most absorption in the small intestine occurs in the jejunum. The products
of digestion enter cells of the villi, move across the cells, and enter blood
vessels called capillaries. Most of the nutrients movethrough the capillaries
by diffusion. However, active transport is responsible for the movement
of glucose and amino acids. Products of fat digestion, on the other hand,
pass as small droplets of fat into lacteals, which are branches of the
lymphatic system.
• Absorption is completed in the final part of the small intestine, the ileum.
• Substances that have not been digested or absorbed then pass into the
large intestine.
o Large Intestine
• It is also known as the colon. It is divided into ascending, transverse, and
descending portions, each about one foot in length. The last part of the
large intestine consists of a finger-like structurecalled cecum or appendix.
~~·>,MET REVIEW
~".'.~' LET SPECIALIST 5
• It is where indigestible materials move from the small intestine.
• It absorbs water from the undigested food.The intestinal matter remaining
after water has been reabsorbed is known as feces. Feces consist of
undigested food (such as cellulose), bacteria, bile pigments, and other
materials. The feces are stored in the rectum and passed out through the
anus to complete the digestion process.
• The rectum stores the undigested food or fecal matter to be expelled
from the body through the anus, which is the final part of the digestive
system.
• The mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine make
up the alimentary tract of the digestive system. In addition to this, there are
also parts that help in digestion which are called accessory organs - the
pancreas, liver and the gal! bladder.
o The pancreas is a small gland iocated below the stomach. It helps in the
metabolism of carbohydrates and lipids (or fats). It produces an enzyme
pancreatic amylase that converts carbohydrates into double sugar. It also
produces lipase that digests lipids or fats. The pancreas consists of tiny
structures called the islets of Langerhans which secrete insulin that
maintains the blood glucose levels.
o The liver, which is the largest gland in the body, acts as a storehouse for
glycogen, vitamins and minerals. It produces the bile which breaksdown
fats and protein molecules into smaller molecules for the easy digestion.
Bile emulsifies fats.
o The gallbladder is a tiny organ near the liver. It acts as a storehouse for
bile. Together, the liver and the gallbladder help to expel urea and other
toxic wastes from the body, through urine.
 f~~. MET REVIEW
56 '\~LET SPECIALIST

Summary of Digestive Organs, Enzymes, and their Actions o Nose

• It is the organ through which air is inhaled and exhaled.
Digestive Organs Digestive Enzymes Actions • It also filters, moistens, and heats up the air that is inhaled before it
Mouth - Salivary Glands Salivary Amylase or Ptyalin Convertsstarch to maltose passes to the pharynx.
Pepsin • Its external part is made up of cartilage which forms the tip and bridge.
Stomach Convertsproteinto peptides
Bony shelves which project from lateral walls of the nose are known as
Intestines inferior, middle and superior nasal conchae. Meatuses are spaces present
Accessory Sources between these conchae. Vestibule is a part inside the nostrils lined by
A. Liver Bile (not an enzyme) Emulsifies fats coarse hair. It is divided into two parts by the nasal septum.
Amylase Converts starch to maltose
o Pharynx
B. Pancreas Convertsemulsified fats to
Lipase • It is a common part to both respiratory and digestive systems.
fatty acids and glycerol • It is located behind the nasal and oral cavities. Its function is to facilitate
C. Intestinal Walls Trypsin Converts protein to peptides passage of air to the trachea.
Converts peptides to
Peptidase
amino acids o Larynx
Maltase Converts maltose to glucose • It connects trachea with laryngopharynx.
Converts lactose to glucose • It is made up of cartilage and also known as voice box.
Lactase
and galactose • Epiglottis, a flap like structure that covers the glottis, is an important
Converts sucrose to glucose part of the larynx. It is a cartilage that prevents food from entering the
Sucrase respiratory tract when swallowing.
and fructose
Taken from Essentials of Biological Sciences by Hafalla et al. o Trachea or windpipe
• It is a tube-like structure with tough covering that lies in the anterior
Respiratory System
of the esophagus.
• It is responsible for the absorption of oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide
• It moistens the air and facilitates its passage.
This process is known as the gaseous exchange. It involves the process of
• It branches into two tube-like structures called bronchi.
breathing. Breathing involves inhalation of oxygen and exhalation of carbon
dioxide. During inhalation, air in the atmosphere enters the body through the
o Bronchi
nose. This is caused by the contraction of the diaphragm (the sheet of
muscles that separate the thoracic cavityfrom the abdominal cavity) and the • They are tubes that allow passage of air flow into lungs.
intercostal muscles attached to the ribs. As they contract, the volume of the • There are two bronchi leading to the left and right lungs. Left bronchus
thoracic cavity increases, thereby decreasing the air pressure thus air rushes is shorter than the right bronchus. It is further divided into 2 lobar bronchi
in. This is inhalation.When the muscles relax, the volume of the thoracic while right bronchus is divided into 3 lobar bronchi.
cavity decreases thereby causing the air to rush out. This is called exhalation.
