02-MSc Grain Preservation and Processing

Chapter-1
Grain Preservation and

Processing
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal,

Deptt. Farm Machinery & Power,
University of Agriculture, Faisalabad
1
Introduction
• Every change in grain that causes it to lose its desired
quality and eventually become inedible is called spoilage
or rotting.
• As long as crop is not harvested, the quality remains
relatively stable if they are not damaged by disease or
eaten by insects or other animals.
• However, the harvest cannot be postponed indefinitely:
when the time is right, it is time to act. As soon as the
crop is harvested, the grain quality begins to diminish.
This is due to a natural process that starts as soon as the
biological cycle is broken by harvesting.
2
 Grain preservation action can be taken to maintain the original
nutrients and quality of grains until final use by man
 All living organisms within the agricultural products are carrying
on respiration-the biochemical oxidation of organic nutrients
 The respiration is often modeled to the entire mass (grains + all
living organisms) by combustion of carbohydrates
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 2834 kJ
 The reaction uses oxygen and assumes an aerobic state in the
agricultural mass
 The inter-granular atmosphere (about 45% of grain mass
volume) supplies oxygen continuously unless the mass is sealed
3
• Measurements of CO2 evolved is often used to
gauge progression of the deterioration reaction
• The living organism can include
1. Viable grain kernels
2. Insects
3. Fungi
4. Micro-organisms (Bacteria, moulds, and yeasts)
5. Mites
6. Rodents and birds etc
4
Insects and rodents can cause a lot of damage. Not only by eating the
products, but also by passing on micro-organisms through their
hair.
Micro-organisms are very small, one-celled animals and are of three
types: bacteria, moulds and yeasts.
Bacteria and yeasts cannot be seen with the naked eye, but moulds
are often visible because they form visible thin threads (filaments)
or a solid cluster. Just like humans, micro-organisms require
certain minimum living conditions.
Micro-organisms cannot survive without:
1. sufficient water
2. oxygen
3. the right degree of acidity
4. nutrients
5. the right temperature
5
Reasons of deterioration
1. At the time of harvest or sometimes before, these living organisms begin
to compete to maximize their share for grain nutrients
2. As the living organisms succeed, the grain deteriorates
3. Preservation slows the reaction of living organisms
Effectiveness of preservation
Preservation cannot:
i. Improve upon the agricultural products or grains as it was at the
time of Harvest
ii. Stop the deterioration completely
However, it can slow the deterioration to an acceptable rate
6
Basic Preservation methods
A. Drying
B. Mechanical isolation
C. Refrigeration
D. Chemical treatment
E. Ionizing Radiations
7
A - Drying or dehydration
• Process of removing moisture from agricultural products in

order to make it less hospitable to living organisms within the
mass
How drying contributes to reduce deterioration
• As moisture content of a mass of a grain is reduced. The
relative humidity of static interspaced air (which come to
equilibrium with the grain), is also reduced
• Microorganisms in the grain have lower limits of relative
humidity for their sustenance
8
• Water is necessary for maintaining many physical processes. Where there
is a shortage or lack of water micro-organisms cannot grow.
• Drying is therefore one way to prevent spoilage.
• Most micro-organisms need oxygen. If there is a shortage of oxygen, it is
difficult for bacteria to survive, let alone multiply. As soon as the oxygen
supply is increased, these remaining bacteria will again grow and
multiply.
• Bacteria grow best in an environment that is not too acidic. Less acidic
products are therefore especially susceptible to bacterial spoil-age.
Examples of such products are meat, eggs, milk and various types of
vegetables. Beer, yoghurt, wine, vinegar and fruit are less sensitive
because they are more acidic. Adding acidity to products slows down
the process of microbial spoilage.
• To thrive, micro-organisms need a temperature of between 5 and 65°C. At
temperatures above 65°C it becomes very difficult for them to survive.
9
• Fungus - The greatest cause of deterioration of
grains/agricultural products require at least 65-68% RH for
growth
• Bacteria require near 100% relative humidity for growth
• Insects depend upon agricultural products for moisture they

need to carry on life process. So product deterioration can be
controlled by drying grain to lower moisture content. Insects
can be avoided when moistures contents ranges from 10-12%
10
B - Mechanical isolation
 Mechanical isolation preserves grains by fencing out
threatening organisms or something they need to survive
 Examples-Metal cans and rodent proof grain bins
Canning
 Process of heating a product to a temperature where
contained organisms are killed or inactivated, then sealing to
prevent entry of oxygen or micro-organisms
 The material in the can is kept in an aseptic state
 Nikolas Appert, a Paris confectioner, discovered that food
heated in sealed container would not be spoiled if the seal was
retained
11
• Discovery was made without any understanding of the micro-
organisms involved.
• Food containers were hand made tin plate cylinders,

fabricated by soldering.
• These cylinders were called Canisters from which the word

CAN is assumed to be derived. Appert, s process was called
Appertizing
• Food Preservation examples from Hazrat Yousaf (A.S)
12
C - Refrigeration- An effective preservation method
Refrigeration works because the respiration and metabolic rate of living

organisms retard when their temperature is decreased below an optimum
range
Group Temperature ,°C

Min Optimum Max
Psychrophiles -8 to 0 10 - 20 25-30
Mesophiles 5-25 20-40 40-45
Thermophiles 25-40 50-60 70-80
• The rate of reaction is approximately halved for every 10°C decrease

below the optimum range
• Most common micro organisms in perishable foods are mesophiles
Source: C.J. Bern, 1992

Iowa state university, USA 13
• More quickly the product is cooled, the longer it will remain
marketable
• Every hour lost before cooling to storage temperature result in
a loss of one day or more of shelf life
Source: farm Structure FACTSHEET

(British Columbia, Ministry of agriculture and food, 1989)
14
D - Chemical treatment
Presence of certain chemicals retards or prevents deterioration
by living organisms
Precautions
1. The chemical in the concentration retained in the products
should be at worst harmless and at best beneficial to the end
use of the products.
2. Chemical treatment can take several forms including direct

application of a chemical preservative, storage in a controlled
gaseous environment and fermentation.
3. The means by which chemical prevents deterioration is much

different among the chemical used
15
E - Ionization Radiations
1. The newest and least developed of the preservation method
2. Agri-product is subjected to ionization radiations like;
 ultra violets, X or Gamma rays, cathode or Beta rays,
protons, neutrons and alpha particles
3. Bacteria, moulds and yeasts are destroyed by direct hits of
ionizing particles at or near a sensitive center of the
organism
4. Insects can also be destroyed by ionization
5. Low doses of Gamma radiations have been reported to
induce or increase production of the toxic compound
6. Introduction of radioactivity in food is possible.
16
Chapter-2
Moisture in Grain

1
Moisture contents have significant importance in both
grain storage and grain marketing for three major
reasons
1. Market value - Water has no nutritive value, the grain trade
sets standards for max. moisture contents. Excess moisture
results in price or weight discount
2. Harvest-ability - There is a relation between kernel damage
and moisture content at harvest. e.g. combines in corn,
create minimum damage between 18 and 22% moisture
3. Storability - Mold and insect deterioration increases in
storage as moisture increases
2
Moisture content relationships
Moisture content (wb) =Mw Relationship between
Md & Mw
Moisture content (db) =Md
Water in grain at Mw =w
Wet weight of grain =Wo
Weight of dry mass = Wd
Wo = w +Wd
Mw =w/Wo
Md = w/Wd
3
Moisture content conversion-wet
basis to dry basis
Prove that Md = Mw/(1-0.01Mw)
We know that
Mw = 100 w/(w+Wd) or Mw(w+Wd) = 100 w
Mw(w+100 w/Md) = 100 w because Md=100w/Wd

So, Wd=100w/Md
Mww+100 Mww/Md = 100 w divide both sides by w

Mw+100 Mw/Md = 100
100 - Mw = 100 Mw/Md
Md = 100 Mw/(100-Mw)
Md = Mw/(1-0.01 Mw) Hence proved
4
Moisture content conversion-dry
basis to wet basis
Prove that Mw = Md / (1+0.01Md)
We know that
Md = Mw / (1-0.01Mw)
(1-0.01Mw) Md = Mw
Md - 0.01Mw Md = Mw
Mw + 0.01Mw Md = Md
Mw (1 + 0.01 Md ) = Md
Mw = Md/ (1 + 0.01 Md ) Hence proved
5
One Bushel- A standard weight at a
standard moisture content
(col-1) (col-2) (col-3) col2 x (100-col3) Dry
Grain Standard weight Standard Matter
(Ibs) moisture content (%) (Ibs)
corn 56 15.5 47.32
Soybeans 60 13.0 52.20
Oats 32 13.0 27.84
Wheat 60 12.0 52.80
1-bushel=1.245 ft3
6
Weight of corn at various grain moisture levels
75
Corn weight per bushel (Ib/bu)
2 2
70 y = 0.008x + 0.42x + 47.4, R = 0.9
65
60
55
50
45
0 10 20 30 40
Grain moisture content (% wb)
7
• Q. Why moisture content of agricultural products is measured
on wet weight basis?
• Ans. Due to easy calculation during crop drying
MC % Water Dry matter Sample weight
(wb) (kg) (kg) (kg)
Let, mc= 20% w1 = 20 DM = 80 Let, W1=100
0.20 W1 + DM = W1 or 0.20 (100) + 80 = 100
After drying to 0.10 W2+DM = W2 Then,
10% Or W2(1.0 – 0.10) = DM W2=88.89
Or W2 = DM/0.9 =80/0.90 = 88.89
and w2=0.10W2=0.10(88.9)=8.89
After drying to 0.05W3 + DM = W3 W3 = 84.21
5% Or W3(1.0-0.05)= DM
Or W3=DM/0.95 = 80/0.95= 84.21
and w3= 0.05(84.21) = 4.21
After drying to 0.0W4 + DM = W4 W4 = 80
0% Or W4(1.0-0.0)= DM
Or W4=DM/1.0 = 80/1.0= 80
and w4= 0.0(84.21) = 0
8
• We know that dry matter, DM1=DM2
• Let wet weight of grain, W1 = 100 kg at mc=20%
[w1=0.2W1=20 kg and DM1=0.8W1=80 kg]
• If grain are dried to 10% mc, then DM2=0.9W2
• Where, W2=W1-w w=water to be removed
• Since, DM1=DM2
• 0.8W1=0.9W2=0.9(W1-w)
• 0.8(100)=0.9(100-w)
• arranging, 0.9w=0.9(100) -0.8(100)=10
• therefore, w=10/0.9=11.11 kg
• and W2=W1-w=100-11.11=88.89 kg
9
Problem - 1
2000 kg of freshly harvested paddy with a moisture content of
25% (wb) is dried to a moisture content of 14% (wb). Determine
the final weight of grain after drying.
Solution: DM1 = DM2

0.75W1=0.86W2=0.86(W1-w)
0.75(2000)=0.86W2=0.86(2000-w)
0.75(2000)=0.86(2000-w)
0.86w=0.86(2000)-0.75(2000)
=(0.86-0.75)2000 = 220
w=220/0.86=255.81 kg
W2=W1-w=2000-255.81=1744.19 kg
10
Problem - 2
8000 kg of paddy at a mc of 0.12(wb) is required to be stored in a
grain storage. It was decided that the available freshly harvested
paddy with mc= 0.20 (wb) should be procured and then be dried
to a mc=0.12 % (wb). How many kg of freshly harvested paddy
are to be procured?
Solution: DM1=DM2
0.8W1=0.88W2=0.88(8000)=7040
W1=7040/0.8=8800 kg
Water to be dried?
w=W2-W1=8800-7040=1760 kg
11
Determination of moisture contents
1. Direct method
2. Indirect method
Direct method is further categorized into the followings

 Oven Method
Operating conditions and procedures are different for
different materials
i. Air oven method
 Commonly used for grains
 Working temperature is 130 C
12
Classification of air oven method
 One stage method
• Used for grains…… less than 13%
Procedure
• Grind duplicate samples of 2-3 gm and weigh accurately
• Heat for one hour in oven at 130 °C
• Remove from oven and place in a desicater and then re-weigh
• M.C (wb) = (Initial weight of sample – final weight of
sample)/Initial weight of sample
13
Two stage method
• used for grains for moisture content over 13 %
Procedure
• Weigh accurately 25-30 gm sample of whole grain
• Place in an oven for 14-16 hours
• Remove from the oven and place in a desicater and
then re-weigh
• Grind a sample of the grain and proceed for stage
one method
14
Water oven method
• Weigh 25-30 gram samples and place in the oven
• Heat for 72-96 hours at 90-100 °C
• Remove from the oven and place in a desicater

•
• Decrease in weight will be moisture content
• Grain sample should be in the oven until weigh decrease stops
15
Indirect method
1. Resistance method
2. Capacitance method
3. Chemical method
16
Resistance method
• Log R is directly proportional to mc
• Used for 11-16 % mc range
• Experiments conducted for wheat
• Drawback-variation with temperature
• If mc > 16 %, the above expression parabolic
• Also not efficient below 7% mc as no change in R with mc
• V=IR
17
Capacitance method
• C = kKA/h
• C = 0.225 εA/h
• ε = Dielectric constant
= specific inductance constant
• Dielectric properties depend upon mc
• Wetter the material, higher will be the dielectric constant
• Low mc…..low D.E.C
• Water has dielectric constant =80 and grains have less than 5
• High frequency current is passed in this process
• Useful for 8-40% mc determination
18
Chemical Method
• Water from a grain sample can be removed by

adding chemicals which decompose & combine with
H2O.
CaC2+2H2O Ca(OH)2 + C2H2
• Volume of gas evolved is proportional to mc
produced
• Moisture meters are available which operate at this
principle
19
Moisture measurement- unground grain and seeds
Seed Oven temp, oC Time (hr : min) Sample size, g
Barley 130 20 10
Corn 103 72 15
Oats 130 22 10
Onion 130 0:50 10
Radish 130 1:10 10
Rye 130 16 10
Sorghum 130 18 10
Soybeans 130 72 15
Turnip 130 4 10
Wheat 130 19 10
Reference: ASAE Standards, 2011 20
Chapter-3
Equilibrium Moisture Contents

Equilibrium moisture contents
All grains absorb and de-sorb water in response
to surrounding ambient conditions.
Temperature and Relative humidity are
responsible in determining how much water
will be absorbed or desorbed
For any condition of temperature and relative
humidity, agricultural products will reach a
specific moisture content called its equilibrium
moisture contents (EMC)
2
Example
Temperature lines
A grain bin is loaded with
corn having 25% moisture
40 F
content (wb). To what
moisture content will the 16 55 F
air dry this corn if the

14
outside air is at 55 oF and MC (wb) 70 F
65 % R.H. 12
Solution
Go vertically up from
65%RH (Horizontal axis)
Intersect 55oF temp line
Move horizontally and read
14%MC (Vertical axis) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Ans: (EMC 65%rh, 55oF=14%) Relative humidity (%)
3
Example Temperature lines
What moisture content will

15% go to if exposed to 40 oF 21.5
and 90% RH. 40 F
Solution
Mark a point on 16 55 F
40 oF line corresponds to 90
% RH by extending a vertical 14
70 F
line from x-axis
MC (wb)
Draw a horizontal line from 12
this point to cut the y-axis to
find the MC
The corn will absorb
moisture from air and will
reach to EMC90%rh,40oF=21.5%
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Relative humidity
4
Three conditions of moisture contents
• At high moisture content, water will come off easily and

freely. Even fairly humid air will remove moisture
• In the middle range of moisture content, water will come off

but not easily
• At low moisture content, water is held very tightly, very dry air
is required to dry grains
 More warmer air will dry more moisture contents for the
same level of R.H
5
Equilibrium moisture contents (cont,d)
Example
Compare EMC at 40 F and 65 % RH with EMC at 85 F and 65 %
RH
Solution
From EMC plot EMC40F, 65% rh = 15.0 %
EMC85 F, 65 % rh = 12.3 %
At high temperature, the air expands, therefore,

EMC decreases due to decreased R.H
6
Temperature lines
• Draw horizontal line
from 20%MC and
intersect 55oF 20
40 F
temperature curve 55 F
• Move vertically
70 F
downward and read
MC (wb)
12
RH as
RH 55oF,20 %EMC =89 %
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Relative humidity
7
Profile of curves-EMC
8
Problem - 1
100 kg of wheat at a moisture content of 14 % (w.b) was mixed
with 2000 kg of wheat at a moisture content of 16 % (w.b). Then
it was again dried to a moisture content of 12 % (w.b). What will
be the final moisture weight of the grain
Solution
MC Wi w DM
(% wb)
14 W1=100 w1=0.14(100)=14 DM1=0.86(100)=86
16 W2=2000 w2=0.16(2000) DM2=0.82(2000)
=320 =1680
Total W3=W1+W2 w3=w1+w2=334 DM3=DM1+DM2
=2100 =1766
MC3 after mixing = 100(w/W)=100(334/2100)=15.9%
9
DM3=DM4
(1-0.159)W3=(1-0.12)(W3-w4)
0.841(2100)=0.88(2100-w4)
0.88w4=2100(0.88-0.841)=81.9
w4=81.9/0.88=93.07 kg
W4=2006.93 kg
Problem - 2
What weight of 12 % moisture must be mixed with
25000 lb of 25 % grain to obtain 15 % moisture grain
Solution:
Remember the total wet weight Wt=W1+W2
Amount of water,
0.15(W1+W2)=0.12W1+0.25W2
(0.15-0.12)W1=(0.25-0.15)W2
W1=(0.10/0.03)W2=3.33*25000=83333.33 lb
11
Sample W w DM
W1 83333.3 0.12(83333.3)= 0.88(83333.3)=

(12% wb) 10000.00 73333.33
W2 25000.00 0.25(25000)= 0.75(25000)=

(25% wb) 6250.00 18750.00
Wt=W1+W2 108333.33 0.15(108333.33)= 0.85(108333.33)=

(15% wb) 16250.00 92083.33
Problem - 3
• What is the dry basis mc of grain with wet

basis mc of 24 %
• Md= 0.24/(1-0.24)=0.324 = 32.4%

Chapter-4
Psychrometery

Psychrometery
• A graphical presentation of the physical and thermal
properties of atmospheric air
• The air within the drier undergoes substantial changes in

temperature and humidity from position to position
• These changes are of prime importance in assessing the drier

performance
• These can be calculated mathematically but these calculations

are time consuming
• Psychrometric chart provides a useful mean for rapid

determination of these changes
2
Psychrometric chart Specific volume
m3/kg DA
ft3/lb DA
Relative humidity
Saturation line
Enthalpy Absolute
Wet bulb
BTU per lb Humidity
Or
kJ per kg
100% (lb of water
enthalpy 90%
/lb of DA)
lines
Or kg per kg
Wet bulb
Or dew point
Or saturation
temperature
(C or F)
Dry bulb temperature,Tdb(C or F)

3
4
Composition of dry air
O2= 20.95 % = 0.2095
N2= 78.09 % = 0.7809
Argon=0.93 % = 0.0093
CO2= 0.03 % = 0.0003
5
Dry bulb temperature lines
Dry bulb temperature is the most
common measure of temperature as
measured by a thermometer with a
dry bulb. On the graph, the vertical
lines represent dry bulb
temperature. As you go towards the
right side, it means that there is
more sensible heat, and as you go
towards the left side, it means that
there is less sensible heat. This
passage is reinforced by the
highlighted vertical lines and
an animated thermometer
which illustrates the increase
and decrease in temperature
levels for changing point
positions.
Absolute Humidity lines
Absolute humidity is the
amount of moisture in the
air as measured in pounds
of water per pound of dry
air. This concept
highlights the horizontal
lines which represent the
absolute humidity. The
points higher up on the
chart mean that there is
more moisture, and those
on the lower part mean
that there is less moisture.
Saturation Line
The saturation line represents
the maximum amount of
humidity that air can hold.
The saturation line, shows
that air can hold more
moisture as the temperature
increases (upwards
movement and orange
highlighting of curve), and
less moisture as the
temperature decreases
(downwards movement and
blue highlighting of curve).
Relative
humidity
The percentage of
humidity relative
to the saturation
humidity of air at
the given
temperature.
Wet-bulb Temperature
Wet-bulb temperature is defined as “the
temperature as measured by a thermometer
whose bulb is surrounded by a damp wick”
in the tutorial. It is used to show adiabatic
changes on the Psychrometric Chart -that is
a change that does not result in a change of
total-heat content of the air. The visual
animation shows that lines of constant wet
bulb temperatures run diagonally up and to
the left on the chart (yellow), and the audio
explains that wet bulb temperature is always
lower than the corresponding dry bulb
temperature (orange) because evaporation
makes it cooler. Wet bulb temperature is
introduced beforehand, because is important
in illustrating the functions of an
evaporative cooler, which will be explained
later in the tutorial correlated with several
other concepts.
Dew point
temperature
Dew point temperature
is the temperature at
which the air becomes
completely saturated
and the water starts to
precipitate out of the air
at saturation line. As air
gets cool at constant
absolute humidity lines
(horizontal lines) and
intersect saturation line
at left, the water starts
dripping out and that
temperature is Tdp.
Precipitation
The precipitation
is the amount of
water that is
taken out of the
air by a surface
that is below the
current dew-point
temperature.
Comfort zone
Thermal comfort is defined by
environmental conditions that are
comfortable and acceptable outside or
inside buildings. This is essentially
determined by the elimination of thermal
(heat/cold) „discomfort‟. The human body
involuntarily regulates its production of
internal heat to compensate for the
thermal conditions of the environment.
Eventually the metabolic generation of
heat offsets the heat losses so the
individual experiences only very small
variations (discomfort) in the feeling of
thermal comfort and thereby feels at ease.
The ASHRAE (American Society of
Heating , Refrigeration and Air
Conditioning Engineers) comfort zone is
developed on this basis, and it specifies
boundaries of air temperature and
humidity for sedentary people. The
comfort zone on the Psychrometric Chart
explains that “different temperature
ranges are given for winter (orange) and
summer (yellow), to take into account
changes in „seasonal
clothing habits‟.”
Mechanical Systems
This final screen brings together all concepts
to explain the effects of HVAC (heating,
ventilating, and air conditioning) systems on
indoor air conditions, and how this can
describe the mechanisms for causing a shift
in indoor conditions on the Psychrometric
Chart. Distinguished by the separate colors,
the functions of furnaces, air conditioners,
and evaporative coolers are explained
through different color lines. The four
common ways a building‟s HVAC system
can change indoor air conditions are
introduced in the following sequence:
increase in dry bulb temperature; decrease in
dry bulb temperature; decrease in dry bulb
temperature while increase in humidity
level; dehumidification of air by
precipitation and reheating to a resulting
lower absolute humidity.
Psychrometery-Terminologies
Humidity ratio (H)
The ratio of weight of water vapors to the weight of completely

dry air
H = Ww/Wa
where
H = Humidity ratio (kg/kg)
Ww = weight of water (kg)
Wa = weight of dry air (kg)
15
Prove that
H =0.622 Pw/(P-Pw)
Assume Wa kg of air and Ww kg of water behave as an ideal gas,

therefore
PwV =nwRoTab (General gas equation)
PwV =(Ww/Mw)RoTab Eq. 1
PaV =(Wa/Ma)RoTab Eq. 2
Where
Tab = temperature in K
Pa and Pw = Partial pressure of air and water
Mw and Ma = Molar mass of water and dry air (kg / mole)
Ro = Universal gas constant (N-m/(kg.mole.K) 16
According to Daltons law of partial pressure
P = Pa + Pw
Pa = P- Pw
Put these values in eq. (2)
(P-Pw) V= (Wa/Ma)Ro Tab
From definition of humidity

H= Ww/Wa
For Ww, Re-arrange Eq. 1
Ww= Pw V Mw/(Ro Tab)

17
Re-arrange Eq. 2
Wa = (P-Pw) V Ma/Ro Tab
Plug values of Ww and Wa in the Equation of humidity ratio
H= Pw/(P-Pw) * Mw/Ma
H= 0.622 Pw / (P-Pw)
Hence proved
(As Mw = 18, Ma = 28.9

Mw/Ma = 0.622)
18
Relative humidity
Relative humidity of moist air is defined as
The ratio of the partial pressure of water vapors Pw to

the saturated water vapor pressure Ps
RH= Pw/Ps
i.e.,
(partial water vapor pressure/saturated water vapor pressure)
19
Prove that
RH =HP/(0.622+H)Ps
Proof
We know that
RH = Pw/Ps Eq.(1)
H= 0.622 Pw/(P-Pw) Eq.(2)
From Eq.(1)
Pw= Ps * RH
Put in 2
H= 0.622 Ps*RH/(P-Ps*RH)
Re-arranging
RH= HP/((0.622 + H)Ps) Hence proved
20
Specific volume
The specific volume of moist air is defined as
Total volume of 1 kg of dry air and its accompanying water
vapors
The specific weight of moist air is reciprocal of specific volume
Using Amalgat,s law, the specific volume (v) of moist air (m3)is
given as
vmoist = (0.00283 + 0.00456 H) (Td + 273.15)
Specific volume of dry air
vair = 287 * (273.15 +Td )/(P-Pw)
Where
Td = Dry bulb temperature 21
Vapor Pressure
Vapor pressure (Pw) is defined as, the partial pressure exerted by
the water vapor present in the moist air
The pressure exerted by air fully saturated with water vapor is

called saturated vapor pressure (Ps) in k Pascal
Ps = exp(52.576 – 6796.5/Tab- 5.0281 ln Tab)
where
Tab= absolute temperature, K
22
Dry bulb temperature
The temperature indicated by thermometer unaffected by
moisture or radiation (Ta)
Dew point Temperature (Tdp)

It is the temperature of air at which water vapor in air starts
condensing when air cooled at constant humidity and constant
atmospheric pressure
Wet bulb temperature (Tw)

When a mercury thermometer whose bulb is covered by wick
wetted with water and the air flow passing over the wick is at
least 5 m/s, The temperature indicated by the thermometer is
the wet bulb temperature
23
Enthalpy (h)
The enthalpy of moist air is the heat constant of the moist air per
unit weight of the dry air above a certain reference point
h = ha + H*hv
where
h= enthalpy of moist air, kJ/kg
ha = enthalpy of moist dry air, kJ/kg
hv =enthalpy of water vapor, kJ/kg
Enthalpy of moist air per kg of dry air can be expressed as

(Threlkeld, 1970)
h =1.0048 Ta+H (2501.64+1.88Ta)
Where Ta= dry bulb temperature °C
24
Practice problems
Q1. Air temperature in a room ia measured as Tdb=75oF,
Twb=60 oF. Find %RH, W, h, Tdp, and v. [Ans: 42 %RH,
0.0072 Lb water/Lb DA, 26.5 Btu/Lb DA, 50 oF, 13.65 Lb DA]
Q2. At a certain condition, air contains 0.0118 Lb water/Lb DA,

but could hold 0.017 Lb water/Lb DA if it was saturated at
the same temperature. Find the RH and temperature of this
air. [Ans: 70 %RH, 72 oF]
Q3. Air at 40 oF and 60 %RH is heated to 70 oF. What is the

‘W’ before heating and its ‘W’ and RH after heating.
[Ans: 0.0032 water/Lb DA, 20 %RH]
Q4. What weight of dry air and water is in a 30 ft x 40 ft x 15 ft
room at 70 oF and 45 %RH? [Ans: 1333 Lb, 9.6 Lb]
Q5. What weight of water could the room [30 ft x 40 ft x 15 ft

at 70 oF and 45 %RH] hold if it is saturated at 70 oF?
[Ans: 20.9 Lb]
Q6. How many Btus are required to heat the air in a 20 ft x 15

ft x 10 ft room 70 oF from an initial condition of 40 oF and 60
%RH? [Ans: 1700 Btu]
Q7. Air at a temperature of 60°C and 20% RH enter a bed of
wheat and the flow rate is 0.25 CMS. The air leaves drier at a
temp of 50°C . Determine the moisture removal rate.
[Hint: Adiabatic process of water removal]
Q8. Air at a temp of 30°C and 15% RH enters a bed of wheat

and flow rate is 0.25 m3/sec. the air leaves drier at a temp of
20°C . Determine the moisture removal rate.
[Hint: Adiabatic process of water removal]
Q9. Air at a temp of 30°C and 70% relative humidly air is heated
to 50°C and this air enters a bed of wheat. The mass flow
rate of air is 1.2 kg/sec. the air leaves a drier under saturated
condition. Determine the moisture removal rate.
27
Key points
• Total energy remains constant in evaporation
(Adiabatic Process)
• The evaporation process takes place up to
saturation line
• Energy is required to evaporate water.
Therefore, any increase in moisture content of
air must be accompanied by a decrease in
temperature, the total energy level of the air
remains the same (Law of conservation of
energy)
28
Chapter-5
Drying and Storage of Cereal Grains-
Fundamentals of Psychrometry

Drying and Storage of Cereal Grains
Psycrometric Chart
Physical Condition Thermal Condition
Humidity Ratio Dry Bulb Temperature
(Absolute Humidity) Wet Bulb Temperature
Relative Humidity (%) Dew Point Temperature
Specific Volume Enthalpy

Given: Tdb = 25℃, Twb = 20℃
From Psychrometric Chart
RH = 63.49%
W = 0.0126 kg H2O/kg DA
h = 77.25 kJ/kg DA
ν = 0.862 m3/kg DA
Tdp = 17.6 ℃
Given: Tdb = 30℃, Twb = 25℃
From Psychrometric Chart
RH = 66. 96%
W = 0.01795 kg H2O/kg DA
h = 96.08 kJ/kg DA
ν = 0.883 m3/kg DA
Tdp = 23.19 ℃
Case -1: Fuel Consumption
Calculate the rate of fuel consumption (kg/hr)
required to heat 200 CMM of outside air at
30℃ dry bulb temperature and 80% relative
humidity to a dry bulb temperature of 50℃.
Diesel fuel is used for heating of which Heat of
combustion is 42,000 kJ/kg.
Initial Condition Final Condition
(Before Heating) (After Heating)
 Tdb = 30℃  Tdb = 50℃
 Twb = 27.09℃  Twb = 31.4℃
 RH = 80%  RH = 27.51%
 W = 0.02157 kg H2O/kg DA  W = 0.02157 kg H2O/kg DA
 h = 105.3 kJ/kg DA  h = 126.2 kJ/kg DA
 ν = 0.886 m3/kg DA  ν = 0.938 m3/kg DA
 Tdp = 26.17 ℃  Tdp = 26.17 ℃

Since, diesel heat of combustion is 42,000 kJ/kg
Therefore,
Case -2: Burner Efficiency
A rice husk burner consumes 450 kg/hr.
Calculate the efficiency of a rice husk burner
required to heat 1,200 CMM of outside air at
30℃ dry bulb temperature and 80% relative
humidity to a dry bulb temperature of 65℃.
The heat of combustion for rice husk is 42,000
kJ/kg.
Initial Condition Final Condition
(Before Heating) (After Heating)
 Tdb = 30℃  Tdb = 65℃
 Twb = 27.09℃  Twb = 34.18℃
 RH = 80%  RH = 13.57%
 W = 0.02157 kg H2O/kg DA  W = 0.02157 kg H2O/kg DA
 h = 105.3 kJ/kg DA  h = 141.9 kJ/kg DA
 ν = 0.886 m3/kg DA  ν = 0.938 m3/kg DA
 Tdp = 26.17 ℃  Tdp = 26.17 ℃

Drying Efficiency
Effective Heat efficiency
T1  T2

T1  Tw
Fuel Efficiency
WH 2O  h fg
  100%
W  h  tfuel c
Mass Balance & Energy Balance
Cool Air Hot Air Moist Air
Heater Dryer
Wet Grain
Dry Grain
Fuel
Thermal Energy
Heat of Combustion, hc
Gasoline ----- kcal/kg
n-Octane 10,618 kcal/kg
Diesel 8,326 kcal/liter 10,330 kcal/kg
Kerosene 8,146 kcal/liter 10,390 kcal/kg
No.6 Heavy Oil 10,328 kcal/kg
Wood 4,785 kcal/kg
Rice Husk 3,600 kcal/kg
1 kcal = 4.1868 kJ
• Reference: Bala, B.K.. 1997. Drying and Storage of Cereal Grains. New
Hampshire: Science Publishers, Inc..
Chapter-6
Drying Process_Deep Bed Basics

Drying process
•The heat required for evaporation of
moisture from the grain is totally
supplied by the air and air get cools.
•Drying process is adiabatic
2
Drying Process---steps
1. Moisture removed from one point to another at a
rate dependant on the difference in relative
humidity between the two locations
2. Air passed through the bed of grain will either gain
or loose moisture
3. Airflow rate
– Too fast/too slow air –does remove the required water
– An optimum air flow rate be calculated for required water
removel
5. Hot air at a temperature Ti and humidity Hi is
passed from bottom side of grain bed
6. The bottom portion will be dried first (called as
dried zone)
7. The intermediate portion will be drying zone as it
has evaporated all the moisture content from
bottom side and the top portion is still un-dried
8. The drying order will shift from bottom to top till all
the grain layer is dried
9. The leaving air will have temperature Tf and
humidity Hf
4
Deep bed drying
Wet cold air out
When the grains are dried in
deep beds, three distinct
zones are developed Un-dried zone
1. Un-dried zone
Drying zone
2. Drying zone
Dried zone
3. Dried zone
Dry hot air in

5
Drying Zones
• Grain does not dry uniformly especially in bin
type dryer with low air flow
• Three Zones
– Dried Zone
– Drying Zone-most potential for drying
– Undried Zone-rewetting zone, condensation
occurs here
Drying Calculations
• Size of bin
• Rating of fan
• Moisture of grain currently & desired
• Temp of drying air
• RH of drying air
Size Groupings of Drying Systems
• Low Capacity
– Less than 10,000 bushel/yr & 500 bu/day
• Medium Capacity
– 10,000-30,000 bu/yr & 500-1500 bu/day
• High Capacity
– More than 30,000 bu/yr & 1,500 bu/day
Natural Air Drying
• Natural air provides heat for water removal from
wet grain
• Grain drying occurs if Relative Humidity of air
allows a net moisture transfer
• Equipment Needed
– Perforated floor, fans, spreader, sweep auger
– Stirring devices are not needed
– Portable auger-sized to handle harvest needs
Natural air drying advantages and
disadvantages
• Advantages • Disadvantages
– Most energy efficient – Slowest method
– Low Cost – Greatest potential for
– Move grain only one spoilage
time ( usually) – More time needed for
inspecting spoilage
– Insect problems
Other factors of Natural Drying
• Rate of drying directly effected by:
–fan airflow rate
–air temperature and
–air Relative Humidity
• Quantity of grain affects air flow
• Depth of grain affects air flow
Capacity of heater for drying
P = qm (h2-h1)
Where
P =Capacity of heater (kW)
h1 & h2 = enthalpy of air entering and
leaving grain chamber (kJ/kg DA)
qm =fan mass flow rate of air (kg/sec) = qv/v
qv=m3/sec fan air flow
v=m3/kg DA air specific volume
(from psychrometric chart)
Drying rate (DR)
qv=CMS, fan air flow rate, m3/sec
qm=qv/v fan air mass flow rate, kg/sec
DR = qm (w2-w1) Moisture removal rate, kg water/sec
Where,
V=air specific volume (m3/kg DA) from psychrometric chart
w1 and w2 =the absolute humidity (kg H20/kg DA) before and after drying
respectively
qm= mass flow rate of air (kg/sec)
15
Chapter-7a
Grain Drying Fundamentals

Basic Principles of grain drying
• The process of drying grain is something like evaporating
water from a damp towel by placing the towel in an air
stream.
• Air passing though the wet stored in bin grain picks up water
up, carries it, and lowers the temperature of surrounding
environment (Adiabatic Process)
• The process of moving air through grain is often called
aeration.
• Aeration rates are often specified in cfm/bu. Table-1 gives
some common aeration rates, which depend on the type of
application. The term “fluidization” in Table-1 refers to grain
becoming suspended or “fluidizing” as the force of the air
from underneath approaches grain weight.
2
Table-1. Typical grain aeration rates
Application Grain aeration rate
cfm/bu*
Quality maintenance 1/50 to 1
Natural-air bin drying 1 to 3
Heated-air bin drying 2 to 12
Batch or continuous-flow 50 to 150

column dryers
Fluidization ~ 400
*The most common definition of bushel is 1 bu = 1.245 ft3.
Deep-bed natural-air bin drying
Example-1: The bin in Figure-1 contains 50,000 lb of corn
at 20% moisture. Assuming 1 bu = 56 lb @ 15.5%
(equivalent to 47.32 lbs of dry matter per bushel), the
amount of grain is calculated as:
Aeration rate
With the fan delivering 10,000 cfm, the aeration rate is:
Figure-1. Deep-bed, natural-air grain drying
Cylindrical
50,000 lbs of
500,000
Grain Bin
20% moisture corn
Fan
10,000 cfm Perforated steel

atmospheric drying floor
air
Air conditions
Given:
• Twb = Wet bulb temperature = 47 °F
• Twbd= wet bulb depression = 6 °F
• Dry bulb temperature ? Tdb = Twb+Twbd

» Tdb = 47 + 6 = 53 °F defines an air state
• Thus at the intersection of Twb=47 °F and Tdb=53 °F on
psychometric chart, STATE POINT ‘A’ is achieved having
RH=65%
6
Figure-2. Natural-air drying example plotted on
psychrometric chart
100% rh
88% rh
Point A
65% rh
TDB = 53ºF
TWB= 47ºF
RH = 65%
w = 0.0054 lb H2O/lb da
V = 13.05 ft3/lb da
47º Point B
wB
B TDB = 49.5ºF
wA TWB= 47ºF
A
RH = 88%
w = 0.0064 lb H2O/lb da
49.5º 53º
Figure-3 Air conditions
MC (wb)
Now referring to
Temperature lines
equilibrium moisture
diagram, this air state
is in equilibrium with 40 F
55 F
corn at about
MC65%rh,55oF =14.2% (65%,53 oF)
EMC=14.2 %
70 F
Since 14.2 % is less than
20 %, this air is
capable of removing
moisture from the
corn mass
Air will dry grain to 14.2
% moisture contents 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Relative humidity
8
Adiabatic absorption
• As air moves up through the grain, it gives up heat
which evaporates water from kernel surfaces.
• This water vapor is picked up and carried out
(absorbed) by the airstream. This process is adiabatic
(no heat loss or gain) since it uses no other heat but
the heat which is carried in by the airstream.
• This process of adiabatic absorption is traced as a line
of constant wet bulb temperature on the
psychrometric chart (from state A to state B) as
sketched in previous Figure-2 (next slide).
9
Figure-2. Natural-air drying example plotted on
psychrometric chart
100% rh
88% rh
Point A
65% rh
TDB = 53ºF
TWB= 47ºF
RH = 65%
w = 0.0054 lb H2O/lb da
V = 13.05 ft3/lb da
47º Point B
wB
B TDB = 49.5ºF
wA TWB= 47ºF
A
RH = 88%
w = 0.0064 lb H2O/lb da
49.5º 53º
Starting from the state point ‘A’ (Tdb=53 oF,
Twb=47 oF), air simultaneously decreases in
temperature and increases in absolute
humidity and follows a line of constant wet-
bulb temperature. This also approximates a
line of constant enthalpy. Sensible heat from
the air evaporates water, which raises the
absolute humidity of the air as it is picked up
in vapor form.
But how do we determine where point B is
located?
11
Equilibrium point
As air moves up through the grain, it continues to
cool and pick up moisture until it reaches a state
of equilibrium with the corn where the net
transfer of water between corn and air is zero.
This state can be defined on the psychrometric
chart as the intersection of the process line and
the equilibrium moisture line for 20% moisture
corn.
Next slide shows how to draw the equilibrium
moisture line.
Equilibrium point
As air moves up through the grain, it continues to cool
and pick up moisture until it reaches a state of
equilibrium with the corn where the net transfer of
water between corn and air is zero. This state can be
defined on the psychrometric chart as the intersection
of the process line and the equilibrium moisture line
for 20% moisture corn.
The equilibrium line can be drawn from EMC curve for
corn by moving horizontally from y-axis at 20 % MC line
as it crosses the curves of constant temperature (40oF,
55oF, 70oF) and record relative humidity at these
intersections along x-axis (Next slide)
13
Equilibrium point determination
Temperature lines
MC (wb)
Move horizontally from
20
y-axis along the 20%
40 F
moisture line ans as it 18
55 F
crosses the lines of 16
constant 40oF, 55oF, & 14 70 F
70oF temperature
12
curves record 86%,
90%, & 92% rh
respectively moving
vertically down on the
x-axis
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 86 90 92 100
Relative humidity (%)
14
Equilibrium point
MC %wb T, oF %RH
20 40 86
20 55 90
20 70 92
15
Equilibrium point
20 % Moisture
The three equilibrium line
combinations 92 % RH
P3
P1(86% RH, 40 oF),
P2(90% RH,55 oF) & Saturation 100% Absolute
P3(92% RH,70 oF) line humidity
have been plotted 90 % RH
on the chart. The P2
smooth curve
though these 86 % RH
points defined the P1
condition where
20% MC of corn is
in equilibrium with
the air.
40 oF 55 oF 70 oF
Tdb=Dry bulb temperature
16
Figure-4. Corn equilibrium moisture line for the
natural-air bin drying example.
92% RH
Saturation Line
20% Moisture
Equilibrium Line
90% RH
86% RH
40º 55º 70º