• It includes the following parts - the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, o Lungs
trachea, bronchi, alveoli and lungs. • They are pair of conical organs found in the pleural cavities.
• The respiratory system organs are classified into two sections - the upper • They house the bronchi. The bronchi are subdivided into numerous tubes
respiratory tract that includes the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx and larynx and called bronchioles. Each bronchiole end with numerous air sacs called
the lower respiratory tract which consist the trachea, bronchi, alveoli and alveoli.
lungs.
 /tJi'<1>,MET REVIEW
~. ttb#~
. LET SPECIALIST
o Alveoli
• They are the basic functional units that facilitate gaseous exchange.
• They contain thin-walled capillaries through which exchange of gases
take place - the carbon dioxide is released and oxygen is inside the
capillaries. The oxygenated blood is the drawn transported to the heart,
which pumps it to the different parts of the body.
o Diaphragm
• It plays an important role in breathing.
• Contraction of muscles of diaphragm results into expansion of thoracic
cavity allowing air to rush in. Its relaxation makes the thoracic cavity
smaller expelling the air out of the body.
.lrculatory System
• It circulates blood and other essential nutrients throughout the body.
• It transports lymph, hormones, gases and dispel wastes.
• It also aids in regulation of temperature.
• It has three main parts - heart, blood and blood vessels.
o Heart
• It is a pear shaped structure about a size of the fist which is located at
the chest cavity between the lungs with its apex pointed on the left side
of the body.
• It is made of a special kind of muscle called myocardium, and is covered
by a protective double-layered membrane called a pericardium.
• It is an organ that pumps the blood. It pumps oxygenated blood to all the
organs of the body and sends back non-oxygenated blood back to the
lungs
• It has four chambers - the left auricle, the right auricle, the left ventricle
and the right ventricle. Right auricle receives non-oxygenated blood from
the different parts of the body. Left auricle receives oxygenated blood
from the lungs. Right ventricle pumps the blood to the lungs. Left ventricle
pumps the blood to the different parts of the body.
• The atria are called the receiving chambers and the ventricles are the
pumping chambers.
• It has valves to prevent the back flow of blood. The tricuspid valve located
between the right atrium and right ventricle, the pulmonary valve between
the right ventricle and pulmonary artery, mitral valve between the left
atrium and left ventricle and the aortic valve between the right ventricle
and the aorta.
t(~), MET REVIEW
\~u,~i'LET SPECIALIST 59
• The flow of blood through the human heart can be a pulmonary circulation
and a systemic circulation.
;;.. In pulmonary circulation, deoxygenated blood enters the heart through
the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava into the right atrium
and goes into the right ventricle then pumps to the lungs and leaves
the lungs by way of the pulmonary arteries.
;;.. In systemic circulation, oxygenated blood returns from the lungs
through the pulmonary veins to the left atrium then goes to the left
ventricle where it is pumped to the different parts of the body passing
through the aorta.
o Blood
• It is the circulating fluid of the circulatory system.
• It has iron-containing protein molecule called hemoglobin, which is
responsible for the blood's deep red color and facilitates transportation
of oxygen and other respiratory gases to tissues.
• It has two parts - solid and liquid part. The solid part of the blood is called
the blood cells and the liquid part is called the blood plasma. There are
three types of blood cells: red blood cells(RBC), white blood cells (WBC),
blood platelets. The blood cells make up 45% of the blood tissue by
volume and the remaining 55% of the volume makes up the plasma.
;;.. Red Blood Cells - they are also called the erythrocytes; they are
responsible for delivering oxygen to the body tissues; when matured,
red blood cells are oval and flexible biconcave disks and lack a cell
nucleus; they circulate for about 100-120 days in the body; and they
are develop in the bone marrow.
;;.. White Blood Cells - they are also called leukocytes; they are involved
in defending the body against both infectious disease and foreign
materials; they live for about three to four days in the average human
body; based on granules, they can either be granulocytes or
agranulocytes.
•!• Granulocytes - they are characterized by the presence of
differently staining granules in their cytoplasm when viewed
under light microscopy. They are responsible for the digestion of
endocytosed particles. There are three types of granulocytes:
neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils.