The process line can then be extended along the
wet-bulb line to its end point, where it intersects the
20% equilibrium line. Thus, point B is located (next
slide)
As shown on the psychrometric chart sketch of
Figure, this intersection corresponds to 49.5oF and
88% RH. Thus, in this process, air enters the 20%
moisture corn at 53oF, 65% RH and then gains
moisture and decreases in temperature as it moves
up through the corn and eventually comes to
49.5oF, 88% RH. This is the state at which the air
leaves the corn (B).
Drawing the process line
20 % Moisture
The air enters the 20% equilibrium line
moisture corn at 53 °F and
65 % RH. The grain
moisture and temperature
decreases as air moves up
though the corn along the
process line (AB)
(Adiabatic process). 100%RH
CURVE
The process line (AB) is 90%RH Absolute
then extended to its end CURVE
humidity
point where it intersects 88 % RH POINT ON
on 20% moisture 20%EMC GRAIN CURVE
equilibrium line. WB=0.0064

B 65 %RH
The intersection
corresponds to 88 % RH A WA=0.0054
and 49.5 °F.
At state point B, air leaves
the corn.
49.5 °F 53 °F
Dry bulb temperature V=13 ft3/kg DA
Sp. Vol. 19
• Equilibrium lines for other corn moistures can also be
drawn on the psychrometric chart.
• Lines for moistures higher than 20% will be closer to
the saturation line.
• For corn moistures above 25%, the equilibrium line
can be assumed to be the saturation line. This
means that air moving through corn at 25% moisture
or above will come to saturation if the grain is deep
enough.
• Figure (next slide) shows equilibrium lines for
different corn moisture contents.
(Note that the equilibrium moisture lines are not the same as
the relative humidity lines on the psychrometric chart)
Grain drying rate
Q  60
DR  (Qm )  (w)  ( )  (w)
V
where: DR = drying rate, lbs H2O / hr
Qm = mass airflow rate, lbs DA/hr
w = change in absolute humidity, lbs H2O / lb DA
Q = airflow rate, ft3/min or cfm
V = specific volume of air entering the fan, ft3/lb DA
60 = conversion factor, minutes to hours
In this example:
(10,000)(60)
DR   (0.0064  0.0054)  45.98 lbs H2O / hr
13.05
22
Grain drying time
20 % Moisture
Grain drying time
equilibrium line
t= W/DR
t = drying time, h
W = weight of water
removed, lb/h
DR = Dying rate, lb/h 100% Ab.
For W 90% humidity
Equating dry 88 % RH
matter before 0.0064
B 65 %RH
and after drying
0.8(50,000)= A 0.0054
0.858(50,000-W)
W= 3380 lb
49.5 °F 53 °F
Sp. Vol. 23
Grain drying time
20 % Moisture
Drying time equilibrium line
t= W/DR
t = drying time, h
W = weight of water
removed, lb/h
DR = Dying rate, lb/h 100% Ab.
W= 3380 lb 90% humidity
t = 3380/45.98 88 % RH
= 73.24 hours 0.0064
B 65 %RH
Assuming that drying
rate stays constant until A 0.0054
all water is removed
Drying will take 73 hours
or 3.1 days
49.5 °F 53 °F
Sp. Vol. 24
Grain
Depth 20% 88% 49.5º F
Wet Corn
20% moisture
Drying Zone
14.0% moisture
Q 14.0%
moisture
65%
RH
53º F
Grain Temperature
Psychometric analysis of deep bed drying
20% 88% 49.5 °F
Warm moist air MC RH air temp.
Corn
Drying front 50,000 lbZONE
DRYING
20% mc
14.2% 65% Grain 53.3 °F

Fan
Mc RH air temp.
26
Drying zone
 The process of adiabatic absorption takes place in a drying
zone which may be 1 to 10 feet thick depending upon the air
flow rate, grain moisture and air conditions
 Grain above this drying zone is in equilibrium with air at the
end of process line (B) and grain below this drying zone is in
equilibrium with air at the start of process line (A)
 If the air is moving up though grain supported on a full
perforated floor as in this example, its drying zone forms at
the bottom of the bin and then slowly moves up though the
grain until the top and later it moves out though the top
surface of the grain
 Above the drying zone, grain remains at 20% moisture and is
cooled to 49.5 °F by the air
 Below the drying zone, grain at 14.2 % moisture is in
equilibrium with the incoming air at 65% RH and 53°F.
27
Shelled Corn Storage Time
• Corn near the top surface of the grain mass has the
highest risk of spoilage because it remains at 20 %
moisture until the drying front passes though and is
the last to dry
Will this corn spoil? It is being stored at 49.5°F
• In the example, this grain remains at 20 % moisture
until the end of drying i.e., 3.1 days
• Referring to table (next slide) and interpolating
• AST 20%,49.5 °F= 66.2 days
• Since 66.2 days > 3.1 days, the grain is not at risk of
spoilage
• In fact we can dry it much more slowly and still not
risk of spoilage
28
Allowable storage time of corn (days)
Grain Corn moisture content (%)
Temp, 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
oF
30 648 321 190 127 94 74 61

35 432 214 126 85 62 49 40
40 288 142 84 56 41 32 27
45
49.5 192 95
66.2 56 37 27 21 18
50 128 63 37 25 18 14 12
55 85 42 25 16 12 9 8
60 56 28 17 11 8 7 5
65 42 21 13 8 6 5 4
70 31 16 9 6 5 4 3
75 23 12 7 5 4 3 2
80 17 9 5 4 3 2 2
Allowable
Akllowale storage timeinfor
storage time shelled
days corn (days)
for shelled corn
700
650 18% MC
600
550
500
450
AST, days
400
350 20%MC
300
250 22% MC
200
150 24% MC
100 26% MC
66.2 28% MC
50 30% MC
0 49.5
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85
Temperature, F
Minimum air flow rate?
• If we set t = AST, we can find the minimum air
flow rate necessary to dry the corn and yet avoid
the spoilage
• For t=66.2 days = 1589 hours
DR= W/t= 3380/1589=2.13 lb of water/h
•For Qv from DR=60.Qv[WB-WA]/vo
Qv =vo.DR/[60(WB-WA)]
=13*2.13/[60 x 0.001]=461 ft3/min
Therefore a fan of 10,000 cfm can be replaced
with a fan of 461 cfm and still complete drying
within AST
Small fan would require less total energy to
complete drying 31
Remarks on deep-bed
natural-air bin drying
• Note, however, that it is unlikely that the
ambient air conditions would remain, on
average, the same for the entire 67 days.
Thus, the drying rate would not be constant.
The SCST would also change, because the
temperature of the grain would decrease as
well. A more detailed analysis is necessary to
account for these changes.
Lab exercise problems
Q1. A bin contains 150,000 lb of 26% moisture corn. Outside air is at
81oF dry bulb and 58oF wet bulb. The fan delivers 8,800 cfm.
a. Sketch a psychrometric chart and on it show process lines,
temperatures, relative humidity and absolute humidity.
b. To what moisture will this corn eventually come if the fan is
left on?
c. How much total weight of water will be removed in this drying
process?
d. How long can drying take in order to avoid spoiled corn
(days)?
e. How many days will it take to dry the corn?
Q1. Solution Hints:
Assume the saturation (100%RH) as EMCgrain 26% line.
Air at fan entry: TA=81oF, Qv=8800 CFM
Conditions At fan entrance
(air ambient condition)
Air Dry bulb, Tdb 81oF
Air Wet bulb, Twb 58 oF (EMC curve overlaps saturation line)
Air % RH 22% at intersection of Tdb=81oF and Twb=58oF
Air Specific volume, V 13.75 ft3/Ib DA at intersection of Tdb=81oF and
Twb=58oF
Air Abs humidity at state point, w1 0.005 Ib H2O/Ib DA
Air Abs humidity at grain exit point, w2 0.0102 Ib H2O/Ib DA at saturation line
∆w 0.0052
Grain EMC 81oF, 22% 6.8% ambient air can dry corn to this moisture
Water removed DM1=DM2 or 0.74(150000)=0.932(150000-W)
W=30901.3 Ib water will be removed
AST58oF,26%MC OF GRAIN 7 days
DR = 60 Qv(∆w)/V=60 x 8800 x 0.0052 /13.75= 199.6 Ib H2O/hr 7 days
Drying time, t = W/DR=30901.3/199.6 = 154.82 hr = 6.5 days ˂ AST58oF,26%MC OF GRAIN 7 days
Chapter-7b
Deep-bed grain dryer with heat added
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt Farm

Machinery & Power, University of Agri
Faisalabad
1
Deep bed drying_heat added to air)
• In the natural-air drying example in chapteter-7a, a
fan moved 10,000 cfm of ambient air through a bin of
20%-moisture corn. What happens if heat is added
to this ambient air before it enters the corn? Here,
will examine the same system with 11°F of heat
added to the airstream.
• The 11°F occurs because of 2°F due to fan and motor
inefficiency (a common assumption for bin-type
dryers) and 9°F from a heater. The heater could be
an electrical resistance type or a gas burner.

Machinery & Power, University of Agri 2
Faisalabad
In the previous example,
if heater is installed in
the current of air flow:
•Temperature rise due to
heater= 9 °F
Air state ‘B’ •Temperature rise due to
44%RH, 64oF fan and motor inefficiency
(After heating) = 2 °F
Sensible heat
Cylindrical (a common assumption of
Grain Bin 500,000 lbs of bin type dryer)
added
20% moisture corn New Air temperature=11oF
Fan and motor

adds 2F
Perforated steel
10,000 cfm 2+9=11oF
Air state ‘A’
drying floor
65%RH, 53 oF LP burner adds 9F
(Before heating) Machinery & Power, University of Agri 3
Faisalabad
Deep bed grain dryer with heater
Parameter State point ‘A’ State point ‘B’
Tdb 53 °F 64 °F
Twb 47 °F -
RH 65 % RH = 44 %
vo 13 ft3/lb of dry air -
Qv 10,000 CFM -
Qm=60Qv/vo 46153.85 CFH 46153.85 CFH

wA 0.0054 lb of water/ lb of DA 0.0054 lb of water/ lb of DA

Faisalabad
Deep bed grain dryer with heater
Point C:
 Draw the process line from ‘B’ along constant enthalpy or wet bulb
temperature line
 In the drying process, the air comes in equilibrium with the corn at 20 %,
so refer moisture equilibrium diagram and plot on Psychometric chart
the 20 % moisture equilibrium line
 Extend the process line from point ‘B’ parallel to wet bulb temperature
(enthalpy line) until it cuts the point at EMC=20 % line and locate end of
new process line as point C.
 At point C, the other air conditions are:

Tdb = 54 °F
RHc = 91 %
wC = 0.0079 lb of water/ lb DA
Faisalabad
20 % Moisture
equilibrium line
13 ft3/kg
Sp. Vol.
Air 100%RH curve
Absolute
Air 91 %RH point on C humidity
20%EMC grain curve
0.0079
A.
B
0.0054
65 % 44 %
RH RH
53 °F 54 °F 64 °F
Dry bulb
Prof.temperature
Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt Farm
Faisalabad
Air conditions
MC (wb)
Now referring to
Temperature lines
diagram, the air state 64 F
‘B’ is in equilibrium 40 F
55 F
with corn at about
EMC44%rh64oF =11%
EMC=11 %
70 F
Since EMC=11 % is less
than EMC=20 %, the
air is capable of (44%,64oF)
removing moisture
from the corn mass
Air will dry grain to 11 %
moisture contents 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Relative
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt Farm humidity
Faisalabad
Drying rate
Therefore, drying rate:
DR = Q(wC-wB)*60/Vo
= 10,000(0.0079-0-0054)60/13
= 115.4 lb/h

Faisalabad
Drying time
20 % Moisture
Drying time equilibrium line
13 ft3/kg
t=W/DR
Sp. Vol.
t = drying time, h
W = weight of water
removed, lb/h
For W
DM1=DM2 Ab.
100%
0.8(50,000)= humidity
0.89(50,000-W) C 0.0079
91 %RH
W= 5056 lb
DR = Dying rate, lb/h
=5056/115.4=43.8 hr A . B
0.0054
65 %RH 44 %RH
=1.835 days
AST (20%, 54 °F)= 46.2 days
 We can use a low
flow rate fan
53 °F 54 °F 64 °F
Dry bulb
Prof.temperature
Faisalabad
Comparison-natural vs dry air
Air Final Wet grain AST Drying Drying
conditions moisture, storage (days) rate, (lb/h) time,
% temperature
oF
h
Natural 14.2 49.5 66.2 46.2 73.2

air
Air 11.0 54 46.2 115.4 43.8

heated
to 11°F

Faisalabad
Lab Exercises

Faisalabad
Lab exercise-case 1 (Natural drying case)
Given data –
Diameter of bin (d)= 30 ft
Height of bin (h) = 18 ft Location D
Corn MC (wb) =25%
Qv =10000 CFM
Tdb = 53 °F
Twb = 47 °F
Volume of bin = (π d2/4)*h
= 12723.45 ft3 Cylindrical Corn
bin 551860 lb
No. of bushels = 12723.45/1.245
25% mc
= 10220 bu
Weight of corn = 10220 bu* 54 Ib/bu
(@ Ib=54 Ib) = 551860 lb corn Perforated steel
VA (sp. Vol) =13 ft3/Ib DA floor
Location A Fan Location B

10,000 cfm air flow
Faisalabad
Point B
 Draw a point O against Tdb= 53 °F and Twb = 47 °F on Psychometric chart
 At this point, the other air conditions can were read and wrote in Table
below.
Point C:
 Draw a point C, the process line is drawn for constant enthalpy or wet
bulb temperature
 In the process, the air comes in equilibrium with the corn at 25 %,
so refer moisture equilibrium diagram and plot on Psychometric chart
the 25 % moisture equilibrium line
Now extend the process line from point B parallel to wet bulb temperature
(enthalpy line) until it cut the point at 25 % moisture equilibrium line. In
this way, a point is located. At this point, the other air conditions can be
read e.g., Tdb = 53 °F RH = 100 %
wD = 0.0069 lb of water/ lb of dry air
Parameter State point ‘A’ or ‘B’ State point ‘C’
Tdb 53 °F 47oF
Twb 47 °F 47oF
RH 65 % 100%
vo 13 ft3/lb of dry air
wA 0.0054 lbProf.
of water/ lb of DA 0.0069 lb of water/ lb of DA
Faisalabad
Drying rate 13 ft3/kg DA
DR = Q(WD-Wo)*60/Vo Sp. Vol.
= 10,000(0.0069-0-0054)60/13
= 69.23 lb of water/h
W:
DM1=DM2
0.75(55,1860)= 0.858(551860-W)
W= 69470 lb 100% Ab.
Drying time humidity
t= W/DR
100 %RH
t = 69470/69.23 0.0069
= 1003 hr =42 days
Allowable storage time
C . 65 %RH
AST (25%, 47 °F)= 27.8 days B 0.0054
 Since 27.8< 42, fast drying is
required to prevent spoilage
47 °F 53 °F
Dry bulb
Prof. temperature
Faisalabad
Lab exercise-case 2 (Natural drying case)
Given data
Diameter of bin (d)= 30 ft
Warm moist air
Height of bin (h) = 18 ft
Corn MC (wb) =20%
Qv =10000 CFM
Tdb = 53 °F ; Twb = 47 °F
Volume of bin = (π d2/4)*h
= 12723.45 ft3 Cylindrical Corn
No. of bushels = 12723.45/1.245 bin 551860 lb
= 10220 bu 20% mc
Weight of corn = 10220 bu* 54 Ib/bu
(@ Ib=54 Ib) = 551860 lb corn
VA (sp. Vol) =13 ft3/Ib DA Perforated steel
floor
A Fan Location B 10,000 cfm air flow

Faisalabad
Point A or B:
• Draw a point O against Tdb= 53 °F and Twb = 47 °F on Psychometric chart
• At this point, the other air conditions can be read e.g.,
Tdb = 53 °F RH = 65 % Twb = 47 °F
Vo = 13 ft3/lb of dry air wo = 0.0054 lb of water/ lb of dry air
From moisture equilibrium line against Tdb = 53 °F and RH = 65 % the
EMC=14.2%
Point C:
• Locate point C, the process line is drawn for constant enthalpy or wet bulb
temperature
• In the process, the air comes in equilibrium with the corn at 20 %,
so refer moisture equilibrium diagram and plot on Psychometric chart the
20 % moisture equilibrium line
• Now extend the process line from point B parallel to wet bulb
temperature (enthalpy line) until it cut the point at 20 % moisture
equilibrium line. In this way, a point ‘C’ is located. At this point, the other
air conditions can be read e.g.,
Tdb = 48 °F RH = 90 % wC = 0.0065 lb of water/ lb of dry air
1.

Faisalabad
Drying rate
DR = Q(WC-Wo)*60/Vo
= 10,000(0.0065-0-0054)60/13 20% EMCgrain
= 50.8 lb of water/h
W
DM1=DM2
0.0.80(55,1860)=
0.858(551860-W)
W= 37305 lb H2O
100% Ab.
Drying time humidity
t= W/DR=37305/50.8
=734.8 hr=31 days 90 %RH C
0.0064
AST (20%, 48 °F)= 82.2 days B
 Since 82.2> 30.6, 0.0054
Safe drying 65 %
RH
13 ft3/kg
Sp. Vol.
48 °F 53 °F
Dry bulb
Prof.temperature
Faisalabad
Lab exercise-case 3 (Heated air drying)
Warm moist air

25 % moisture wet corn,
10 °F temperature rise,
10,000 cfm
Heat added and temperature
increased by 10oF
Cylindrical Corn
bin 551860 lb
25% mc
Perforated steel
floor
Location A Fan Location B 10,000 cfm air flow

Heater
Faisalabad
Point A:
• Draw a point ‘A’ against Tdb= 53 °F and Twb = 47 °F on Psychometric
chart
• At this point, the other air conditions can be read e.g.,
Tdb = 53 °F RH = 65 % Twb = 47 °F
Vo = 13 ft3/lb of dry air wA = 0.0054 lb of water/ lb of dry air
Point B:
• From point ‘A’, move horizontally up to Tdb= 53 +10= 63 °F to locate the
point ‘B’ such that the absolute humidity should remain the same. This
point will become the start of process line
• Observations at ‘B’ are:
• Tdb = 63 °F Twb = 52 °F RH = 42 %
• wB = wA = 0.0054 lb of water/ lb DA
From moisture equilibrium line against EMC25%MC,63oF=11.3%
1.

Faisalabad
For point C:
• Draw a point C, the process line is drawn for constant enthalpy or wet bulb
temperature
• In the process, the air comes in equilibrium with the corn at 25 %,
• So refer moisture equilibrium diagram and plot on Psychometric chart the
25 % moisture equilibrium line (same as saturation line)
• Now extend the process line from point B parallel to wet bulb
temperature (enthalpy line) until it cut the point at 25 % moisture
equilibrium line at point ‘C’. In this way, a point ‘C’ is located. At this point,
the other air conditions can be read e.g.,
Tdb = 52 °F RH = 100 %
wC = 0.0081 lb of water/ lb of dry air

Faisalabad
W
Equating dry
matter before
and after drying 13 ft3/kg
0.75(55,1860)= Sp. Vol.
0.887(551860-W)
W= 85236.6 lb
Drying rate
DR= Q(Ww-Wo)*60/Vo
=10,000(0.0081- 100% Ab.
90% humidity
0.0054)60/13= 120 lb of C 0.0081
water/h 100 %RH
Drying time 65 %RH
t= W/DR
A
. B
0.0054
t = 85236.6/120 42 %
= 710.3 hr RH
= 29.6 days
AST (25%, 52 °F)= 18.5 days
 Since 29.6> 18.5
Fast drying is needed
to avoid spoilage 52 °F 53 °F 63 °F
Dry bulb
Prof.temperature
Faisalabad
Lab Exercise-dryer with heater with stirring-Case 4
Warm moist air

Given:
•Corn MC= 25 % (wb)
•Corn initial wet weight=551860 lb
•Qv=10,000 cfm
•Heat added and temperature
increased by 10oF
•Stirring with desired dry MC=15% Cylindrical Corn
•Required: Moisture to be bin 551860 lb
removed=25-15=10 points 25% mc
Perforated steel
floor
Location A Fan Location B 10,000 cfm air flow

Heater
Faisalabad
Point A:
From point ‘A’(Tdb= 53oF and 65%RH, VA= 13 ft3/Ib DA) move horizontally to
state ‘B’
At Point B
Tdb= 63 °F RH = 45 %, wA =wB= 0.0054 lb of water/ lb DA
This point ‘B’ will become the start of process line
Following observations were recorded for point B
The air of this characteristics can dry the crop to EMC63°F,45%RH=11.3% (from
moisture isotherm curves). However it is required to remove 10 points of
moisture from grain with continuous stirring and achieve
EMCgrain=25-10=15%.
Point C: To point ‘C’ 25%EMC curve is overlapping the saturation line on
psychrometric chart as previously. At ‘C’
Tdb=52oF
RH= 100 % (saturation line)
So AST52oF,25%MC =18.5 days

1.
Faisalabad
W 13 ft3/kg
DM1=DM2 Sp. Vol.
0.75(55,1860)=
0.85(551860-W)
W= 64924 lb H2O
DR
DR = Q(Ww-Wo)*60/Vo Ab.
= 10,000(0.0081-0-0054)60/13 100% 73%
humidity
= 120 lb of water/h C 0.0081
Drying time 100 %
RH
t= W/DR E A . B
0.0054
t1 = 64924/120
65 %RH 42 %
= 541 hours
RH
= 22.5 days
AST52oF,25%EMC =18.5 days
52 °F 53 °F 63 °F
Dry bulb
Prof.temperature
Faisalabad
Lab exercise problems
Q2. A bin contains 150,000 lb of 26% moisture corn. Outside air is at
81oF dry bulb and 58oF wet bulb. This air is heated 4oF before
reaching the corn. The fan delivers 8,800 cfm.
a. Sketch a psychrometric chart and on it show process lines,
temperatures, relative humidity and absolute humidity.
b. To what moisture will this corn eventually come if the fan is
left on?
c. How much total weight of water will be removed in this drying
process?
d. How long can drying take in order to avoid spoiled corn
(days)?
e. How many days will it take to dry the corn?
Faisalabad
Q2. Solution Hints:
Assume the saturation as EMC 26% line.
Air at fan entry: TA=85oF, Qv=8800 CFM
Conditions At fan entrance After heating air
(ambient air condition) (entering into grain)
Air Dry bulb, Tdb 81oF 81+4=85 oF
Air Wet bulb, Twb 58 oF 59.5 oF (EMC curve overlaps
saturation line)
Air % RH 22% 20%
Air Specific volume, V 13.75 ft3/Ib DA
Air Abs humidity at state 0.005 Ib H2O/Ib DA 0.005 Ib H2O/Ib DA
point, w1
Air Abs humidity at grain 0.0102 Ib H2O/Ib DA 0.0106 Ib H2O/Ib DA
exit point, w2
Δw 0.0052 0.0106 - 0.005 = 0.0056 Ib H2O/Ib DA
Grain EMC Grain EMC81oF, 22%RH =6.8% Grain EMC 85 oF, 20%RH = 6.5%
Water removed DM1=DM2 or 0.74(150000)=0.935(150000-W)
W=31283 Ib water will be removed
AST59oF,26%MC OF GRAIN 7.9 days
DR = 60 Qv(∆w)/V=60 x 8800 x 0.0056
Prof./ Dr.
13.75=215
MuhammadIb H2O/hr
Iqbal, Deptt Farm
Drying time, t = W/DR=31283/215=145.5 hr = 6 days ˂ AST59
Machinery & Power, University ofoAgri
F,26%MC 7.9 days
26
Faisalabad
Q3.A bin contains 600,000 lb of corn at 18% moisture. A fan delivers
20,000 cfm to this bin. Ambient air is at 52oF dry bulb and 30%
relative humidity. Power input to the fan causes an 8oF
temperature rise to the air.
a. To what moisture content will the system dry the corn?
b. How long can be allowed to dry corn without spoilage?
c. Assuming air conditions stay the same, what is the minimum
airflow rate (cfm) which would complete drying within the AST?
d. How many days of the AST were lost due to the 8oF temperature?
Given:
– Grain wet weight= 600000 Ib (wb)
– Initial grain MC=18%;
– Air Qv= 20000 cfm; Ambient air TA= 52oF, RHA=30% and
– Hot Air entering condition, TB=52+8=60oF
Faisalabad
Step-1. From EMC curve Grain EMC T oF % RH
18 40 80
Step-2. Using points from
18 55 84
table draw grain draw 18 75 86
18% EMC curve on psychometric chart.
Step-3. On psychometric chart From state point ‘A’ of
Ambient air TA= 52oF, RHA=30%
wA=0.0025 Ib H2O/Ib DA
v=12.9 ft3/Ib DA
Now Sensible Heat added from fan raised air temperature
to 60 oF but abs humidity ‘w’ remained same
At State point ‘B’ air enters into bin with TB=60oF and
RHB=24%
Faisalabad
Step-4. Draw process line ‘BC’ from point ‘B’ to intersect
18% EMC of grain curve on psychometric chart and
find
wB=0.0055 Ib H2O/Ib DA
TC= 45 oF at the intersection of grain 18% EMC curve
and ‘BC’ process line
Step-5. From EMC curve, trace the grain EMC which the
drying air entering from point ‘B’ (TB=60oF and
RHB=24% ) will bring about. So Grain EMC= 8%
Step-6. Determine water to be removed
DM1=DM2
0.82(600,000)=0.92(600,000-W)
W=(0.92-0.82) * 600,000/0.92=65217.39
Ib Ib H2O
Faisalabad
Step-7. Find Δw=wc-wb=0.0055-0.0025=0.003 Ib H2O/Ib DA
Step-8. Determine Drying rate
DR=60 Qv. Δw/V=60*20000*0.003/12.9=279.1 Ib H2O/hr
Step-9. Drying time, t=W/DR=65217.39/279.1=233.6703 hr = 9.7 days
Step-10. Determine Allowable storage time,
Since air is leaving from top of bin at 45oF through 18% MC of
grain,
Therefore, AST45oF,18% MC of grain=192 days (from AST table)
9.7 days ˂192 days
Step-11. Since t ˂ AST (i.e 9.7 days ˂192 days or 4608 hr)
Therefore, new possible and safe DR=W/AST=W/4608
hr=65217.39 Ib H2O/4608 hr=14.153 hr
Step-12. New fan flow rate, Qv=(DR*V)/(60*
Δw)=(14.153*12.9)/(60*0.003)= 1014.298 CFM
Faisalabad
Q4. Corn at 26% moisture is placed in
a 24-ft bin to a depth of 12 ft. This
corn weighs 260,576 lbs. It is to be
dried using air at a constant
condition of 55oF, 75% RH. Compute
the minimum airflow (cfm) required
to complete drying without grain
spoilage.

Faisalabad
Q5. A natural air drying system is designed for an
aeration rate of 1.0 cfm/bu. Assuming average
weather conditions for October in Central Iowa, what
is the maximum moisture content of corn to be
placed in this bin without spoilage during drying?
Assume air is heated 2oF by fan heat. Assume 1 bu =
56 lb @ 15.5% moisture.

Faisalabad
Mid test 2012
Q3. A bin contains 500,000 lb of corn at 18% moisture. A
fan delivers 15,000 cfm to this bin. Ambient air is at
55oF dry bulb and 35% relative humidity. Power input
to the fan causes an 10 oF temperature rise to the
air.
a. To what moisture content will the system dry the corn?
b. How long can be allowed to dry corn without spoilage?
c. Assuming air conditions stay the same, what is the
minimum airflow rate (cfm) which would complete
drying within the Shelled Corn Storage Time (SCST)?
d. How many days of the SCST were lost due to the 10oF
temperature
Faisalabad
•Temperature rise due to
fan and motor inefficiency
= 10 °F
Air state ‘B’

25%RH, 65oF
(After heating)
Sensible heat Cylindrical
added Grain Bin 500,000Ib lbs
500000 cornofat
20% moisture
18% MC corn
Fan and motor

adds 2F
Perforated steel
10,000
15000 cfm 10oF drying floor
Air state ‘A’ LP burner adds 9F
35%RH, 55 oF Faisalabad
Parameter State point ‘A’ State point ‘B’
Tdb 55 °F 65 °F
Twb 43.5 °F 48 °F
RH 35 % RH = 25 %
vo 13.05 ft3/lb of dry air -
Qv 15,000 CFM -
Qm=60Qv/vo 68965.52 CFH 68965.52 CFH
wA 0.0032 lb of water/ lb of 0.0032 lb of water/
DA lb of DA

Faisalabad
Point C:
 Draw the process line from ‘B’ along constant enthalpy
or wet bulb temperature line
 In the drying process, the air comes in equilibrium with
the corn at 18 %,
so refer moisture equilibrium diagram and plot on
Psychometric chart the 18 % moisture equilibrium line
 Extend the process line from point ‘B’ parallel to wet
bulb temperature (enthalpy line) until it cuts the point
at EMC=18 % line and locate end of new process line
as point C.
 At point C, the other air conditions are:
Tdb = 51 °F RHc = 80 %

Faisalabad
18 % Moisture
equilibrium line
13.05 ft3/kg DA
Sp. Vol.
Air 100%RH curve
Absolute
Air 80 %RH point on C humidity
18%EMC grain curve
0.0064
. A B
0.0032
35 % RH 25 %RH
80%rh
46oF 51 °F 55 °F 65 °F
Dry bulb
Prof.temperature
Faisalabad
Air conditions
MC (wb)
Now referring to Temperature lines
diagram, the air state 65 F
‘B’ is in equilibrium 40 F
55 F
with corn at about
EMC25%rh65oF =7.8%
EMC=7.8 %
70 F
Since EMC=7.8 % is
less than EMC=18 %,
the air is capable of (25%,65oF)
removing moisture
from the corn mass
Air will dry grain to 7.8
10 20 30 40 50
% moisture contents 60 70 80 90 100
Relative
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt Farm humidity
Faisalabad
Drying rate
Therefore, drying rate:

DR = Q(wC-wB)*60/Vo
= 15,000(0.0064-0-0032)60/13.05
= 220.69 lb/h

Faisalabad
Drying time t=W/DR
t = drying time, h
W = weight of water removed, lb
For W
DM1=DM2 0.82(500,000)= 0.922(500,000-W)
W= 55314.53 lb
DR = Dying rate, lb/h = t=W/DR
55314.53/220.69 =250.64 hrs = 10.44348 days
AST (18%, 46 °F)= 189.2 days
AST (18%, 51 °F)= 119.4 days
AST lost = 189.2 - 119.4 = 69.8 days
Faisalabad
Chapt-8a
Fans Pumps
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm

Faisalabad
Pumps, Fans, Compressors
• These change energy level of flowing fluid by

means of momentum exchange
• Wide spread in ALL industries
– Power units: cars/trucks, tractors
– Grain elevators
– Oilfield
– Food processing
Dr. C. L. Jones
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm Biosystems and Ag. Engineering
Faisalabad
Pumps, Fans, Compressors
• Differences between pumps, fans,
compressors
– Pumps: move liquids
– Fans: move gases with little increase in
pressure
– Compressors: move gases with greater
increase in pressure
Dr. C. L. Jones
Faisalabad
Fan Standards
• ASHRAE: American Society of Heating,
Refrigeration, and Air conditioning
Engineering…research and standards
• AMCA: Air Movement and Control
Association…standards
Dr. C. L. Jones
Faisalabad
Fan Operation
• Fans cause pressure increase by:
– Force created by rotation of the column of air
trapped between two blades
– Kinetic energy is supplied to the air through
the impeller
– Total pressure = velocity head + static
pressure
Dr. C. L. Jones
Faisalabad
Selection Considerations
• Quantity of air to be moved per unit time
• Estimated system resistance and
expected variations
• Amount of noise permitted
• Space available for fan
• Economic implications
Dr. C. L. Jones
Faisalabad
Fan Classification
Designated as dynamic pumps
Axial flow
Propeller
Tube-Axial
Vane-Axial
Centrifugal
Forward-curved-tip
Backward-curved-tip
Straight or radial tip
Dr. C. L. Jones
Faisalabad
Axial_Propeller Fans
Used in many
agricultural ventilation
applications with free
delivery or low
pressure conditions
Propeller has a pitch
(twist). Distance of air
travel depends on
pitch and # of blades
Warping the blades
prevents back flow of
air.
Dr. C. L. Jones
Faisalabad
Axial_Tube-Axial Fans
• Wheel or
impeller within
a tube
• Blades are
warped for
efficiency
• Operates at
higher
pressures and
higher ME than
propeller fans
Dr. C. L. Jones
Faisalabad
Axial_Vane-Axial Fans
• Like a tube axial with
guide vanes before or
after the impeller
• Higher pressures and
efficiencies ( up to 2200
psi and 85% +)
because…
• Vanes direct air flow
through a gradual turn
until tangential velocity
component Dr. C.is eliminated
L. Jones
Faisalabad
Centrifugal Fans
Consists of wheel or
rotor within a spiral
housing. Air makes a
90 degree turn.
1.Forward-curved-tip
2.Backward-curved-tip
3.Straight or radial tip
Dr. C. L. Jones
Faisalabad
Radial_Straight or Radial-Tip Fans
• 6 – 20 blades
• Blades are 2 to 3 x as long as they are wide
• Larger housing, more expensive
• Can handle dirty air and higher pressures
Dr. C. L. Jones
Faisalabad
Backward-Curved-Tip Fans
• Approx. 12 blades
• Flat and tilted backwards
• High speed fan with self-limiting power
– If sized correctly, motor won’t overheat if conditions change
• Most efficient
Dr. C. L. Jones
• Cannot handle dirty air
Faisalabad
Forward-Curved-Tip Fans
1. Up to 60 blades 5. Clean air only

2. Narrow radially but wide parallel to shaft 6. Lowest noise!!!!!
3. Face forward in direction of rotation, scoop 7. Used in many furnace
blowers
Dr. C. L. Jones
4. Low-speed, moderate pressures, can
Prof. Dr. be unstable
Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm Biosystems and Ag. Engineering
Faisalabad
Performance
• Tested at shutoff and free delivery
conditions
• Shutoff: discharge is blanked off
• Free delivery: outlet resistance is 0
Dr. C. L. Jones
Faisalabad
Fan Curves
• Fans follow the following laws (ASHRAE)
Dr. C. L. Jones
Faisalabad
Fan Law Example
Fan speed N changes from

600 to 650 rpm for a fan of
a given size
Dr. C. L. Jones
Faisalabad
More Fans…
Fans in parallel:
Fans in series:
moves curve to the right…
moves curve up…
pressure stays the same,
flow rate stays the same,
flow rate is the sum
pressure is the sum
Dr. C. L. Jones
Faisalabad
Chapter-8b
Fans and Airflow
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Department

Farm Machinery & Power, University of 1
Agriculture, Faisalabad
Introduction
• Aeration of grain (forcing air flow through it) is

a part of many grain operations.
• Designing an aeration system of any kind
requires knowledge of
– Fans
– Grain
– Fans and grain two together in a system

Fans
• A fan is a device which adds energy to air for the
purpose of moving the air against a resistance.
• In order to move air through the grain, the fan
increases the pressure of the air in the region
under the grain (the plenum).
• An instrument called a manometer indicates the
pressure increase.
• The manometer contains water. The pressure is
specified as the difference in height between the
ends of each water column.

Figure-1 Fan moving air through grain
27.7 in. water = 1 lb/in2
248.8 Pa = 1 in. water.
Therefore,
1 lb/in2 =27.7 in. water x 248.8 Pa
= 6891 Pa = 6.891 kPa
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY,
kW GRAIN
Manometer
FAN h in. water
Fan increases air pressure from 0 inches of water to “h” inches water. The air at a
pressure of “h” inches of water in the plenum flows toward a region where the
pressure is less. In so doing itProf.
Farm
Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Department
passes up&through
Machinery theof grain in the bin.
Power, University 4
• An inch of water is a relatively small unit of
pressure in comparison to the lb/in2 unit, for
example.
– Air moving machines which operate at
pressures below about 25 inch water are
commonly called fans.
– Those operating at higher and much higher
pressures are called blowers and
compressors, respectively.

Fluid Flow Principles
• Useful energy transferred to the air by the fan is in
the form an increase in velocity and an increase in
pressure. When an velocity is increased as it passes
through the fan, its kinetic energy increases. For a
weight, W, kinetic energy is:
WV 2 WV 2
KE  
(2)( g )(3600) 231,840
• where: KE=kinetic energy, ft lb; W=weight, lb ; V=velocity, ft/min; g=acceleration due to gravity, 32.2 ft/sec 2

• For an airstream moving at velocity V, kinetic
energy can be expressed as a head or column
length of air:
• where: VH=velocity head, ft of air.

• This can be expressed in inches of water, noting
that: 1 in. of water = 69.33 ft of air
Where, VP=velocity pressure, in of water

• The ideal gas law is: Pv
 R
T
• where: P=absolute pressure, lb/ft2

v=specific volume, ft3 /lb = 13.33 ft3 /lb at STP
T=absolute temperature, R=53.3 ft/ R at STP
• Although this relation is exactly correct only for ideal

gases, it is accurate enough to be commonly used for
computations of properties relationships for real gases.
•
• As air passes through a fan, it is reasonable to assume
that compression is isothermal (at constant
temperature). Then, C
Pv  C or P
v
• Where, C=RT Constant
• The work of compression is:
• This work is the static head produced by the fan and,
by use of the ideal gas law,
 v2   P1 
vw
dv
Work   Pdv  C   C ln   Work  SH  P1v1 ln  
va
v  v1   P2 
• where: SH=static head, ft of air.

• This is often expressed as static pressure. For air at
STP,
• where: SP=static pressure, in. of water

Power and Efficiency Definitions
A-Pressure
• Within the fan assembly, power is transferred
from the motor to the fan impeller. The fan
impeller imparts power to the air and increases
its pressure and velocity.
• Figure 2 (next slide) illustrates pressure
measurements which can be used to determine
the power added to the air.

Figure 2. Fan air pressure measurements
TP = VP + SP
1. The left manometer registers the fan air static pressure (SP).
2. The center manometer registers the total fan air pressure (TP).
3. The RHS manometer is aimed directly into the airstream, and the other end is exposed to the
atmosphere. The pressure registered on this manometer is the static pressure and also the pressure
which is developed as the air molecules from the fan move into and stop within the tube. The pressure
developed from this occurrence is called velocity pressure (VP). The right-angle tube used to take this
measurement is called a pitot (peetoe) tube. The right manometer has a pitot tube, but the other end is
open to the fan duct and registers only the velocity pressure Since both of its ends are subjected to SP.
B-Air Horsepower
• Power into the fan can be designated in units of
hp or kW. Note that 1 hp is equivalent to 0.746
kW.
• Air horsepower can be computed in terms of flow
rate and pressure:
Where: AHP=air horsepower, hp;

P =pressure, in. water
Q =flow rate, ft3/min
• The power possessed by the air by virtue of its
pressure and/or velocity can be computed
using these equations:
where: SHP= static air horsepower, hp,

VHP= velocity air horsepower, hp
THP= total air horsepower, hp

C-Efficiencies
Efficienciescan be computed to show how well
the fan converts shaft power to static air
horsepower or to total air horsepower.
1. Mechanical efficiency of a fan is the ratio of the
total power possessed by the air to the power
delivered to the fan through the motor shaft:
THP
ME   100%
BHP
where: ME=mechanical efficiency, %
BHP= brake horsepower power
delivered to the fan by motor shaft, hp
2. Static efficiency is the ratio of the static
power possessed by the air to the power
delivered to the fan through the motor shaft:
SHP
SE   100%
BHP
where: SE = static efficiency, %

Figure 8-3. Fan characteristics graph
Free delivery condition: If the static pressure developed by the fan is near zero, the fan
delivers its maximum possible airflow.
The cutoff point: If resistance to flow is increased, the static pressure developed by the fan
increases and airflow decreases. Moving up the fan characteristics line, eventually the
point is reached where airflow is zero. Even though airflow is zero, the fan still develops a
static pressure. Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Department
Figure-4. Sukup axial fan curves (Sukup, 2004).