•!• Agranulocytes - they are characterized by the apparent absence
of granules in their cytoplasm. The cells include lymphocytes,
monocytes, and macrophages.
 i~"\. MET REVIEW
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1~\ MET REVIEW
60 {._tttJ; LET SPECIALIST
glands secrete chemical enzymes, known as hormones, and release them
yBlood Platelets - they are also called thrombocytes; they are small, into the bloodstream.
irregularly shaped clear cell fragments that do not have a nucleus • Hormones act as chemical signals which regulate various functions of the
containing DNA; their average lifespan is normally just 5 to 9 days; body such as growth of muscles, bones and hair, maturity of reproductive
they are a natural source of growth factors that lead to the formation organs etc.
of blood clots; they release thread-like fibers to form these clots; • The table enumerates the endocrine glands, the hormones they secrete and
insufficient number of platelets results to excessive bleeding while their actions.
excessive number may result to thrombosis which may obstruct
blood vessels and result in such events as a stroke, myocardial Endocrine Effect of deficiency
Hormone Function
infarction, pulmonary embolism - or blockage of blood vessels to Gland or Excess
other parts of the body. Appears to be in activities
~The blood plasma contains water and protein molecules.Water serves Pineal
Melatonin with daily seasonal rhythms
as the liquid medium for materials in the blood. Proteins may be in Gland associatedwith iig ht conditions
the form of albumin which is responsible for osmotic balance,
of the environment such as
immunoglobulin for immunity, and fibrinogen for blood clotting. sleeping and breeding.
Pituitary Controls contraction of smooth
o Blood Vessels Oxytocin
• They are tubular channels that transport blood throughout the body Gland muscles of the uterus and
• There are three principal types of blood vessels - arteries, veins, and A. mammary gland cells.
Posterior Vasopressin Increased or
capillaries. Promotes retention of water
Y Arteries- they are muscular blood vessels that carry oxygenated blood lobe or Antidiuretic reduced water
by the kidneys. excretion
away from the heart to the cells, tissues, and organs of the body hormone (ADH)
except pulmonary arteries that carry deoxygenated blood from the
Growth Hormone Stimulates growth (especially Dwarfism or
heart to the lungs; aorta is the largest artery arising from the left
or Somatotropin of the skeleton) and regulates gigantism
ventricle of the heart; arteries are subdivided into smailer arteries metabolic functions.
called arterioles.
y Veins-they are less muscularthan arteries that carry deoxygenated B. Anterior Thyroid Regulates the activities of
Lobe Stimulating the thyroid glands.
blood toward the heart except pulmonary veins that carry oxygen -
Hormone (TSH)
rich blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart; veins have
one-way valves that prevent the backflow of blood; veins are divided Adrenocorticotropic Stimulates the adrenal cortex
into small thread-like veins called venules; venae cavae are the Hormone (ACTH) to secrete glucocorticoids.
largest veins arising from the right ventricle of the heart . Prolactin (PRL) Stimulates mammary gland
y Capillaries - they are the smallest of a body's blood vessels; they to secrete milk.
connect arterioles and venules; responsible the interchange of water,
Follicle-stimulating Regulates follicle formation in
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and many other nutrient and waste chemical the ovay and sperm formation
Hormone (FSH)
substances between blood and surrounding tissues. in the testis.
Luteinizing
Endocrine System C. Middle Hormone (LH) Stimulates ovaries and testes.
• It helps to maintain homeostasis, regulate temperature, and control growth, Lobe
development, metabolism and reproduction by secreting and releasing Melanocyte Increase production of the
hormones. Stimulating skin pigment melanin.
• It has two important parts - endocrine gland and the hormones. Hormone (MSH)
• The endocrine glands are a set of ductless glands in the body and these
 rf'.~li MET REVIEW q~'}, MET REVIEW
62 ~!!~' LET SPECIALIST ,. 'ffit : LET SPECIALIST
~~~~
63

Control metabolic rates, Stimulate growth of uterine Atrophy of

Thyroxine and Goiter; cretinism; Estrogens:
Thyroid physical growth and mental Ovaries lining; control development reproductive
Triodothyronine Myxedema beta-estrad iol,
growth and maintenance of system; decline
estrone, estrols female secondary sex of secondary sex
Calcitonin Lowers blood calcium level.
characteristics. characteristic.
Parathyroid Parathyroid Raises blood calcium level.
Hormone (PTH) Stimulates growth of uterine Abortion during
Progesterone
or Parathormone lining. pregnancy

Thymus Thymosin Stimulate T cells (i.e. controls Stimulates secretion of gastric

formation of antibodies) Stomach Gastrin
juice by gastric glands.
Adrenal Increases blood sugar and.
Glucocorticoids: Stimulates Secretion of
'Glands Cotisone maintains Upper Secretin
cortisol, Addisons disease pancreatic juice by
A. corticosterone, carbohydrates, fat, protein Intestine
Adrenal metabolism, and promotes pancreatic glands.
and cortisone
Cortex health of connective tissues. Taken from Functional Biology Modular Approach by Joaquin, et al. and Essentials of
Mineralocorticoids: Promotes reabsorption of Na+ Biological Sciences by Hafalla et al.
chiefly aldosterone and excretion of K+ in the
kidneys. lntegumentary System
Small amounts Influence the development of • It is the first line of defense in protecting the body. It protects the body against
B, Adrenal of androgens secondary sex characteristics injury, infection and fluid loss It acts as a protective barrier, that keeps our
Medulla body free from intrusion of foreign materials, microorganisms.