Example-1
Situation: A Sukup 10-hp, 24-in. diameter axial-
flow fan is mounted in a tube as shown below.
Assume the fan motor is known to be 75%
efficient at converting electrical power to shaft
power. Power input to the motor is 12 kW.

Required?
1. What airflow is the fan delivering?
2. Compute the average air velocity in the tube.
3. Compute the velocity pressure and total
pressure developed by the fan.
4. Compute the static, velocity and total air hp.
5. At what mechanical and static efficiency is
the fan operating?

Solution: (a) From Figure-4, the airflow at 3 inches of pressure is
read as: 13,500 cfm.
13500
Figure-4. Sukup axial fan curves

 (14) 2
(b) TubeArea   4.28 ft2
144
13,500 ft 3 1
Avg. Air Velocity   2
 3154 ft/min
min 4.28 ft
(c) Velocity head

2 2
 V   3154 
VP       0.62 inches of water
 4005   4005 
Therefore, TP = VP + SP = 0.62 + 3.00 = 3.62 inches of

water

(d) SHP, VHP, and THP
Q  SP (13,500)(3)
• SHP    6.38 hp
6350 6350
Q  VP (13,500)(0.62)
• VHP    1.32 hp
6350 6350
THP = SHP + VHP = 6.38 + 1.32 = 7.70 hp

THP
(e) Consider Equation ME   100%
BHP
We have not yet computed BHP (the power output of the fan motor
at this operating condition).
If the fan motor is drawing 12 kW and is 75% efficient,
The power output of the motor is = (12 kW)(0.75) = 9 kW = 12.06 hp
(Note that 0.746 kw = 1 hp)
THP 7.7
ME   100%   100%  63.8 %
BHP 12.06
This indicates that the fan is converting 63.8% of the power it

receives from the motor to air hp in the form of velocity and static
pressure. The other 36.2% is dumped into the airstream as heat.

SHP 6.38
SE   100%   100%  52.9 %
BHP 12.06
This fan is shown here to be converting 52.9% of

its power input to air power in the form of
static pressure.

Figure-5 Fan Types
Centrifugal fans are Axial-flow fans are those

those in which air passes in which air passes
through the rotor in a through the fan in a
radial direction. direction generally
parallel to the rotor axis.
Figure-6 Rolfes centrifugal fan curves.

Fan Efficiency
• A useful way to compare fans for energy usage
is to compute the ratio of output in cfm to
electrical input in watts (W).
• Example 2 shows this computation.
Question: What is the efficiency of the fan
in Example-1, at its operating point in the
example?

Figure-7. Fan energy efficiency
(average of multiple fan from several manufacturers).
2.00 curves fitted to energy efficiency data for nine centrifugal fan models and 10 axial
fan models from several manufacturers. Fans with high cfm/watt values are most
1.75 energy efficient. From the lines on the graph, notice that axials have higher
cfm/watt values for pressures below 3 in. and centrifugals have higher cfm/watt
Fan Energy Efficiency (cfm/watt)
1.50 values for pressures above 4 in. Between 3 and 4 in. of water cfm/watt values are
nearly the same. =13500 CFM/12000 W = 1.13 CFM/W
1.25
1.00
Centrifugal
0.75
0.50
Axial
0.25
0.00
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0
Static Pressure, inches H2O

Tracing Fan Energy
Example-3
• Situation: Consider the fan in Example-1. Account for the total energy
input to the fan.
• Solution: As shown in the sketch, 16.09 hp (12 kW) goes into the motor as
electrical energy. Of this, 12.06 hp (9 kW) is delivered to the fan as shaft
power and 4.02 hp (3 kW) heats the air. The air temperature rise (T) due to
this waste heat can be computed.
BHP = 9 kW = 12.06 hp Total Input = 12 kW = 16.09 hp

75% eff
25% of 12 kW
Waste Heat
= 12 – 9 = 3 kW
= 4.02 hp
Airflow
VHP = 0.98 kW =1.32 hp

SHP = 4.76 kW =6.38 hp
Waste Heat = BHP-VHP-SHP = 3.25 kW = 4.36 hp
• Assume: air specific volume = 13.0 ft3/lb DA
air specific heat = 0.24 BTU / (lb DA oF)
Also note that 3413 BTU = 1 kWh
By the unit factor method, converting the 3 kW of

waste heat to temperature:
min 13.0 ft 3 lb da  F 3,413 BTU h

T  3
   
=0.68 oF  3 kW
13,500 ft lb da 0.24 BTU kWh 60 min
• Thus, motor waste heat raises the airstream
temperature 0.68oF.

• The shaft power not converted to SHP or
VHP (3.25 kW) also heats the air. The air
temperature increase due to fan rotor
inefficiency can also be computed:
min 13.0 ft 3 lb da  F 3,413 BTU h

T 
13,500 ft 3

lb da

0.24 BTU

kWh

60 min
 3.25 kW =0.74 oF

What happens to SHP and VHP as the air is forced
up through grain in a bin?
Assume that this fan is connected to a 27-ft diameter
bin containing several feet of grain. By the time the
air reaches the top of the grain, all the static
pressure is dissipated. Thus SHP = 0.
Assuming the grain is 40% voids, we can estimate the
air velocity at the top of the grain surface:
• Effective Area, A = 0.4  D2=0.4 (13.5)2 = 229.02 ft2
• Average air velocity = Q/A
13,500 ft 3 1
=  2
 58.95 ft/min
min 229.02 ft
Previously, the velocity pressure;
2 2
 V   58.95 
VP      
 4005   4005 
0.0022 inches H2O or essentially zero
The velocity pressure of the air leaving the grain
is negligible. Thus, we can assume that SHP
and VHP have been dissipated as heat in the
ducting and grain. They can be thought of as
causing air temperature increases:

SHP T 
min
3

13.0 ft 3 lb da  F 3,413 BTU
  
h
 4.76 kW = 1.09 oF
13,500 ft lb da 0.24 BTU kWh 60 min
min 13.0 ft 3 lb da  F 3,413 BTU h

VHP T 
13,500 ft 3

lb da

0.24 BTU
= 0.22 oF
kWh

60 min
 0.98 kW
Neglecting heat losses and air losses, all of the

energy input to the fan can be thought of as a
temperature increase to the drying air:
T due to motor inefficiency =0.68ºF
T due to fan rotor inefficiency =0.74ºF
T due to SHP =1.09ºF
T due to VHP =0.22ºF
Total effective T due to fan energy =2.73ºF

• The 2.73OF can also be obtained using the total
wattage input to the fan motor of 12 kW:
min 13.0 ft 3 lb da  F 3,413 BTU h
Total T       12 kW = 2.73 ºF
13,500 ft 3 lb da 0.24 BTU kWh 60 min

Grain Resistance to Airflow
Figure-8 illustrates fluid flow through a granular material. The fluid in the plenum
at a pressure of P, flows toward a region of lower pressure. The granular
material offers resistance to flow. Power in the form of pressure, is dissipated
as the fluid flows through the material. The graph on the right side of Figure-8
shows that the pressure drops linearly up through the granular material and is
zero at the top surface of the granular material.
Variables influencing airflow resistance
• In order to predict the performance of a fan
installed on a bin containing granular material
(such as grain), it is necessary to predict the
airflow resistance (usually expressed as P/L) for
the granular material. The equation below shows
the variables and indicates P/L is a function of 9
variables:
p
l
= f (v, f,  f, E,D,d,,e,ß)

where:
p= pressure drop, in. of water
l = R = bed depth, ft
V = apparent fluid velocity, (ft/min or ft3/min per ft2 of bin floor area)
= true velocity if the bin was empty
f = fluid density,
f = fluid viscosity,
E = fraction of voids within granular material, dimensionless
D= bin diameter, ft
d=average diameter of granules, ft
= shape factor, dimensionless
e= roughness factor, dimensionless
=granule orientation factor, dimensionless
The effect of , e, and  is small enough to usually neglect. If D is
greater than about 16d, wall effects on resistance are small
and D can be eliminated as a variable. This is true for grain bin
situations since ‘d’ is usually 0.25 in. or less.
Ergun equation: Ergun (1952) developed a semi-
empirical equation relating the remaining variables
p 2.5(1  E )  f V 0.0292(1  E )  f V
2 2
 3 2

l E d E 3d
• The Ergun equation is applicable to all granular materials and
all fluids. Its accuracy, however, is usually poorer than the
empirical graphs.
• Note the form of the right side of the Ergun equation. The two
terms can be thought of as predictors of energy loss due to
fluid flowing through the granular material. The first term
(containing f and V) accounts for viscous or frictional losses
as the fluid flows over the granules. The second term
(containing f and V2) accounts for dynamic losses in the
system. In grain drying applications, the two terms are of the
same order of magnitude.Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Department
Shedd's Curves
If the fluid is only air, the above equation simplifies to:
p
 f V , E , d 
l
This says that pressure drop per unit bed depth is a
function of V, E, and d. A relationship among the
variables, expressed graphically in Shedd's Curves
(Figure-9), is used to predict airflow resistance of seeds
and grain. Shedd's Curves are empirical relationships
plotted on logarithmic scales. The vertical axis is V
(expressed as cfm/ft2) and the horizontal axis is p/l.
This accounts for two of the fan variables in the above
equation . To account for d, a different curve is drawn
for each different seed and grain.
Figure-9. Shedd’s Curves of Airflow Resistance Through
Grains (ASAE Standard D272).
Using Shedd’s Curves is the widely accepted method for determining airflow resistance in grain.

Pack factors
To account for different E values, the P/l values
from the curve (which are for a dry, loose-fill
condition) are multiplied by a pack factor which
accounts to some extent for variations in
resistance due to filling and disturbance
operations.
Bern et al. (1979) determined the pack factors for
shelled corn shown in Table-1.

Table-1. Shedd's Curves Pack Factors for Shelled Corn.
Moisture Content Placement Method Not auger stirred Auger stirred
Dry Gravity 0.86 0.76
Dry Thrower type 1.24 0.76

spreader
Wet Gravity 0.80 0.60
Wet Thrower type 1.68 0.83

spreader

Example-4
Question: What value of P/l should be used for wet shelled corn
placed in a bin with a power-driven spreader, but not auger stirred
when V = 10 cfm/ft2?
Solution: Entering the vertical axis of Figure-9 at V=10 and reading
across to the shelled corn curve and then down we read
p 0.07 inches of water per ft of grain

l
From Table-1, the pack factor for this condition is 1.68.
Thus use
p
 0.07x1.68= 0.12 inches of water per ft of grain
l
Note from Table 8-1 the effects of various factors:
– A thrower-type spreader packs grain and its effect is greatest in wet corn.
– Auger stirring reduces airflow resistance of grain.

Figure-9. Shedd’s Curves of Airflow Resistance Through
Grains (ASAE Standard D272).
Using Shedd’s Curves is the widely accepted method for determining airflow resistance in grain.

Farm Machinery & Power, University0.07” of
of H2O 45
Effects of fines on package factor
An effect of adding fine material to shelled corn is an
increase in airflow resistance. The effect can be
estimated for material passing through a 4.76-in
round-hole sieve using this equation from Haque et
al. (1978):
Pack factor = [1 + (14.5566 - 0.1342 V) (fm)]
where: V = air velocity, cfm/ft2 (range of applicability: 15 to 40 cfm/ft2)
fm = decimal fraction of fine material in grain, by weight.
Grama et al. (1984) determined pack factors for a
variety of fines sizes. The pack factor prediction
equations are listed in Table-2.
Table-2. Pack factor predictions for mixtures of fines
and whole corn (Grama et al., 1984)
Screen size, mm Grade Modela
Through Over (% fine) (Pack factor, Y)
6.4 5.6 I (1%) Y = 0.030X+1.0

6.4 4.8 II (2%) Y = 0.042X+1.0
6.4 4.0 III (3%) Y = 0.056X+1.0
6.4 3.2 IV(4%) Y = 0.079X+1.0
6.4 2.4 V (5%) Y = 0.109X+1.0
6.4 1.8 VI (6%) Y = 0.148X+1.0
6.4 0 VII (7%) Y = 0.173X+1.0
aY = pack factor, X = percent fines
Example-5
Situation: Predict the pack factor for a lot of corn consisting of
whole kernels plus 4% by weight of fine material which will pass
through a 6.4-mm round hole sieve but will pass over a 3.2-mm
round-hole sieve. (This corresponds to a situation where corn
has been cleaned using a 3.2-mm round-hole sieve, and the
material passing through the sieve has been discarded.)
Solution: Using the equation for Grade IV (4% fines) material,
The predicted pack factor , Y = 0.079(4) + 1 = 1.316,
A common industry practice is to assume a pack factor of 1.5 when
grain conditions are unknown.
Grama et al. did not find a large influence of bulk density on the
pack factor attributed to fines. Therefore it is logical to assume
that the stirring pack factor and the fines pack factor can be
multiplied to estimate an overall pack factor.
Fan-Grain Systems
With discussions of fans and grain completed, it is now
appropriate to study the system made up of a fan
installed on a grain bin containing grain.
Tracing Pressure Drop: Figure-10 (next slide) illustrates
what happens to pressure between the fan and the top
grain surface. Between the fan and the plenum, total
pressure consists of velocity pressure and static
pressure. There is a linear drop in static pressure due to
flow resistance of the duct. At the point where the fan
transition enters the plenum chamber under the bin,
there is an abrupt expansion at which almost all of the
velocity pressure is lost
Figure-10. Approximate pressure drop along flow path
through a grain bin.
• Static pressure is nearly constant
in the plenum chamber. The next
drop is due to the bin floor. This
drop can be significant, but if the
bin floor is at least 10% open, the
loss here is insignificant. Above
the bin floor, pressure drops
linearly to atmospheric pressure.
To avoid significant pressure
buildup in the region above the
grain, open area (ventilators,
open hatches, cracks) should total
at least 1 ft2 per 1000 cfm
delivered by the fan.
Predicting fan-grain system performance
In most grain bin installations, these assumptions can be
made:
1. Negligible duct loss between fan and bin.
2. Complete velocity pressure loss at abrupt expansion
into the bin.
3. Bin floor over 10% open and pressure drop negligible.
4. Over 1 ft2 per 1000 cfm open roof area and negligible
pressure drop above the grain.

Example-6
Situation: A Rolfes 28-in., 10-hp axial-flow fan is
installed on a 27-ft diameter bin containing wet
corn, placed with a thrower-type spreader, to a
depth of 16 ft
Question:
What is the rate Wet Corn
of airflow (cfm) 16 ft
Placed with
a Spreader
and the grain
aeration rate 27 ft
(cfm/bu)?
Sukup
Prof. 28” 10-15
Dr. Muhammad hp
Iqbal, Department
Farm Machinery & Power,
axial flow fan University of 52
Solution:
1. First we arbitrarily select several air-flows, above and below the probable operating point.
2. Calculate bin floor area: A = (13.5)2 = 572.6 ft2.
3. Divide air flow (col-1) by bin floor area (A = (13.5)2 = 572.6 ft2) and place in Column 2.
4. Using in turn each of these numbers, enter the vertical axis of Shedd's Curve (Figure 8-9) and
read across to shelled corn and then down to read the pressure drop per unit bed depth on the
horizontal axis. These values are placed in Column 3.
5. From Table 1, the pack factor for this condition is read as PF=1.68. Column 4 lists this factor
multiplied by Column 3.
6. When the values in Column 4 are multiplied by the grain depth (16 ft) the values are those in
Column 5. Column 1 and Column 5 constitute points which can be plotted on the Rolfes fan
graph (Figure-12).
Table-3. Grain resistance computations for Example-6.
Col. 1 Col. 2 Col. 3 Col. 4 =col.3 x PF Col. 5
Q V= Q/A p / l (p / l)*1.68 p=(p / l)xl
(cfm) (cfm/ft2) (in. water/ft corn) (in.water/ft corn) (in. water)
9,000 15.7 0.125 0.21 3.36
10,000 17.5 0.15 0.25 4.00
11,000 19.2 0.18 0.30 4.80
12,000 21.0 0.20 0.34 5.44
13,000 22.7 0.23 0.39 6.24
14,000 24.5 Prof. Dr. Muhammad 0.25Iqbal, Department 0.42 6.72
The line drawn through the
points, the load curve,
crossed the fan curve at a
SP=4.2 in. of water and
Q=10,300 cfm (the only
point the fan and grain Load curve
curves have in common is
the point at which they
cross). Thus, the predicted
airflow is 10,300 cfm.
Thus, the Aeration rate, cfm/bu
=(Q, CFM /Volume,
ft3)(1.245 ft3/bu)
10,300 cfm 1.245 ft 3

 (13.5) 2 (16) ft 3 bu
= 1.40 cfm/bu
The number of bushels (7,358)
can also be read from
Table-4. which is = Figure-12. Rolfes Fan Curves for Example-6.
=Bin volume/1-bushel volume
=π (13.5)2 x 16/1.245= 7358 bu Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Department
Table-4. Bin capacities in bushels for various grain depths and bin diameters.
Bin Diameter, ft
15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 48 60
Grain Bushels*
Depth, ft
1 142 204 278 363 460 568 687 818 960 1113 1453 2271
2 284 409 556 727 920 1136 1374 1635 1919 2226 2907 4542
3 426 613 835 1090 1380 1703 2061 2453 2879 3338 4360 6813
4 568 818 1113 1453 1840 2271 2748 3270 3838 4451 5814 9084
5 710 1022 1391 1817 2299 2839 3435 4088 4798 5564 7267 11355
6 852 1266 1669 2180 2759 3407 4122 4905 5757 6677 8721 13626
7 994 1431 1947 2544 3219 3974 4809 5723 6717 7790 10174 15897
8 1136 1635 2226 2907 3679 4542 5496 6541 7676 8902 11628 18168
9 1277 1840 2504 3270 4139 5110 6183 7358 8636 10015 13081 20439
10 1419 2044 2782 3634 4599 5678 6870 8176 9595 11128 14535 22710
11 1561 2248 3060 3997 5059 6245 7557 8993 10555 12241 15988 24981
12 1703 2453 3338 4360 5519 6813 8244 9811 11514 13354 17441 27252
13 1845 2657 3617 4724 5978 7381 8931 10628 12474 14466 18895 29523
14 1987 2861 3895 5087 6438 7949 9618 11446 13433 15579 20348 31794
15 2129 3066 4173 5450 6898 8516 10305 12264 14393 16692 21802 34065
16 2271 3270 4451 5814 7358 9084 10992 13081 15352 17805 23255 36336
17 2413 3475 4729 6177 7818 9652 11679 13899 16312 18918 24709 38607
18 2556 3679 5008 6541 8278 10220 12366 14716 17271 20030 26162 40878
19 2697 3883 5286 6904 8738 10787 13053 15534 18231 21143 27616 43149
20 2839 4088 5564 7267 9198 11355 13740 16351 19190 22256 29069 45420
21 2981 4292 5842 7631 9658 11923 14427 17169 20150 23369 30523 47692
22 3123 4497 6120 7994 10117 12491 15114 17987 21109 24482 31976 49963
23 3265 4701 6399 8357 10577 13058 15801 18804 22069 25594 33429 52234
24 3407 4905 6677 8721 11037 13626 16488 19622 23028 26707 34883 54505
25 3548 5110 6955 9084 11497 14194 17175 20439 23988 27820 36336 56776
26 3690 5314 7233 9447 11957 14762 17862 21257 24947 28933 37790 59047
* 1 bu = 1.245 ft3
Practice problems
1. A Rolfes 5-hp, 24-in-diameter axial fan is operating with a static pressure of 2.0 in. of
water.
(a) What is the airflow rate in cfm? (Ans: 8800 cfm)
(b) What is the air velocity? (Ans: 2802 ft/min)
(c) What is the velocity pressure? (Ans: 0.49 in of water)
(d) What is the total pressure? (Ans: 2.5 in of water)
(e) What is the power input to motor? (use figure-10)
(Ans: 1.5=cfm/W so 8800/1.5=5856 W=5.8kW)
(f) What is the total air horsepower (THP)?
(Ans: THP=(cfm/6350)*TP=(8800/6350)*2.5=3.45 hp
(g) If the motor is 60% efficient what is its power output (BHP)?
(Ans: 0.6*5.8=3.48 kW = 4.66 hp)
(h) What is the mechanical efficiency of the fan?
(Ans: ME=ouput/input=3.45/4.66=0.74)
2. A Rolfes 7.5-hp axial an is connected to a 21-ft diameter cylindrical bin containing corn 15
ft deep. The corn dry is spreader-placed and not stirred. Compute: a) cfm and cfm/bu b)
Compute cfm and cfm/bu for all the same conditions in a 30-ft diameter bin.
3. A 24-ft. diameter bin contains corn to a depth of 10 ft. The
bin is equipped with a Rolfes 24-in. diameter 5-HP axial-flow
fan. Static pressure in the plenum is measured at 4 in. of
water. Compute the airflow rate in cfm/bu. (1 bu = 1.245
ft3). [Solution: (πd2/4)L/(1.245 ft3/bu)=3633 bu; from 24-in fan graph at
SP=4 in, Q=4500 cfm, therefore, AFR=4500/3633=1.24 cfm/bu]
4. Assume that 3 ft. of wet grain is added on top of the grain
in the 21-ft bin in problem 3. When this is done, the static
pressure in the plenum goes up to 4.4 in. of water.
Compute the airflow rate (cfm/bu) for the wet grain added.
In other words, divide the total cfm by the bu of wet grain.
5. A 27-ft. diameter bin is equipped with a 7.5-hp axial-flow
fan. The bin contains shelled corn to a depth of 16 ft.
Compute cfm and cfm/bu. Since the grain condition in the
bin is not known precisely, a pack factor of 1.5 is assumed.
(Follow example-6,Prof.plot load curve over the fan curve and
solve for Q=9400 cfm, ; 1.3
Farm Machinery cfm/bu)
& Power, University of
57
6. Assume that a Rolfes 5-HP, 24-in. axial-flow fan under
test develops 1.0 in. static pressure and draws 6.0 Kw
(6000 W). Determine: airflow, velocity pressure, cfm
per watt, total effective temperature rise due to fan
and motor.
Solution:
Duct area, A= π d2/4=3.141 ft2
From fan curve, at SP=1 in water, Q= 10400 cfm
V= Q/A=10400 cfm/3.141 ft2=3311 ft/min
VP=(V/4005)2 = (3311/4005)2 =0.68 in of water
CFM/W=10400/6000=1.74
At Q=Q/A=10400 cfm, Prof.

6kW input Iqbal,
energy, O
Dr. Muhammad Department∆T=1.78 F
7. A 30-ft. diameter bin with a full perforated floor is filled with
corn to a depth of 12 ft. Corn was put in dry with a thrower
spreader and not stirred. A Rolfes axial fan is to be installed
on the bin. What is the smallest size that will deliver at least
1.5 cfm/bu? What cfm/bu will this size deliver?
Solution:
Required, Q=1.5 CF/bu; PF= 1.24 fro Table-1; Bin volume=(πd2/4)L=8480.7 ft3
No. of bushels=8480.7 ft3/(1.245 ft3/bu)=6811.8 bu; Qmin=(1.5 cfm/bu)* 6811.8 bu=10217.7 cfm
Table-Using Shredds curves
24 in 5.5 hp
Q, CFM Q/A ∆p/L (∆p/L)*PF (∆p/L)*PF*L
(PF=1.24) 24 in 7.5 hp
9000 12.73 0.08 0.0992 1.1904
10000 14.14 0.125 SP
0.155 1.86 in
11000 15.56 0.13 0.1612 1.9344 of Load curve
12000 16.97 0.14 H2O
0.1736 2.0832
13000 18.39 0.16 0.1984 2.3808
14000 19.8 0.18 0.2232 2.6784
Q, CFM 12000 CFM
Ans: Smallest possible fan is 24 inFarm
diaMachinery
7.5 hp;&so Qmin
Power, =12000
University of fm/6811 bu=1.76 ft3/bu 59
8. A Rolfes C2240 (22-in. diameter, 40-hp) centrifugal fan is
installed on a 36-ft. diameter bin. The fan is operated with
wet grain in the bin, during a time when outside air is well
below the freezing point. Water condenses and freezes on
the bin vents and eventually blocks the vents and flow goes
to zero. Under this condition, what is the vertical force
exerted by air pressure on the bin roof?
9. For a 10-ft. corn depth and an airflow of 10 cfm/ft2,
determine the total pressure drop (inches of water) if:
a) The entire bin contains 4% fines, uniformly distributed.
b) All these fines are uniformly distributed in the lower half of
the bin.
c) All these fines are uniformly distributed in the lower quarter
of the bin.
Assume corn is standard Shedd's loose fill. Assume fines are
Grama Grade VII (noProf.screening done).
10. A 30-ft. diameter bin is equipped with a full perforated floor
and wet corn is to be placed in it using a thrower-type
spreader. Two Rolfes 28-inch axial-flow fans are to be
installed on the bin. Compute cfm delivered for grain depths
of 8, 16, 24 and 32 ft. when
(a) the fans are installed in parallel.
(b) the fans are installed in series.
In each case, neglect the interference effects of one fan upon
the other.

Chapter-9
Rice Storage Systems

Rice production
• World – 589 million tons
• Asia - 534 million tons
• Bag storage - 500 million tons
(Total world cereal and pulse production

2,075 million tons)
Present situation
Between 25-50% of the total grain value

(quantity+quality)is lost between harvest
and consumption in developing countries
Reasons for post harvest losses
1. Poor product coming into storage

2. Poor storage management
3. Poor quality paddy + poor milling
techniques
What is required of a good storage
system
• Prevention of moisture re-entering the grain
after drying
• Protection from insects, rodents and birds
• Ease of loading and unloading.
• Efficient use of space
• Ease of maintenance and management.
Present
on farm storage situation in Asia
Traditional Bag Storage (Indonesia)
Granary (Laos)
Woven Basket ( Cambodia)
Clay Pots (Bangladesh)
Concrete Bin (Bhutan)
Steel Bins (Bhutan)
Bag storage (Philippines)
Summarizing existing on farm storage
situation
• Grain is stored in open systems in bags or

open granaries
• Grain is exposed to insect,rodent and bird
attacks
• High equilibrium moisture content >14.0
• Grain is not always protected from rain
Farmers Present Practices
1. Sell excess immediately after harvest (indebted or
poor storage)
2. Dry grain to 10-11% before storage
3. Take grain out and re-dry during storage period
4. Store seed in “sealed” containers
Present commercial storage
situation in Asia
Commercial bag storage system
• Open to atmosphere
– moisture uptake,
– pest problems
• Store in batches
• Clear headways and walkways
• Relatively easy to fumigate
Commercial Bulk Storage
• Not popular in Asia

• Efficient use of space
• Easy to control pests- sealed
for fumigation
• Less problems with rodents
and birds
Commercial hermetic (air tight) system
• Grain stored in bags

• Protected against moisture
uptake and insects
• Rat and pig damage
• Use as harvest management
aid
• Need O2 monitoring
• Big potential in Tropical areas
• 5-300 metric tons
Sealed Systems tested by IRRI
Storage atmosphere (0xygen level)
22
20
18
16 Claypot
14
12
O2 (%) 10 200 l
8 drum
6
4 25 l
2 drum
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Days
Storage atmosphere
Plastic pouches (3kg)
25
20
Oxygen Content (%)
15 Normal plastic
Vacuum pouch
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Days
Moisture levels in stored grain
15
14
% Moisture content
13
control
12
Hermetic
11
cooled
10
9
0 10 20 30 40 50
Storage period (weeks)
Live Insect Counts
(Insects/ kg)
Open Hermetic Hermetic Cold Air

Months Storage (5 ton) (small) room conditioner
(bags)
0 3.2 8.8 7.4 8.4 8.4
3 234 0 1.4 0 1.6
6 114 0.4 1.6 0 3.0
9 54.4 0.4 1.2 0 3.4
12 27.2 2.2 1.2 0 9.0

Germination: certified seed
100.0
% germination (at 10 days)
90.0
Hermetic
control
80.0
Cooled
Chilled
70.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Storage period (weeks)
On farm Storage Bangladesh
(7 months)
Germination (%)
Head Rice Yields
(whole kernel)
Grain Whiteness Index
54
52
50
Whiteness index
48
46
44 Start
3 months
42 6 months
15 months
40 18 months
Open Hermetic A/C Cold Room
Storage treatment
Storage at IRRI
Seed
Air conditioned room
Grain
Hermetic storage
(longer than 1 month)
Open pallets (less than
1 month)
50kg woven plastic bags
Storage Hygiene
• Keep storage areas clean.

• Clean storage rooms after they are emptied
• Placing rat-traps and barriers in drying and
storage areas. Cats deter and help control rats
and mice
• Inspect storage room regularly to keep it
vermin proof.
• Inspect the stored seeds once a week for signs
of insect infestation.
Chapter-10
“Farmer” vs. “commercial” storage
1
Centrifugal aeration fans
Vane axial aeration fan.
2
Reclaim gates/sumps & reclaim

paddle conveyor in tunnel.
Incline unload screw augers
3
Concrete stem wall, reclaim

tunnel, reclaim paddle
conveyor.
Reclaim tunnel (L), stem wall
4
Stem wall paddle reclaim

conveyor
Interior of a “paddle” or
chain “drag” conveyor
5
Screw conveyor
Bean ladder in a dry edible

bean storage bin. 6
Inspection of the facility.
View of farm HQ – house (r) purchased separately. 7

Farm headquarters and bin site. 8

Larger bins – note side draws.

9
Chapter-11
Harvesting Drying
Handling and Storing
Preserved Grains and Oilseeds
Grain Quality and
the paradox of value and risk
High quality seed stores well

High quality seed has high value
Seed that stores well has less risk
High Quality Grain has less risk!
Specialty Crops and
Value and Risk
Specialty crops can have higher value

Specialty crops are held to a high standard
Higher standards increase risk
Specialty crops increase risk!

Specialty Crops and
Value and Risk
Specialty crops can have higher value

Specialty crops are held to a high standard
Higher standards increase risk
Specialty crops must have

very high quality!
Quality Grain
• Whole / undamaged seeds
• Little or no foreign material
• Little or no disease or insect activity
A healthy and safe grain mass is

dry, cool, and uniform.
Quality Grain
A healthy and safe grain mass is

dry, cool, and uniform.
Factors Affecting Grain Quality
• Crop Health
• Harvest Preparation and Timeliness
• Harvest Moisture Contents
• Combine Settings
• Seed Handling
• Prompt Drying
• Good Drying Practices
• Regular and Frequent Inspection.
Crop Health
• Development of high quality seed
depends on
– adequate soil moisture
– proper fertility
– moderate temperatures
– disease and insect-free fields.
Pre-Harvest Tips for Specialty Grains
• Clean and sanitize all seed

handling facilities
– bins
– augers
– pits
– bin site
Pre-Harvest Tips for
Specialty Grains
• Perform combine maintenance
– Replace worn augers
– Eliminate sharp edges
• Inspect grain handling equipment
– Change pulleys – slow augers
– Adjust grain spreaders
Harvest Decisions
Harvesting Tips for
Specialty Grains
• Minimize Breakage and Fines
–Use minimum rotor speeds
–Adjust rotor speed and clearance as
conditions change
–Adjust fan to get a clean sample
Harvesting Tips for
Specialty Soybeans
• Harvest only weed-free areas
–Volunteer corn
–Weeds can cause green stains
–Nightshade causes purple stains
Harvesting Tips for
Specialty Soybeans
• Harvest at optimum moisture
content at midday
–Early morning – too wet
–Late afternoon – overdry
–Evening – poor separation
Harvesting Tips for
Specialty Soybeans
• Use a well-maintained flexible
floating small grain platform
–poorly adjusted or poorly
functioning platforms
• Losses as high as 10-15%
• Increase soil intake – dirty sample
• Cause excessive shattering
Harvesting Tips for
Specialty Soybeans
• A loss of 10% can be significant

– Assume 40 bu soybeans
– Assume market price is $6.00
 40 x 10% x $6.00 = $24/ac

Harvesting Tips for
Specialty Soybeans
 Inspect knife sections
- replace as necessary
 Adjust reel speed
- 25% faster than ground speed
 Adjust reel position
- axis about 6” - 12 inches ahead of cutterbar
Harvesting Tips for
Specialty Soybeans
 Keep fields level
- drilled soybean is easier to harvest
- avoid wet fields
 Don’t hurry
- uneven or jagged stubble? …. reduce speed
 Set the combine by the book
- make adjustments throughout the day !
Drying Tips for Specialty
Grains
• Dry in-field as long as possible
• Use low temperature drying to
maximize quality
–< 110 F High oil, High oleic,
–< 125 F High amylose
–< 140 F High starch, Waxy, Non-GMO
Drying Tips for Specialty
Soybeans
• Field Dry to 13 – 14%
• Prevent Moisture Migration
– Aerate immediately to cool
– Aerate seasonally as needed to
35 – 40 F for winter storage
–Warm slightly in the spring
Management Tips for
Specialty Grains
• Preserve identity
–Develop an identity preservation
plan
–Update handling equipment for easy
and complete cleanout
–Schedule harvest of identity
preserved crops first
Management Tips for
Specialty Grains
• Minimize impact and mechanical
damage during handling
– Use large low-speed augers
– Keep augers at full capacity
Management Tips for
Specialty Grains
• Maximize Airflow Potential
–Clean grain to reduce fines
–Level grain to uniform depth
Management Tips for
Specialty Grains
• Aerate Grain Periodically
–Approximately monthly
–Cool grain by 10 – 15 degrees F
during each aeration cycle
Soybean Moisture
Characteristics
• Soybean contains about 18% oil

–water can only be held in the other
82% of mass
–relatively hygroscopic
- relatively more susceptible to over-
drying and re-wetting
Soybean Moisture
Characteristics
• Soybean moisture changes rapidly

in the field after maturity
–60% - 50% in about 16 days
–50% - 10% in about 10 days
–Daily ranges …… 16% - 9%
Soybean Equilibrium
Moisture Content
17.00%
16.00%
Moisture Content
15.00%
14.00%
13.00%
Soybean
12.00%
Corn
11.00%
10.00%
9.00%
8.00%
50% 60% 70% 80%
Relative Humidity
Drying Practices
• Dry grain and oilseeds immediately
–Storage life is reduced quickly
until grain is dried
–Remaining storage life is a
function of the percent of storage
life already used.
Drying Practices
• Dry grain immediately
• Maximize airflow
• Dry shallow depths of grain
• Use heat carefully
• Do not over-dry grain
• Aerate stored grain seasonally to minimize
moisture migration.
Inspect Grain Often
• Inspect grain weekly
– musty odors
– warming
– crusted grain at the surface
• Aerate immediately if a problem is detected
• Continue aeration until the problem is
resolved.
Respect the Hazards of
Spoiled Grain
• Dust and Mold Spores
– damages delicate lung tissues
– favors growth of tuberculosis and bronchitis
– dust can ignite and explode
• Ventilate the work area
• Wear a dust mask
• Use the services of a professional fumigator
Spoiled Grain
• Watch for crusted grain
– know the history of the bin
– bridged grain is like a trap
– vertical masses of caked grain crush victims
• Break up grain with a long wooden pole
• Work from the top of the bin
• Avoid overhead power lines.
Spoiled Grain
Spoiled Grain
Respect for Flowing Grain
• An 8-inch auger can move 52 cubic feet/min
• An average person is only 7 cubic feet
• You’re covered in 8 seconds
Flowing Grain
Grain Management Summary
• Store only high quality grain
• Clean and sanitize grain handling equipment
• Harvest in a timely manner !< 28% MC
• Optimize combine settings
• Clean the grain - distribute evenly
• Start drying quickly with lots of air
• Use heat carefully and dry in shallow layers
• Inspect and aerate as needed.
Packaging Functions
Packaging Functions
 Introduction
 The Contain Function
 The Protect/Preserve Function
 Food Preservation
 The Transport Function
 The Inform/Sell Function
1. The four main functions of a package
Contain
Protect/Preserve
Transport
Inform/Sell
2. Definitions of different packaging levels
 Primary package: The first wrap or containment of the product
that directly holds the product for sale.
 Secondary package: A wrap or containment of the primary
package.
 Distribution package(shipper): A wrap or containment
whose prime purpose is to protect the product during distribution and
to provide for efficient handling.
 Unit load: A number of distribution packages bound together and
unitized into a single entity for purposes of mechanical handling,
storage, and shipping.
Figure 2.1 Packaging can have many levels. 动画
All levels of the system must work together
3. Packages are often defined by their intended
destination
 Consumer package: A package that will ultimately
reach the consumer as a unit of sale from a
merchandising outlet.
 Industrial package: A package for delivering goods from
manufacturer to manufacturer. Industrial packaging usually, but
not always, contains goods or materials for further processing.
Considerations pertaining to thecontain function
of packaging
 The product’s physical form:
mobile fluid viscous fluid solid/fluid
mixture
gas/fluid mixture granular material paste
free-flowing non-free-flowing powder solid unit
discrete items multicomponent mix
 The product’s nature:
corrosive corrodible flammable
volatile perishable fragile
aseptic toxic abrasive
odorous subject to odor transfer easily marked
sticky hygroscopic under pressure
irregular in shape
1. Considerations related to the protect/preserve
function
 “Protect” refers to the prevention of physical damage.
Specifics on what will cause loss of value (damage) must
be known.
 “Preserve” refers to stopping or inhibiting chemical and
biological change and to the extension of food shelf life
beyond the product’s natural life or the maintenance of
sterility in food or medical products.
2. Examples of protective packaging problems
Table 2.1 Examples of protective packaging problems
and concerns
Condition Quantification or DesignRequirement
Vibration Determine resonant frequencies
Mechanical shock Determine fragility factor (drop height)
Abrasion Eliminate or isolate relative movement
Deformation Determine safe compressive load
Temperature Determine critical values
Relative humidity Determine critical values
Water Design liquid barrier
Tampering Design appropriate systems
3. Examples of preservation packaging problems
Table 2.2 Typical preservation packaging problems
and concerns
Condition Quantification or Design Requirement
Oxygen Determine required barrier level
Carbon dioxide Determine required barrier level
Other volatiles Determine nature and barrier level
Light Design opaque package
Spoilage Determine nature/chemistry
Incompatibility Determine material incompatibilities
Loss of sterility Determine mechanism
Biological deterioration Determine nature
Deterioration over time Determine required shelf life
 The Nature of Food
1. The nature of food
 Food is derived from animal or vegetable sources. Its
organic nature makes it an unstable commodity in its
natural form.
 Various means can increase the natural shelf life of
foods, thus reducing dependence on season and
location.
2. Spoilage mechanisms
 Food spoilage can occur by three means:
a) Internal biological deterioration
b) External biological deterioration
c) Abiotic deterioration
 “Taste” refers only to the sweet, sour, salty, and bitter
sensations by the taste sensors located on our tongue
 Essential oils or “sensory active agents” and sense of smell
by sensors located in our nasal passages
 What we perceive as a food product’s flavor is a
combination of what we detect with our sense of taste
combined with what we detect with our sense of smell.
Preservation of essential oils retains the food’s full flavor
at retail.
 Essential oils are volatile.Volatiles can permeate
packaging materials and making the problem of
contamination or isolation even more difficult.
 Water vapor is similar to an essential oil in that it
readily permeates many packaging materials.
 The creation of high-barrier packaging systems is
partly in response to the need for packaging that will
either hold desirable gases and volatiles in the package
or prevent undesirable volatiles from entering the
package.
 Temperature can promote undesirable changes that are
abiotic in nature.
 Meat products
 - Meats are an ideal medium for microorganisms
because they contain all the necessary nutrients to
sustain growth. In addition to biological action, fatty
tissue is susceptible to oxidation, and the entire mass
can lose water.
 - Reduced temperature retards microorganism
activity, slows evaporation and slows chemical reactions
such as those associated with oxidation.
 Fish
 - The preservation of fish is a difficult challenge
because of three main factors:
 Psychrophilic bacteria may be present.
 Many fish oils are unsaturated and are easily oxidized.
 Typical fish proteins are not as stable as red meat proteins.
 - Chilling does not affect the activity of psychrophilic
bacteria. Frozen fish is typically kept at much lower
temperatures (-300C/) than other frozen foods in order
to ensure the control of psychrophilic bacteria.
 Produce
 - Harvested fruits and vegetables continue to respire and
mature.
 - They contain large amounts of water and will wither if
water loss is excessive.
 - Peas, green beans, and leafy vegetables have high
respiration rates compared with those of apples oranges,
and pears.
 - Potatoes, turnips and pumpkins respire slowly and are
easy to store. Moisture loss is more rapid with lettuce
than with a turnip because of the large available surface
area.
 - Most fruits have an optimum ripening
temperature, usually about 200C. Few fruits will
ripen below 50C.
 - Freezing of many produce items will damage cell
structure, and breakdown is very rapid after thawing.
 - Modified atmosphere packaging used(CO2, O2)
 - Bananas can remain in a mature but green state
for up to six months in atmospheres of 92%
nitrogen, 5% oxygen, 3% carbon dioxide and no
ethylene.
 - Atmosphere and temperature control are key
requirements for extending the shelf life of fresh
produce.
Trade-offs for many produce items:
90%RH+perforated plastic wrap; or
Selecting packaging films with high gas-
transmission rates.
i.e. precut salad bags(the shelf life of about ten
days): excellent moisture barrier and very low oxygen
barrier.
 Barrier Packaging
Figure 2.2 A barrier packaging material is one that

slows down or stops the movement
of selected gaseous substances into or out of a package
 - Stopping the movement of a gas requires barrier
packaging.
 - This packaging construction either retains desirable
gases and volatiles inside the package or prevents
undesirable gases and volatiles from entering the
package.
 - Of the materials a packager can choose from, only
glass and metal provide absolute barriers to all gases
and volatiles.
 - The term "high barrier" plastic is a relative,
nonspecific term and should not be taken to mean
"absolute" barrier.
 - Barrier packaging can harm some products. Fresh
produce, for example, continues to respire after
harvesting and would shortly consume all the oxygen
in an oxygen-barrier package. This would lead to
reduced shelf life. Plastic bags for produce
commonly have vent holes punched in them to allow
for a free exchange of atmospheric gases.
3. Microorganisms and their preferred
environments for propagation
 Microorganisms
 - A large part of food preservation depends on the control of
microorganisms.
 - Bacteria or microbes are unicellular microscopic organisms that
reproduce by binary fission.
 - Certain bacterial species can form spores that are highly
resistant to killing.
 - Molds or fungi are multicellular and unicellular plantlike
organisms.
 - Yeasts are similar organisms that reproduce by budding. The
propagation and spread of molds and yeasts is typically slower
than for bacteria because of the reproduction method.
 Microorganisms ’preferred environments
for propagation
 - By manipulating the four principal environmental
factors that regulate microorganism growth,
microorganisms can be controlled or eliminated:
temperature
moisture
acidity (pH)
nutrient source
 – Microorganisms are often classified by their preferred
reproduction environment:
Mesophyllic: Prefer ambient conditions, 20-450C
Psychrophilic: Prefer cool conditions, 10-250C
Thermophilic: tolerate heat; will propagate at 30 to 750C
Aerobic: need oxygen to propagate
Anaerobic: propagate only in the absence of oxygen
 - Some microorganisms act only on the food. They do
little harm when ingested
 - Pathogenic organisms can cause sickness or death,
falling into basic classes:
 Those that produce harmful toxins as by-products in the food
they infest.
 Those that infest the food and then grow in the human body to
produce illnesses.
4. Six basic methods, which are used alone or in
combination, can extend the normal
biological shelf life of food:
 Reduced temperatures  Thermal processing
 Water reduction  Chemical preservation
 Modified atmospheres  Irradiation
 - Each method can slow the natural biological maturation
and spoilage of a food product, reduce biological activity
or inhibit the chemical activity that leads to abiotic
spoilage.
 - Each method requires its own unique blend of packaging
materials and technology.
 Reduced Temperature and Freezing
 - Reducing temperatures below the ambient temperature
has many beneficial effects that will lead to a longer shelf
life. Doing so
 Slows chemical activity
 Slows loss of volatiles
 Reduces or stops biological activity
 - Bacteria and molds stop developing at about -80C, and
by -180C, chemical and microorganism activity stops for
most practical purposes.
 - Freezing kills some microorganisms, but not to the
extent of commercial usefulness.
 - Ice crystal formation is greatest between 0 and
-5℃. Ice crystals can pierce cell walls, destroying the
texture of many fruits and vegetables. Rapid freezing
reduces this damage.
 - Freezer conditions will cause ice to sublimate, and
serious food dehydration( freezer burn) will occur.
Snug, good moisture-barrier packaging with a
minimum of free air space will reduce freezer
dehydration. Complete filling of the package is
desirable.
 - Frozen food packages materials must remain flexible at
freezer temperatures, provide a good moisture barrier and
conform closely to the product.
 - When paperboard is used as part of the package, it should
be heavily waxed or coated with polyethylene to give
protection against the inevitable moisture present in the
freezing process.
 - Poultry packaging in high-barrier PVDC bags is an
excellent example of an ideal freezer pack. Prepared birds,
placed into bags, pass through a vacuum machine that
draws the bag around the bird like a second skin. The tight
barrier prevents water loss and freezer burn for extended
periods, as well as preventing passage of oxygen that would
oxidize fats and oils.
 Thermal Processing
 - Heat can destroy microorganisms. The degree of
treatment depends on the:
 Nature of the microorganism to be destroyed
 Acidity (pH) of the food
 Physical nature of the food
 Heat tolerance of the food
 Container type and dimensions
 - Pasteurization, a mild heat treatment of 60 to
700C, kill most, but not all, microorganisms present.
Pasteurization is used when
 More severe heating would harm the product
 Dangerous organisms are not very heat resistant (such as
some yeasts)
 Surviving organisms can be controlled by other means
 Surviving organisms do not pose a health threat
 Aseptic packaging
 - “Hot filling” refers to product filling at elevated
temperatures up to 100℃, used to maintain sterility in
products such as jams, syrups and juices.
 - Some products can tolerate high temperatures for
short time periods.
 - UHT processing of milk and fruit juices uses
temperatures in the range of 135 to 150℃, but for a few
seconds or less. The high temperature is enough to kill
most pathogens.
 - UHT is the basis of most flexible aseptic drink
packaging. The term “aseptic” as applied to packaging
refers to any system wherein the product and container
are sterilized separately and then combined and sealed
under aseptic conditions.
 In the 1940s, metal cans were sterilized and filled with
puddings, sauces, and soups (the Dole Process). In the
1970s, aseptic packaging was adapted to institutional
bag-in-box systems.
 - Advantages: eliminating the need for the elevated
temperatures and pressures used in conventional
canning methods; Eliminating the need for extreme
sterilizing conditions allows aseptic packaging materials
to have lower physical strengths and lower temperature
tolerance.
 - Commercial systems, such as Tetra Pak,
Combibloc, and Bosch, use hydrogen peroxide to
sterilize simple paper, foil and polyethylene
laminates, and then fill the formed package with
UHT-treated product.
 - Normal canning:
 Only maintains nominal cleanliness in the food and the
container,
 Subjected to temperatures (110 to 130℃) high enough to kill
pathogens and achieve commercial sterility.
 Generally, the less acid the food, the longer the cook times
needed to ensure destruction of Clostridium botulinum. Foods
with acidities high enough to prevent harmful pathogens from
propagating can be heat-processed by immersion in boiling
water.
 Overcooking gives some foods their “canned” taste or texture.
 - The retortable pouch is a laminate of polyester (for
toughness), foil (for an oxygen barrier) and a heat-
sealable polyolefin. Its largest customer is the military.
 Water Reduction
 - Drying is an old and well-established method of
preserving food.
 - The essential feature of drying is that moisture content
is reduced below that required for the support of
microorganisms.
 - An added advantage is reduced bulk and reduction of
other chemical activity.
 - Methods: by simple heat drying or by the addition of
salt or sugar.
i.e., Concentrated salt and sugar solutions tie up free
water and make it unavailable to microorganisms. Jams
and marmalades having high sugar contents do not
require refrigeration for this reason.
 - Equilibrium relative humidity (E.R.H) is the
atmospheric humidity condition under which a food
will neither gain nor lose moisture to the air.
 - Aw, the water activity.
 A food with an Aw of 0.5 is at an equilibrium relative
humidity of 50%. Table 2.3 lists the moisture
content and the desired E.R.H for some common
foods.
Table 2.3 Typical moisture content and E.R.H ranges
Product Typical Moisture(%) E.R.H
Potato chips, instant coffee 3% or less 10 to 20%
Crackers, breakfast cereals 3 to 7% 20 to 30%
Cereal grains, nuts, dried fruit 7 to 20% 30 to 60%
Salt 75%
Sugar 85%
 - Very low-E.R.H. foods are hygroscopic and will draw
available moisture from the air. These foods require a
barrier package that will not permit the entry of
atmospheric moisture.
 1. Dried foods such as potato chips and instant coffee require
packaging materials with high moisture-barrier properties.
Potato chips are also rich in oil (about 30%), so that they also
need a high oxygen barrier. In-package desiccants and oxygen
scavengers are sometimes used to increase the shelf life of very
sensitive products.
 2. Dried foods with E.R.H. values of 20 to 30% have less
stringent moisture-barrier requirements and are easier to package.
Depending on the food, oxygen or other barriers may still be
needed.
 3. Foods with an E.R.H. of 30 to 60% can often be stored for
long periods with little or no barrier packaging since their
E.R.H. corresponds to typical atmospheric conditions. If the
food has a high oil content, oxygen barriers may be needed.
Bacteriological activity is rarely a problem with low- or
reduced-moisture foods since one of the essentials of bacterial
growth has been removed.
 4. High E.R.H. foods lose moisture under typical
atmospheric conditions. A cake with an E.R.H. of 90% would
soon establish a relative humidity of 90% inside a sealed
package, creating ideal conditions for mold growth. The
packaging challenge is to control moisture loss, retarding it as
much as possible, but not to the extent that a high humidity is
established within the package.
 Chemical Preservatives
 - Various natural and synthetic chemicals and
antioxidants are used
 - They are used in conjunction with other preservation
methods.
 - The use of most of them is strictly controlled by law.
 - Chemical preservatives work in various ways:
 1.Some, such as lactic, acetic, propionic, sorbic and benzoic
acids, produce acid environments.
 2. Others, such as alcohol, are specific bacteriostats. Carbon
dioxide, found in beers and carbonated beverages creates an
acid environment and is also a bacteriostat.
 3. Smoking and curing of meat and fish is partly a drying
process and partly chemical preservation.
 4. Aliphatic and aromatic wood distillation products (many
related to creosote) are acidic and have variable bacteriostatic
effects. Varying amounts of salt pretreatment accompanies most
smoking.
 5. Antioxidants and oxygen absorbers can reduce oxidation.
 Modified Atmosphere Packaging
 - MAP recognizes that many food degradation
processes have a relationship with the surrounding
atmosphere. - MAP involves the introduction of a gas
mixture other than air into a package
 - CAP is used in storage and warehousing where the
atmosphere can be monitored and adjusted.
 - Vacuum packaging is one type of MAP. It has the
effect of eliminating some or all oxygen that might
contribute to degradation.
Disadvantages: fruits and vegetables have respiratory
functions that must be continued; red meat will turn brown or
purple without oxygen; pressures created by the external
atmosphere surrounding a vacuum-packaged product can
physically crush delicate products or squeeze water out of moist
products.
 - Ambient air is about 20% oxygen and 80% nitrogen,
with a trace of carbon dioxide.
Table 2.4 Typical modified atmospheres for selected
food products
Product Oxygen Carbon Dioxide Nitrogen
Red meat 40% 20% 40%
White meats/pasta ---- 50% 50%
Fish 20% 80% ----
Produce 5% ---- 95%
Baked goods 1% 60% 39%
 - O2 is biologically active, and for most products, is
associated with respiration and oxidation.
 - Co2 in high concentrations is a natural bacteriostat.
Levels of 20% and higher are used to create conditions
unfavorable to most microorganisms.
 - N2 is biologically inert, “filler” gas or to displace
oxygen.
 - Most packaging materials used in MAP for
everything other than produce must have good gas-
barrier properties to all three gases.
 - A package containing only carbon dioxide and
nitrogen is a system where atmospheric oxygen is
trying to penetrate the package and establish an
equilibrium partial pressure. The integrity of all seals
is of paramount importance.
 - The natural respiration of a fruit or vegetable
consumes oxygen and produces carbon dioxide and
moisture. Ventilated or low-barrier packaging is
needed to ensure a supply of oxygen and to rid the
package of excess moisture.
 - MAP has increased natural shelf life by 2 to 10
times.
 Irradiation
 - Radiation is energy categorized by wavelength and
includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation,
visible light, ultraviolet light and X rays.
 - These types of radiation increase in energy from radio
to X rays; the shorter the wavelength, the greater the
energy.
 - Given sufficient energy, waves can penetrate substances.
With more energy still, they will interact with the
molecules of the penetrated substance.
 - Short-wavelength radiations have enough energy to
cause energy to ionization of molecules, mainly water.
 - Ionization can disrupt complex molecules and leads to
the death of living organisms.
 - Irradiation has been used to increase the keeping
quality of various foods. Cobalt 60, a radioactive isotope,
is the principal source of ionizing radiation (gamma
rays).
 - All safety precautions pertaining to radioactive
hazards must be observed. It should be noted that
while the energy source is radioactive, gamma rays
cannot make other substances radioactive.
 - Irradiation is a unique process in that it is carried out
at ambient temperatures and can penetrate packaging
material or products.
 - Irradiation of consumable food is an issue that is not
fully resolved, and the process is carefully controlled
in most countries.
 - Food irradiation is prohibited in some countries
and highly regulated in most. However, the use of
irradiation to achieve sterility for medical devices,
packaging materials and personal care products does
not present a problem and is a useful technology.
 - Labeling is another contentious issue. The
irradiation symbol must be accompanied by a
statement such as “treated by irradiation” or
“irradiated”.
The international food irradiation symbol
 The transport function and examples of
transport modes
 - The transport function entails the effective movement
of goods from the point of production to the point of
final consumption.
 - This involves various transport modes, handling
techniques and storage conditions.
 - In addition to the general physical rigors of
distribution, there are a number of carrier rules that will
influence package design.
 Examples of some of the information required to design
successful distribution packaging appear in Table 2.5.
Table 2.5 Typical transport handling and
storage information
truck rail aircraft
cargo ship storage duration storage conditions
handling methods unitizing methods specific shipping unit
weight considerations stock-picking dimension limits
carrier rules environmentally controlled storage
 - Transportation and distribution is generally
regarded as an activity that is hazardous to the
product being moved.
 - Packaging contributes to the safe, economical, and
efficient storage of a product. Good package design
take into account the implications of transport and
warehousing, not just for the distribution package
and unitized load, but for every level of packaging.
2. “Persona”
 - A good package is said to have a “persona”, or
personality. If the designer has done an effective job,
that persona will appeal to the targeted audience.
 - The targeted audience itself needs to be identified
and studied. This is the realm of demographics and
psychographics.
1. Package communication roles
 - The communication role of packaging is perhaps the
most complex of the packaging functions to
understand, measure and implement because of the
many levels at which this communication must work.
 - Law or customs dictate certain messages without
much leeway in their presentation. Examples of such
message are:
 Specific name of the product (what is this?)
 Quantity contained
 Address of the responsible body
3. How a package communicates
 Selected material
 Shape and size
 Color
 Predominant typography
 Recognizable symbols or icons
 Illustrations
 - All of the communication channels must be balanced
and supportive of one another to produce a persona
with appeal and instant recognition.
 - All supporting material, such as promotions and
advertisements, must agree with the image projected by
the package.
 - Producing a well-balanced package persona requires
an intimate familiarity with not just the structural
qualities of packaging materials, but also the emotional
qualities that they project.
 - A thorough understanding of the various printing
processes and the specialized decorating techniques
used to create particular effects or decorate unusual
surfaces is essential.
Chapter 13
Healthy Habits For Life! Staff Wellness

Make Half Your Grains Whole
1
2005 Dietary Guidelines for
“ Consume 3 or more servings of whole-grain products

per day, with the rest of the recommended grains
coming from enriched or whole-grain products.
In general, at least half the grains should come from
whole grains.”
2
Health Benefits of Whole Grains
People who eat Whole Grains reduce serious health

risks of:
Heart Type 2 Digestive Stroke-

disease- Diabetes- cancers- drops
drops 25- drops 21- drops 21-43% 37%
36% 27%
3
• Controls Weight. Women and men who ate more whole

grains consistently gained less weight over an 8-12
year period, in Harvard studies.
• Curbs Colon Cancer. Women who ate more than 4 1/2
daily servings of whole grains were one-third less apt
to develop colon cancer than those who ate less than
1 1/2 servings a day, a new Swedish study finds.
• Defeats Diabetes. People who eat the most whole
grains, especially high-fiber cereals, are 20% to 30%
less likely to develop insulin resistance, metabolic
syndrome and Type 2 diabetes, according to
research from Tufts, Harvard and U. MN.
USA Today, June 19, 2005
4
• Stops Heart Disease. Harvard investigators found that men
who ate a bowl of whole-grain cereal every day cut their risk
of dying of cardiovascular disease by 20%.
• Drops Blood Pressure. Eating a whole-grain oat cereal, such as

oatmeal, every day for three months enabled 73% of those
with high blood pressure to reduce or eliminate their need for
medication, University of Minnesota investigators reported.
• Saves Lives. Older women in Iowa who ate whole grains

containing 4.7g of fiber daily were 17% less like to die of any
cause in an 11-year period than were women who ate refined
grains, says a University of Minnesota study.
USA Today, June 19, 2005 5

A Whole Grain Includes
Everything
• Whole Grains-- grains that
have all three parts of the
kernel:
• Bran: protective outer
shell.
• Endosperm: starchy
middle section of grain,
and
• Germ: the seed for a new
plant.
6
The 3-Parts of a Whole Grain
Three parts of Nutrients in Whole Grains Refined Grains
a grain each part
Bran Fiber, B-Vitamins
Endosperm Starch, protein,

vitamins, and
minerals
Germ B vitamins,
protein, minerals
and healthy oils
7
Whole Grains vs. Refined Grains
• All grains can be whole or

refined depending on how
they are processed. Grains
are naturally “whole” when
they grow in the field
because they have all three
parts of the kernel: the
bran, germ, and endosperm,
as shown in this picture.
8
Whole vs. Refined cont….
• When the bran and the germ
are removed from the grain
to make white or enriched
grains, the nutrients of the
bran and the germ are also
removed. Whole grains have
more fiber, B vitamins,
minerals, and healthy oils
than enriched grains. The
extra nutrients found in whole
grains provide many health
benefits.
9
List of Whole Grains
•Amaranth
Tiny kernels, resembles brown caviar when
cooked. Actually a pseudo-grain, like
quinoa and buckwheat, listed with other
grains because of a similar nutritional
profile. Higher protein level (16%) than
most other grains. Popular in cereals,
breads, muffins, crackers and pancakes.
•Barley
Very tough outer hull, difficult to remove
without also removing the bran. Pearled
barley not technically a whole grain
(missing the bran). Hulled barley, available
at health food stores, retains more of the
10
whole-grain nutrients.
More Whole Grains….
• Wheat
Dominates other edible grains in food
supply because of large gluten content,
which enables bakers to make a variety of
risen breads. Referred to as “hard or “soft”
according to protein content, and “red” or
“white” according to the color of the kernels.
• Corn
Fresh corn on the cob. Popcorn. Corn
cakes. Polenta. Tortillas. Eating corn with
beans creates a complementary mix of
amino acids that raises the available protein
value.
11
• Millet
Rarely served as human food in U.S.—
most often found in bird feeders.
However, it’s the leading staple grain in
India, and is common in China, South
America and Russia. Tiny grain can
be white, gray, yellow or red, it is often
mixed with other grains for cooking.
• Oats
Slightly- sweet flavor makes oats a
favorite for breakfast cereals. Unique
among grains, oats almost never have
their bran and germ removed in
processing. 12
• Quinoa (pronounced Keen-wah)
Also a high-protein pseudo-grain like amaranth,
quinoa is a small, round, often light-colored grain,
similar to sesame seeds. Is also found in other
colors—red, purple, black. Most quinoa must be
rinsed before cooking to remove bitter residue of
saponins—a plant-defense that keeps away
insects.
• Rice, both brown rice and

colored rice
Whole grain rice is usually brown, but can be
black, purple, red, or other various colors. One of
the most easily-digested grains—one reason rice
cereal is a common early solid food for infants. 13
More Whole Grains…
• Rye
High level of fiber in the bran and endosperm.
Traditional grain in Northern European and
Russian cuisine, due to its ability to grow in
very wet and cold climates.
14
Chapter 14
Grain Storage
What is Storage?
Storage is the art of keeping the quality of

agricultural materials and preventing them
from deterioration for specific period of
time, beyond their normal shelf life
The reasons for storage
1. Perishable nature of agric. & bio-materials

2. Provision of food materials all year round
3. Pilling/ provision for large scale processing
4. Preservation of viability for multiplication
5. Prevention of original varieties from extinction
(Germ Bank)
6. Preservation of nutritional quality
7. Weapon for national stability
8. Price control and regulation
9. Optimization of farmers’ gain / financial
empowerment of farmers
10.Opportunity for export market, etc
Factors affecting classification of storage types
• Duration of Storage
• Size or Scale of Storage
• Principle of Storage
Storage Types Classification Based on
Duration of Storage
a) Short Term Storage
b) Medium Term Storage
c) Long Term Storage

a) Short Term Storage
Stored products in short term storage mostly
do not last beyond 6 months
Highly perishable products (such as egg,

meat, fish and dairy products) are naturally
stored for short term
High loss of quality is associated with highly

perishable crops in this storage except
controlled systems are used
b) Medium Term Storage
Medium term storage involves keeping the

quality of stored products without
appreciable deteriorations for up to 12
months
The quality of such stored products may not

be guaranteed after 18 months
c) Long Term Storage
Long term storage can guarantee the quality

of stored products beyond 5 years
Germ banks and some storage systems are

known to preserve viability and proximate
characteristics of stored materials for
decades
Storage types classification Based on
Size or Scale of Storage
i. Small Scale Storage
ii. Medium Scale Storage
iii. Large Scale Storage

i. Small Scale Storage
Small scale storage systems have capacity for

up to 1-ton, but not beyond
They are mostly used at domestic and peasant

(small farmer, farm laborer) levels
They are associated with peasant farmers with

small farm holdings
ii. Medium Scale Storage
Medium scale storage can accommodate up to
a hundred tons of stored products
Most of such storage systems are in the

capacity range of 2 – 50 tons, with very
few having capacity beyond 50 tons
Some are used in breweries for temporary

storage of spent grains
iii. Large Scale Storage
Large scale storage can accommodated stored

material in 100s and1000s of tons
It is used either for temporary or permanent storage

of very large quantity of various products
It has a very high initial cost but eventually reduces

overall unit cost of production
Storage classification Based on Principle
of Storage
1. Physical Storage
2. Chemical Storage
3. Biological Storage
1. Physical Storage
Physical storage utilizes physical principles to
achieve storage and preservation the quality of
stored products
The physical environment (in terms of moisture

content, temperature and relative humidity)
within the storage system is mostly controlled to
retard the activities of agents of deterioration or
prevent deterioration. e.g. cold storage or
controlled environment
2. Chemical Storage
Chemical storage utilizes chemicals to stop or

retard the activities of agents of deterioration
The use of chemicals such as wax, actellic, or

phosphosene dust or tablet to prevent respiration
or insect infestation in stored produce are
examples
Some chemicals are however poisonous and their

uses must be highly monitored, e.g. phosphosene
3. Biological Storage
Biological storage utilizes biological agents,

especially micro organism, to stop or retard
the activities of agents of deterioration or
enhance the shelf life of stored products
This is a very good area of the application of

bio-technology in agriculture
Factors affecting Crop Storage
a. Micro organisms
b. Insects, mite and pests
c. Rodents
d. Environmental factors
a. Crop Storage Micro organisms
Major micro organism associated with storage

include:
• Fungi
• Bacterial
• Yeast
The activities of micro organism result in:
• Color degradation
• Off flavor
• Moisture upgrading, wet spot & moldiness
• Loss of viability, etc

b. Crop Storage Insects, Mite and
Pests
Insects, mites and pests attack both the stored
material and wooden components of the storage
structure
Weevils are the commonest insects in grains. They

attack seeds and bore through them, and lay eggs
in the seeds and storage structures
They reduce seed weight, quality, nutritional value

and viability
Rodents are mammals that parasite on stored
materials and attack storage structures:
They eat germs of grains and waste the remaining

parts
They are vectors. They also contaminate stored

materials with their faeces, urine and carcasses
The environmental factors that mostly associated
with stored products
:
• Temperature
• Relative humidity
• Equilibrium moisture content

Types of Storage Structures
Broadly, storage structures are classified as:
1. Traditional Structures: Small sized and short

term with high level of infestation. They are
mostly made of unrefined local materials
2. Modern Structures: Mostly large capacity and

long term with better regulation of the storage
environment. They are made of improved and
refined materials
1. Traditional Structures
These are devices used mostly for short term and

small scale storage
Occasionally they include some medium term and

medium scale storage devices
They require low level of scientific knowledge to

construct, operate and maintain. They are
mostly made of unrefined local materials
Traditional storage structures include:
1) Rhombus
2) Crib
3) Barn
4) Shelf
5) Pit/ Underground Storage
6) Plastic Containers
7) Guard
8) Polythene bag
9) Earthen pot
Rhombus and Crib
Rhombus & Traditional Crib:

• These are used for grain storage, mostly
materials in cob. Rhombus is mostly used in
Northern Nigeria while the traditional crib is
used in South Western and Eastern Nigeria
Rhombus is cylindrical in shape while crib has
rectangular shape. They are made of palm font
leaf, clay, tree stem and bamboo
Major disadvantages are moisture build as a result

of rain, and micro organism infestation
Sometimes coal or wood heat is introduced at the

lower base to ensure drying
Barn, Shelf and Pit
• These are mostly used for root and tuber crops.

Barn and shelf could be suitable for onion &
carrot. Barn, shelf and pit are recommended for
cassava, yam and cocoyam
• These storage structures are affected by

environmental conditions
Plastic Containers, Guard, Polythene bag &
Earthen pot:
• These structures are used at household and peasant
levels for the storage of grain. Earthen pots are
equally used for storage of fruits such as orange
• Though small scale and short term in nature, they

are very effective if used under air tight conditions
• Items stored in these systems are locally preserved

with wood or bone ash or powdered pepper
Modern Storage Structures
Modern storage structures include:
• Improved crib
• Ware house
• Silo
• Controlled atmosphere storage system
• Refrigeration
• Cold storage
• Evaporative coolant system (ECS)
• Hermetic storage
• Nitrogen storage
Improved Crib:
• This structure is an improvement over the
traditional crib in terms of design, capacity,
construction material and performance. It has
upgraded the traditional crib to medium scale
storage. Each unit can accommodate 10-20 tons
Ware house
Ware house is used for medium but mostly large scale
storage for bagged or pilled/ bulk products such as
grains, flour, etc
Wooden pallets are used for staking. Material handling

and ventilation equipments are essential
Prevention of roof leakage and water infiltration through

the floor are most essential. Water proof materials are
used for flooring & proper drainage important
Silo
Silo is a cylindrically shaped structure used for
bulk storage of shelled grains in large scale and
for long term
Moisture migration and condensation are major

problems of silo. Hence, the need for accessories
such as material handling and drying equipments
Design, operation and maintenance of silo require

high level of skill & technicalities
Silo Classification
Silo can be classified on the basis of:
1. Aeration method/ system
2. Material of construction
3. Level of technology sophistication
4. Structural stability
1. Silo classification based on the aeration method
• Mechanical ventilated silo

• Controlled atmosphere silo
• Hermetic silo
• Gas (nitrogen, oxygen, etc) silo
2. Silo classification based on the material of construction
• Metal (aluminum, steel, etc) silo

• Concrete silo
• Wooden silo
• Mud silo
• composite silo
3. Silo classification based on the level of technology
i. Conventional silo
ii. Instrumentalized silo
iii. Computerized/ automated silo

4. Silo classification based on structural stability
a) Deep silo
b) Shallow silo
Controlled Atmosphere (CA) Storage System
Controlled atmosphere storage system is a general

classification that include all forms of storage
structures that have devices for controlling and
monitoring the environmental factors
(temperature, relative humidity and moisture)
Silo, ware house, refrigeration and cold storage

could incorporate controlled atmosphere systems
1. Modern Storage Structures - Refrigeration
Refrigeration is a typical CA system that can operate below

atmospheric temperature. The evaporator unit of a
refrigerator could depress temperature a little below zero
degrees through the aid of R12 gas
A refrigerator is made up of components such as

condenser, evaporator, compressor, throttle pipes, fan,
thermostat, etc
It is used for the storage of highly perishable crop and food

materials
2. Modern Storage Structures – Cold Storage
Cold storage is a CA system that can further

depress temperature below that of the
refrigerator with the aid of R22 gas and
maintain temperature below freezing point
for a long time
It has similar components like the refrigerator

but more bulky, expensive and could store
for relatively longer time
The unique advantages of cold storage include:
• Retardation of respiration and other metabolic
activities
• Controls ripening, retards aging, softening, texture
and color change. Preserves color & texture
• Retards moisture loss & wilting
• Retards microbial activities & spoilage
• Retards sprouting & undesirable growth, etc
The following information are essential in the
use of cold storage:
• Temperature fluctuations affect temperature
sensitive crops. Therefore, keep temperature and
storage condition steady and constant
• Pre cool fruits to remove field heat before
products are transferred into cold store
• Avoid storing incompatible products
• Ensure adequate ventilation within cold store
and use appropriate relative humidity
3. Modern Storage Structures - Evaporative
Coolant System (ECS)
Evaporative coolant system (ECS) is another CA

storage. It slightly depresses temperature below
and increases the relative humidity above
atmospheric conditions by natural means. It is
appropriate for the storage of fruits & vegetables
ECS utilizes the principle of evaporation occurring

at the surface of a wet material to produce cooling
inside. Wetted padded materials are normally
used as medium of evaporation
4. Modern Storage Structures -
Hermetic Storage Structure
Hermetic storage structure prevents air absorption

into the stored products in order to disallow
metabolic activities of any form by the product,
micro organism or insect
Consequently, hot spot, wet spot and moisture

build in storage systems are prevented
5. Modern Storage Structures –
Gas Storage Structure
Gas (nitrogen, oxygen, etc) storage structure
provides devices that allows essential gas such
as nitrogen or oxygen to be introduced and
preserved in the system in order to prevent
ripening or/ and metabolic activities.
Some silo and cold storage structures are

provided with such facilities
6. Modern Storage Structures - Design Principles
Essential design considerations and

parameters for modern storage structures
include:
• Location & orientation
• Systems capacity
• System efficiency
• Handling methods & equipments
• Structural stability & requirements
Reasons of Drying of Stored Product
• Metabolic activities of agricultural materials
• Variations in the ambient conditions
• Activities of micro organisms and insects
• Direct admission of water into storage systems
through leaking roof, wall or floor
• Moisture build in storage structures due to
condensation and wet spot, etc
Major components of dryer
A dryer is therefore required to supply heated air for
drying during storage. A dryer has the following
basic components:
• Heat source to supply heat
• Fan to move the heat
• Duct to channel the heated air
• Insulator to ensure minimal heat loss
• Control systems to regulate air parameters such as
temperature, relative humidity, flow rate, enthalpy,
entropy, etc
Classification of dryers
Classification of dryers is based on the following:
• Principle of operation (Natural, mechanical, solar)
• Mode of air & product movement (Co current,

counter current, cross flow)
• Level of technology (conventional, semi

automated, fully automated)
• Source of heat supply (Solar, electrical, fossil fuel,

bio-fuel, etc)
Heating and Cooling Processes
Heated air is used for drying while cool air is used
for refrigeration. During heating or cooling
either of the following processes could occur:
• Sensible heating or cooling
• Heating with humidifying
• Cooling with dehumidifying

Drying Rates
Two major types of drying rates associated with the
drying of agricultural materials include:
• Constant drying rate: Rate of moisture removal is

constant. This is mostly the case at the beginning
of drying for very wet products such as fruits and
vegetables
• Falling drying rate: Rate of moisture removal is

not constant but decreasing because all free
surface water and water of saturation are removed
Solar Dryers
Solar dryings are especially recommended for the
tropical regions because of the high intensity
and duration of solar radiation. Solar dryer
essentially consists of the following:
• Collector (flat plate or concentrator type)
• Air duct
• Solar storage (mostly optional), black stones are
used locally
• Drying chamber
Material Handling and Storage
Material handling equipment are essential
accessories for large scale storage structures
Material movement into and within storage
structures for large scale structures is effective
using material handling facilities such as:
• Folk lift
• Screw conveyor
• Belt conveyor
• Bucket elevator
• Pneumatic conveyor
Moisture Isotherm
This shows the relationship and interaction between
physical parameters (namely temperature, relative
humidity and equilibrium moisture content) that
affect the storage of agricultural/ bio-materials
Essential aspects of moisture isotherm of importance
include:
1. Isotherm Equation (Henderson Eqn)
2. Isotherm Curve: Sorption, Desorption & Hysterisis
3. Local Isotherms and Storage Stability
Storage of Highly Perishables
• Dairy products, meat and fish are highly
perishable materials because of their very high
level of moisture and high micro organism
activities associated with them
• Refrigeration and cold storage are mostly

recommended for the storage of this category
of material
Storage of Fruits and Vegetables
• Fruits and vegetables are in the category of perishable
agricultural materials
• They are also very rich in moisture content and can

easily be bruised and wilt quickly
• They are the riches natural source of minerals vitamins,

and anti oxidants
• They cannot tolerate heat and high temperatures. ECS

& refrigeration are recommended for their storage
Storage of Roots and Tubers
• Root and tuber are tropical crops. They are very
rich source of carbohydrate
• Care must be taken during harvest to avoid

bruise in order to ensure effective storage
• Pit storage is recommended for cassava which

must be harvested with its stem
• Shelf, barn and pit storage are recommended for

yam and cocoyam
Relevant Literatures
1. Adewumi, B.A and A.F Akerele. 2003. Evaluation of the storage
qualities of onions in domestic environment. Proceeding of the
Nigeria Society of Bio Technology, 25:103-106.
2. Adewumi, B. A., J.C Igbeka and A.A Satimehin. 1990. Evaluation
of crib storage structures in South Western Nigeria. Paper
presentation at the Annual Conference of the Nigerian Society of
Agricultural Engineers, Makurdi,.
3. Adewumi, B.A and O.S.V Oduwole. 1995. Problems affecting the
utilization of silo storage in Nigeria” NSE Technical Transactions
3 (2): 27-32.
4. Adesida, M.A. 1889. Economics of grain storage in the
warehouses in Nigeria. Post Harvest News, 3:2-5, 2001.
5. Agboola, S.D. 1983. Information Booklet. Publication of the
Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute (NSPRI), Lagos
Nigeria.
6. Ajibola, O.O. 1994. Desorption isotherms for plantain at several
temperatures. Journal of Food Science 51:69-71.
7. Ajisegiri, A.S. 1989. Sorption phenomena and storage stability.
Ph.D Thesis (unpublished), University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
8. Ajisegiri, A.S. 1990. Improving local rhombus for grain storage.
Paper presentation at the Conference of the Nigeria society of
Agricultural Engineers, Makurdi.
9. Babarinsa, F.A. 2001. Grain storage in silos without insecticides.
Post Harvest News 3:1-5.
10. Brummer , H. 1989. Grain cooling in steel silo. World Farming
8:30-35, 1983
11. Cruz, J.P. and A. Diop. Agricultural Engineering in
development: Warehouse technique.
12. Faseyi, O.W. 2001. Report on the training organized by the
Chinese Government on grain storage management and
technology. Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Nigeria. 20pp.
13. Henderson, S. M. and Perry, R. C. 1976. Agricultural Process
Engineering. 3rd Edition. Avi Textbook Series.
14. Igbeka, J.C. 1991. Indigenous and modern methods of grain
preservation and storage. An invited paper presented at the NSE
course on design, construction and maintenance of food storage
system.
15. Labuza, T.P. 1968. Sorption phenomena in food. Food
Technology 22 (3): 15 – 24.
16. Mohsenin, N. 1970. Physical Properties of Plant and Animal
Materials. Vol.1. 1st Ed. Gordon and Breach Science Publisher.
17. NAS. 1998. Post harvest losses in the developing countries
Publication of the National Academy of Science, Washington,
D.C, U.S.
18. Okunola, A.A 1995. Equilibrium moisture content and relative
humidity of source tropical root crops. Proceeding of the
Agricultural Society of Nigeria Okunola, A.A. and J.C Igbeka.
2000. Water absorption characteristics of plantain and sweet
potato. Proceeding of the Nigeria Institution of Agricultural
Engineers, 22:20-25.
19. Rudenko. Material Handling Equipment. Peace Publisher,
Moscow.
20. Sinha, R.N &Muir. Grain Storage: Part of a System. Avi
Publisher.
21. Sinha, R.N 1971. Interrelations of physical ,chemical and
biological variables in deterioration of stored grains. In: Grain
storage Part of the system.
Chapter-15
Managing Grain in Storage

Introduction
• Most grain spoilage can be avoided with
proper aeration.
• Aeration is the movement of small amounts of
air through grain--it is not the same as drying.
• Aeration primarily controls temperature.
depending on the air flow rate, minimal drying
does occur.
• Drying removes moisture
Conditions that Lead to Storage Problems
• Grain that is too wet

• Grain that is too warm
• Trying to hold grain too wet, too warm, too
long
• Fines accumulations
• Uneven grain temperatures in storage
• Grain not checked often enough
Causes of Storage Losses
• The major cause of spoilage in dry grain is mold.
• Insects also contribute to storage loss.
• Both, mold and insect, are living organisms with
specific requirements for growth: food, water,
and comfortable temperature.
• Grain provides ample nutrients to mold and
insect, but by control1ing moisture content (and
therefore air relative humidity) and temperature
within a bin, the losses resulting from mold
growth and insect activity can be minimized.
Main storage conditions leading to
spoilage of dry grain
1. Incomplete drying resulting in wet pockets.
2. Temperature variation within a bin, and
between bin and outside air, which results in
moisture migration.
3. Inadequate observation and management.
4. Improper storage bin preparation.
5. Insufficient cooling of grain after drying.
Wet pockets and temperature variation, can be
controlled with aeration.
Table-1 Equilibrium MC of Soybeans (% wb)
Temperature Relative Humidity (%)

(F) 60 70 80 90
32 11.8 13.7 16.2 19.8
40 11.5 13.5 16.0 19.6
50 11.2 13.2 15.7 19.4
Table-2 Equilibrium MC of Corn (%wb)
Temperature Relative Humidity (%)

(F) 60 70 80 90
32 15.1 16.6 18.4 21.3
40 14.5 16.0 17.9 20.8
50 13.8 15.4 17.3 20.2
Table-3 Allowable Storage Time for Shelled
Corn (days)
Temperature Corn Moisture (% wb)
(F) 16 18 20 22 24
40 763 291 144 85 57
50 339 130 64 38 26
60 151 58 29 17 11
70 85 32 16 10 7
80 47 18 9 6 4
Table-4 Recommended Grain Storage
Moisture
Storage Period (up-to)
Crop 6-months 6 -12 months > 12 months
Moisture content (%wb)
Cereal Grains 14 13 13
Canola 10 8 8
Corn 15 14 13
Soybeans 13 12 11
Sunflowers (oil type) 10 8 8
Edible Beans 16 14 13
Buckwheat 16 13 13
Figure-1 Movement of Cooling
Zones During Aeration
Warm
Cool
Measure exhaust
temperature Cooling zone
Cooling zone
Cool Warm
Fan Fan
Positive pressure Negative pressure