Epinephrine or Both constrict blood vessels,
• It aids in temperature regulation.
adrenaline and thereby increasing blood I • It helps in elimination of the waste products.
norepinephrine pressure. Epinephrine initiates
or noradrenaline the physiological changes in • It has a major role in the maintenance of the internal body conditions or
the fight or flight response. homeostasis.
• It is composed of the skin, hair, nails, sweat, oil glands and nerves.
'ancreas Insulin by Controls transformation of
slets of beta cells blood glucose into liver Diabetes
glycogen, hence, lowers the o Skin
angerhans
blood glucose level. • It performs the following functions:
1> For thermoregulation: It is made possible by the evaporation of the
Glucagon by Controls transformation of liver sweat and regulation of the blood flow to the dermis.
alpha cells glycogen into blood glucose
1> For sensations: Sensations such as touch, pressure, vibration, pain,
raises the blood glucose level.
cold, hot, etc, are felt in the skin.
Somatostatin by Inhibits secretion of both 1> For protection: Skin serves as a protective barrier of the skin that
delta cells insulin and glucagon.
helps prevent diseases, infections, dehydration, etc.
est es Androgens: Control sperm as well as Atrophy of I> For production of Vitamin D: The precursor present in the skin and
testosterone, the development formation reproductive UV rays, help in the production of vitamin D.
dihydrotestosterone and maintenance of male system; decline I> For healing: Minor cut or burn on the epidermis is healed by means
and androstenedione secondary sex characteristics. of secondary sex of contact inhibition.
characteristic.
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·~ttbt'; LET SPECIALIST
• It is divided into three separate layers - epidermis, dermis and
subcutaneous layer.
Y Epidermis - It is the outermost layer of the skin that is made up of
separate layers of epithelial tissue - stratum corneum that is made up
of keratinized and dead cells that make the skin waterproof; stratum
granulosum; stratum lucidum; the stratum germinativum which are
made up of actively dividing cells making them the manufacturing
center for growing skin.
Y Dermis - It lies immediately after the epidermis consisting of its own
blood supply and thus contains many complex structures such as
the sweat glands and hair roots. Sweat glands collect waters and
waste products from the blood stream. This waste is excreted from
the pores in the epidermis along with the water in form of sweat.
y Subcutaneous Layer - It is the layer that contains adipose tissues
that cushions the delicate organs beneath the skin. It also maintains
body temperature by insulating the body to the temperature
fluctuations.
o Nails
• The nails, claws and horns are called skin derivatives .
• The nail is a highly keratinized structure of modified epidermal cells.
• The nail bed gives rise to nails, that is thickened to form a lunula the
moon shaped structure that is observed at the base of the nail. ' substances, such as bilirubin, ammonia and creatinine.They also filter
• Nails help in grasping and holding things.
• Nails act as counter force and help increase the sensitivity of the fingertip.
o Sebaceous Glands
• They secrete the oil coating for the hair shaft.
• When these sebaceous glands become clogged with dirt and
microorganisms, they become infected and cause pimples or acne.
o Sweat Glands
• They have an opening through the skin pores which help in excretion of
waste.
• Eccrine gland is a type of sweat gland that is connected to the sympathetic
nervous system found all over the body.
• Apocrine gland is a type of sweat gland located in the armpit and groin
areas that contribute to body odor in the presence of bacteria.
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Excretory System
• It is also known as the urinary system.
• It is responsible for the removal of water-soluble waste products from the
body in the form of urine.
• It particularly excretes nitrogenous waste products. These waste products
become toxic and presence of these in the body is fatal.
• It functions in proper coordination with other organ systems, like the skin,
lungs and intestine to excrete all types of waste products produced by cell
metabolism.
• The principal components of the excretory system are two kidneys, two
ureters, a urinary bladder, two sphincter muscles and the urethra. In addition,
there are also accessory organs such as the liver, the skin, the lungs and
the large intestine
o Kidneys
• They are bean-shaped organs situated below the rib cage, near the
middle of the back.
• They act as the filtration system of the body and clean the blood of the
toxic materials such as urea, a waste product generated during protein
metabolism.Waste products are formed during cell metabolism and these
remained in the blood thus kidneys filter blood and separate toxic
and separate chemicals that are not supposed to be present in the body.