Figure-2 Permanently Installed
Grain Temperature Cables
Cable
Temperature sensor
Temperature indicator
Fan
Figure-3 Measuring Grain Temperature
Fines Management
• Fines are pieces of broken grain, weed seeds,
soil, and chaff that are smaller than whole
kernels.
• Fines are undesirable in stored grain because
they:
– Are easier for molds and insects to feed on.
– Often have a higher moisture content than the
whole grain.
– Tend to accumulate in pockets.
(more)
Fines Management (cont.)
– Have a higher airflow resistance than whole grain.
– If present in large enough quantities, they can
lead to price discounts.
• Clean grain before drying and storage.
• Or use a grain spreader to distribute fines
throughout the grain mass. Or don’t distribute
fines and core bins to remove fines.
Table -5. Safe grain storage moistures
recommended for aerated good quality grain.*
Grain Maximum safe moisture
content
Shelled corn and sorghum
To be sold as #2 grain or equivalent 15%
To be stored up to 1 year 14%
To be stored more than 1 year 13%
Soybeans
To be sold by mid-June 14%
To be stored up to 1 year 13%
Wheat 13%
Small grain (oats, barley, etc.) 13%
Sunflowers 9%
* Safe storable moistures should be reduced 1 percentage point for poor quality grain due to
drouth, frost, blight, harvest damage or other quality degrading factors.
Incomplete Drying
• Average moisture content does not guarantee the storability of
grain. Even if you dry to recommended safe moisture contents
(Table-1), spoilage can occur in isolated areas, wet pockets, where
moisture content is higher than the average indicates.
• Wet pockets often result from incomplete or non-uniform drying.
Some dryers do not dry uniformly because of their design.
• Wet pockets also result from plant parts, insect parts, foreign
material, and broken grain that are not removed in cleaning.
• A common spoilage pattern--column spoilage--results from wet
pockets in a bin. Mold attacks areas with higher moisture contents.
The warm air generated by mold growth rises, carrying moisture
with it, and makes a layer of grain directly above the initial wet
pocket suitable for mold growth.
Moisture Migration
• Moisture migration is the reason why many grain men say the top center of
a bin is the most likely place for spoilage.
• Moisture migration occurs when outside temperature differs significantly
from the temperature of the grain. As the average outside temperature
drops in the fall, grain at the bin wall cools. The grain in the center,
however, is insulated and the temperature in the middle of the bin changes
very little without forced aeration.
• Because warm air rises to the ceiling and cold air settles to the floor, the air
in the center of the bin rises out of the grain. At the same time, the air in
the grain near the outside wall cools and moves toward the floor. The
result is a continuous, but very slow, air circulation within the grain. See
Figure-1.
• Moisture movement accompanies air movement within the bin because the
moisture holding capacity of air increases as it warms. Cool air near the bin
wall warms as it nears the center of the bin. It also picks up some moisture
from the grain as it rises through the center. The air cools as it nears the top
of the bin, again reducing its moisture holding capacity, and the water
condenses in the upper grain surface. As this moisture accumulates, it
promotes mold growth, insect activity and eventually spoilage in the spring.
Figure-4 Moisture Migration
Crusted grain
Moisture accumulation
Cold grain
Convection air currents

Warm
Grain
Figure-5. Air circulation pattern which will produce
moisture migration. (MWPS, 1980)
Cooling of Grain from the Dryer
• It is absolutely necessary that grain heated in a hot air
dryer be cooled immediately after drying. This can be
done in the dryer itself, or in a storage bin. Any heated air
dryer can utilize a bin cooling system; the key point is
that the grain be cooled immediately. It should not be
allowed to sit for long periods of time (over one day) at
temperatures over outside air temperatures.
• Cooling must be uniform. Therefore grain should be
distributed in bins used for bin cooling. Grain allowed to
fall straight down will form a spout line of fines in the
center. This spoutline will resist airflow and may not be
cooled adequately as discussed before. Estimate that
one to two percentage points of moisture will be
removed in the cooling. Adjust your dryer accordingly
Operating an Aeration System
• The object of the aeration is to lower the grain temperature as the
outside air temperature falls.
• Moisture migration will occur regardless of the drying method.
• A regular aeration schedule of at least two cooling cycles will
usually prevent moisture migration and cool grain for
overwintering.
• Begin the first cooling cycle when average outside temperature is
10°F to 20°F less than grain temperature. (A cycle is the length of
time required to cool the entire bin.) The goal is to get average
grain temperature to 50°F to 60°F. Mold and insect activity are
also greatly reduced at this temperature.
• Once the grain is completely and uniformly cooled then wait until
outside temperature is again 10°F to 20°F less than the grain
temperature.
• Begin the second cooling cycle, aiming for a final grain storage
temperature of 35°F to 40°F, a safe range for overwintering. If
grain temperature is not 35°F to 40°F after the second cycle, run
another cooling cycle.
Length of a cooling cycle
• The time it takes to change the temperature of the entire
grain mass is called a cooling cycle.
• Its length is determined by airflow rate and does not depend
on the amount of temperature change. Cooling (or warming
in the spring), moves through a positive pressure system,
layer by layer, from bottom to top. In a negative pressure, or
suction, system, cooling is from top to bottom.
• The length of a cooling cycle depends on airflow rate. At 0.1
cfm/bu, it takes about 150 hours (Table 11-2). Doubling the
airflow rate cuts the length of the cycle in half: 0.2 cfm/bu
would take 75 hrs.
• Run the fan continuously until a cycle is over. Do not stop it
even during rainy or foggy days. Grain cools (or warms) 50
times faster than it re-wets.
Table-6. Length of a cooling cycle, in hours, as affected
by airflow rate and season.* (Van Fossen, 1979)
Length of a cooling cycle, hours

Season
Airflow Rate, cfm/bu
0.05 0.10 0.25 0.50 1.0

cfm/bu cfm/bu cfm/bu cfm/bu cfm/bu
Fall 300 150 60 30 15
Winter 400 200 80 40 20
Spring 240 120 48 24 12

* Based on a 10F to 15F grain temperature change.
Table -7.Stored grain problems and solutions
Observation Probable Cause Solution or Recommended Action
No air flow Moldy, caked grain mass Try to determine location and scope of spoilage. Unload
through grain blocking flow; possible moldy storage and market or re-bin good grain.
with aeration fan grain layer immediately above
running. perforated aeration duct or
floor on pressure system.
White dust visible Mold on grain but not sufficient Evaluate grain condition throughout bin where possible.
whenever the spoilage to seal top surface. Observe caution in continued storage because grain
grain is stirred. condition has deteriorated to some degree.
Cooling time Increased fines in grain Run the fan longer time; operate fan until grain and exhaust
required is much resisting and reducing airflow, air temperatures readings indicate grain is at desired
longer than usual. increased fines can cause temperature, irrespective of the fan time required.
airflow resistance to increase as
much as 2-4 times over that of
clean grain.
Exhaust air Fine material accumulation in Run the fan sufficient time to cool the center, irrespective of
temperatures in storage center resisting airflow; the outside grain temperatures. Draw down the bin center
the center of the airflow through center mass to remove fines and decrease the grain depth for easier air
bin surface is grossly reduced compared to passage in the center core.
warmer than relatively clean grain around
those away from outside of storage
the center.
Unknown grain Too deep to probe; bin too full Withdraw some grain from all bins and feed or market.
conditions in the to access; no temperature Observe (look, feel, smell) first grain to flow in each
bin center. sensing cables installed. withdrawal, since it was resting in the center core.
Withdraw any storage fill above level full, as soon as
possible following harvest, to reduce moisture migration
tendencies and permit access for observation and sampling.
Work Safely Around Stored Grain!
• Use proper respiratory protection around
dusty and/or moldy grain.
• Stay out of flowing grain.
• Watch out for bridged grain.
• Use fall protection when climbing bins or rail
cars.
• Fumigants are potentially dangerous
chemicals.
Chapter-16
Mechanical Grain Conveying

Machinery & Power, University of 1
INTRODUCTION
• Material handling is a unit operation which
changes the spacial location of material without
changing its form except incidentally (Pinches,
1958).
• Material handling operations with grain involve
many types of grain conveying devices:
1. Belt conveyors
2. Flight conveyors
3. Bucket conveyors
4. Screw conveyors

Important design factors of material
handling equipment
1. Capacity
2. Safety
3. Reliability
4. Original cost
5. Operating cost
6. Maintenance
7. Simplicity of design and fabrication
8. Product damage
9. Cleanability
10. Pollution (usually noise and dust)
11. Power requirements
Energy considerations
• Power requirement (energy) is an important consideration
in the design of a conveyor.
• The energy input to a conveyor is used for two things:
– To operate the conveyor
– To lift material
• The quantity of energy expended operating a conveyor is
dependent on the conveyor design.
• The energy expended in lifting material represents an
increase in potential energy of the material mass and is not
dependent on conveyor design.
– If the conveying path is horizontal, this component is zero.
– If the conveying path slopes down, this energy input is
negative, meaning there can be an output of energy from
the conveyor

The "perfect" conveyor
• The hypothetical perfect conveyor is one
which moves material without friction losses.
• In the perfect conveyor, the energy to operate
the conveyor is zero.
• No actual conveyor can operate without
friction.
• However, it is useful to compare actual
conveyors with a perfect conveyor doing the
same job.
Figure-1 Power for a perfect conveyor
Fcos ϴ
dy/ds=Sin φ
dx/ds=Cos φ
ds
φ dy
W=m.g φ Figure-1 shows forces
dx
mg.sin Φ moving a particle during
conveying from point 1 to
point 2 along a frictionless
surface.
Summing forces tangentially, we obtain:
F cos ϴ = mg sin Φ (1)
where F = conveying force on particle
m = particle mass
g = acceleration of gravity
ϴ=tangential angle of ‘F’ on curvilinear path
Φ=phi-angle of particle weight (W=m.g) with normal to path
In order to move the particle from point 1 to
point 2, the work required is W=Force x distance:
• 2
(2)
W   Fcosds
1
Because, ‘Fcosϴ = mg.sinΦ’ and ‘dy/ds=Sin φ’

• W= (mg.SinΦ).ds= mg. (dy/ds)ds = mg.dy
• where : ds is an infinitesimal distance along
the frictionless surface.
y
W   mgdy  mg(y 2  y1 ) (3)
2
y 1

• Note that Equation-3 represents the work
necessary to convey the particle in the absence of
friction. It is thus the energy required by a
"perfect" conveyor. Note also that the work
required is independent of the route taken
between point 1 and point 2.
• For a continuous flow of material, power required
by the perfect conveyor is: P=W/t
mg(y2  y1 ) (4)
P
t
• where:
• P = conveyor power
• mg/t = mass flow rate

Example-1
• Corn (45 lb/ft3) is to be moved 1 ft
at a rate of 140 000 lb/h from

the bottom of a 4-ft-deep pit
to discharge 1 ft above a 20-ft-
diameter bin having a loading
hole 27 ft above ground level. 27 ft
Compute power (hp) and
energy per unit grain mass (hp Corn
h/ton) required assuming a
"perfect" conveyor.
• The total lifting height is:
4 + 27 + 1 = 32 ft. 4 ft

(32 ft)(140000lb) (h) (min hp)
Power, P = h.mg/t=  2.26hp
(h) (60min) (33000 ft lb)
Energy, E =hp.h/ton= (2.26hp)(h) (2000lb)  .0323 hp h

(140,000lb) ton ton
• Power and energy necessary for the "perfect"

conveyor, which requires only power necessary to
lift the material, is 2.26 hp h/ton.
• Energy efficiency of the conveyor can be defined

as a ratio of the increase in potential energy of
the material to energy input.

In conventional units, the equation is:
(5)
where
– Ec = energy efficiency,
– hp = power from conveyor motor, hp
– Lh = lift height, ft
– Q = mass flow rate, lb/h
The factor 33 000 converts hp to ft lb/min; the factor 60 converts hours to
minutes. For the example,
(32)(140000)(100)
Ec   100%
(2.26)(33000)(60)
Conveyor types fall into a high energy requirement group and a low
energy requirement group. Those types which slide grain on a surface
as it is conveyed will be in the high group because of friction losses.
Conveyors which carry material on anti-friction bearings will be in the
low group.
Gravity
• Flow of grain by gravity can be utilized where
slopes are adequate for reliable flow of
material. Table 12-1 lists spout or flow slopes
for material flow.
(Material) Spout angle or floor slopes, degrees
Table 12-1.
Minimum angles grain, dry 37
for material flow
grain, wet 45 (minimum)
(MWPS 1983).
pellets 45
meal 60
Tube Flow rate, bu/h
diameter,
inches Corn Soybeans Wheat
Table-2 Grain flow rates
6 1,686 2,023 2,580
through tubes
(Ditzenberger, 1980.) 8 3,000 3,600 4,590
These are the grain 10 4,679 5,615 7,159
flow rates for clean, dry 12 6,741 8,089 10,313
grain flowing through a
round tube from a 14 9,178 11,014 14,042
dead stop. This would 16 11,907 14,396 18,355
be the condition 18 15,168 18,202 23,207
existing when the tube
discharges through a 20 18,632 22,356 28,507
gate from a bin 22 22,654 27,185 34,660
opening.
24 26,963 32,356 41,534
26 31,641 37,969 48,411

BELT CONVEYORS
• A belt conveyor consists of an endless moving belt
which supports and moves material.
• A belt is usually fabric-reinforced rubber.
• A belt is carried on idlers fitted with anti-friction
bearings.
• On the top (load) side of grain conveyors, these
idlers are usually arranged to trough the belts and
thus increase the allowable load cross-section.
• Return idlers under the belt carry the belt flat and
can be installed at longer spacing than the load-
carrying idlers.
• Most belt designs drive (apply power to the belt)
at the head pulley since this prevents the return
side of the belt from being tensioned due to load.
Figure-2. Nomenclature of components of a typical belt conveyor
(CEMA, 1979).
Belt conveyor loading is normally done through a
feed chute located just ahead of the tail pulley.
Tail pulley
Figure-3. Belt conveyor idlers (CEMA, 1979)

Unloading belt conveyor
The simplest discharge arrangement consists of
discharge over the head pulley (Figure 4a). A
discharge chute may be necessary to direct flow
after it leaves the end of the belt (Figure 2).
Discharge along the run of a belt conveyor is difficult.
A plow is one way to discharge over the side of
the belt (Figure-4b). The plow, held solid above
the belt, pushes grain off the side of the belt. The
plow is attached to the conveyor frame and can
be designed to be movable along the belt.
A tripper (Figure-4c) is a device which lifts the belt
and its contents high enough so that material can
be discharged over a belt pulley and then allowed
to flow down a gravity chute to a pile beneath
either side of the belt. Various tripper designs
allow flow on the belt past the tripper and even
movement of the tripper by belt power
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt.Figure

Farm -4. Belt discharge methods
Agriculture, Faisalabad (CEMA, 1979)
General characteristics of belt conveyors
1. Belt width - Belt widths range from 18” to 96”.
The most economical design is usually one which
uses the narrowest possible belt running up to its
highest allowable speed.
2. Belt speed - Maximum belt speeds range from 50
to 1000 ft/min. Speed is limited by the tendency
of material to blow off the belt, by belt slippage
on the drive pulley as centrifugal force acts on
the belt, and by the dangers of belt damage as
large sharp lumps are loaded.
CEMA, 1979 recommends maximum belt speeds
listed in Table -3 for belts carrying grain or other
free flowing, nonabrasive material.
Belt width, Max. belt Approx. belt weight
in. speed, lb/ft #
ft/min.
Table-3.
Recommended 18 500 3.5
maximum belt 24 700 4.5
speeds and belt 30 700 6

36 800 9
weight for grain and
42 800 11
other free-flowing,
48 1000 14
nonabrasive 54 1000 16
material (CEMA, 60 1000 18
1979) 72 1000 21
84 1000 25
#Non-steel cable belts for material in
30 to 74 lb/ft3 range 96 1000 30
3. Power requirement: Power requirement is
comparatively low since the load is carried on
anti-friction bearings. Since there is no sliding of
material during movement, power is independent
of product moisture content.
4. Incline: Incline is limited by the repose angle of
the material being moved. Since the belt is
smooth, material will tend to roll down if the
incline is too great. The limit for a smooth, slick
material such as hulled or polished rice is 8O. A
fibrous, interlocking material like wood chips can
be conveyed at a 27O incline. Recommended
maximums for grain are in the range from 8O-18O.
5. Capacity: A very wide range of capacities is possible with belt
conveyors. A capacity of over 300 000 bu of corn per hour is
theoretically possible. No other material handling method can
approach such a capacity. As a result, belt conveyors find wide
use in applications such as grain elevators where high
capacities are required
6. Product damage: No damage to material while being conveyed
on a belt conveyor since there is little relative motion between
the material and the belt. There may be product damage
occurring during loading and unloading.
7. Noise: Noise level comparatively is low since a belt conveyor
has none of the usual sources of high conveyor noise (scraping
of surfaces, high-speed fans, impact of particles etc.).

8. Distance: Conveying distance is unlimited. Belt
conveyor systems can be designed like pipelines for dry
material. A belt conveyor system has been proposed to
carry corn 250 miles east from Storm Lake, IA to a
Mississippi river barge terminal. Although technically
feasible, the conveying costs were projected to be
higher than rail car rates and so the system was not
built (Des Moines Tribune, 1972).
9. Investment cost: Belt conveyors are comparatively high
in cost and designed for long life and heavy service.
10. Enclosure: Belt conveyors are not inherently enclosed
and unless there is a reason to add the expense of
enclosure (dust containment, weather protection) they
are usually left open.
Belt conveyor design
Load cross section:
• The volume capacity of a belt conveyor is the
product of belt speed and load cross section.
• Figure-5 shows dimensions used to compute
load cross section for a troughed belt. When
material is loaded on the belt it falls to its
filling angle of repose with the horizontal, but
then slumps to a circular profile ABC which
has a center at D.

Figure-5. Area of belt conveyor load cross section
(CEMA 1979).

• The surcharge angle is a property of the material being
conveyed and is 5 to 20 degrees less than the filling angle of
repose (Table-4).
• Flowability is the fourth characteristic of the material, for
example, wheat has material code 47LC25N . The 2 indicates
a free-flowing material (Table-4).
• The load cross section as defined here exists in a vertical
plane. The effective load cross section of inclined belts
decreases as the cosine of the angle of conveyor slope since
this cross section is measured in a plane normal to the belt.
The actual loss of capacity is usually very small.
• For grain, a 20-degree troughed belt with three equal-length
rolls is common. Load cross sections along with volume
capacities for this type of belt are listed in Table-5.

Table-4. Flowability - Angle of surcharge - Angle
of Repose (CEMA) 1979.

Belt capacity: Belt capacity is the product of belt speed and load cross
section. An example problem will illustrate the computation
procedure:
Example-2
Compute the capacity (bu/h) of a 36-in. belt conveyor running at
285 ft/min and carrying wheat (1 bu = 1.245 ft3).
Solution:
Wheat has a code of 47C25N. The fourth character (2) indicates a
10 degree surcharge angle (Table A-1, Table 1204).
From Table-5, and capacity at 100 ft/min is 3579 ft3/h. load cross
section is 0.596 ft2

Table-5. Load cross section and capacity for 20-degree
troughed belt, three equal rolls (CEMA, 1979).
Belt At- Cross Section of Load, (ft2) Capacity at 100 ft/min, (ft3/h)
Width
(Inches) Surcharge Angle Surcharge Angle
0° 5° 10° 15° 20° 25° 30° 0° 5° 10° 15° 20° 25° 30°
18 .089 .108 .128 .147 .167 .188 .209 537 653 769 886 1005 1128 1254
24 .173 .209 .246 .283 .320 .359 .399 1041 1258 1477 1698 1924 2155 2394
30 .284 .343 .402 .462 .522 .585 .649 1708 2060 2414 2772 3137 3511 3897
36 .423 .509 .596 .684 .774 .866 .960 2538 3057 3579 4107 4645 5196 5765
42 .588 .708 .828 .950 1.074 1.201 1.332 3533 4250 4972 5703 6447 7210 7997
48 .781 .940 1.099 1.260 1.424 1.592 1.765 4691 5640 6594 7560 8544 9552 10592
54 1.002 1.204 1.407 1.613 1.822 2.037 2.258 6013 7225 8444 9678 10935 12223 13552
60 1.249 1.501 1.753 2.009 2.270 2.537 2.812 7498 9006 10552 12057 13621 15223 16876
72 1.826 2.192 2.560 2.933 3.312 3.701 4.102 10961 13155 15364 17599 19876 22210 24617
84 2.513 3.014 3.519 4.030 4.551 5.085 5.635 15079 18089 21119 24186 27309 30511 33813
96 3.308 3.967 4.631 5.302 5.986Dr. Muhammad

Prof. 6.687 7.411 Iqbal, 19850 23806
Deptt. Farm 27787 31816 35921 40128 44466
Power requirement of a belt
The power requirement of a belt is estimated by use of this
equation:
(T e)(V)
hp  (8)
(33000)
where
hp = power to drive pulley, hp
Te = effective tension, lb
V = belt speed, ft/min
Te is effective tension at the drive pulley which must be supplied
by the drive. The torque supplied to the drive pulley shaft is
the product of Te and the drive pulley radius (Te x R).

Ordinarily, to compute hp, V is known and Te is estimated by
summing tensions necessary to run the conveyor and lift the
material. For a basic straight-line belt conveyor of the type
commonly used for grain movement, Te can be estimated by use of
this emperical (adaped from CEMA, 1979):
Te = L (0.00068Wm + 0.05 Wb + .58) + Wm (0.035L + H) + 225 (9)
where
L = conveyor length, ft (use pulley-to-pulley centerline dist.)
Wm= weight of material, lb per ft of belt length
Wb = weight of belt, lb per ft of belt length
H = vertical distance material is raised (+) or lowered (-)
The equation can estimate effective tension for a straight-line belt
conveyor with no accessories (plows, trippers erc.) operating at
32 F or above.
Example-3 Table-3.
Belt Max. Approx. belt
width, belt weight
A 36-in belt conveyor runs at 285 ft/min in. speed, lb/ft #
and carries wheat at a rate of 245 ft/min.
ton/h. The conveyor is 200 ft long and 18 500 3.5
lifts the wheat 40 ft. Compute 24 700 4.5

necessary motor power output. 30 700 6
36 800 9
42 800 11
Wb = 9 lb/ft (Table 12-3)
48 1000 14
Substituting into Equation-9: 54 1000 16
Te = 200 (0.00068 (28.66) + 0.05 (9) + 60 1000 18
0.58) + 28.66 (0.035 (200) + 40) + 225 = 72 1000 21
1781.9 lb 84 1000 25
Substituting into Equation-8: 96 1000 30
(1781.9)(285)
hp   15.38hp
33 000 Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm
Assuming each of two speed reductions is 93%
efficient, the motor must deliver:
(15.38)
 17.78hp
(0.93)(0.93)
Belt conveyor application

Belt conveyors are best suited for low slope,
heavily used, high capacity, stationary
applications demanding high reliability. At the
high end of their capacity range there may be
no alternative conveying method available.

FLIGHT CONVEYORS
• Flight conveyors consist of one or two endless
flexible drive lines (chains, belts, cables) to
which flights are attached.
• Flights drag along material as the drive line is
pulled in a circuit.
• As is the case with belt conveyors, half of the
drive line is inactive and is continually pulled
back to the loading point empty.

General characteristics of flight conveyors
1. Speed - Flight conveyors travel at drive line speeds from 25 to 300 ft/min.
Speeds in the range from 100 to 200 ft/min are most common. Higher
speeds accelerate wear and may increase product damage.
2. Power - Power requirement is high (higher than belt conveyor, other things
being equal) because the drive line, flights and material are all dragged
along a surface. This dragging also makes noise. Some designs use plastic
liners on flights or on interior conveyor surfaces to reduce friction and
noise.
3. Incline - Allowable incline depends on the flight conveyor type. Some are
designed for horizontal use only. Others may operate at extreme slopes or
even vertically.
4. Product damage - Some grain damage occurs in flight conveyors because
of rubbing action and possible pinch points between conveyor
components. However, damage is usually less than with screw or
pneumatic systems.

Design parameters for conventional flight conveyors
• Figure - 6 is a double chain, portable flight conveyor also
known as a farm elevator.
• Load is carried on top in the open, with the drive line return
below.
• Flights are rectangular.
• This type of flight conveyor is very versatile and, with little or
no modification, can be used for grain, feed, ear corn, forage,
and even bundles of shingles.
• This type of conveyor is inexpensive, often noisy, and will have
a long life of intermittent use since it is needed only a few
hours per year. Although driving from the bottom sprocket is
not desirable (more chain and bearing stress), it is often done
because of the difficulty of transferring power to the discharge
end of this type of conveyor
Figure-6. Double chain, portable
flight conveyor (farm elevator).

Typical design parameters of flight conveyor
This type of conveyor is operated with chain speeds between 25 and 300
ft/min. Flight spacing ,S=w, flight width
Flight height = 0.4 w, 40% flight width
The theoretical volume capacity “C” is given by Equation-10.
C = (V) (h) (w) (10)
where C = theoretical volume capacity, ft3/min; V = drive line speed, ft/min
h = flight height, ft ; w = conveyor width (flight length), ft
Equation-10 neglects the volume of the flight and chain and assumes slug flow
of grain. To consider flight volume, multiply Equation-10 by (s-t)/s, where
“t” is flight thickness and “S” is the flight spacing.
At 100% of theoretical volume capacity, the conveyor is full to the flight depth.
The conveyor will operate at various fractions of theoretical volume
capacity depending on conveyor slope and the repose characteristics of the
material conveyed. Henderson and Perry, (l976) list the percentages
shown in Table-6. A conveyor with an enclosed conveying chamber will
have less effect of slope on its
Prof. Dr. capacity.
Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm
Table 12-6. Flight conveyor approximate volume
capacity (Henderson and Perry, 1976).
Incline, degrees Approx. % of theoretical capacity
0 115
20 77
30 55
40 33

Power requirement of flight conveyor
Power requirement of a flight conveyor can be estimated by Equation -8. Te is now
defined as:
Te = 1.1 (force to slide drive line + force to lift drive line up
+ force to slide material + force to lift material up
+ force to slide drive line - force to lift drive line going down) (11)
The drive line consists of the chain and flights. The description assumes the conveyor
slopes up toward the discharge end. In this case, gravity force on the return side of the
drive line subtracts from the turning effort.
The added 10% is to account for friction in sprocket bearings.
In terms of conveyor parameters, the equation is:
Te = (1.1)L(Wc(Fc cosϴ + sinϴ) + Wm(Fm cosϴ + sinϴ) + Wc(Fc cosϴ - sinϴ) + h2(0.044))
(Equation-12)
where Te = turning effort, lb; L= conveyor length, ft
Wc = weight of chain and flights, lb/ft
h = average depth of material in conveyor, in.
Fc = kinetic friction coefficient of chain and flights on conveyor floor
Q = conveyor slope, degrees; Wm= weight of material on conveyor, lb/ft
Fm = kinetic friction coefficient of material on conveyor floor (Table A-3)
The term 0.044 h2 is an empirical factor to account for grain friction
on conveyor walls (Rexnord, 1980). It may be negligible for open,
top-load conveyors.
The equation can be simplified to:
Te = (1.1)L(2Wc Fc cos Q + Wm (Fm cos Q + sin Q) + h2(0.044)) (13)

Wc = 0.0024 x (total weight of material on conveyor, lb), lb/ft (14)
This equation, adapted from Rexnord, 1980, assumes Wc to be a
function of both conveyor length and weight of material per unit
length of conveyor.
Fm varies from one grain to another and usually increases with
moisture content. Power requirement of a flight conveyor is,
thus, influenced by grain moisture. An example will illustrate use
of the equations.

Example-4
Estimate the capacity (tons/h) and motor power
requirement for this flight conveyor carrying dry corn:
Flights are 12 in. long. Spacing equals length and height
is 40% of length. The drive line weight is 3 lb/ft. All
conveyor parts are steel.
(From Table A---: Bulk density = 45 lb/ft3 ), wc=3Ib/ft, Fc=0.57,
Fm=0.27)

23.1 40
tan   0.58  = 30 L=  46.19 ft
40 cos 30
Effective volume capacity is calculated using Equation-10
and a value [C = (V) (h) (w)] from Table-6 (55% at 30o)
(125ft )(0.4ft )(1 ft ) 27.5ft3
Volume capacity, Cv = 0.55(C)= (0.55) =
min min
(27.5ft3 ) (45lb) (ton)(60 min) tons

Weight capacity, Cw = 3
 37.13
min ft 2000lb h h
And Wc = 0.0024 x (total weight of material on conveyor, lb), lb/ft
Avg material depth,

Substituting into Equation 12-13:
Friction coefficients are obtained from Table A-3
in the Appendix.
Te = (1.1) (46.18) (2(3) 0.57 cos 30 + (9.9) 0.27
cos 30 + sin 30) + 2.64 (0.044)) = 299.4 lb
(299.4)(125)
hp   1.13hp
(33000)
Assume the drive reduces speed in two steps,
each with an efficiency of 0.93.
1.13
motorpower required   1.31hp
(0.93)(0.93)
Application of conventional flight conveyors
Conventional flight conveyors are inexpensive
simple machines. They are best suited to:
1. Intermittent use
2. Low volume applications where power
requirement is not an important factor

BUCKET CONVEYORS
1. Bucket conveyors are vertical belt conveyors
with buckets bolted on to carry the load.
2. They offer for vertical conveying many of the
desirable features of belt conveyors. (The
drive line can be chain, but belts are used in
most grain conveyors.)
3. Figure 12-10 is a side view of a bucket
conveyor type commonly used for grain. The
figure shows a dual-leg conveyor.

Figure 12-10. Bucket conveyor
(Bloome et al. 1978).
The figure shows a dual-leg

conveyor. This means the up and
the down sides are in separate
enclosures (legs). A single-leg
type has the entire belt in one
enclosure. The entire bucket
conveyor is sometimes called a
leg. A motor drives the head
pulley.

Types of bucket conveyors
The three common belt conveyor types vary in the way material is discharged.
Figure-11 illustrates these types.
1. The centrifugal discharge type is discharged by centrifugal action as loaded
buckets pass over the head pulley. The head section must be specially
designed for proper discharge. Most grain conveyors are centrifugal
discharge.
2. Positive discharge conveyors employ an idler below the head pulley. As
the drive line (which may be chain in this case) runs around the idler, each
bucket is inverted over a discharge spout, causing positive discharge. This
type conveyor runs at lower speeds and is used for light, fluffy, or fragile
materials or those tending to stick in buckets.
3. Continuous conveyors have buckets placed as close as possible
(continuously) on the belt. During discharge, material flows over the
preceding bucket whose front and projecting ends form a chute to direct
material into the discharge spout. This conveyor type is used for heavy
abrasive and lumpy materials like cement, crushed stone, and clinker.

Figure 12-11. Bucket conveyor types
(Thomas Conveyor Co., 1980)

General features of bucket conveyor
Bucket conveyors have low power requirements since load is carried in buckets
supported by antifriction bearings.
Power and capacity are not affected by grain moisture content.
Their noise level is relatively low.
Bucket conveyors are reliable, relatively trouble free, and have a long service life.
On farms they often are the common section of a closed-loop handling system.
In grain elevators and other related industries, bucket conveyors are the preferred
method of vertical grain movement.
During actual grain lifting, practically no damage occurs in a bucket conveyor.
Bucket conveyors can be categorized by belt speed into high speed (450 to 1000
ft/min) and low speed (under 450 ft/min).
High speed designs are most common for the high capacity conveyors in grain
elevators. Low-speed bucket conveyors are common on farms.

Conditions for centrifugal discharge type
bucket conveyor
• A Centrifugal discharge conveyor must be
designed with ‘the proper combination of belt
speed, head pulley radius, head section shape,
and bucket shape for proper discharge’.
Figure-12 shows the forces acting on grain in a
conveyor bucket as it rounds the head pulley.

Figure-12. Forces on grain during centrifugal discharge
The effective force on the grain is the resultant of the grain force,
W which always acts down and C, the centrifugal force which
always acts out along a radius from the head pulley centerline.
When the resultant force on a kernel points out through the
bucket opening, the kernel will leave the bucket. Centrifugal
force on a mass is given by Equation-15.
W(Vt)2
C (15)
g r (3600)
where
C = centrifugal force, lb
W = weight, lb
Vt = tangential velocity, ft/min
g = acceleration of gravity = 32.2 ft/s2
r = effective radius of mass, ft (usually measured to
a point halfway across the bucket
projection)

• Hetzel and Albright, 1941 recommend that for centrifugal
discharge of grain, C = W. If this condition exists the resultant
on the kernel will be zero when the cup is directly above the
head pulley center line and both the forces are collinear but
acting in opposite directions. After that, the resultant force will
have a direction out of the bucket and discharge will begin.
• The speed for C = W will be referred to as the critical speed. If
the equation C = W is combined with equation-15 and
simplified, the result is:
Vt  60 gr (16)
• For the conveyor, Vt = 2 πr N (17)

• where N = pulley speed, rev/min
54.19
• Combining-16 and-17, we obtain: N (18)
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm r
• where N is now the critical speed. Note that the
radius here is the effective mass radius and not the
pulley radius. Belt linear speed can be computed by
revising Equation-17:
Vb = 2 ∏.rp.N (19)
• where: Vb = belt speed, ft/min

rp = pulley radius, ft

Buckets
• Buckets are made of fabricated metal (usually steel), cast metal,
or of a non-metallic material.
• Non-metallic buckets (polyethelene, urethane, poly vinyl
chloride) reduce drive line stresses because they are much
lighter than metal buckets.
• The radius of the grain in the bucket will vary by the length B in
the figure. Look an example at next page:

•
Example-6.
•
• A bucket conveyor is designed for centrifugal
•
discharge and the head pulley is to operate at
critical speed. The head pulley is 18 in. in
diameter, with a 0.5-in. belt thickness and a 6-
in. bucket projection. Compute the correct
head pulley speed and belt speed.
(9  0.5  3)
r  1.042ft
12
54.19 2π(9) (53.09)
N  53.09rev/min Vb   250.18 ft/min
1.041 12

Effect of C/W ratio on bucket discharge
C/W ratio Velocity Remarks
(centrifugal force/weight of material)
1 critical Will begin when the bucket is at the top

pulley
0.71 Sub-critical Will not begin to discharge until the
bucket is well past the top of the pulley
5.8 Super-critical
Will begin to discharge before it reaches
the top
 One design in use (not recommended for grain) uses a belt speed of
1000 ft/min and C/W = 17.1. The discharge chute extends horizontally from the
top of the head section.
If the head pulley speed is much slower or faster than the head section is
designed for, grain will miss the discharge chute and fall down the down leg
causing a condition known as "back legging." Back legging damages grain, cuts
capacity, and wastes power.

Loading buckets
1. Conveyor buckets are loaded into the up leg in the foot (or boot) section.
2. A designer aims for a feed system which fills buckets to a high percent of their
capacity with minimum power consumption, grain damage, and dust
generation. This is the preferred loading method for farm size conveyors. If
grain is introduced above the foot pulley shaft center, buckets are filled as they
move vertically. Spillage into the foot section is minimized.
3. The practice of making the foot pulley smaller than the head pulley may
increase centrifugal emptying forces to a point where capacity is cut and grain
damage and dust generation increase. Ditzenberger, 1980, recommends that
the foot pulley diameter never be smaller than 66% of the head pulley
diameter so that these problems are avoided.
4. At high belt speeds, grain must be introduced with a velocity component in
the same direction as bucket movement.
5. High-speed machines develop positive air pressure in the foot section as air
"carried" down by buckets is displaced by grain. Ventilation pipes can be fitted
to route this air to the head section which operates at negative pressure for
the same reason.
Capacity of bucket conveyor
• Bucket conveyor capacity depends on belt speed,
bucket volume, bucket spacing, and the percent
of fill attained by the bucket.
• Capacity tables usually assume buckets are filled
to 85% of full.
• In designing a line of bucket conveyors,
manufacturers often select a combination of belt
speed and head pulley diameter which will give
proper centrifugal discharge.

Example-7.
• A bucket conveyor runs with a belt speed of
440 ft/min and uses 9x6 buckets [200 in3
volume of each bucket]. What bucket spacing
is needed for a capacity of 3000 bu/h?
[Assume buckets are filled to 85% of full]
From monograph (next slide):
Line CD is drawn from 440 ft/min (LHS Y-axis) to 3000 bu/h
(RHS Y-axis). It crosses the diagonal solid line at E, which is
called the turning point. Now a line is extended from F, the
9x6 volume (top X-axis), through E to G, a bucket center-to-
center spacing of 8.3 in (lower X-axis).

Figure-14. Bucket conveyor
capacity monograph

Mathematically Bucket spacing, S=
= 8.3 in/bucket

Power requirements of bucket conveyor
• Power requirements for bucket conveyors are usually estimated
by computing the necessary lifting power and then adding a
component to account for friction losses. Equation-19 was
adapted from Bloome et al., 1978.
1.1(C) (BD) (h) C

hp   (19)
(33000)(60) (2490)
where hp = power required, hp

C = conveyor capacity, ft3/h
BD = material bulk density, lb/ft3
h = lift height (distance between conveyor shaft centers), ft

Example-8
• Estimate the motor power required for the
conveyor of Example-7, assuming speed is
reduced in two steps, the material conveyed
weights 45 lb/ft3, and the lift height is 50 ft.
(3000bu) (1.245ft3 )
C  3735ft3 /h
h bu
(1.1)(3735)(45)(50) 3735
hp =   6.17 hp
(33000) (60) 2490
6.17
motorpower =  7.13 hp
(0.93) (0.93)
Bucket conveyor applications
1. Bucket conveyors are well suited for high-rate vertical
conveyance applications which find heavy use.
2. If a vertical auger or pneumatic system is an

alternative, the bucket conveyor is the best choice
where heavy use causes its high ownership cost and
low operating costs to add to the lowest total cost.
3. Because of its intermittent use pattern through the

year, other more energy-intensive conveyors which
cost less to buy are ultimately cheaper.
SCREW CONVEYORS
A screw conveyor consists of a helicoid or screw or
auger which moves material as it rotates within a
tube or trough.
Archimedes is credited with using a screw conveyor to
pump water from ships over 2200 years ago. For this
reason, it is sometimes referred to as the
Archimedean screw. It has been in continual use for
countless conveying tasks since that time.
In some references, including those of the American
Society of Agricultural Engineers, a screw conveyor is
called an auger.
Figure-15. Screw conveyor helicoid

DIMENTIONAL SPECIFICATIONS OF SCREW AUGER
Auger length: The length of the tube assembly including

any intake but not including any intake hopper or head
drive components (dimension A).
Intake length: The length of the visible flighting with the
control gate (if unit is so equipped) in the full
open position (dimension B).
Transport angle: The angle included

between the auger tube and the ground
when the unit is in the lowest
recommended transport position and
with hitch on ground (dimension C).
Maximum operating angle: The angle included between the auger tube and
the ground when the unit is in the highest recommended operating position,
and with the hitch on the ground (dimension D).
Auger Size: The outside diameter of the auger Tub (dimension E).
Reach at maximum height: The horizontal distance from the foremost
part of the under carriage to the center of the discharge end when
the unit is at the maximum recommended operating angle with
hitch on ground (dimension F).
Maximum lift height: The vertical distance form the ground to the
lowest point of the discharge (excluding down spout attachments)
when the unit is raised to the maximum recommended operating
angle and with the hitch on the ground (dimension G).
Transport height: The vertical distance from the ground to the
uppermost portion with the unit in the lowest transport position
and with the hitch on the ground (dimension H).
Eave clearance: The vertical distance from the ground to the foremost
component of the undercarriage when the unit is at the maximum
raised height (dimension J)
Discharge length: The total length of conveying from the outer end of
the exposed flighting assembly at the intake to the centerline of the
discharge (dimension K).Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm
Figure-17. Pitch and flighting terminology of screw conveyor

Table-9. Typical farm type screw conveyor
specifications
Nominal Tube Helicoid Shaft Max
Conveyor inside diameter diameter, speed,
diameter, diameter, ,
in in in in RPM
4 3.90 3.37 0.84 875
6 5.88 5.13 1.40 650
8 7.85 7.25 1.50 500
10 9.80 9.00 2.38 350
12 11.80 11.00 2.88 350

Principle of operation of A screw conveyor
1. Material reting on the bottom of the tube is pushed
along by pushing off the inside periphery of auger
tube. In this case, the screw is continuous and the
tube slopes toward the center. Material moved far
enough to the side rolls back to the center, only to
again contact the screw (helicoid) which keeps
coming. The effect is conveyance along the helicoid
center line and also mixing. The operation takes place
regardless of the helicoid rotational speed, although
as speed is increased, dynamic effects will come into
play. The material will be thrown rather than
pushed.
2. In a vertical screw conveyor, material will not move
up the conveyor unless a certain critical rotational
speed is exceeded. This critical speed is the speed at
which material travels neither up nor down. If the
helicoid is turning above critical speed, material in the
conveyor is accelerated in a circular motion.
Centrifugal force moves it out against the tube wall,
or against other material to slide up the inclined
helicoid surface as the helicoid rotates.
3. Material slides on both the helicoid and tube wall and
moves in a spiral motion up until its discharge from
the conveyor. At angles intermediate between 0 and
90 degrees, there is a transition from the horizontal
mode to the vertical mode of operation.
Critical speed of screw conveyor
• The critical speed of a screw conveyor is
defined as the speed at which a single particle
in the conveyor will travel in a circular motion
with no vertical movement up or down.
• The critical speed is dependent on conveyor
and material parameters.
• An expression for the critical speed can be
developed by summing the forces on a single
particle.