•They play an important role in regulating blood pressure. As they
eliminate wastes from the blood they maintain the blood volume, thus
capable of regulating blood pressure. They likewise secrete an enzyme
renin which is associated with the regulation of blood pressure.
• They secrete hormone erythropoietin which stimulates the production of
red blood cells.
• They regulate the pH of the blood.
• They regulate the number of free radicals of different elements such as
Na+, Ca +2, K+, and Cl- in the blood.
• They take part in the manufacture of vitamin D.
o Ureters
• They are the narrow tubes that carry or transport urine from the kidney
to the bladder for storage before excretion.
• They prevent the back flow of urine during urination.
• Cyctitis and kidney infection may occur when ureters are impaired.
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66 -\~/ LET SPECIALIST
o Urinary Bladder
• It is a triangular hollow muscular organ located in the lower abdominal
region.
• It serves as the temporary storage of urine. It expands to store urine.
When it contracts, urine is expelled out of the body.
• It can store as much as two cups of urine.
o Sphincter Muscles
• The sphincter muscles are circular band of smooth muscles that play an
important role in storing the urine within the bladder.
• They prevent the leakage of urine by closing tightly the opening of the
bladder.
• They have nerves that control the process of urination. When the bladder
is full, the nerves of the bladder transmit this information to the brain. The
brain then, signals the bladder muscles to contract and sphincter muscles
to relax, so as to facilitate release of urine.This process is called urination.
• If the sphincter is not working properly, then the person suffers from
urinary incontinence, in which a person cannot hold his or her urine
effectively.
o Urethra
• It is a tube like structure that carry urine from the bladder.
• Aside from the kidneys, there are other organs that play an important role
in the process of excretion. They are the liver, sweat glands, lungs, and large
intestine. They differ in the kind of metabolic waste they excrete.
o Liver
• It is situated in the upper right portion of the abdomen below the
diaphragm.
• It removes the excess amino acid from the blood. This process is called
deamination.
• The excess amino acid is acted upon by the liver cells converting it into
urea. Urea is excreted out of the body through urine and sweat.
o Sweat Glands/Skin
• They eliminate excess water, excess organic substances and inorganic
salts.
• They excrete waste in the form of sweat.
• The skin pores help in getting rid of the waste materials by letting the
sweat out of our body.
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67
o Lungs
• It removes excess carbon dioxide and small amount of water into the air
sacs.
o Large Intestine
• It removes the undigested part of the food.
• It absorbs most of the liquid portion of the waste thus become dry and
solid. This waste is called feces and eliminated out of the body through
the anus.
ReproductiveSystem
• It is the main reason why human species have survived billion of years ago.
• It is responsible for generating/producing reproductive cells or gametes
• It provides a mechanism for an egg to be fertilized and maintained until the
developing embryo can survive outside the body.
• It contributes to formation of a new life
• It is divided into 2 major organs; the external genital organs or the organs that
can be found in outside body like the penis for the male and vulva for the
female and the internal organs or the gamete producing gonads (ovaries
and testicles).
• The primary reproductive organs are the ovaries (female) and the testes
(male).
• Male and female reproductive systems differ in many ways.
o Male ReproductiveSystem
• Its primary function is to produce the male gametes or the spermatozoa
which is necessary for the fertilization of the ovum/ova.
• It is responsible for the production and secretion of the male hormones
testosterone.
• It transports the sperm in the female reproductive tract.
• To do all these functions, it has the external parts and internal parts which
perform different functions: The external parts are the following:
~Penis: it is the male's copulatory organ located anterior to the scrotum.
Contains three cylinders of spongy, erectile tissue; during arousal,
these become filled with blood from the arteries that supply them and
the pressure seals off the veins that drains these areas causing an
erection; designed for the transport of the sperm to the vagina and
these is where the urine and seminal fluid flows out of the body.
~ Scrotum: it is a small sac of skin located at the base of the penis; it
contains the testes (testicles); it keeps the testes close or far from the
body at an optimal temperature for the sperm development.

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68 ""Ubr/ LET SPECIALIST
• Internally, it has the following parts:
s-Testes - it is the male reproductive organs; it is enclosed in a sac
called scrotum; it is an oval structure that is about 4-5 cm long and
3 cm in diameter. Made up of white fibrous connective tissue capsule,
the tunica albuginea; it contains 1 to 4 highly coiled seminiferous
tubules, where sperm is being produced; it is hanging in order to keep
the temperature lower than the body temperature which is necessary
for viable sperm .
> Semeniferous Tubules - it is located inside the testes and where
sperms are produced by meiosis.
> Epididymis - it is a long (about 6 meters) tube that is slightly coiled
to form a comma shaped organ located along the superior side of
the testes. It is where complete maturation process of sperms take
place. ~
> Vas Deferens - it is also called ductus deferens; it is a fibro muscular
tube that is continuous with the epididymis; it is where sperms are
stored temporarily.
> Urethra - it extends from the urinary bladder to the distal part of the
penis; it is a passageway for the urine and seminal fluid; it extends
the length of the penis and opens to the outside at the external
urethra orifice.
> Seminal Vesicles - it is located posterior to the urinary bladder; its
fluid is viscous and contains fructose, prostaglandins and proteins.
Fructose provides an energy source for the sperm, prostaglandins
contributes to the mobility and viability of the sperm and proteins
cause slight coagulation reactions in the semen after ejaculation.
> Prostate Gland - it is a firm, dense structure that is located just
inferior to the urinary bladder; it secretes a thin, milky colored and
alkaline substance that enhances the motility of the sperm.
> Bulbourethral Gland or Cowper's Gland - it is a small gland located
at the base of the penis; it secretes an alkaline-mucus like fluid that
neutralizes the acidity of the urine residue in the urethra; helps to
neutralize the acidity of the vagina; provides lubrication for the tip of
the penis during intercourse.
o Female Reproductive System
• Its primary function is to produce the female gamete the egg cell or
oocytes, which is necessary for the fertilization.
• It is responsible for the reception of the sperm cell, and it is designed to
provide nourishment and nurture the newly develop fetus.
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'{zli<ef.,.;if LET SPECIALIST 69
• It has both the internal and external parts. The external female reproductive
structures enable sperm to enter the body and protect the internal genitals
from infections. The main external structures of the female reproductive
organs are:
>Vulva - the external parts of the female reproductive system
> Labia Majora - it is relatively large and fleshy and that encloses and
protects other external reproductive system.
s-Labla Minora - it is very small and lies inside the labia majora.lt
surrounds the openings to the vagina and urethra.
> Bartholin's Gland - it is located next to the vaginal opening and
produce fluid secretion that lubricates the vagina
>Clitoris - it is extremely sensitive to touch and can cause sexual
arousal.
• The internal genital is consists of the following parts:
>Vagina - a canal that connects the cervix to the outside of the body.
It is also known as the birth canal.
> Uterus - a hollow, pear shaped organ that houses developing fetus.
It is divided into two parts; the cervix, which is the lower part that
opens into the vagina, and the main body of the uterus, the corpus
which is capable of expansion to hold a developing baby.
>Ovaries - they are small, oval shaped glands that are located on
either side of the uterus which is responsible for the production of
the eggs and the hormones.
>Fallopian Tubes - they are narrow tubes that are attached to the
upper part of the uterus and serve as passageways for the ova to
travel from the ovaries to the uterus. It is where fertilization occurs.
Nervous System
• It regulates and coordinates the body's responses to changes in the internal
and external environment.
• It plays an important role in the smooth functioning of the body.
• It keeps a control over the systems of the body.
• It has two major divisions: Central Nervous System and the Peripheral
Nervous System
o Central Nervous System
• It collects information from the sensory receptors and does the processing
of the information.
• It has two parts - spinal cord and brain.
> Brain - command center of the body; monitors all the conscious and
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unconscious processes of the body; coordinates various organs of
the body; and controls all the voluntary movements in the body;
divided into three segments - fore brain, mid brain and the hind brain.
•:• Forebrain - the largest division responsible for a variety of
functions including receiving and processing sensory information,
thinkinq.perceivinq, producing and understanding language, and
controlling motor function.
•:• Mid brain - contains optic lobes; connects forebrain and hindbrain;
responsible with ocular reflexes, eye movement, visual impulses
•:•Hind brain - it extends from the spinal cord; it includes the
cerebellum and the medulla oblongata.
);>-Spinal Cord - responsible for relaying all the impulses, information
an sensations from all around the body, internally and externally, to
the brain.
o Peripheral NervousSystem
• It sends information processed in the central nervous system to the
different body parts.
• It consists of nerves connecting the brain and spinal cord to the sensory
organs, muscles and glands through the pathways.
• !t has three main pathways are: the cranial nerves, the spinal nerves,
and the autonomic ganglia.
• It is divided into two divisions: somatic nervous system - controls both
reflex and voluntary actions; and autonomic nervous system - regulates
body's internal environment, glands heart muscle and smooth muscles.
,51c GENETICS
rat is genetics?
• It is the science of genes, heredity, and the variation of organisms.
• It provides important tools in the investigation of the function of a particular
gene, e.g. analysis of genetic interactions.
• Genetic information is carried in chromosomes, where it is represented in the
chemical structure of particular DNA molecules.
• Gregor Mendel was one of the earliest people to systematically study genetics.
ndelian Inheritance
• Mendelian inheritance (or Mendelian genetics or Mendelism) is a scientific
description of how hereditary characteristics are passedfrom parent organisms
to their offspring
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• Mendel summarized his findings in two laws: the Law of Segregation and the
Law of Independent Assortment.