Figure-18. A view looking down on
a particle within a vertical conveyor.
The particle, at radius ro, is rotating at
helicoid speed and is thus subjected
to centrifugal force, C. The helicoid is
turning at Ѡ rad/s.  = helicoid speed, rad/s; ro = radius of particle
path; c = centrifugal force; m = particle mass
Figure-19. View AA of Figure-18,

with the helicoid unwound to form
an upward sloping surface.
α= angle of helicoid= α
C= centrifugal force= m.r.Ѡ2
g= acceleration of gravity
Ft= kinetic friction coefficient
between particle and tube
K= helicoid force on particle
= angle between helicoid force
and normal line to helicoid surface
• The force C, acting normal to the tube wall, produces the friction
force CFt against the tube wall. Seed weight, mg, acts down.
Helicoid force K can be resolved into normal component K(cos), a
normal force, and the friction force= ksin  = K(cos )Fh
tan ρ = Fh (21)
– where Fh = static friction coefficient between particle and helicoid.

• At speeds above or below critical speed, Fh drops to the lower
kinetic value since motion between the helicoid and particles
established.

Figure-20. Polygon of forces at critical speed.
Figure-20 shows the polygon of forces on the particle. The polygon is

closed at critical speed. At this condition:
•
30 g tan (   )
Nc 
 ro Ft
(24) where Nc = critical speed, rev/min
Equation indicates that critical speed will be lowered by increasing Ft and/or decreasing Fh.

Theoretical capacity of a screw conveyor
The theoretical capacity of a screw conveyor is the product of the
free cross sectional area and the speed of advance along the
conveyor. The greatest possible distance of advance is one pitch
length per revoltuion. Theoretical capacity is, thus:
(25)
(Dh  Ds ) PN
2 2
Ct 
2200
where Ct= theoretical capacity, ft3/min; Dh= diameter of helicoid, in.
Ds = diameter of shaft, in; P= pitch length, in; N= rotational speed, rev/min.
The equation neglects helicoid thickness and assumes no leakage
of material around the edges of the helicoid. (helicoid diameter
rather than tube insideProf.Machinery
diameter is used).
Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm
& Power, University of 77
Important operating parameters of a screw conveyor
Many grain and conveyor parameters have important influences on
the operation of screw conveyors. Parameters having important
influences on screw conveyor power and capacity include (not in
order of importance):
material particle size material bulk density

material flowability material-to-tube friction
material-to-helicoid friction conveyor intake length and geometry
conveyor length conveyor speed of rotation
conveyor diameter tube-to-helicoid clearance
helicoid pitch length number of helicoids on shaft
conveyor outlet geometry conveyor angle of inclination

Figure-21. Effects of intake
length on screw conveyor
capacity
The intake length is the length
which the helicoid protrudes
from the tube if the
conveyor is loaded from a
hopper or a mass of grain. It
is often specified in helicoid
diameters. The general
effect on capacity of
increasing the intake length
can be predicted from
intuition. Capacity must be
zero with zero intake length.
Capacity increases at a
decreasing rate as intake
length is increased.

Figure-23. Capacity, slope, speed relationships for a 4-
in. screw conveyor carrying 56.5 lb/bu wheat
At any speed, capacity goes down almost linearly with slope and, in a
vertical position, is usually 30 to 40% of the horizontal value. Power goes
up with rotational speed at any slope.

Figure-24. Power, slope, speed relationships for a 4-in.
screw conveyor carrying 55.5 lb/bu wheat
Power goes up with rotational speed at any slope. Power is at a
maximum at slopes in the 40- to 60-degree range. It is lower at greater
and lesser slopes. Several effects cause this relationship.

Figure-25. The effect of incline and rotational speed on
volumetric efficiency. The volumetric efficiency is the
fraction of theoretical capacity carried by the conveyor.
(experimental results for a 1.5-in. standard pitch conveyor with an intake
length of 2 diameters. The conveyor carried dry millet)

Moisture content effect on screw
conveyor performance
Unlike the previous three conveyor types, screw
conveyor power and capacity are significantly
influenced by product moisture content.
• Other things equal, power goes up and capacity goes
down as moisture is increased. Most tables and
equations assume dry grain, meaning not over 15%
moisture.
• An extension engineer's rule-of-thumb says
conveyor capacity will be halved and power doubled
when grain is wet (over 20% moisture).
Discharge geometry effects on
screw conveyor performance
Discharge geometry can have large effects on
power and capacity. Axial discharge out the
conveyor end seldom presents any problems.
Radial discharge through an opening and
chute can result in compaction of material and
reduction of capacity if the opening is too
small or configured incorrectly. Precise
requirements for discharge dimensions were
not found in the literature.
Table-10. Effect of corn moisture on conveyor performance
Auger Corn Angle of elevation of screw conveyor
speed moisture 0° 22.5° 45° 67.5° 90°
rev/min percent bu/min hp/10’a bu/min hp/10a bu/min hp/10’a bu/min hp/10’a bu/min hp/10’a
200 14 9.9 .28 9.2 .41 8.3 .44 6.7 .44 4.6 .32
25 6.2 1.37 5.3 1.40 4.7 1.31 3.4 .97 2.6 .32
400 14 18.1 .56 16.8 .82 14.2 .88 11.5 .83 8.6 .70
25 11.6 1.84 10.3 1.89 8.5 1.78 6.7 1.45 5.0 .70
600 14 25.2 .84 23.4 1.22 19.4 1.28 15.1 1.16 12.4 1.05
25 15.8 2.32 13.7 2.34 11.3 2.27 8.6 1.92 6.8 1.09
800 14 29.4 1.07 27.6 1.54 22.8 1.62 18.0 1.46 14.8 1.32
25 18.3 2.80 15.8 2.85 12.9 2.75 9.7 2.44 7.9 1.55
aHorsepower is that required at auger drive shaft. Horsepower loss in drive train
must be added to determine theProf.total horsepower
Dr. Muhammad requirement
Iqbal, Deptt. Farm of the conveyor.
PROBLEMS
Q.3 Specify belt width and speed needed to carry dry navy beans at 10 000 lb/min.
(Use the smallest belt possible).

• Q4. Design a 20-degree troughed belt conveyor to do the conveying job outlined in
Example 12-1. Assume pulley centers must be 1 ft below the loading point and 1 ft above the
discharge point. Thus the top pulley center is 39 ft above the bottom pulley center. Use the
narrowest belt which will carry the volume. Drive is double reduction. Specify conveyor
length, width, belt speed, hp, hp x h/ton and energy efficiency.

Q5. A 48-in, 20-degree troughed belt conveyor is
carrying corn down a 10-degree decline to a
loading dock fully loaded and at maximum
speed. At what conveyor length will the
required motor output be theoretically zero?

Q8.A belt conveyor is to be designed for loading corn on ships. In the loading
operation, any one of the 3 grains is to be conveyed at a rate not less than 3.5 x
106 lb/h up a slope. The belt should have the volume capacity to carry the lightest
grain at the specified rate, and the power necessary to carry the heaviest grain at
the belt's volume capacity. The loading point is 80 ft below the discharge point.
Specify belt slope, width, speed, and power required at motor output shaft .

Q9. When material having no velocity component in the direction of
conveyance is loaded on a belt conveyor, power is required to accelerate
the material up to belt speed. This power is not usually recovered.
Compute the power necessary to accelerate the load in problem 12-3.

Q10.Shelled corn is to be conveyed 1000 ft horizontally at a rate of 10,000 bu/h, by a
20-degree troughed belt conveyor. (Assume the corn weighs 45 lb/ft3).
(a) Compute minimum belt size and speed necessary.
(b) Compute power required by conveyor.
(c) What power is required from the drive motor, assuming two speed
reductions?

Chapter-17
Size Reduction

Introduction
Size reduction: Standardized small need based uniform size of product achieved
by mechanical means that includes:
1. Cutting 2. Crushing and grinding 3. Milling
Examples:
1. Cutting of fruits, cutting of vegetables {for earning}
2. Shredding sweet potatoes for drying.
3. Chopping green fodder for animals 4. Grinding lime stone for fertilizer
5. Grinding grain for livestock
6. Milling flour for bread making
Milling in trade terms is used relative to reduction of grain into meal or flour.
Milling is an overall process including:
– Size reduction - Hulling Polishing
– Sorting
– Mixing and in some instances, certain chemical reactions

Objectives/Benefits
• Increased surface area - grinding increases surface area of product
to cause faster chemical reaction in subsequent processes
• Improved palatability – to achieve feed size acceptable by animals.
• Allow mixing – Reduced smaller uniform size makes a material
amenable to mixing e.g. ground alfalfa can be mixed with grain.
• Improved animal performance – Each animal and feed has some
optimum feed particle size which optimizes digestive tract
operation.
• Improved handling and processing qualities – Operations like
pneumatic conveying, palleting, and oil extraction are improved by
decreasing particle size.

Terminologies of Ground Materials
• Particle – A particle is the state of subdivision of a material
where the shape depends on the process which formed it and
/or the cohesive forces that hold it together; examples are-
ears of corn, kernels of wheat, drops of water etc.
• Sieving – The process of classifying materials using a stack of
sieves.
• Particle size – Particle is a representative dimension that
describes the degree of comminuting of the particle e.g.
sphere or any irregular shape. Particle size designation as a
result of sieving is usually taken as a geometric mean of the
size (GMD) of the smallest hole (d1) the particle passed
through and the size the of the largest hole (d2) it would not
pass through.
GMD =√ (d1 * d2)
Particle statistics –
Table. Size distribution of 500 particles
Particle
size, di No of fi(di-
micron particles, fi fi.di di-dm dm) (di-dm)^2 fi(di-dm)^2 Cum p di^fi
2.8 4 11.20 0.01 1.149 -4.60 1.32 5.28 0.01 61.4656
3 15 45.00 0.02 0.949 -14.23 0.90 13.50 0.03 14348907
3.2 20 64.00 0.03 0.749 -14.98 0.56 11.21 0.06 1.27E+10
3.4 47 159.80 0.08 0.549 -25.79 0.30 14.16 0.14 9.54E+24
3.6 63 226.80 0.11 0.349 -21.97 0.12 7.66 0.26 1.11E+35
3.8 78 296.40 0.15 0.149 -11.61 0.02 1.73 0.41 1.67E+45
4 88 352.00 0.18 0.051 4.51 0.00 0.23 0.59 9.58E+52
4.2 69 289.80 0.15 0.251 17.33 0.06 4.35 0.73 1.01E+43
4.4 59 259.60 0.13 0.451 26.62 0.20 12.01 0.86 9.2E+37
4.6 35 161.00 0.08 0.651 22.79 0.42 14.84 0.94 1.57E+23
4.8 10 48.00 0.02 0.851 8.51 0.72 7.25 0.97 6492506
5 8 40.00 0.02 1.051 8.41 1.11 8.84 0.99 390625
5.2 4 20.80 0.01 1.251 5.00 1.57 6.26 1.00 731.1616
Sum 500 1974.4 1.00 0.00 7.31 107.33 9.58E+52
1.28
3.95 Avg SS 0.22 (GMD)
1974.4 Machinery & Power, UniversitySD
of 0.46 5
Probabilty of particle size
0.20
Probability
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
Particle Size, micron
Cumulative probability graph of particle size

Cumulative probability,
0.8
cum p
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
Particle size, micron

Size characteristics
Size reduction machines performance includes:
– Machine capacity, (kg/hr)
– hp required per unit material reduced, (hp/kg)
– Size & shape of product before and after reduction
– The range in size and shape of resultant product
i.e. 6-Sigma quality term {for same mean ‘μ’ value}
6 σ1 < 6 σ2
More uniform less uniform
(Low range) (More range)

Six Sigma – what does it mean?
• Six Sigma at many organizations simply means a
measure of quality that strives for near perfection.
Six Sigma is a disciplined, data-driven approach and
methodology for eliminating defects (driving toward
six standard deviations between the mean and the
nearest specification limit) in any process – from
manufacturing to transactional and from product to
service.

Effect of various parameters on size & shape
size of individual grains after size reduction
The size & shape of individual grains after size reduction depends
upon:
1. Physical characteristics of material (parent material)
a) Size; b) Shape; c) Moisture content
d) Shearing strength
2. Method of size reduction - The size and shape after reduction is
never uniform. It is extremely improbable that even a small
percentage of the grains would approximate any simple
geometrical shape/figure.
Theoretically, an irregular figure is represented by:
1. An equivalent sphere
2. An equivalent cube or any other geometric figure. Then, surface
area or volume is usedProf.as the basis
Dr. Muhammad Iqbal,of comparison.
Deptt. Farm
Classes of reduced in size material
Dimension range – Particles accurately measured with
minimum size of 1/8” = 0.125”
– Example: Diced fruit / vegetables, chopped forage
Sieve size – Particle size with minimum dimension
range of 0.125” – 0.0029” approximately
– Example: ground feed, commercial fertilizer
Microscopic range – Particles with minimum range less
than 0.0029”
Dimension range Sieve size Microscopic range
X ≥ 0.125̋ 1/8̋” 1/300” X ≤ 0.0029 in
(0.125 > X >0.0029)
Tyler Standard Screen Sieves
Mesh, No. Diameter of wire, Size of opening, inch
Openings to inch inch Actual Approximate
- 0.1480 1.0500 1
- 0.1350 0.7420 3/4
- 0.1050 0.5250 1/2
- 0.0920 0.3710 3/8
3 0.0700 0.2630 1/4
4 0.0650 0.1850 3/16
6 0.0360 0.1310 1/8
8 0.0320 0.0930 3/32
10 0.0350 0.0650 1/16
14 0.0250 0.0460 3/64
20 0.0172 0.0328 1/32
28 0.0125 0.0232 -
35 0.0122 0.0164 1/64
48 0.0092 0.0116 -
65 0.0072 0.0082 -
100 0.0042 0.0058 -
150 0.0026 0.0041 -
200 0.0021 0.0029 -
• Tyler sieve series is based on 200-mesh screen
(i.e.0.074 mm/ 0.0029 in opening)
• Progression of sieve openings in a stack of sieves is
√2 : 1 i.e. next sieve in this series is 1.44 times larger
than the previous one.
• Table- constitutes a normal set
• This opening size is based upon the 200 mesh sieve
• Each opening √2 = 1.414 times as larger the previous
one e.g.:

Sieve No. Wire Diameter, Size of opening
inch =1.414 x previous size
65 0.0072 0.0082 x 1.414 = 0.00116
100 0.0042 0.0058 x 1.414 = 0.0082
150 0.0026 0.0041 x 1.414 = 0.0058
200 0.0021 0.0029 x 1.414 = 0.0041
0.0029

• The openings are square “□”, the size being
the dimension of one side i.e. sieve no 200
mean each side of hole is 0.0029”
• Intermediate sieves with opening ratio of 4√2
= 1.189 are available, if added, would
constitute a complete set i.e.
Mesh No. Wire Diameter, Opening size, inch
inch
100 0.0042 0.0041 * 1.414 or 0.0049*1.189 = 0.0058
0.0041*1.189 = 0.0049
150 0.0026 0.0029*1.414 or 0.0034481*1.189 = 0.0041

0.0029*1.189 = 0.0034481
200 0.0021 0.0029

Rule of Sieve development
Mesh 200 150 100

Sieve size, 0.0029 * 4√2 = 0.03448
inch
0.0029 * √2 = 0.0041
0.0029 * 2 = 0.0058

Procedure of Sieving
Procedure:
1-Take 250 g oven dry sample.
2-Grinding of sample is to be done. Operate
shaker for 10 minutes.
3-Weigh material on the finest sieve
containing material.
4. Operate the shaker for another 5-minutes
or epeat the procedure until weight in this
sieve does not change by more than 0.2 %
of total sample weight.
5-Weigh and record weights of material on
all the sieves.

Fineness Modulus and Uniformity Index
Fineness modulus and uniformity index indicate the
uniformity of a grind feed or distribution of fines and
coarse in the resultant product.
• FM = sum of weight fraction retained on each sieve / 100
• The ¾”,4,8,14,28,48, and 100 mesh sieves and pan are

used in the set

Fineness Modulus Graph
Effect of fineness modulus on geometric mean diameter of grain product
1.0000
GMD=SQRT(Y1*Y2)
Geometric Mean Diameter, inch

Sieve 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
FM size GMD (in)
0 0.0000 0.0041
0.1000
1 0.0058 0.0082
2 0.0116 0.0164
3 0.0232 0.0327 0.7005x , 2
4 0.0460 0.0654
0.0100 GMD = 0.004e R = 0.99
5 0.0930 0.1312
6 0.1850 0.2620
7 0.3710 0.5740 0.0010 Fineness Modulus

Mesh Opening Percent of Multiplier Multiply col-3 by col-4
Col-1 size, (IN) material Col-4 Col-5=col-3 x col-4
Col-2 retained
Col-3
3/8̋ 0.371 0.0 7 7 = 0.0
4 0.185 5.7 6 6 = 34.2
8 0.093 23.2 5 5 = 116.0
14 0.046 35.1 4 4 = 140.4
28 0.0232 18.4 3 3 = 55.2
48 0.0116 9.3 2 2 = 18.6
100 0.0058 5.8 1 1 = 5.8
PAN 2.5 0 0 = 0.0
FM = 370.2/100 = 3.7
Total 100 370.2
Note that if all the

material were fine No. 100 and retained on pan Then, FM=0
enough to pass
through including
-------do----------- 48 and retained on No. 100 1

-------do----------- 3/8 and retained on No. 4 6
Machinery & If all retained
Power, on 3/8”
University of 7 19
Uniformity Index (UI)
• The FM gives guideline to find geometric
mean diameter (GMD) but it does not indicate
distribution of fines and coarse in any sample.
For same FM and GMD, UI can be different.
To find the relative properties of coarse,
medium, and fine particles follow the
following procedure.

Sample-1 Sample-2
A B C BxC Sub A B C BxC Sub
Screen Percent Multiplier Total/10 Screen Percent Multiplie Total/10
mesh material mesh material r
retained retained
3/8̋ 0 7 0 28.2/10 = 3 3/8̋ 0 7 00 13/10 =
4 5.7 6 34.2 Coarse 4 4 6 24 1.3≈1
8 23.2 5 116.0 8 9 5 25 Coarse
Sub 28.2 Sub 13
total= total=
14 35.1 4 140.4 53.2/10 = 5 14 58 4 232 70/16 =
28 18.4 3 55.2 Medium 28 12 3 36 7≈7
Sub 53.2 Sub 70 Medium
total= total=
48 9.3 2 18.6 17.6/10 = 2 48 16 2 32 17/10 =
100 5.8 1 5.8 Fine 100 1 1 1 1.7≈2
Pan 2.5 0 0.0 Pan 0 0 0 Fine
Sub 17.6 370.2 Sub 17
total= total=
Grand 100 Grand 100 370
total total
Sample No. FM UI GMD

1 370/10=3.7 3:5:2 0.0041 FM = 0.0041 (2)3.7 = 0.053”
(2)Farm
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt.
2 370/10=3.7 Machinery
1:7:2 & Power,0.0041 (2)ofFM = 0.0041 (2)3.7 = 0.053”
University 21
Value of ground feed
1. Advisable – Coarse grinding is normally
advisable for more digestive processes.
2. Finely grain never advisable to feed farm
animals except small chicks, and for them
powdery feed never recommended.
3. Finally grain materials pass through the
digestive tract too fast to be acted upon by
various digestive processes.

Forage grinding
• Coarsely chopped hay is advisable to minimize
the amount of material thrown out of the feed
bunks by the animals.
• Fine chopping/grinding does not improve the
forage and will probably lower its quality by
exposure to oxidation. Also, the ability of the
animal to digest the material will be
decreased.
• Alfalfa crop for poultry be ground fine to
provide necessary consistency for eating.
Fineness modulus for ground feeds
Grind grains
Material Whole Coarse medium fine Very fine
grain
Shelled 6 4.8 3.6 2.4 1.8
corn
Barley 5 4.1 3.2 2.3 1.5
Oats 4.5 3.7 2.9 2.1 1.4
Soybean 6 4.8 3.6 2.4 1.8
Wheat 5 4.1 3.2 2.3 1.5
Corn - 5.5 4.2 2.9 -
fodder
Hay - 4.0 3.1
Machinery & Power, University of 2.2 1.4 24
Energy Requirements
Consider a small particle to be reduced into similar particles of smaller size.
The required energy is related to some function of the initial and reduced
particle. Since the particles are assumed symmetrical a common dimension
will be used
i.e. energy required to reduce (grind) a unit is proportional to a dimension of

the reduced particle relative to a similar dimension of the original particle
raised to some power ‘n’.
or
where,
E = energy per unit weight expended for size reduction
L = original particle dimension
C=constant
n = constant
integrate for a specific massProf. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm
1. For plastic deformation (Fibrous material)
Kick (1885) proposed that equivalent amounts
of energy should result in equivalent
geometrical changes in the size of pieces of a
solid i.e. If one unit of energy produces 2 size
L/2 lumps from size “L” then the same amount
of energy should reduce these two lumps to 4
size L/4 lumps. Same amount of energy
should reduce these 3 lumps to 8 size L/8
lumps and so on.
Size L L/2 L/4 L/8 L/16 By same amount of
No. 1 2 4 8 16 energy
This is equivalent to assuming n=1
2. For crushing material

Rettinger (1867) postulated that: size
reduction energy is proportional to new
specific surface area produced, which in turn
are proportional to the square of a common
linear dimension. Therefore, n = 2
Where,
E = Energy required for crushing
C = Rettingers constant
L2 = Characteristic dimension of final product
L1 = Characteristic dimension of feed
3.General equation

Example-1:
A 5-hp power is required to reduce a material
from ¼ inch (0.25) size to 10 mesh (0.065 inch
dia). How much power would be required if the
reduction were to 20 mesh (0.0328 inch dia)
By Kick’s Law By Rettinger’s law
Put E=5 hp, L1=0.25, L2=0.065, find Put E=5 hp, L1=0.25, L2=0.065, find
C=8.65, C=0.438
Then using C=8.65, L1=0.25 and new Then using C=0.438, L1=0.25 and new
L2=0.038, for above equation, find L2=0.038, for above equation, find
E=7.55 hp E=11.64 hp

Example-2:
A material consisting of 20 mm particles is
crushed to an average size of 5 mm and needs
18 kJ/kg fro this size reduction. Determine the
energy required to crush the material from 25
mm to 3 mm considering other conditions are
similar assuming:
By Kick’s Law By Rettinger’s law
Put E=18, L1=20, L2=5, find C=12.987 Put E=18, L1=20, L2=5, find C=120
Then using C=12.987, L1=20 and new Then using C=120, L1=20 and new
L2=3, for above equation, find
Prof. E=?
Dr. Muhammad L2=3, for Farm
Iqbal, Deptt. above equation, find E=?
4.Bond, 1952 proposed that sine both kiks 8
Rittinger hypothesis did not seen correct for
practical application, an exponent n=(1+2)/2=1.5
had been found more appropriate
Efficiency of size reduction

Where,
Af = surface area after grinding, m2
Ao = surface of before grinding, m2
E = grinding energy, Wh/kg
W = grain mass, kg
J = efficiency of size reduction m2/Wh
Size reduction procedures
1. Cutting: (Separation or reduction process)
It is produced by – Pushing/forcing a thin, sharp knife through the material to be reduced.
Minimum deformation and rapture of reduced particle is resulted.
The newly produced are relatively undamaged e.g. cutting of fruits and vegetable and forge
Tool : Extremely sharp and thin knife
2. Crushing:
It is produced by applying a force in excess of the strength of the unit to be reduced.
The resulting particles are irregular in shape and size
Examples:
– Crushing limestone found other chemical fertilizers - Ground feed for livestock
– Flour and meal - Extract juice from sugarcane
3. Shearing: Combination of cutting and crushing
If shearing edge is thin and sharp performance approaches to cutting
Shearing used for reducing materials of a tough fibrous nature
Examples: cutting ensilage, threshing grain and straw
Tool: sharp knife and a bar

Requirements for size reduction
1. Output is of uniform size: For the same geometric mean
diameter the standard deviation be low. If 6 ϭ1 < 6 ϭ2 then
product-1 is more acceptable
2. Energy requirement is low/low cost involved: High energy
use waste energy, dries up cost, may heat up the ground
product
3. Machine be simple, safe, low cost and trouble free:
Desirable features of machine are:
• Low wear rate on internal parts
• Tolerance to tramp iron (tolerance to pieces of iron in the
feed to the grinder)
• Tolerance to empty running
• Tolerance to automatic startup
Size reduction devices
Three types of size reduction devices are:
1. Hammer Mill 2) The attrition / burr mill 3) Roller Mill
1. Hammer Mill: (A dynamic crushing mill)
• Most common size reduction devices
• Consists of a rotor with fixed or free swinging hammers attached confined
in a housing.
• Material to be ground is fed into chamber where it is struck by Hammers.
Hammers strike particles and break them into pieces.
• Particles escape from the grinding chambers only if they pass through the
classifying screen partially surrounding the chamber
• Material is fed from the top into the grinding chamber
• The integral blower- thrower pulls in ground material passed through the
screen and then blows and throws it through a tube to another location.

Hammer Mill: (A dynamic crushing mill)
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Simplicity: 1. Fines – machine hammer
 Simple design impact action produce,
 Low purchase price relatively high proportion of
 Trouble free operation fines when grinding to certain
level of fineness.
2. Versatility: can grind variety 2. Power requirement to achieve
of materials brittle, fibrous a certain fineness is relatively
hay, mixtures also high
3. Foreign material tolerance – 3. High noise because of
Tolerant to tramp iron in interaction with air and
material being ground particle impacts.
4. Tolerant to empty operation.
2. Attrition Mill
Materials introduced between a rotating disk and a second
stationary or counter rotating disk.
For grains, usually have plates mounted vertically. Size reduction is
by combination of:
Crushing (compression)
Scrapping (attrition)
Cutting (shearing)
• Material fed from top into the center is propelled toward the
outer edge of burrs by their rotation.
• In small mills – one burr turns and the other is held stationary
• In large mill – burrs are driven in opposite direction by different
devices.
• Disk speed: 800 – 1200 RPM
• Disk outer dia: 4 – 60Prof.
inchDr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm
Attrition Mill (Advantages & Disadvantages
 Relatively low cost 1. Lack of versatility. Only
 Relatively uniform product useful for brittle products and
not for mixtures/fibrous
material like hay.
2. In tolerance to foreign
objects, tramp iron in grain
cause sever damage.
3. Deterioration of performance
– as burrs wear, grinding
action deteriorates.

3. Roller Mill
• Crushes material between counter rotating

cylinders
• Ground rolls specifications:
– Dia: 9.0 – 12 inch
– Length: 60 – 52 inch
– Speed: 350 – 1800 RPM

Roller Mill (Advantages & Disadvantages
1. Uniform product - 1. In tolerance to foreign objects.

positive one pass crushing Recommendation: feed grain be
action tend to produce passed through screen and then
uniform size. over a magnet to remove iron and
2. Low power requirement - other foreign objects.
power is not wasted 2. Startup – Start machine empty
generating fines. since a few kernels at the pinch
point would require excessive
starting torque.

Sphere surface area calculations
Cut D1 D2 D3 GMD A1 T.AREA
0 1 1 1 1.000 3.141 3.141
1 1 1 0.5 0.794 1.980 3.959
2 1 1 0.333 0.693 1.510 4.530
3 1 1 0.25 0.630 1.248 4.991
4 1 1 0.2 0.585 1.075 5.377
5 1 1 0.166 0.550 0.950 5.699
Surface area as affected by particle dia for same weight
Particle number
7 6.000
5.699
5.377
6 6
4.991 Surface area = 7.5d2 - 17.2d + 12.9 5.000
4.530 R2 = 0.95
5 5
3.959 4.000
Surface area mm2

4 4
3.141
3.000
3 3
2.000
2 2
GMD = 1.0006d-2.9992
R2 = 1 1.000
1 1
0 0.000
0.500 0.600 Prof.
0.700 Dr. Muhammad
0.800 Iqbal,
0.900Deptt. Farm
1.000 1.100
Machinery & Power,
Particle dia, mm University of 43
Rectangle surface area calculations
L W D A1 PARTICLES T.Area
1 1 1.00 6.00 1 6.00
1 1 0.50 4.00 2 8.00
1 1 0.33 3.33 3 10.00
1 1 0.25 3.00 4 12.00
1 1 0.20 2.80 5 14.00
1 1 0.17 2.66 6 15.98
Total Surface Are a, m m 2
Surface are a, m m 2
18.00
16.00 y = 2x + 4
R2 = 1
14.00
12.00
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Particle , no
Chapter 18
Crop Drying/Dryers

Agriculture Faisalabad
Introduction
• The preservation of agricultural produce by drying is a
long-established technique.
• Sun drying in the open, on mud-plastered or concrete
floors, is the conventional method of drying grain and
also cash crops like chillies, and plantation and
horticultural crops.
• The drying time required in the open sun for these
crops ranges from 5 to 45 days depending upon the
crop to be dried.

• Unfavourable weather conditions are likely to occur
during the drying period and degradation in quality of
the final produce therefore becomes unavoidable.
• Deterioration in quality caused by improper drying
cannot be eliminated until improved drying systems
based on mechanical dryers have been adopted.

Commercial use of dryers
• Dryers are used extensively in grain processing industries
such as rice milling, pulse milling, and oil extraction.
• The need for dryers has been realised not only for proper
storage of stock but also for timeliness of subsequent
operations where wetting of grain and redrying are
involved.
• In the case of the rice milling industry, parboiling of rice is
a common practice. The paddy is soaked in water for
variable lengths of time depending on the process used
and is then steaming.
• High moisture content (m.c.) paddy is dried to 12-14%
m.c. for milling
• The steam requirement for drying is 21.3% of the
total steam produced in the boiler, which consumes
about 4% of the total power required by the mill. (Air
is heated for drying by burning rice hulls)
• In steam dryer, the grain is tempered for 30 minutes
after every hour of drying so to equilibrate the
moisture and avoid stress cracking in further milling
operations.

Chemical composition of grain
• Grain is a living biological product, which
germinates and respires also.
• The grain is composed of both organic and
inorganic substances, such as:
– Carbohydrates
– Proteins
– Vitamins
– Fats
– Water
– Mineral salts and
– Enzymes Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm
Effect of temperature on quality of grain
• Proteins: - At temperature above 500 oC denaturation and even
coagulation of proteins takes place. As a result, the water absorbing
capacity of proteins and their capacity for swelling decreases.
• Starch: - At temperature above 700 oC and especially in presence of
high moisture in the grain, gelatinisation and partial caramelisation of
sugars with the formation of caramel may take place which causes
deterioration in colour of the product.
• Fats: - At temperature above 700 oC, fats may also undergo a partial
decomposition resulting in an increase of acid numbers.
• Vitamins: - The heat sensitive B - vitamins present in the germ and
aleurone layer are destroyed at high temperature.

Drying Mechanisms
In the process of drying heat is necessary to evaporate
moisture from the grain and a flow of air is needed to
carry away the evaporated moisture. There are two
basic mechanisms involved in the drying process;
1. The migration of moisture from the interior of an individual
grain to the surface, and
2. The evaporation of moisture from the surface to the
surrounding air.
The rate of drying is determined by:
1. The moisture content and the temperature of the grain and
2. The temperature, the relative humidity and the velocity of the
air in contact with the grain.

a) Thin layer drying
• Thin layer drying refers to the grain drying
process in which all grains are fully exposed to
the drying air under constant drying
conditions. i.e. at const air temperature and
humidity.
• Generally, up to 20 cm thickness of grain bed
is taken as thin layer. All commercial flow
dryers are designed on thin layer drying
principles

• Figure 1 demonstrates the drying
of a single layer of grain exposed
to a constant flow of air. The
moisture content falls rapidly at
first but as the grain loses
moisture the rate of drying slows.
• In general, the drying rate
decreases with moisture content,
increases with increase in air
temperature or decreases with
increase in air humidity.
• At very low air flows increasing
the velocity causes faster drying
but at greater velocities the effect
is minimal indicating that
moisture diffusion within the
grain is the controlling
mechanism.

• The drying of grains in thin layers where each and
every kernel is fully exposed to the drying air can be
represented in the form:
MR = f(T, h, t)
• Where,
• MR= moisture ratio;
• MC= moisture content of grain at any time, (%db)
• MCe=equilibrium moisture content (%db);
• MCo =initial moisture content of the wet grain (%db);

Empirical data have been used to determine mathematical
approximations of the relationship between drying rate
and air conditions. Relationships for many grains have
been summarized by Brook & Foster (1981). For
example, a thin layer equation for paddy (Teter 1987)
is: MR = exp.(-X * tY)
• where
– X = 0.026 - 0.0045h + 0.01215T; and
– Y = 0.013362 + 0.194h - 0.000177h2 + 0.009468T,
– h = air relative humidity; (%)
– t = drying time, hr
– T = air temperature (°C);

b) Deep bed drying
• In deep bed drying all the grains in the dryer are not
fully exposed to the same condition of drying air.
• The condition of drying air at any point in the grain
mass changes with time and at any times it also
changes with the depth of the grain bed. over and
above the rate of overflow per unit mass of grain is
small compared to the thin layer drying of grain

• In the drying of grain in a deep bed, whilst
individual kernels may all be losing moisture
at different rates, the overall drying rate will
remain constant for a long period.
• The air absorbs moisture as it moves through
the bed until it becomes effectively saturated
and moves through the remaining layers of
grain without effecting further drying
(Figure A)

• Figure 2 shows the three zones present
within a thick drying bed at an
intermediate time within the drying
operation. Drying takes place within a
discrete zone, the size of which
depends on the moisture content of the
grain and the temperature, humidity
and velocity of the air. Below the
drying zone is the dried zone where the
grain is in equilibrium with the air.
Above the drying zone is the un-dried
zone wherein the grain remains
unchanged from its initial condition. In
a shallow bed as in Figure 5.2B the
drying zone is thicker than the bed
depth and drying would occur initially
throughout the bed. Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm
• The change in temperature and humidity of air as it
moves through a bed of grain depends - on the rate at
which moisture is being evaporated from each kernel
as an individually exposed element.
• Knowledge of the effect of followings is essential to
an understanding of how drying would proceed
within a bed.
– grain properties (moisture Content, bulk Density,
resistance to air flow
– air properties (temperature, humidity, air flow rate
upon fully exposed kernels)

Air Properties
• The capacity of air to remove moisture is principally
dependent upon - its initial temperature and humidity
• The greater the temperature and lower the humidity,
the greater the moisture removal capacity of the air.
• The relationship between temperature, humidity and
other thermodynamic properties is represented by a
psychrometric chart
• The changes in air conditions when air is heated and
then passed through a bed of moist grain are shown in
Figure (next slide)

The heating of air from temperature
TA to TB is represented by the line
AB. During heating the absolute
humidity remains constant at HA
whereas the relative humidity falls
from hA to hB. As air moves through
the grain bed it absorbs moisture.
Under (hypothetical) adiabatic
drying sensible heat in the air is
converted to latent head and the
change in air conditions is
represented along a line of constant
enthalpy, BC. The air will have
increased in both absolute humidity,
Hc, and relative humidity, hc, but
fallen in temperature, Tc. The
absorption of moisture by the air
would be the difference between the
absolute humidities at C and B
(HC-HA)
If unheated air was passed through the bed the drying
process would be represented along the line AD.
Assuming that the air at D was at the same relative
humidity, hc, as the heated air at C then the absorbed
moisture would be (HD-HA), considerably less than
that absorbed by the heated air (HC-HA)

i. Time of advances of drying front
The time taken by the drying front to reach the top of the bed:
Where - M1 = Initial moisture content of grain (d.b) %

Mx = Ave moisture content (d/b) % at the end of the drying front advance at the
top.
ϴ1 = Time of advance, hour.
A = X-sectional area of dryer, through which air passes, m2
Qm= initial mass flow rate of dry air, Kg/hr m2
Hs = Absolute humidity of the saturated air leaving the dryer Kg./kg.
H1 = Absolute humidity of the air entering in to the dryer, Kg/Kg.
Wd = Weight of dry grain in the bin, Kg. (DM)
ii. Decreasing rate period
• As soon as the drying front reaches the top of the bin, the rate
of drying starts decreasing and is termed as decreasing rate
period. The time of drying for this decreasing rate period can be
expressed by –
where,
ϴ2= Time of drying during decreasing rate period, hr
Me = Equilibrium moisture content of grain (db)
M = Average moisture content (db) at the end of decreasing rate
period.
Mx = Average initial moisture content (db) at the beginning of
decreasing period.
K = Drying constant, 1/hr.
Drying Efficiency
• The efficiency of the drying operation is an important factor in
the assessment and selection of the optimum dryer for a
particular task. There are three groups of factors affecting drying
efficiency:
– those related to the environment, in particular, ambient air
conditions;
– those specific to the crop;
– those specific to the design and operation of the dryer.
• There are several different ways of expressing the efficiency of
drying, of which the sensible heat utilization efficiency (SHUE),
the fuel efficiency, and the drying efficiency are the most useful.
• The SHUE takes into account the sensible heat attributable to the
condition of the ambient air and any heat added to the air by the
fan as well as the heat supplied by combustion of the fuel. It is
defined as: Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm
• The SHUE takes into account the sensible heat
attributable to the condition of the ambient air and any
heat added to the air by the fan as well as the heat
supplied by combustion of the fuel. It is defined as:
• The fuel efficiency is based only on the heat available

from the fuel:
• The drying efficiency, defined as:

Over a wide range of conditions
– continuous-flow dryers have:
• fuel efficiency ------38%
• drying efficiency --- 51%,
– batch dryers have
• fuel efficiency ------42%
• drying efficiency ---58%,

Remark on deep bed drying: -
1. If drying air at high relative humidity and relative
low temperature is used, then the total drying time
will be very long due to slow rate of drying which
may cause spoilage of grains.
2. The correct choice of air flow rate is very imp.
3. Drying air at high temperature cannot be used
due to the development of moisture gradients
within the grain bed. It leads to non - uniform
drying of grain. In general an air temperature of
400C ( 150C rise) is recommended for deep bed
drying.
Effects of different factors on the
drying process
The drying rate is dependent upon many factors,
namely:
1. air temperature,
2. air flow rate,
3. relative humidity,
4. exposure time,
5. types, variety and size of grain,
6. initial moisture content,
7. grain depth (First four factors are important)
i) Effect of air temperature: -
The rate of drying increases with the rise of air
temperature. But the equilibrium moisture content
falls as air temperature increases.
ii) Effect of air velocity: -
Henderson found that air rate has no observable effect
on thin layer drying of wheat when air flow was
turbulent.
X-sectional area effect - air flow rate varying from 10
cm3/sec/cm2 to 68 cm3/sec/cm2 had no significant
effect on the drying rate of wheat. But in case of
paddy and corn it has been found that air rate has
some effect on rate of drying.
iii) Effect of air humidity: -
When the humidity of air increases the rate of drying
decreases. The effect is much smaller in comparison
to the effect of temperature changes
iv) Effect of air exposure Time: -
In the case of intermediate drying, drying rate of grain
depends on its exposure time to the drying air in
each pass. Total drying time, which is the sum of all
exposure times, is dependent upon exposure time.
Total drying time reduces as exposure time
decreases.

GRAIN DRYERS
Grain dryers can be divided in to two broad categories, unheated air
dryers and heated air dryers.
I) UNHEATED AIR DRYERS: -
• Unheated or natural air-drying is usually performed in the grain
storage bin.
• Natural air-drying is commonly used for on farm drying for a
relatively small volume of grains. Either full bin or layer drying
system is employed in natural air drying.
• The period of drying for either system may be as long as several
weeks depending on the weather.
• In layer drying, the bin is filled with a layer of grain at a time and
drying, is begun. After the layer is partially dried, other layers of
grain are added periodically, perhaps daily with the continuation of
drying until the bin is full and whole grain mass is dried.
• In full bin drying a full bin of grain is dried as a single batch.
Then the drying bin is used for storage purposes. The air flow
rate provided is relatively low. Though natural air is supposed
to be used, an air heating system should be kept so that
supplemental heat may be supplied to natural air during rainy
seasons.
• Grain containing moisture more than 20 % should not be
dried with natural air. As in natural air drying the grain is
aerated and stored in the same unit, the complete installation
simply consists of a storage unit equipped with ducts for air
distribution and devices for air exhaustion and a blower.

II) HEATED AIR DRYERS :-
Heated air dryers of different types are as follows.
i) Deep bed dryers :- These batch in bin dryers are of
large capacities to several hundred tones. The most
common shapes are round or rectangular. To operate
deep bed dryers efficiently following rules may be
followed
– An air flow rate of 2.94 - 3.92 m3/minute per tone is
recommended. Rates above 3.92 m3/minute per
tone may result in uneven drying and is expensive
in operation.
– If the moisture content of grains is up to 18% the
layer depth of grain should be limited to 3 m.
• For above 18% moisture of
grain the recommended
depth is 2.5m.
• The net perforated are of
the floor should be 15% of
total floor area. Air velocity
of 300 m/minute through
opening is preferable.
Fig. Deep bed dryers.