Law of Segregation
• It states that every individual possesses a pair of alleles for a particular trait
and that each parent passes a randomly selected copy (allele) of only one of
these to its offspring. The pair of genes is segregated or separated during the
formation of gametes.
• Each gamete receives only half of the pair of genes.
• During fertilization, the resulting fertilized egg or zygote will have a full set of
chromosomes. Whichever of the two alleles in the offspring is dominant
determines how the offspring expresses that trait
Law of Independent Assortment
• It states that the separations of gene pairs in a given pair of chromosomes
and the distribution of the genes to gametes during meiosis are entirely
independent of the distribution of other gene pairs in other pairs of
chromosomes.
• It describes how different genes independently separate from one another
when reproductive cells develop.
• Independent assortment of genes occurs during meiosis in eukaryotes.
Meiosis is a type of cell division that reduces the number of chromosomes in
a parent cell by half to produce four reproductive cells called gametes. In
humans, diploid cells contain 46 chromosomes, with 23 chromosomes
inherited from the mother and a second similar set of 23 chromosomes
inheritedfrom the father. Pairs of similar chromosomes are called homologous
chromosomes.
• During meiosis, the pairs of homologous chromosome are divided in half to
form haploid cells, and this separation, or assortment, of homologous
chromosomes is random. This means that all of the maternal chromosomes
will not be separated into one cell, while the all paternal chromosomes are
separated into another. Instead, after meiosis occurs, each haploid cell
contains a mixture of genes from the organism's mother and father.
• Another feature of independent assortment is recombination. Recombination
occurs during meiosis and is a process that breaks and recombines pieces
of DNA to produce new combinations of genes. Recombination scrambles
pieces of maternal and paternal genes, which ensures that genes assort
independently from one another.
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endelian Genetics Key Words
• Allele - An allele is one of a pair, or series, of genes signifying a particular
trait. Using a Mendelian example, the gene for green pods in pea plants is
one allele and the gene for yellow pod is its pair. An allele can either be
dominant, typified by a capital letter; or recessive, typified by the lower case
version of the dominant trait's letter. Recessive genes are only expressed
when there are no dominant alleles present that control the same trait.
• Dominant - the allele that expresses itself at the expense of an alternate
allele; the phenotype that is expressed in the F1 generation from the cross of
two pure lines
• Recessive - an allele whose expression is suppressed in the presence of a
dominant allele; the phenotype that disappears in the F1 generation from the
cross of two pure lines and reappears in the F2 generation
• Phenotype - This is the trait that can be seen, for example in a green or yellow
pod in pea plant. When a pure recessive line is bred with a pure dominant
line the ratio of dominant phenotypes to recessive phenotypes is 3: 1.
• Genotype - This is the exact combination of alleles found in each plant. In a
combination of two alleles, green pod or G or yellow pod g, there are three
possible genotypes: GG, Gg and gg. Both the GG and Gg genotypes would
produce the dominant green pod trait. When a pure recessive line is bred with
a pure dominant line the ratio of possible genotypes is 1GG:2Gg:1 gg.
• Homozygous - Homozygous is the term that describes pure lines, where two
of the same alleles are combined. In the case of yellow versus green pod pea
plants, the genotypes GG and gg are homozygous.
• Heterozygous - Heterozygous is the term used to describe the mixed allele
combinations produced. In the case of yellow versus green pod pea plants,
the genotype Gg is heterozygous.
nan Chromosomes and the Patterns of Inheritance
• Human genetics describes the study of inheritance as it occurs in human
beings.
• Human genetics encompasses a variety of overlapping fields including:
classical genetics, cytogenetics, molecular genetics, biochemical genetics,
genomics, population genetics, developmental genetics, clinical genetics,
and genetic counseling. Genes can be the common factor of the qualities of
most human-inherited traits.
• Study of human genetics can be useful as it can answer questions about human
nature, understand the diseases and development of effective disease
treatment, and understand genetics of human life.
Autosomal dominant inheritance
• Autosomal traits are associated with a single gene on an autosome (non-sex
chromosome)-they are called "dominant" because a single copy-inherited
from either parent-is enough to cause this trait to appear.
<This often means that one of the parents must also have the same trait, unless
it has arisen due to a new mutation. Examples of autosomal dominant traits
and disorders are Huntington's disease, and achondroplasia.
Autosomal recessive inheritance
• Autosomal recessive trait is one pattern of inheritance for a trait, disease, or
disorder to be passed on through families.
• For a recessive trait or disease to be displayed two copies of the trait or
disorder needs to be presented. The trait or gene will be located on a non-sex
chromosome.