(1. Exit air 2.Wet grain 3. Drying zone
4. Dry grain 5. Blower)

ii) Flat bed dryer :- In the flat bed batch type dryer surface
area of dryer is more and depth of drying layer is less.
These dryers are of usually 1 - 2 tonne capacity. Grains
are spread 0.6 to 1.2 m deep over the perforated
floor and dried.
Advantages:
1. The whole batch is dried quickly.
2. There is less likehood of over drying.
3. Lower air pressure is required to force
the drying air.
Fig. Flat bed dryer

1). Exit air 2) Plenum chamber 3) Blower

iii) Continues flow dryers :-
• These dryers are columner type in which wet
grains flow from the top to bottom of the
dryers. These dryers are of two types.
1) Mixing type
2) Non – mixing type

1) Mixing type continuous flow dryers :-
• When the grains are diverted in the dryer, it is called a
mixing type dryer. Drying is accomplished by forcing
heated air across the falling layers of grains.
• Baffles are provided to cause the grains to mix during
their downward flow. These dryers use low air flow
rates of 50-95m3/min tone and high drying
temperature of 650C
• Zigzag columns enclosed by screens on both sides
are used primarily to achieve mixing action during
drying process.

2) Non-Mixing dryers :-
• Baffles are not provided in
the column and drying
takes place between two
parellel screens, 15-25 cm
apart.
• A high air flow rates of
125-250 m3/min - tone can
be used. Drying air
temperature of 540C used
in non mixing dryers. Fig. Continuous flow dryer (non mixing)
1.feed hopper2.plenum chamber 3.exit air
4. dry grain outlet 5.screened grain column

iv) Recirculating dryers :-
a) In this type, a multipass
procedure is used to avoid
excessive drying stress. During
each pass, the grain are
exposed to the heated air for
short time (15-30 min) and
about 1 - 3 % of moisture is
removed. Drying temperature is
60 - 800C is used. Drying is
Fig. Recirculatory dryer's
faster and effective because of 1.elevator 2.tempering bins 3.wet
continuous movement of grains material 4.semidried material
5.conveyor
during short drying times.
Figure. Large drying system using continuous-flow dryer, conveying
equipment, and tempering bin
b) This type of dryer avoids the
problems of moisture gradients
experienced with bin dryers by re-
circulating the grain during drying.
One version of a re-circulating
batch dryer is shown in Figure. The
dryer is a self-contained unit with
an annular drying chamber, 500 mm
thick, around a central plenum
chamber, a fan and heater, and a
central auger for transporting the
grain from the bottom to the top.
When drying is complete the grain is discharged from the top. Most
dryers of this type are portable and can be moved relatively easily
from farm to farm.

v) Rotary Dryer :-
• In commercial rotary dryers
the diameter of drum is
between 1 to 3 m and
length is from 3 to 6 m.
• It is operated at slight
inclination. The drum
rotates on its axis.
• The grain flows downward
through the rotating drum
and is periodically lifted by
inclined flights, then
Fig. Continuous flow heated sand
dropped, ensuring good medium rotary dryer
air/grain contact. In small
scale rotary dryers, the walls
are heated by direct contact
with flue gases. Machinery & Power, University of
41
vi) Tray dryer :-
• In a tray dryer, many
shallow trays are kept one
above the other with a gap
between in the drying
chamber. Try dryer is
generally used for drying
vegetables. If the heated
air is coming from the
sides of drying chamber, Fig. Tray dryer (1. exit air 2.blower 3.heater
4. inter space between trays 5.trays
the trays may not have 6. plenum chamber
perforated bottom.
Products are kept in thin
layers in the trays Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm
vii) Tunnel dryer :-
• It is similar to tray dryer. When the group of trays is
moving in a tunnel, the system becomes a tunnel
dryer. The flow of heated air in a tunnel dryer may be
concurrent or counter current.
Fig. Tunnel dryer

1.blower 2. heater 3.trays 4.exit air chimney

viii) Grain drying in bags :-
• This method is useful to dry grains in small
quantities.
• Method requires large number of unskilled labours
and more space is needed.
• The heated air is forced through the racks and bags.
• During drying, the bags are inverted at least once to
accomplish drying on both sides of the bags.

SELECTION OF GRAIN DRYERS
I) PRELIMINARY DRYER SELECTION :
The important factors to be considered in the
preliminary selection of a crop dryer are as follows :-
i) Physico-chemical properties of the crop being handled.
ii) Drying characters of crop.
(1) Type of crop
(2) Initial, final and equilibrium moisture content.
(3) Permissible drying temperature.
(4) Drying curves and drying times for different
crops with different dryers

iii) Flow of crop to and from the dryer.
Quantity to be handled per hour. Continuous or batch
generations.
Process during drying and subsequent to drying.
iv) Product Qualities
(a) Color(b) Flavor (b) Shrinkage
(c) Contamination (d) Uniformity of drying
(e) Decomposition or Conversion of product constituents
(f) Over drying (g) Product Temperature
(h) Bulk density
(i) Cracking and other desirable qualities of the end products.

v) Facilities available at the site of proposed
installation.
a) Space
b) Temperature, humidity, cleanliness of air.
c) Availability of fuels
d) Available electric power
e) Permissible noise, vibration dust, or heat
losses.
g) Exhaust gas outlets

FINAL SELECTION OF DRYERS
For successful introduction of any grain dryer at farm level,
following points be given due consideration:
1. The dryer should be of proper size matching with the
demand of a farmer
2. The price of the dryer should be reasonable
3. The design of layer should be simple and made of
different cheap and locally available materials
4. It should be easy to operate

5. It should be possible to make the dryer portable if
necessary
6. The operating cost should be minimum- solar or
furnace operated (i.e. fired with agricultural waste
like rice husk, wood, etc.) air heating system should
be introduced in grain drying to minimize the cost
of grain drying.
7. The repair and maintenance requirement should be
minimum
8. It should be possible to use the dryer for different
grains and to be used as a storage bin later for its
maximum utilization

DESIGN PROCEDURE OF GRAIN DRYERS
The heated air grain dryers can be divided into three major groups.
1) Static deep bed batch dryers.
2) Continuous - flow - batch dryers. (either mixing or non -
mixing type) and
3) Continuous dryer.
Components of dryer - Grain dryers mainly consist of
(a)Drying chamber
(b) Air distribution system
(c) Direct or indirect air heating system
(d) Blower
(e) Control system
(f) Grain conveying system
The following important factors are taken into
consideration in the design of heated air grain dryers
DRYER FACTORS: -
(a) Size, shape, and type of dryer
(b) Grain feeding rate
(c) Total drying time
(d) Air flow pattern and air distribution system
(e) Depth of grain bed in the dryer
(f) System of cooling grain, if any

AIR FACTORS :-
(a) Velocity and air flow rate per unit mass of the grain.
(b) Temperature and relative humidity of the heated air
and exhaust air.
(c) Static pressure of the air at which it is blown
(d) Average ambient conditions
GRAIN FACTORS :-
(a) Type, variety, and condition of grain.
(b) Initial and final moisture contents of grain
(c) The usage of dried grain
(d) Latent heat of evaporation of grain moisture.
HEATING SYSTEM
(a) Type of fuel and rate of fuel supply
(b) Type of burner (for liquid fuel) or type of
furnace (for solid fuel)
(c) Type of heat exchanger, if installed

IMP. DRYER DESIGN FACTORS: -
A) Size, shape and type of dryer
• Size or capacity of a dryer is decided by the amount
and variety of grain to be dried per day or for the
whole season
• The sizes of dryer are expressed either in terms of
holding capacity of amount of grain to be dried per unit
time or the amount of grain passing through the dryer
per unit time.
• Farm level batch dryers can be made of locally available
materials, namely, wood, bamboo, etc. if necessary.
• Commercial big dryers are made of mild steel sheet,
angle iron, channel section supports.
B) Calculation of air and heat for heated air dryers i.e.
Mass and Heat Balance in grain drying:-
The rate of air flow required for drying may be
calculated by making heat balance. The heated air
drying system is represented by :
` X1,T G1
Ambient air; Hot air, Exhaust air,

v1.T1,w1, RH1 Heater T2,W1,RH2 Dryer, T3,w2,RH3
Wd
W1, W2, W - Air absolute humidity,
RH1, RH2, RH3 –Air Relative humidity,
T1,T2, T3- Air temperature
X1, X2 - Grain moisture content
TG1, TG2 – Grain temperature
V1 – Initial air specific volume X2TG2
Wd – Grain DM
Machinery & Power, University of Agriculture 55
Faisalabad
Qv= volumetric air flow rate at inlet, m3/min.
w1 & w2= Absolute humidities of ambient and heated air, kg/kg
w3 = Absolute humidity of exhaust air, kg/kg.
RH, RH2 & RH3 = relative humidities of ambient, heated and exhaust air,
respectively, per cent.
T1, T2 & T3= dry bulb temperatures of ambient, heated and
exhaust air respectively, 0C.
Wd= total weight of bone dry grain in the dryer, kg, (DM)
X1, X2 = initial and final moisture contents of grain, kg H2O/kg DM
T G1, TG2 = initial and final grain temperatures, 0C
= specific volume (initial humid volume), m3/kg DA
v1
ϴ= total drying time, min.
Qm = mass flow rate of air supply at inlet, kg/min
Heat supplied by drying air, qa, kcals, (qa=c.m.∆T) :
qa= (0.24+0.45 w1) Qm (T2 - T3 ) ϴ ----- (1)
Amount of heat required :
Heat required for evaporation of moisture from the grain, q1 , kcals :
q1 = Wd( X1 - X2 ) λ -------------- (2)
=[Kg DM.(kg H2O/kg DM).(kcals/kg H2O)]=kcals heat
where,
λ = average value of latent heat of vaporization of moisture from
the grain, kcals/kg H2O.
Sensible heat required to raise the temperature of the grain and its
moisture, q, kcals :
qs=Wd .Cg(TG 1– TG2) + (Wd. X1 ). Cw .(TG1 -TG2 ). --- (3)
where
Cg, Cw = specific heats of grain and water respectively, kcal/kg 0C
Therefore, qa =q1+ qs ---------- (4)

Insert values of eq. 1, 2, & 3 into eq. 4
qa =q1+ qs ---------- (4)
(0.24+0.45 w1) Qm (T2 - T3 ) ϴ = Wd( X1 - X2 ) λ + Wd .Cg(TG 1– TG2) +Wd. X1 .Cw(.TG1 -TG2 ).
Qm=Qv.v1
or Qv=Qm/v1
Where, v1= air specific volume (initial), m3/kg DA

C) Calculation of fuel requirement
Fuel consumption :
where
– f = fuel rate, kg/hr.
– q'a = total heat required to heat the drying air,
kcal/hr.
– Cn = Calorific value of fuel, kcal/kg of fuel.
– ρ = efficiency of the heating system.
– ρex = efficiency of the heat exchanger.
– ρb = efficiency of the boiler, if any.

D) Selection/Design of centrifugal fan and blowers
In centrifugal fans, the air enters the impeller axially and is
discharge radially into a volute-type casing. Centrifugal
fans are Forward Curve (FC), Backward Inclined(BI),
Radial Blade
For a given set of airflow rate and static pressure, the impeller
diameter and width of blower are found as following:
1) Calculate the specific speed (Ns) for the specific static
pressure, air flow rate and designed motor speed.
– N = speed of motor, rpm
– Q = air flow rate, cfm
– ps = static pressure, inches water gauge

2). From Fig. I-1 determine the peak efficiency at the
calculated specific speed (Ns).
3). From Table I-1 find the value of pressure coefficient ψ
by interpolation, for the type of fan or blower selected and
the value of specific speed (Ns).
4). Calculate the diameter of the impeller (d).

where ψ = pressure coefficient (Table I-1)
d = diameter of the impeller, inch
5). Find out the typical value of flow coefficient Φfrom
table and then calculate the width.
Where, Φ = flow coefficient (Table I-1)

W= width of the impeller, inch

d
Fig.I-1 Specific speed vs. static efficiency of various impellers

Table I-1. Values of specific speeds, typical pressure co-efficient,
typical flow coefficient and dimensions of centrifugal blowers
Dimension Specific Typical Typical flow
Speed pressure coeff.
coeff.
A B C Ns Ψ Φ
1.7(d) 1.5(d) 1.25W+0.1d 13,000 1 0.15
20,000 2.0 0.5
40,000 1.0 0.75
1.4(d) 1.35(d) W+0.1d 4,000 1.4 0.002

8,000 1.0 0.01
20,000 0.8 0.10
2.0(d) 1.6(d) W+0.16d 15,000 1.0 0.08

30,000 0.75 0.3
45,000 0.5 0.5

Blower housing (Fig. I-2)-
1. Controls the air flow from
intake to discharge
2. Converts the velocity
head into the static
pressure head.
Pressure conversion is accomplished as the cross-section of the air

stream increases in the increasing annular space on the
periphery of the blower wheel from cutoff to discharge.
Since the amount of pressure conversion is determined by the scroll
configuration, the shape of the housing considerably affects air
performance. The cutoff eliminates almost all free circulation of
air within the housing.
Diffuser angle (Fig I-3)
The increase in annular cross-section in the scroll around a blower wheel is proportional
to the developed length of the wheel periphery.
The angle between the developed scroll surface and blower wheel periphery is called
the diffuser angle (α) and is generally 10O
Wheel diameter and diffuser angle determines the shape and dimensions of the scroll.
The diffuser angle can be determined graphically and expressed in terms of impeller
diameter and either the maximum height or maximum width of the housing.

• The diffuser angle can be determined graphically and
expressed in terms of impeller diameter (d) and either the
maximum height (AE=HM) or maximum width (CG=WM) of
the housing. Diffuser angle may be given as:
• As the diffuser angle increases, the flow rate increases

significantly at any particular static pressure
• The diffuser angle generally is generally 10°.
• Although large diffuser angle improves performance, but
the size of the housing with respect to the diameter of the
blower wheel becomes too large.

The housing width (M or C) may be determined by the
following equation
M=1.25 W + 0.1 d .................................. (c)
where,
M or C= housing width
W = impeller width
d = impeller diameter

Calculating diffuser angle
The diffuser angle, is calculated with dimensions
AE = maximum dimension Y of the space available (Fig. I-2).
The diffuser angle, is calculated with dimension
CG = maximum dimension X of the space available.
The smaller of two diffuser angles corresponds to the housing that will
fit into the space available for blower. If the calculated diffuser angle
is 4° or less, the housing is too tight.
If possible, a smaller blower wheel that produces the required air
performance at a higher operational speed should be selected.
(Fig I-3)
(Fig. I-2) Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm
E) Drying air temperature
• Correct choice of drying air temperature for a given
type of grain is very imp. as it has effects on the quality
of dried product.
• The highest allowable air temperature for drying of
grain depends on the type and condition of grain and
the usage of dried grain.
• The upper limit of drying air temperature for different
grain to be used for food, feed and seed purpose are
different and are given in following table.

F) Grain parameters - The grain factors which affect the
rate of drying are as follows :-
1. Type, variety and condition of grain.
2. Initial harvest moisture content, final moisture
and equilibrium moisture content of the grain.
3. Structure and chemical composition of the
kernel, seed, coat, husk etc.
4. Foreign materials present in the grain.

Table: Bulk densities of grain at different MC
Grain Moisture Bulk Bulk
content Density Density
% (w.b.) kg/m3 Ib/ft3
Paddy 14 588 36.82

18 615 38.53
Wheat 11 790 49.46
14 756 47.35
Corn 13 737 46.15
16 721 45.15
(shelled) 11 577 36.12
17 593 37.12
Barly, sorgum 12 753 47.15
14 753 47.15
Table : Latent Heat of vaporization of grain moisture
Grain Moisture Temperature Heat of
content OC
vaporization
%(w.b.) (Kcal/kg)
Wheat 13 38 629.4
13 65 611.6
17 38 589.9
17 65 573.8
Corn 13 38 698.8
13 65 679.4
17 38 644.4
17 65 626.1
Sorghum 13 38 624.4
13 65 606.2
17 38 593.3
17 65 576.6
- 38 576.1
Water - 65 560.0

Table : Specific gravity of cereal grains
Grain Moisture content Specific gravity of
% (w.b.) kernel
Rice 8.6 1.36

Wheat 8.5 1.41
Corn 6.7 1.29
Barley 7.5 1.42
Millet 9.4 1.11
Oats 10.33 0.99

Table: Thermal properties of cereal grains
Grain Moisture Temperature Specific heat Thermal Thermal
content range 0C kcal/kg OC conductivity diffusivity
%(w.b)
kcal/m hr OC m2/hr
Paddy 12 - 0.3934 - -
15 - 0.4255 - -
17 - 0.4469 - -
9.2 - 0.370 0.1198 0.000414
11.7 26.50 to - 0.128 -
Wheat 31.0 - -
Wheat, hard 12 - 0.367
white
15 - 0.391 - -
Wheat, soft 14.4 9.0 to 23.0 0.5 0.116 0.000295

white 9.8 8.3 - 23.2 0.438 0.1308 0.000338
Corn, yellow
dent
13.2 26.6-31.1 - 0.102 -

Oats 12 - 0.380 - -
15 - 0.415 - -
17 - 0.439 - -

Air distribution system
Sufficient care should be taken in selecting and
designing the air distribution System so that .air is
uniformly distributed throughout the grain bulk and
void pockets are avoided. There are five major
systems of air distribution :
(a) Perforated floor
(b) Central horizontal duct
(c) Main duct and laterals
(d) Vertical slatted duct

Figure. Figure.
Figure.
Figure.
Figure.
Fig. Four common floor layouts for Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, Deptt. Farm
the main duct and lateral in bins Agriculture Faisalabad
DRYER PERFORMANCE & TESTING
Dryer performance can be expressed in terms of various
efficiency factors as following:
(a) Thermal efficiency :-
• Thermal efficiency is the ratio of the latent heat of
evaporation credited to the heat energy of the fuel
charged.
• Mathematically as follows :-

• Where,
•
• dM /dƟ = drying rate, kg H2O/ hr.DM
• Wd = weight of dry material (DM), Kg
• Ƭ = latent heat of evaporation, Kcal/Kg.H2O
• q = rate of heat flow, Kcal /hr
• Qv=volumetric air flow rate, CMM
• v = initial humid volume of air m3/Kg.
• h1 and h0 = enthalpy of drying and ambient air Kcal/Kg DA

(b) Heat utilization factor (HUF)
• HUF may be defined as the ratio of temperature
decrease due to cooling of the air during drying and
the temperature increases due to heating of air.
(c) Coefficient of performance ( COP)
• where
• t2 = dry bulb temperature of exhaust air, 0C
• t0 = dry bulb temperature of ambient air, 0C
• t1 = dry bulb temperature of drying air, 0C
(d) Relation Between HUF and COP
HUF = 1 - COP

AGE 407: Engineering Properties and Processing of Agric. Materials (3 Units)
• Physical and mechanical properties of agricultural materials.

• Thermal properties of agricultural materials.
• Moisture equilibration.
• Air movement.
• Drying theory – thin layer and deep bed drying.
• Design of drying systems.
• Storage principles and practice.
• Principles and applications of the rheology of foods.
• Class project
LECTURER – IN – CHARGE
ENGR. DR. T.M.A. OLAYANJU
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
(CROP PROCESSING & STORAGE)
1
AGE 407: Engineering Properties and Processing of Agric. Materials (3 Units)
SUMMARISED NOTE
Engineering properties and cell

The behaviour of biomaterials are dependent
on the cell behaviour. (A brief description of
cell structure with diagram is necessary). The
cell wall has elastic behaviour. It is capable of
expanding and contracting in response to
pressure. This is partly responsible for the
elastic behaviour of biomaterials. The liquid
content of the cytoplasm and the fluid (air
content of vacuoles) exhibit the rheological
behaviour materials etc.
Cell wall
Middle lamella
Inter cellular
Chloroplast
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Vacuoles
Diagram of any cell with labeling
Basic characteristics of biomaterials

a. Non-homogeneous – Properties
vary along a dimension/direction
b. No-isotropic – Properties vary with
different directions
c. Moisture dependent – behaviour is
dependent on the moisture content
d. Temperature dependent –
properties vary with levels of heat
applied
e. Time dependent – maturity with
time or behaviour differs with time
2
• Physical – Size and Shape – useful in handling, separation and storage
• Mechanical – Hardness, friction coefficient – useful in size reduction and
conveying operations
• Thermal - Thermal Conductivity and diffusivity – useful in heating and
cooling operations
• Electrical - Conductivity and resistivity - separation and determination
of moisture content
Geometric characteristic used in describing different shapes
• Round - approaches circular shape

• Long - longitudinal length greater than the lateral.
• Oblate - flattened stem end
• Oblong - vertical diameter diameter greater than horizontal diameter
• Conic - tapered towards the apex
• Ovate - Egg shaped and broad at tail end
• Regular - Horizontal section approaches a circle
3
Determination of the physical and mechanical properties
The methods used for are those that have been established in literatures.
Size and Sphericity

Fifty replicate samples of grain/seeds are randomly selected. The three linear
dimensions of each seed namely major, intermediate and minor diameters are measured
with a micro meter screw gauge, reading to 0.01mm or vernier calliper. The equivalent
diameter and sphericity of each seed are determined using the following equation
proposed by Mohsenin (1986)
Equivalent Diameter, DΕ= (L X B X T) 1/3 ……………….. 1
1/3
and Sphericity, ψ = (LXBXT) ………….…….…2
L
where: L = Longest intercept, (Length) in mm; B = Longest intercept normal to ‘L’
(Breadth) in mm; T= Longest intercept normal to ‘L’ and ‘B’(Thickness) in mm.
Bulk Density:
The bulk density of seed at different moisture content is determined by filling a
container of known self-weight and volume to the brim with seeds and weighing to
determine the net weight of the seeds. Uniform density is achieved by tapping the
container 10 times in the same manner in all measurements. The bulk density is
calculated as
Bulk Density (g/cm3) = Weight of sample (g) ……………3
Volume occupied (cm3)
True Density
The true or solid density defined as the ratio of a given mass of sample to its
volume is determined by the water displacement method. Accordingly, a known weight
(50g) of sample is poured into a 100cm3 fractionally graduated cylinder containing 50cm3
distilled water. The volume of water displaced by the seeds is observed. The true density
s calculated as
True Density (g/cm3) = Weight of the sample (g) ………… 4
Volume of distilled water displaced (cm3)
The representative values of bulk and true densities are taken as the average of 3
replications.
Porosity
The porosity of an unconsolidated agricultural material can either be determined
experimentally using the porosity tank method or theoretically from bulk and true
densities of the material. Results from both methods have been found to be in close
agreement (Waziri and Mittal, 1983). The porosity of seed determined using the
relationship presented by Mohsenin (1986) as follows;
Porosity = (1 – (Bulk Density/ True Density) )/100 ………………5
4
Laboratory Determination of the Porosity of granular materials
Steps
• Fill jar 2 with the product and set up the two jars as shown
• Close valves 2 and 3 and pump air into jar 1until a considerable pressure
P1 is recorded. Using the gas law
P1 V1 = m1 R1 T1
• Close valve 1 and open 3 with two remaining closed and draw out air from
jar two
• Close valve 3 and open 2. The air in jar 1 will be distributed into the two
jars. Pressure will drop. Record the pressure as P2
• In jar 1; P2 V1 = m1a R1 T1
• In jar 2; P2 V2 = m2 R2 T2
But m1 = m1a + m2,
Also since the same gas is used throughout under the same condition;
R1 = R2 and T1 = T2
Therefore from Equations 1,2,3 and 4
P1 V1 = P2 V1 + P2 V2
V2 P1 − P2
= = ratio of void in jar 2 to volume of jar2 (= Vol of jar1)
V1 P2
Thousand Kernel Weight

For small seeds, 1000 kernels are weighed and a parameter known as the
thousand-kernel weight (TKW) is determined. An electronic weighing balance having a
sensitivity of 0.10g is used.
Coefficient of Friction
The static coefficient of friction was obtained on four structural surfaces namely
mildsteel, plywood, concrete and glass. In the case of plywood the direction of
movement was parallel to the grain. A tilting table (constructed by the Department of
Agricultural Engineering, UNAAB) can be used. The surface to be tested is fixed on the
tilting table and the seeds are poured into a cardboard paper ring of diameter 10cm by
2cm deep until the ring is full. Care is taken to raise the ring slightly so that it did not
touch the surface. The table is then slowly tilted by a gentle screwing device until
movement of the seeds down mounted against the edge of the tilting table. The tangent
of the angle of friction is the coefficient of friction
5
AERODYNAMICS PROPERTIES
The properties include particle diameter, frontal area, terminal velocity and drag
coefficients.
Before the introduction of the first set of machines, contaminants were removed from
seeds by hand. A mixture of grain and straw was spread in a thin layer on the threshing
floor and the large contaminant particles mostly pieces of straw, were removed with a
rake. The remaining contaminants larger than the grains were removed with broom or
goose wing. Light contaminants were removed by throwing the grain against the wind
which lifted the contaminants and ensured partial separation. This manual process is
usually time and energy consuming and the efficiency of separation is low. This led to the
invention of cleaning machines. The operation of those machines as reported by
Adegbulugbe (1983) consist almost solely of separating non-edible impurities such as
rubble, lumps, stick, straw, stringe and trapped irons which are obvious. The major
characteristics used in separation are size, shape, density, surface texture, terminal
velocity, electrical conductivity, colour and resilience (Koya and Adekoya, 1994; Lucas
and Olayanju, 2003). These determine what methods of cleaning can be used and their
level of efficiency. Most cleaning operations used physical and aerodynamics properties
of grain either singly or in some combination. This depends primarily on the grain being
cleaned, the quantity of weeds and other contaminants in the mixture and the purity
requirements that must be met.
Test Equipment
Terminal velocity of seed, the velocity at which the seed remains in suspension, is
measured by using a vertical air tunnel (Figure 1). It consists of the following
components: a frame, wind tunnel, plenum chamber, flow straightener, centrifugal
blower, electric motor, pitot tubes and inclined manometer filled with coloured water.
The centrifugal fan was mounted on a frame and it provides air current for the
equipment. A vertical tunnel which was coupled to the fan is 1200mm long with 100mm
x 100mm cross section. An adjustable flap at the top of the fan allows variation of
admission of air from the fan into the tunnel. The tunnel was built with mild steel sheet
but the front was covered with 2mm thick transparent plastic material for observation. A
window was cut at the front of the test section, and below it is a small screen braced to
cover the inside of the section. This was to break small eddies behind the vanes and to
keep the seed from falling into the chamber (Figure 2).
Air current was monitored in the tunnel with a pitot-static tube mounted inside the
tunnel below the product-holding screen. These were two in numbers; the total pressure
pitot tube and the static pressure pitot tube. The former is a right-angled bent tube with
long arm being 290mm and short arm being 95mm. The static tube is straight with
200mm2. The diameter of the glass tube is about 10mm.
The out ports of the pilot static tube were connected to the two arms of a -
coloured water filled manometer. It is made with a 10mm diameter glass tube inclined at
120 to the horizontal. It has a length of 440mm; longer limb 320mm and shorter limb
320mm. The manometer was installed on a – 700mm long, 400mm wide and 12mm thick
plywood. Two-holes were drilled at the top of the frame to hold the rubber corks through
which manometer limbs passed out. The manometer was connected to the pilot tubes by
Ǿ 10mm rubber tubes. A ruler was screwed to the frame below the manometer. This is to
aid the reading of the rise of the liquid.
6
C
B
D
Figure 1: Isometric View of the Terminal Velocity Test Equipment

A – Manometer; B – Manometer Box; C – Rubber Hose;
D – Pitot Tube; E – Wind Duct; F – Electric Motor; G – Blower
7
G
A
E
Figure 2: Terminal Velocity Test Equipment

A – Vertical Tunnel; B – Perspex Glass; C – Seed Inlet; D – Centrifugal Blower;
E – Manometer; F – Total Pressure Tube; G – Static Pressure Tube
8
Principle of Operation
From Bernoulli’s equation (Douglas et al), at two points 1 and 2 in a flowing fluid
(Figure 3):
P1 + V12 + m = P2 + V22 + h2
D 2g D 2g
where P is the pressure head
D
V2 is the velocity head and h is the elevation head.
2g
D is the density based on gravity.
Ps Ps + Pv
1 2
Figure 3: Static and Total Pressure Pitot Tubes
Bernoulli’s principle states that in a pipe where fluid flows under steady state
conditions without friction, total head is constant; if pressure head is lost, it appears as a
Ǿ = 120 gain in velocity head. In a flow of fluid through a level pipe as shown above,
applying Bernoullis equation to points 1 and 2 gives:
P1 + V2 = P2 + 0
D 2g D
The velocity at point 2 is zero as this is a stagnation point where only static pressure is
considered to be acting. Therefore,
P2 – P1 = V2
D 2g
The pressure heads measured by the manometer is h. Therefore,
V = √2gh
where h is the head measured by the manometer after it has been converted into head of
working fluid. In this, the range of different air velocities was obtained by adjustable
speed motor attached with blower.
9
Measurements of Terminal Velocity
The test equipment is initially run without any seed while response of the
measuring instrument: Pitot – static tube and manometer are observed. The seed sample
is placed on a mosquito wire netting within the duct and is blown upwards using a
centrifugal blower whose speed is controlled by a variable speed motor. The air velocity
at which the seed is lifted off the contacting surface is determined.
Computation of Terminal Velocity using Sphericity Method

The terminal velocity of beniseed was also computed based on its sphericity. According
to the equation proposed by Torobin and Ganvin (1960) as reported by Gorial and
O’callaghan 1991; the drag coefficient, CD = 5.31 – 4.884 ψ for low Reynold’s number
(with + 4% accuracy) where ψ is sphencity of grain with 2000 < Re < 200,000.
The value of CD is then used in an equation proposed by Kashayap and Pandya, 1986 for
calculation of terminal velocity as:
Vt = √2Mg
Ap Sf CD
where:
M = Weight of particle (kg)
AP = Projected area of seed, LW (m2)
CD = Drag Coefficient
δf = Density of fluid (air), (kg/m3) = 1.150
N.B - Density and Viscosity of air were assumed constant at the temp and pressure when
the experiment was carried out
g = Acceleration due to gravity, m/s2 = 9.81
Terminal Velocity
This is the main characteristic employed in the separation process and can be determined
by the suspension velocity test which as follows: A duct 1m long with a rectangular
section of 0.1m x 0.1m is used to suspend particles in an air stream. Air is supplied by a
centifugal fan driven by an electric motor. The fan delivered air through a converging
duct. Mmean air velocity is determined as a function of mid velocity, obtained from
computation using a pitot tube and manometer of trading up to less than 1m/s.
Suspension tests are carried out on all components or the grain mixture by placing
particles of the grain mixture on the duct until the particles, seen through the transparent
wall, floated in the central area of the air stream.
10
Mechanical Behaviour of Beniseed under Compression Loading
Compression tests are performed on seeds/kernels using the Monsanto Universal
Testing Machine (National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization, (NCAM) Ilorin,
Kwara State). Testing Conditions for the lnstron Machine were loading range: 0 - 500N;
chart speed – 50rpm/mm; Crosshead speed – 1.5mm/min. The procedure used by Braga
et. al. (1999) is followed.
Each seed is placed between the compression plates of the tensonometer (Plate
3). The seed is compressed at a constant deformation rate of 1.25mm/min. The applied
forces at bioyield and oil points and their corresponding deformations for each seed
sample is read directly from the force-deformation curve. The mechanical behaviour of
seed is expressed in terms of force required for maximum strength of the seed, energy
required to deform the seed to initial rupture and seed specific deformation. The rupture
force is determined as the force on the digital display when the seed under compression
makes a clicking sound. Each process is often completed whenever the break point of the
positioned seed is reached.
Beniseed
Kernel
Plate 3: Seed Kernel under Compression Loading
11
Table 1: Measured Terminal Velocity of Beniseed at the Storage Moisture Content of
5.3% wb Using Vertical Tunnel
Serial No Inclined length Actual length Height of air Terminal velocity

L, 10-3(m) hw = Lsinθ, 10-3(m) ha = hwdw/da, 10-3(m) Vt = 2/gha, (m/s)
1 1.1 0.23 0.19 1.95
2 1.2 0.25 0.21 2.02
3 1.1 0.23 0.19 1.95
4 1.1 0.23 0.19 1.95
5 1 0.21 0.17 1.84
6 1 0.21 0.17 1.84
7 1.2 0.25 0.21 2.02
8 1.1 0.23 0.19 1.95
9 1.2 0.25 0.21 2.02
10 1 0.21 0.17 1.84
11 1.1 0.23 0.19 1.95
12 1.1 0.23 0.19 1.95
13 1.2 0.25 0.21 2.02
14 1.4 0.29 0.24 2.18
15 1.1 0.23 0.19 1.95
16 1.1 0.23 0.19 1.95
17 1.2 0.25 0.21 2.02
18 1.2 0.25 0.21 2.02
19 1.2 0.25 0.21 2.02
20 1.1 0.23 0.19 1.95
21 1.2 0.25 0.21 2.02
22 1.1 0.23 0.19 1.95
23 1.1 0.23 0.19 1.95
24 1.6 0.33 0.28 2.33
25 1 0.21 0.17 1.84
26 1.1 0.23 0.19 1.95
27 1.2 0.25 0.21 2.02
28 1.2 0.25 0.21 2.02
29 1.4 0.29 0.24 2.18
30 1.2 0.25 0.21 2.02
31 1.4 0.29 0.24 2.18
32 1.1 0.23 0.19 1.95
33 1.5 0.31 0.26 2.26
34 1 0.21 0.17 1.84
35 1.1 0.23 0.19 1.95
36 1.6 0.33 0.28 2.33
37 1.1 0.23 0.19 1.95
38 1.1 0.23 0.19 1.95
39 1.2 0.25 0.21 2.02
40 1.1 0.23 0.19 1.95
41 1 0.21 0.17 1.84
42 1.1 0.23 0.19 1.95
43 1.5 0.31 0.26 2.26
44 1.1 0.23 0.19 1.95
45 1.2 0.25 0.21 2.02
46 1 0.21 0.17 1.84
47 1.1 0.23 0.19 1.95
48 1.1 0.23 0.19 1.95
49 1.6 0.33 0.28 2.33
50 1.1 0.23 0.19 1.95
Mean 1.176 0.2452 0.2036 2.0018
Maximum 1.6 0.33 0.28 2.33
Minimum 1 0.21 0.17 1.84
Std. Deviation 0.159795788 0.031959158 0.028696867 0.127642517
3
θ = Manometer’s angle of inclination = 12 deg; δw3= Density of manometer’s fluid (water) = 1000kg/m
2
;
δa = Density of air at room temperature = 1.2kg/m ; g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81m/s
12
Moisture content
Moisture content is the amount of moisture per unit weight of the product.
Moisture content wet basis and moisture content dry basis.