.. Because it takes two copies of a trait to display a trait, many people can
unknowingly be carriers of a disease. From an evolutionary perspective, a
recessive disease or trait can remain hidden for several generations before
displaying the phenotype. Examples of autosomal recessive disorders are
albinism, Cystic Fibrosis, Tay-Sachs disease.
X-linked and Y-linked inheritance
• X-linked genes _are found on the sex X chromosome. X-linked genes just like
autosomal genes have both dominant and recessive types.
• Recessive X-linked disorders are rarely seen in females and usually only
affect males. This is because males inherit their X chromosome and all
X-linked genes will be inherited from the maternal side.
• Fathers only pass on their Y chromosome to their sons, so no X-linked traits
will be inherited from father to son.
• Females express X-linked disorders when they are homozygous for the
disorder and become carriers when they are heterozygous.
• X-linked dominant inheritance will show the same phenotype as a heterozygote
and homozygote. Just like X-linked inheritance, there will be a lack of male-
to-male inheritance, which makes it distinguishable from autosomal traits.
• One example of an X-linked trait is Coffin-Lowry syndrome, which is caused
by a mutation in ribosomal protein gene. This mutation results in skeletal,
craniofacial abnormalities, mental retardation, and short stature.
• X chromosomes in females undergo a process known as X inactivation. X
inactivation is when one of the two X chromosomes in females is almost
completely inactivated. It is important that this process occurs otherwise a
woman would produce twice the amount of normal X chromosome proteins.
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•The mechanism for X inactivation will occur during the embryonic stage. For Multiple Alleles
people with disorders like trisomy X, where the genotype has three X
chromosomes, X-inactivation will inactivate all X chromosomes until there is
only one X chromosome active. X inactivation is not only limited to females,
males with Klinefelter syndrome, who have an extra X chromosome, will also
undergo X inactivation to have only one completely active X chromosome.
• Y-linked inheritance occurs when a gene, trait, or disorder is transferred
through the Y chromosome. Since Y chromosomes can only be found in
males, Y linked traits are only passed on from father to son. The testis
determining factor, which is located on the Y chromosome, determines the
maleness of individuals. Besides the maleness inherited in the Y-chromosome
there are no other found Y-linked characteristics
x - Determination
• A humans' sex is predetermined in the sperm gamete.
• The egg gamete mother cell is said to be homogametic, because all it's cell
possess the XX sex chromosomes.
• Sperm gametes are deemed heterogametic because around half of them
contain the X chromosome and others possess the Y chromosome to
compliment the first X chromosome.
• In light of this, there are two possibilities that can occur during fertilization
between male and female gametes, XX and XY. Since sperm are the variable
factor (i.e. which sperm fertilizes the egg) they are responsible for determining
sex.
x-influenced Traits
• An example is the gene for baldness. The gene is not in the X chromosome
but its expression of dominance is affected by the sex of the individual involved.
• It acts differently in males than in females. This means that one baldness
gene is enough to make a man bald. The genotype for males will therefore
be BB or Bb. A woman must have two baldness genes to make her bald. The
genotype will be BB.
x-limited traits
• These traits can appear only in one sex.
• Examples are genetic differences in expression of a feature that occurs
only in one sex. An example is "precocious puberty," which is due to
unregulated production of testosterone in young boys, who enter puberty at
1-2 years of age.
• It is inherited as an autosomal dominant trait that has no effect in heterozygous
females.
• Alleles are alternative forms of a gene, and they are responsible for
differences in phenotypic expression of a given trait.
• A gene for which at least two alleles exist is said to be polymorphic. Instances
in which a particular gene may exist in three or more allelic forms are known
as multiple allele conditions.
• Examples of Multiple Alleles:Two human examples of multiple-allele genes
are the gene of the ABO blood group system, and the human-leukocyte-
associated antigen (HLA) genes. The ABO system in humans is controlled
by three alleles, usually referred to as IA, 18, and 10 (the "I" stands for
isohaemagglutinin).
• IA and 18 are codominant and produce type A and type B antigens, respectively,
which migrate to the surface of red blood cells, while 10 is the recessive
allele and produces no antigen.
Genotype Blood Group
IA IA A
IA 10 A
jB 1s B
1s 10 B
IA 1s AB
10 10 0
The ABO system in humans
• HLA genes code for protein antigens that are expressed in most human cell
types and play an important role in immune responses. These antigens are
also the main class of molecule responsible for organ rejections following
transplantations - thus their alternative name: major histocompatibility
complex (MHC) genes
• The most striking feature of HLAgenes is their high degree of polymorphism-
there may be as many as one hundred different alleles at a single locus. If
one also considers that an individual possesses five or more HLA loci, it
becomes clear why donor-recipient matches for organ transplantations are
so rare (the fewer HLA antigens the donor and recipient have in common,
the greater the chance of rejection).