Mwb is the weight of water in a product per unit weight of the wet material, expressed in
percentage.
Mdb is the weight of water in a product per unit weight of the dry matter, expressed in
percentage.
The relationship between Mwb and Mdb is as follows:

Mwb = Mdb(100)
100 + Mdb
Mdb = Mwb(100)
100 - Mdb
Mwb is usually used in commerce, Mdb in engineering calculations.
EXAMPLES
1a) You are supplied with two bags of maize each weighing 1.0tonne. One bag
has maize of 25% dry basis and the other contains maize of 25% wet basis. Which
bag contains more dry matter? Show your calculations.
Solution
a) 1tonne of maize = 1000kg
i) Mwb= Mw/ Mwp
Mw/1000 = 0.25
Mw = 250kg; Mdm= 750kg
ii) Mdb= Mw/(Mwp – Mw) ; Mw/1000 – Mw) = 0.25

Mw = 250 – 0.25M Mw; Mdm= 750kg
Mw = 200kg; Mdm= 800kg
The bag of 25% dry basis contains more dry matter:
b) For storage, two bags of maize in (b) are dried to moisture content of 13% wet
basis. How much water or moisture will each loose? Show all calculations.
For the first bag, Mw = 0.13
750 + Mw
Mw = 97.5 + 0.13M Mw;
Mw = 112.07kg
Water lost = 250 – 112.07 = 137.93kg
For the second bag, Mw = 0.13

800 + Mw
Mw = 104+ 0.13M Mw;
Mw = 119.54kg
Water lost = 200 – 119.54 = 80.46kg
13
(2) A biscuit factory obtained maize from two sources (20 tonnes each), one has 12%
moisture content (mc) dry basis and the other 12% mc wet basis. Which one has more dry
matter? Justify your answer with calculations.
Both bags have same weight, hence wet weight (original weight) are same
MD = 0.12, MW = 0.12, WW = 20000Kg
Dry Basis Wet Basis

WW − DWd WW − DWw
MD = MW =
DWd WW
DWw
WW = DWd(MD + 1) WW =
1 − MW
WW
DWd = DWw = WW(1-MW)
MD + 1
= 20000 (1.12)-1 = 20000(0.88)
= 17,860 kg = 17,600kg
Bag with MC dry basis is heavier in dry matter
(b) In (i) above, the company paid N60000.00 per tonne for the maize at 12% mc dry
basis. How much should a tonne cost at 12% mc wet basis. If the materials has to
be dried to 5% mc dry basis, what quantity of water will be lost from the material
from each source per tonne.
Since both will have the same dry matter content i.e. if material in the bag with dry basis
was to have been at wet basis
1 Tonne of dry basis costs N 60,000.00
WW
Dry weight for the MD bag = DWd = = 1000((1.12)-1 = 893kg
MD + 1
DWw
The actual wet weight of the MW bag will be WW = = 893(0.88)-1 =
1 − MW
1014kg
60,000(1000)
Therefore 1 Tonne of wet will cost ) = N59,171.59
1014
Drying to 5% mc for dry basis (This can be done for either 1 or 20 Tonnes)
WW = DW(MD + 1) = 17860(1.05) = 18753
Weight of water lost = 20,000 – 18753 = 1247kg
Drying to 5% mc for wet basis

DWw
WW = = 17600(1.-0.05)-1 = 19,555
1 − MW
Weight of water lost = 20,000 – 19555 = 444.44kg
14
Forms in which water is found in food materials
- Pure form as surface water. In this case , it is not part of the product but comes
from external source
- Chemically bound to some salts either by its prime valence or as a hydrate. This is
not expelled by the common method of food processing.
- Adsorbed as a very thin mono or poly – molecular layer in the internal or external
surfaces of product by molecular forces or in fine pores by capillary condensation.
- Adsorbed by colloid substances and remain in a jell as of water of swelling due to
its dipolar character.
- Present as a continuous phase, in which 0ther substances may be dispersed
molecularly, colloid ally or as an emulsion.
Equilibrium moisture content – moisture content at which the vapour pressure of

the moisture present in a product is at equilibrium with the vapour pressure of the
environment at constant temperature.
Relative humidity - Ratio of the moisture present in an environment at a given
temperature and pressure relative to saturation \
Moisture isotherm - Relationship between the emc and rh at constant
temperature.
It is a sigmoidal shaped curve of emc vs rh during sorption and desorption of
biomaterials.
From the diagram, during sorption, the path of the curve is as shown as curve 1. It is
expected that the curve will come back through the same path. However this doesn’t
happen in practice. Therefore curve 1a represent the desorption curve which shows that
there a lagging effect called hysteresis (shaded portion) representing a lost in energy!.
This effect is repeated with repeated sorprtion and desorption with the energy lost
reducing until the curve closes up and sorption and desorption follows the same path.
15
Fineness Modulus and Uniformity Index
Fineness modulus is the sum of the weight fractions retained in each of the seven sieves
divided by 100. It indicates the average distribution of fines and coarse in a feed.
Uniformity index is a measure of the relative uniformity of of the different sizes of

particles in a ground feed sample. It is expressed as a ratio of 3 figures which indicate the
proportions of coarse, medium and fine particles in the feed.
Laboratory Determination of Fineness Modulus of a feed

Fineness Modulus is determined in the following way:
Weigh out 250g of ground feed and shake it through 7 sieves of Tyler sieve for 5min by
means of ro –tap shaker or similar method. The mesh nos of the 7 sieves are 3/8, 4, 8, 14,
28, 48 and 100 as well as the pan at the bottom. The sieves are designated 1 – 7 starting
from the smallest to the biggesti.e from 100 to 3/8 while the pan is designated as 0.
Calculate the percentage of material on each screen and multiply it by the designated no.
add up all and divide by 100. The result is known as F.M. of the feed.
EXAMPLES
(i) Below is a result of a sieve experiment using poultry feed.
Sieve Mesh % of Material on each Screen

3
/8 2
4 1.5
8 7.0
14 20.0
28 31.5
48 26.5
100 11.5
Pan 0
From this result, calculate the Uniformity Index. How can you describe the feed?
Coarse = (2 + 1.5 + 7.0)/10 = 1.05; approximately 1
Medium = (20 + 31.5)/10 = 5.15; approximately 5
Fine = (26.5 + 11.5 + 0)/10 = 3.8; approximately 4
Uniformity index = 1:5:4
From the above, the feed is between medium and fine.
16
RHEOLOGY
Normal stress (σ )
Young’s modulus – E =
Normal strain (ε )
Shear stress (τ )
Modulus of rigidity – G =
Shear strain (γ )
w+Δw
ΔL
Pr essure ( P )
Bulk modulus - K= Poisson’s ratio - μ = L
ΔW
Volumetric strain ( ΔVV ) W
E = Elastic Modulus, G = Modulus of rigidity, K = Bulk Modulus, μ = Poisson ratio

1 1 1
= + , E = 3K (1 − 2 μ ), E = 2G (1 − μ )
E 3G 9 K
Liquid is not compressible, hence G = 0
From Eqn 3, E = 2x0(1-μ) = 0
Liquid doesn’t support shear stress, this implies K = ∞ In Eqn 2,
E
= 0 for E = 0 or K = ∞
3∞
Hence 1- 2μ = 0
1
Therefore μ =
2
17
VISCOSITY
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids
Viscosity is that property of a fluid that gives rise to forces that resist the relative
movement of adjacent layers in the fluid. Viscous forces are of the same character as
shear forces in solids and they arise from forces that exist between the molecules.
If two parallel plane elements in a fluid are moving relative to one another, it is found
that a steady force must be applied to maintain a constant relative speed. This force is
called the viscous drag because it arises from the action of viscous forces.
Consider the system shown in Fig 1.
Figure 1. Viscous forces in a fluid.
If the plane elements are at a distance Z apart, and if their relative velocity is v, then the
force F required to maintain the motion has been found, experimentally, to be
proportional to v and inversely proportional to Z for many fluids. The coefficient of
proportionality is called the viscosity of the fluid, and it is denoted by the symbol m (mu).
From the definition of viscosity we can write F/A = mv/Z

(3.14) where F is the force applied, A is the area over which force is applied, Z is the
distance between planes, v is the velocity of the planes relative to one another, and m is
the viscosity.
By rearranging the eqn. (3.14), the dimensions of viscosity can be found.
[m] = FZ = [F][L][t] = [F][t] = [M][L]-1[t]-1
2
Av [L ][L] [L]2
There is some ambivalence about the writing and the naming of the unit of viscosity;
there is no doubt about the unit itself which is the N s m-2, which is also the Pascal
second, Pa s, and it can be converted to mass units using the basic mass/force equation.
The older units, the poise and its sub-unit the centipoise, seem to be obsolete, although
the conversion is simple with 10 poises or 1000 centipoises being equal to 1 N s m-2, and
to 1 Pa s.
The new unit is rather large for many liquids, the viscosity of water at room temperature
being around 1 x 10-3 N s m-2 and for comparison, at the same temperature, the
approximate viscosities of other liquids are acetone, 0.3 x 10-3 N s m-2; a tomato pulp, 3
x 10-3; olive oil, 100 x 10-3; and molasses 7000 N s m-2.
18
Viscosity is very dependent on temperature decreasing sharply as the temperature
rises. For example, the viscosity of golden syrup is about 100 N s m-2 at 16°C, 40 at
22°C and 20 at 25°C. Care should be taken not to confuse viscosity m as defined in eqn.
(3.14) which strictly is called the dynamic or absolute viscosity, with m/r which is called
the kinematic viscosity and given another symbol. In technical literature, viscosities are
often given in terms of units that are derived from the equipment used to measure the
viscosities experimentally. The fluid is passed through some form of capillary tube or
constriction and the time for a given quantity to pass through is taken and can be related
to the viscosity of the fluid. Tables are available to convert these arbitrary units, such as
"Saybolt Seconds" or "Redwood Seconds", to poises.
The viscous properties of many of the fluids and plastic materials that must be handled in
food processing operations are more complex than can be expressed in terms of one
simple number such as a coefficient of viscosity.
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids

From the fundamental definition of viscosity in eqn. (3.14) we can write:
F/A = mv /Z = m (dv/dz) = t
where t (tau) is called the shear stress in the fluid. This is an equation originally proposed
by Newton and which is obeyed by fluids such as water. However, for many of the actual
fluids encountered in the food industry, measurements show deviations from this simple
relationship, and lead towards a more general equation:
t = k(dv/dz)n (3.15)
which can be called the power-law equation, and where k is a constant of proportionality.
Where n = 1 the fluids are called Newtonian because they conform to Newton's equation
(3.14) and k = m; and all other fluids may therefore be called non-Newtonian. Non-
Newtonian fluids are varied and are studied under the heading of rheology, which is a
substantial subject in itself and the subject of many books. Broadly, the non-Newtonian
fluids can be divided into:
(1) Those in which n < 1. As shown in Fig. 3.6 these produce a concave downward curve
and for them the viscosity is apparently high under low shear forces decreasing as the
shear force increases. Such fluids are called pseudoplastic, an example being tomato
puree. In more extreme cases where the shear forces are low there may be no flow at all
until a yield stress is reached after which flow occurs, and these fluids are called
thixotropic.
(2) Those in which n > 1. With a low apparent viscosity under low shear stresses, they
become more viscous as the shear rate rises. This is called dilatancy and examples are
gritty slurries such as crystallized sugar solutions. Again there is a more extreme
condition with a zero apparent viscosity under low shear and such materials are called
rheopectic. Bingham fluids have to exceed a particular shear stress level (a yield stress)
before they start to move.
19
Figure 3.6. Shear stress/shear rate relationships in liquids.
In many instances in practice non-Newtonian characteristics are important, and they

become obvious when materials that it is thought ought to pump quite easily just do not.
They get stuck in the pipes, or overload the pumps, or need specially designed fittings
before they can be moved. Sometimes it is sufficient just to be aware of the general
classes of behaviour of such materials. In other cases it may be necessary to determine
experimentally the rheological properties of the material so that equipment and processes
can be adequately designed.
VISCOCITY
• Dilatant - Dynamic viscosity increases as the rate of shear increases (shear
thickening - )
• Pseudoplastic - Dynamic viscosity decreases as the rate of shear increases (shear
thining - milk)
• Rheopexy - Shear stress increases with time of shear at a given shear rate –
starch
• Thixotropix - Shear stress decreases with time of shear at a given shear rate –
honey, bread dough
20
Non-newtonian fluid
The relationship in a non-newtonian fluid between shear stress (τ) and velocity to
n
ΔP.D ⎛ 8V ⎞
diameter ratio ( D ) is given as
V = τ = K⎜ ⎟ . We can determine, graphically,
4L ⎝ D⎠
the viscous coefficient and the velocity index using a capillary viscometer?
n
ΔP.D ⎛ 8V ⎞
= τ = K⎜ ⎟
4L ⎝ D ⎠
Taking log of both sides
⎛ ΔP.D ⎞ ⎛ 8V ⎞
log⎜ ⎟ = log K + n log⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4L ⎠ ⎝ D⎠
⎛ ΔP.D ⎞ ⎛ 8V ⎞
log⎜ ⎟ = n log⎜ ⎟ + log K
⎝ 4L ⎠ ⎝ D⎠
This implies y = m x + c
Diagram
In a viscometer, varying the velocity and noting the pressure difference results in
a record useful for plotting a curve as shown below
From the graph
logK = the intercept on the y axis, hence
K = log-1(intercept on y-axis) = Viscous coefficient
n = the slope of the graph = velocity index
Useful in solving a flow problem in a food processing industry

An idea of the K and n obtainable by experimentation using a viscometer can assist in
determining the appropriate pipe diameter or pipe length for a particular type of pipe
which gives the K and n that will cope with the speed of operation required. A knowledge
of the K is also useful in determining the power requirement for lifting or pumping the
fluid hence the selection of appropriate pump for the factory operations.
21
Behaviour of agricultural/food materials under stress
The behaviour of agricultural materials under stress can be represented by any of

these three models
Maxwell model - States that the behaviour of agricultural materials under
stress can be represented by a spring (representing elastic behaviour) and a
dashpot (representing viscous behaviour) in series.
Kelvin model - States that the behaviour of agricultural materials under

stress can be represented by a spring (representing elastic behaviour) and a
dashpot (representing viscous behaviour) in parallel.
Burger’s model - States that the behaviour of agricultural materials

under stress can be represented by a spring (representing elastic behaviour) in
series with a dashpot and a combined spring and a dashpot (representing
viscous behaviour) in parallel.
22
Laboratory method for determining creep in 4 element Burgers model.
The apparatus for use is as shown in figure a below. The product is mounted and the load
hang as shown. The deformation from time 0 is monitored on the dial guage for time t.
The deformation is then plotted against time and the parameters read as shown in figure b
and e(t) computed as in equation beneath figure b. etc
a.
b.
23
Drying of agricultural materials
• Grain drying is a process of simultaneous heat and moisture transfer.
• The study of relationships between air and its associated water is called
psychrometry.
• The relative humidity (RH) of air is the ratio of the vapor pressure of the water
molecules in the air to the saturated vapor pressure at the same temperature. The
relative humidity usually is expressed as a percentage.
• The specific volume (v) of moist air is the volume per unit mass of dry air and is
expressed in cubic meters per kilogram of dry air. The power required by the fan
on a drying system is affected by the specific volume of the drying air.
• The enthalpy (h) of moist air is the energy content per unit mass of dry air above
a certain reference temperature (usually 0±C). It is denoted in kilojoules per
kilogram of dry air.
Material factors affecting the choice of a drying method

i) Temperature tolerance: High temp may reduce germination of grains for seeding and
may partially cook the product or change its chemical and physical characteristics.
ii) Humidity response: There are materials like tobacco and prunes which undergo
physiological change during drying. These products will have to be dried with air of
specific RH.
iii) Compressive strength: Fruits, vegetables and other soft products which cannot
sustain pressure in deep bed drying must be dried in thin layers while tobacco must be
suspended.
iv) Fluidity: Poor flowing materials cannot be dried in continuous flow driers.
Categories of drying processes

i) Air and Contact Drying under Atmospheric pressure: Heat is transferred through the
foodstuff either from heated air or from heated surfaces. The water vapour is removed with
the air.
ii) Vacuum Drying: Advantage is taken of the fact that evaporation of water occurs more
readily at lower pressures than at higher ones. Heat transfer in vacuum drying is
generally by conduction sometimes by radiation.
iii) Freeze Drying: The water vapour is sublimed off frozen food. The food structure is
better maintained under these conditions. Suitable temperatures and pressures must be
established in the dryer to ensure that sublimation occurs.
24
EXAMPLE 1. Heat energy in air drying
A food containing 80% water is to be dried at 100oC down to moisture content of 10%. If
the initial temperature of the food is 21oC, calculate the quantity of heat energy required
per unit weight of the original material, for drying under atmospheric pressure. The latent
heat of vaporization of water at 100oC and at standard atmospheric pressure is
2257kJ/kg. The specific heat capacity of the food is 3.8kJ/kg/oC and of water is
4.186kJ/kg/oC. Find also, the energy requirement/kg water removed.
Calculating for 1kg food

Initial moisture = 80%
800g moisture are associated with 200g dry matter
Final moisture = 10%

100g moisture are associated with 900g dry matter
Therefore, 100/900 X 200g = 22.2g
moisture are associated with 200g dry matter 1kg of original matter
must loose (800 – 22)g moisture = 778g = 0.778kg moisture
Heat energy required for 1kg original material =

heat energy to raise temperature to 100oC + latent heat to remove water = mct + ml =
( 1 x3.8 x (100 - 21) + 0.778 x 2257 = 300.2 + 1755.9 = 2056kJ
Energy/kg water removed, as 2056kJ is required to remove 0.778 kg of water =

2056/0.778 = 2543kJ
EXAMPLE 2. Heat energy in vacuum drying

Using the same material as in Example 7.1, if vacuum drying is to be carried out at 60°C
under the corresponding saturation pressure of 20 kPa abs. (or a vacuum of 81.4 kPa),
calculate the heat energy required to remove the moisture per unit weight of raw material.
Heat energy required per kg raw material

= heat energy to raise temperature to 60°C + latent heat of vaporization at 20 kPa abs.
= (60 - 21) x 3.8 + 0.778 x 2358
= 148.2 + 1834.5
= 1983 kJ.
In freeze drying the latent heat of sublimation must be supplied. Pressure has little effect
on the latent heat of sublimation, which can be taken as 2838 kJ kg-1.
EXAMPLE 3. Heat energy in freeze drying

If the foodstuff in the two previous examples were to be freeze dried at 0°C, how much
energy would be required per kg of raw material, starting from frozen food at 0°C?
Heat energy required per kilogram of raw material= latent heat of sublimation
= 0.778 x 2838
= 2208 kJ.
25
Constant rate and falling rate in drying
Constant rate drying occurs at the beginning of drying of a wet product in which the rate
of moisture removal is constant.
dM = FvA(Ps – Pa) = KfA(Ta – Ts)
dt h
Falling rate drying is the process in which the rate of moisture removal decreases with
time. This occurs after the constant rate and the moisture content at which the constant
rate changes to falling rate is known as critical moisture content
dM = ά (M – Me)
dt
EXAMPLE
1. If the wet-bulb temperature in a particular room is measured and found to be 20°C in
air whose dry-bulb temperature is 25°C (that is the wet-bulb depression is 5°C) estimate
the relative humidity, the enthalpy and the specific volume of the air in the room using
the Psychometric chart in Figure 1
Fig. 1 Psychometric chart
On the Psychometric chart (Figure 1) follow down the wet-bulb line for a temperature of
20°C until it meets the dry-bulb temperature line for 25°C. Examining the location of this
point of intersection with reference to the lines of constant relative humidity, it lies
between 60% and 70% RH and about 4/10 of the way between them but nearer to the
60% line.
Therefore the RH is estimated to be 64%.

Similar examination of the enthalpy lines gives an estimated enthalpy of 57 kJ kg-1, and
from the volume lines a specific volume of 0.862 m3 kg-1.
26
27
LABORATORY 1.
TITLE: Physical Properties of Agricultural Products 1 - Size and shape

OBJECTIVES: At the end of this laboratory you will be able to do the following:
1. Measure the principal dimensions of some fruits and vegetables

2. Determine the roundness and sphericity of the products
3. Determine surface area of the products
4. Determine the overall shape of the products
NOTES: Physical characteristics of agricultural products are very important in handling
the products and in the design of machinery for drying, handling, processing and storage.
Procedure
A. Roundness
You are supplied with
a. Garden egg
b. Tomato
c. Orange
d. Any other product
1. Draw the projection of each of the product in the natural rest position.
2. Draw the smallest circumscribing circle on the projection drawn in I
3. Calculate Roundness using the relationship Ap/Ac
4. Repeat procedure A 1 draw an inscribed circle and calculate roundness using
the relationship Et / NR as given in class
5. Repeat procedure A1, and calculate roundness using the relationship r/R as
given in class.
6. Compare the three results for all the products.
B. Sphericity
1. Measure the three major diameter, a b and c (as given in
class) of all the products given (abc)1/3/a
2. Determine sphericity using the relationship
3. Draw the projections of the products in their natural rest
position.
4. Draw the largest inscribed circle and the smallest
circumscribed circle.
5. Determine sphericity with the relationship d1/d2 (as in class)
6. Compare your results in 2 and 5
7. Why do you think roundness and sphericity are important in
handling and processing?
8. Which is easier to handle – a large sized product or a small
product? Why?
9. Describe the shape of each product.
28
LABORATORY 2:
TITLE: Physical Properties of Agric Products II – Volume, Density and Surface area
OBJECTIVES: At the end of this laboratory, you will be able to do the following:
1. Determine the volume and density of product that is heavier than water
2. Determine the volume and density of product that is lighter than water
3. Determine the surface areas of some products.
REQUIREMENTS: Fruits, vegetables, graph paper, scale, container sinker and water.
NOTES: Volume, density and surface area are important parameters in the design of
soils and storage bins, separation of products from undesirable materials, mechanical
compression of material, grading and sorting.
PROCEDURE
A. Volume and Density of heavy product.
You are supplied with 4 agricultural products that will readily sink in water, for all
four products
1. Determine the weight of product in air – Wa
2. Determine wt of container + water – Ww
3. Determine weight of container + water – product – Wr
4. Find volume of product. Also find density and specific gravity of product.
B. Volume and density of light product
You are supplied with 3 products that are lighter than water
1. Determine weight of product in air – Wpa
2. Determine weight of product in water Wpw
3. Determine weight of sinker + product inair – Waa
4. Determine weight of sinker + product in water – Waw
5. Find the wt. of water supplied, volume of solid and density of solid
C. Surface area
You are supplied with 3 kinds of leaves
1. Project the surface area on paper
2. Find the area of the leaves using graph paper
D. Questions
1. In what area do you think surface area of objects is particularly useful?
2. How do you suppose you can find the volume of products that will dissolve in
water?
29
LABORATORY 3
TITLE: Physical Properties of Agricultural Products III – Angle of Repose and
Angle of Internal Friction
OBJECTIVES: At the end of this laboratory, you will be able to:
1. Determine the Dynamic angle of repose of an agricultural produce
2. Determine the station co-efficient of friction for agricultural produce
Note: frictional characteristic of agricultural crops play a big role in the design of
handling and processing equipment. Angle of repose and static coefficient of friction
are two indices that can be used to indicate frictional properties of crops and their
definitions have been given in the class. Revise these definitions in order to get a
clear distinction between these two properties.
PROCEDURE
A. DYNAMIC ANGLE OF REPOSE
a) You are supplied with two types of agricultural crops. Follow the
instructions of the laboratory supervisor and use the funnel system to
determine the angle of repose.
ii) You are also supplied with an emptying angle box. Use this method in
obtaining the angle of repose.
iii) Compare your results. Which of these values for these crops?
B. STATIC COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
(i) You are supplied with an inclined plane method apparatus. Following the
instructions of the laboratory supervisor, determine the static coefficient of friction on
(a) plywood (along the grain)
(b) plywood (across the grain)
(c) galvanized iron sheet
C. ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:
(i) Under what real-life situations would you think angle of
repose and angle of internal friction are useful?
(ii) Under what situations do you think:
(a) a high angle of repose is an advantage?
(b) A high angle of repose is a disadvantage?
30
LABORATORY 4
TITLE: The Planimeter
OBJECTIVES: At the end of this laboratory, each student will be able to do the
following:
a. Identify the various parts of planimeter
b. Test the planimeter for reliability
c. Use the planimeter to determine area of given shapes
APPARATUS: Planimeter, plain paper, pencil and ruler
NOTES: A planimeter is an instrument for measuring the area of all shapes of plane
figure. The area is obtained by tracing their perimeters. Area of plans and maps to any
scale, sectional areas of machine drawings as well as the mean heights of line
diagrams can also be otained with the panimeter.
PROCEDURE
A. GETTING FAMILIAR WITH THE PLANIMETER
The laboratory instructor will explain to you how the panimeter isused
1. Sketch and label the various parts of the planimeter
2. Explain in your own words how the planimeter is set up and used.
B. TEST-RUNNING THE PLANIMETER
1. Attach the test rule as described to you. Set the planimeter as directed and
determine the area described inmm2
2. Find the percent difference between your measurement and the area of the
square.
3. Draw a square of 1 x 1cm and use the planimeter to determine the area of
the square. Repeat for a circle of 1cm diameter.
4 Find the percentage error.
C. ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a planimeter for area
determinations
2. In what disciplines do you think the planimeter can be very useful
31
LABORATORY 5
TITLE: Using the Planimeter for Area Measurements.
OBJECTIVES: At the end of this laboratory, you will be able to do the following:
1. Use the planimeter to measure the projected area of some crops
2. Use the planimeter to measure the surface area of leaves.
3. Compare the effectiveness of planimeter to graph sheet method
APPARATUS: Planimeter, graph paper, pencil, fruits and leaves.
NOTES: Roundness and surface area of crops and leaves are often needed. The
planimeter is one instrument that can be used to quickly determine these characteristics
especially where there are no other means of measurement. However, the use of the
planimeter requires care because a small error of judgement can result in a large error of
measurement.
PROCEDURES
A. AREAS OF LEAVES
You are supplied with three kinds of leaves with different surface areas
1. Trace the areas of the leaves on graph paper
2. Use the planimeter to determine the area of each leaf
3. Use the graph paper to determine the area of each leaf.
4. Compare your results.
ROUNDNESS
You are supplied with three fruits.
2. On a graph paper, draw the projection of each fruit in the natural rest position.
3. Draw the smallest circumscribing circle on the projection drawn in (1)
4. Use both planimeter and graph sheet method to determine the projected area
Ap and the circumscribing circle A2
5. Determine Roundness (Ap / Ac) with both methods
6. Compare your answers for the three products
B. SURFACE AREA OF FRUITS
Your are supplied with two kinds of fruits/seeds
1. Coat each fruit/seed with the ink supplied
2. Cover the entire fruit/seed with graph paper (You may fold the graph paper)
3. Use the graph paper squares to determine the surface area of each fruit/seed.
4. Use the planimeter to determine the surface area of the fruit/seed.
5. Compare your results.
D. Answer the following questions:
1. What specific advantages to do you think
(a) the planimeter has over the graph paper method?
(b) the graph paper method has over the planimeter?
2. Which method will you choose and why if:
(a) you are in the field
(b) you are in the office.
32
LABORATORY 6
TITLE: Determination of Fineness Modulus and Modulus of Uniformity for feed.
OBJECTIVES: At the end of this laboratory, students will be able to:
1. Identify a set of Tyler’s sieve and a Ro-tap machine
2. Determine the Fineness modulus of a given ground feed
3. Determine the Modulus of Uniformity of ground feed.
NOTE: Screening is a method used for classifying small grains or granular materials.
Tyler’s sieve’s which are commonly used originated in the United states in 1910, Sieve
sizes (size of opening) vary from 3.75mm to 0.07mm with a pan at the bottom. However,
a standard set of seven sleeves is used to classify ground feed.
Fineness modulus and modulus of uniformity are two indices that are used to classify
ground feed. These indices have been explained to you in the classroom.
PROCEDURE:
A. SCREENING
You have been supplied with two samples
(i) Grains
(ii) Ground feed
(I) Weigh 250g of each sample
(II) Arrange the seven standard sieves (3/8” 4, 8, 14, 28, 48, 100) and the pan on
the Ro-tap, pour the sample from the top and vibrate for 5 minutes.
(III) Find the percentage on each sieve
B. CALCULATIONS
(i) Using an appropriate table, calculate the fineness modulus (fm)
(ii) Calculate the average size of grain (D) in inches.
D = 0.0041 x 2fm
(iiI) Determine the modulus of elasticity
iv) Draw a graph of screen opening versus percent finer than screen.
C. ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS

i) In what category will you place your two samples in terms of course, medium and
finer in relation to;
(a) Fineness Modulus
(b) Modulus of uniformity
ii) What do you think about this statement?
“The bigger the animal, the coarser the feed should be”
Describe how a complete Tyler’s sieve set look like (with the aid of diagrams).
33
LABORATORY 7
Storage methods
Objective: To familiarize students with different methods of storage available both on –
farm and off –farm
Facility: 1. University Seed processing and storage unig
2. Strategic Reserve in Ibadan
Procedure: Students are taken on a study tour of the seed processing and storage unit to
identify various storage units and machinery.
Students are taken to one of the Nation’s strategic Reserve Location in Ibadan to identify
and specify the storage systems and processes
Result: Students to submit a study tour report to include

1. Estblishment (s) visited
2. Process lines
3. Storage units and Processing machinery
4. Comparism of Industrial storage/off-farm and on-farm storage structures
34
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE,
ABEOKUTA
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
First Semester B.SC. Examination 2010/2011 Session
AGE 407: Engineering Properties and Processing of Agricultural Materials (3

Units)
INSTRUCTION: ANSWER QUESTION ONE AND ANY OTHER TWO
TIME:21/2HOURS
QUESTION ONE (30 marks)
a. Define the following terms with respect to drying of agricultural materials:

(i) Grain Drying (ii) Psychometric (iii) Relative Humidity (iv) Specific volume and
(v) Enthalpy
(b) What are the materials factors that affect the choice of a drying method?
(c). Mention and explain briefly, three categories in which drying processes can be
classified.
(d) What do you understand by constant rate and falling rate in drying? Give the
governing equations.
(e) A food containing 80% water is to be dried at 100oC down to moisture content of
10%. If the initial temperature of the food is 21oC, calculate the quantity of heat energy
required per unit weight of the original material, for drying under atmospheric pressure.
The latent heat of vaporization of water at 100oC and at standard atmospheric pressure is
2257kJ/kg. The specific heat capacity of the food is 3.8kJ/kg/oC and of water is
4.186kJ/kg/oC. Find also, the energy requirement/kg water removed.
QUESTION TWO (20 marks)
35
(i) A biscuit factory obtained maize from two sources (20 tonnes each), one has 12%
moisture content (mc) dry basis and the other 12% mc wet basis. Which one has more dry
matter? Justify your answer with calculations.
(ii) In (i) above, the company paid N60000.00 per tonne for the maize at 12% mc dry
basis. How much should a tonne cost at 12% mc wet basis. If the materials has to be dried
to 5% mc dry basis, what quantity of water will be lost from the material from each
source per tonne.
QUESTION THREE (20 marks)

(i) What do you understand by Fineness Modulus and Uniformity Index?
(ii) Describe how to determine the Fineness Modulus of a feed in the laboratory.
(iii) Below is a result of a sieve experiment using poultry feed.
Sieve Mesh % of Material on each Screen
3
/8 2
4 1.5
8 7.0
14 20.0
28 31.5
48 26.5
100 11.5
Pan 0
36
From this result, calculate the Uniformity Index. How can you describe the feed?
QUESTION FOUR (20 marks)

(i) What are the five forms in which water is found in food materials?
(ii) Give a brief description of any five geometric characteristic used in describing the
shape of fruits and vegetables.
(iii) Describe how the Terminal Velocity of an agricultural material can be obtained in
the laboratory.
QUESTION FIVE (20 marks)

(i) Briefly explain (using models) how the behaviour of agricultural/food materials under
stress are represented (sketch where necessary).
(ii) Give a detailed description (with equations and sketches where necessary) of the
laboratory method for determining creep in 4 element Burgers model.
37
ASAE D272.3 MAR96
Resistance to Airflow of Grains, Seeds, Other Agricultural

Products, and Perforated Metal Sheets
Approved by the ASAE Committee on Technical Data; adopted by ASAE 1 Purpose and scope
1948; revised 1954, 1962; reconfirmed by the ASAE Electric Power and
1.1 These data can be used to estimate the resistance to airflow of beds
Processing Division Technical Committee December 1968, December
of grain, seeds, and other agricultural products, and of perforated metal
1973, December 1978, December 1979; revised December 1980;
sheets. An estimate of this airflow resistance is the basis for the design
reconfirmed December 1985; revised by the Grain and Feed Processing
of systems to dry or aerate agricultural products.
and Storage Committee; approved by the Food and Process Engineering
Institute Standards Committee March 1987; reconfirmed December 1.2 Data are included for common grains, seeds, other agricultural
1991; reaffirmed December 1992, December 1993, December 1994, products, and for perforated metal sheets, over the airflow range
December 1995; revised March 1996. common for aeration and drying systems.
2 Empirical curves
NOTE – This chart gives values for a loose fill (not packed) of clean, relatively dry grain. For a loose fill of clean grain having high moisture content (In equilibrium with
relative humidities exceeding 85%), use only-80% of the indicated pressure drop for a given rate of air flow.
Packing of the grain in a bin may cause 50% higher resistance to air flow than the values shown. White rice is a variety of popcorn.
The pressure drop for airflow through bulk grain in the horizontal direction has been measured for wheat and barley (Kumar and Muir, 1986); canola (Jayas et al., 1987);
corn (Kay et al., 1989); alfalfa pellets (Sokhansanj et al., 1990); flaxseed (Jayas et al., 1991); and bird’s foot trefoil, canary seed, fababeans, lentils, meadow fescue, oats,
timothy, and tara peas (Alagusundaram et al., 1992). The pressure drop in the horizontal direction may be 60% to 70% of the pressure drop for airflow in the vertical
direction. For some seeds, however, the difference between the pressure drops for the horizontal and vertical airflows may be nonexistent.
Figure 1 – Resistance to airflow of grains and seeds (SI Units) (Shedd’s data)
544 ASAE STANDARDS 1999

NOTE – This chart gives values for a loose fill (not packed) of clean, relatively dry grain. For a loose fill of clean grain having high moisture content (in equilibrium with
relative humidities exceeding 85%), use only 80% of the indicated pressure drop for a given rule of air flow. Packing of the grain in a bin may cause 50% higher resistance
to air flow than the values shown.
When foreign material is mixed with grain no specific correction can be recommended. However, it should be noted that resistance to air flow is increased if the foreign
material is finer than the grain, and resistance to air flow is decreased if the foreign material is coarser than the grain.
The pressure drop for airflow through bulk grain in the horizontal direction has been measured for wheat and barley (Kumar and Muir, 1986); canola (Jayas et al., 1987);
corn (Key et al., 1989); alfalfa pellets (Sokhansanj et al., 1990); flaxseed (Jayas et al., 1991); and bird’s foot trefoil, canary seed, fababeans, lentils, meadow fescue, oats,
timothy, and tara peas (Alagusundaram et al., 1992). The pressure drop in the horizontal direction may be 60% to 70% of the pressure drop for airflow in the vertical
direction. For some seeds, however, the difference between the pressure drops for the horizontal and vertical airflows may be nonexistent.
Figure 2 – Resistance to airflow of grains and seeds (Inch-pound units) (Shedd’s data)
ASAE STANDARDS 1999 545

Figure 3 – Resistance to airflow for other agricultural products (SI units)
Figure 4 – Resistance to airflow of other agricultural products (Inch-pound units)

Figure 5 – Resistance to airflow of shelled corn and wheat at low airflows (SI units)
Figure 6 – Resistance to airflow of shelled corn and wheat at low airflows (Inch-pound units)

where:
D P 5 pressure drop, Pa or inches of water;

L 5 bed depth, m or ft;
Q 5 airflow, m3/s·m2 or cfm/ft2;
fm = decimal fraction of fines, by weight.
NOTE – Range of applicability: 0.076 to 0.20 m3/s ·m2 (15 to
40 CFM/FT2) and 0 < fm < 0.2. Broken grain and other matter
which passed through a 4.76-mm (12/64-in.) round-hole sieve are
defined as fines. (Hague)
5 Effect of bulk density on resistance to airflow of

shelled corn
5.1 An increase in bulk density causes an increase in the airflow
resistance per unit bed depth of the corn. The pressure drop per unit bed
depth can be predicted as a function of airflow rate and corn bulk density
by use of this empirical equation:
DP S D
rb 2
rk
Q
rk S D
rb 2
Q
S D S D
5 X 11 X 2 1X3
Figure 7 – Resistance to airflow of perforated metal sheets L rb 3 rb 3
when supporting grain (Henderson) 12 12
rk rk
3 Airflow resistance equation

where:
DP aQ 2
5
L loge ~ 11 bQ !
where:
DP 5 pressure drop, Pa or inches of water;
DP 5 pressure drop, Pa or inches or water; L 5 bed depth, m or ft;
L 5 bed depth, m or ft; pb 5 corn bulk density, kg/m3 or lb/ft3;
a 5 constant for particular grain (see table 1); pk 5 corn kernel density, kg/m3 or lb/ft3;
Q 5 airflow, m3/s·m2 or cfm/ft2; Q 5 airflow, m3/s·m2 or cfm/ft2;
b 5 constant for particular grain (see table 1). X1 ,X2 ,X3 5 constants (see table 2 or table 3).
4 Effect of fines on resistance to airflow of shelled

corn
4.1 An effect of adding fines to shelled corn is an increase in the airflow
resistance of the corn. The pressure drop per unit bed depth can be
corrected to account for fines using this equation:
SI units: S D
DP
L
5
corrected
S D
DP
L
~ 11 ~14.5566226.418Q !~ fm!!
clean
Customary units: S D
DP
L
5
corrected
S D
DP
L
~ 11 ~ 14.5566
clean
20.1342Q !~ fm!!

Table 1 – Values for constants in airflow resistance equation
Value of a Value of b Range of Q

Material (Pa·s2/m3) (m2·s/m3) (m3/m2s) Reference
Alfalfa 6.40 3 104 3.99 0.0056–0.152 Shedd (1953)

Alfalfa cubes 1.27 3 103 22.99 0.13–3.15 Sokhansanj et al. (1993)
Alfalfa pellets 1.80 3 104 68.72 0.0053–0.63 Sokhansanj et al. (1993)
Barley 2.14 3 104 13.2 0.0056–0.203 Shedd
Brome grass 1.35 3 104 8.88 0.0056–0.152 Shedd
Canola, Tobin 5.22 3 104 7.27 0.0243–0.2633 Jayas and Sokhansanj (1989)
Canola, Westar 4.55 3 104 9.72 0.0243–0.2633 Jayas and Sokhansanj (1989)
Clover, alsike 6.11 3 104 2.24 0.0056–0.101 Shedd
Clover, crimson 5.32 3 104 5.12 0.0056–0.203 Shedd
Clover, red 6.24 3 104 3.55 0.0056–0.152 Shedd
Corn, ear (lot 1) 1.04 3 104 325. 0.051–0.353 Shedd
Corn, shelled 2.07 3 104 30.4 0.0056–0.304 Shedd
Corn, shelled (low airflow) 9.77 3 103 8.55 0.00025–0.0203 Sheldon et al. (1960)
Fescue 3.15 3 104 6.70 0.0056–0.203 Shedd
Flax 8.63 3 104 8.29 0.0056–0.152 Shedd
Lentils, Laird 5.43 3 104 36.79 0.0028–0.5926 Sokhansanj et al. (1990)
Lespedeza, Kobe 1.95 3 104 6.30 0.0056–0.203 Shedd
Lespedeza, Sericea 6.40 3 104 3.99 0.0056–0.152 Shedd
Lupine, blue 1.07 3 104 21.1 0.0056–0.152 Shedd
Milkweed pods 2.11 3 103 4.65 0.06–0.4 Jones and Von Bargen (1992)
Oats 2.41 3 104 13.9 0.0056–0.203 Shedd
Peanuts 3.80 3 103 111. 0.030–0.304 Steele
Peppers, bell 5.44 3 102 868. 0.030–1.00 Gaffney and Baird (1975)
Popcorn, white 2.19 3 104 11.8 0.0056–0.203 Shedd
Popcorn, yellow 1.78 3 104 17.6 0.0056–0.203 Shedd
Potatoes 2.18 3 103 824. 0.030–0.300 Staley and Watson (1967)
Rescue 8.11 3 103 11.7 0.0056–0.203 Shedd
Rice, rough 2.57 3 104 13.2 0.0056–0.152 Shedd
Rice, long brown 2.05 3 104 7.74 0.0055–0.164 Calderwood (1973)
Rice, long milled 2.18 3 104 8.34 0.0055–0.164 Calderwood
Rice, medium brown 3.49 3 104 10.9 0.0055–0.164 Calderwood
Rice, medium milled 2.90 3 104 10.6 0.0055–0.164 Calderwood
Sorghum 2.12 3 104 8.06 0.0056–0.203 Shedd
Soybeans 1.02 3 104 16.0 0.0056–0.304 Shedd
Sunflower, confectionery 1.10 3 104 18.1 0.055–0.178 Schuler (1974)
Sunflower, oil 2.49 3 104 23.7 0.025–0.570 Nguyen (1981)
Sweet potatoes 3.40 3 103 6.103108 0.050–0.499 Abrams and Fich (1982)
Wheat 2.70 3 104 8.77 0.0056–0.203 Shedd
Wheat (low airflow) 8.41 3 103 2.72 0.00025–0.0203 Sheldon et al.
NOTE – The parameters given were determined by a least square fit of the data in Figures 1 to 6. To obtain the corresponding values of (a) in inch-pound units (in
H2O min2/ft3) divide the above a-values by 31635726. To obtain corresponding values of (b) in inch-pound units (ft2/cfm) divide the above b-values by 196.85. Parameters
for the Lot 2 Ear Corn data are not given since the above equation will not fit the data.
Although the parameters listed in this table were developed from data at moderate airflows, extrapolations of the curves for shelled corn, wheat, and sorgbum agree well
with available data (Stark and James) at airflows up to 1.0 m3/s · m2.
Table 3 – Values for constants (inch-pound units) for equation in clause 5.1
Airflow range,
Table 2 – Value for constants (SI units) for equation in clause 5.1 cfm/ft3 X1 X2 X3
Airflow range, m3/s·m2 X1 X2 X3 5.3 < Q < 26.3 20.0012 5.5331024 1.62 3 1025
26.3 , Q < 52.5 20.013 6.9431024 1.39 3 1025
0.027 < Q < 0.13 20.998 88.8 511 52.5 , Q < 117 20.094 10.2 31024 1.23 3 1025
0.13 < Q < 0.27 210.9 111 439
0.27 < Q < 0.60 276.5 163 389 NOTE – Range of applicability: 732 to 799 kg/m3 (45.7 to 49.9 lb/ft3) (corn
bulk density) 0.027 to 0.60 m3 /s · m2 (5.3 to 117 cfm/ft2) (Bern and Charity).

Annex A Jones, D. and K. L. Von Bargen. 1992. Some physical properties of
(informative) milkweed pods. Transactions of the ASAE 35(1):243–246.
Bibliography Kay, R. L., C. J. Bern and C. R. Hurburgh, Jr. 1989. Horizontal and
vertical airflow resistance of shelled corn at various bulk densities. Trans-
actions of the ASAE 32(2):733–736.
Abrams, C. F. and J. D. Fish, Jr. 1982. Air flow resistance characteristics
of bulk piled sweet potatoes. Transactions of the ASAE 25(4):1103– Kumar, A. and W. E. Muir. 1986. Airflow resistance of wheat and barley
1106. affected by airflow direction, filling method and dockage. Transactions of
the ASAE 29(5):1423–1426.
Alagusundaram, K., D. S. Jayas, F. Chotard and N. D. G. White. 1992.
Airflow pressure drop relationships of some specialty seeds. Sciences Nguyen, V. T. 1981. Airflow resistance of sunflower seed. Unpublished
des Aliments 12(1):101–116. term project for AE568 at Iowa State University, Ames, IA. Under the
direction of Carl I. Bern.
Bern, C. J. and L. F. Charity. 1975. Airflow resistance characteristics of
corn as influenced by bulk density. ASAE Paper No. 75-3510. ASAE, St. Schuler, R. T. 1974. Drying-related properties of sunflower seeds. ASAE
Joseph, MI 49085. Paper No. 74-3534. ASAE. St. Joseph. MI 49085.
Calderwood, D. L. 1973. Resistance to airflow of rough, brown and milled Shedd, C. K. 1953. Resistance of grains and seeds to air flow. Agricul-
rice. Transactions of the ASAE 16(3):525–527, 532. tural Engineering 34(9):616–619.
Gaffney, J. J. and C. D. Baird. 1975. Forced air cooling of bell peppers Sheldon, W. H., C. W. Hall, and J. K. Wang. 1960. Resistance of shelled
in bulk. ASAE Paper No. 75-6525. ASAE, St. Joseph, MI 49085. corn and wheat to low airflows. Transactions of the ASAE 3(2):92–94.
Hague, E., G. H. Foster, D. S. Chung, and F. S. Lai, 1978. Static Siebenmorgen, T. J. and V. K. Jindal, 1987. Airflow resistance of rough
pressure across a corn bed mixed with fines. Transactions of the ASAE rice as affected by moisture content, fines concentration and bulk
21(5):997–1000. density. Transactions of the ASAE 30(4):1138–1143.
Henderson, S. M. 1943. Resistance of shelled corn and bin walls to Sokhansanj, S., A. A. Falacinski, F. W. Sosulski, D. S. Jayas and J.
airflow. Agricultural Engineering 24(11):367–369. Tang. 1990. Resistance of bulk lentils to airflow. Transactions of the
ASAE 33(4):1281–1285.
Hukil, W. V. and N. C. Ives. 1955. Radial air flow resistance of grain.
Agricultural Engineering 36(5):332–335. Sokhansanj, S., W. Li and O. O. Fasina. 1993. Resistance of alfalfa
cubes, pellets and compressed herbage to airflow. Can. Agric. Eng.
Jayas, D. S., S. Sokhansanj, E. B. Moysey and E. M. Barber. 1987. The 35(3):207–213.
effect of airflow direction on the resistance of canola (rapeseed) to
airflow. Can. Agric. Eng. 29(2):189–192. Staley, L. M. and E. L. Watson. 1961. Some design aspects of refriger-
ated potato storages. Can. Agric. Eng. 3(1):20–22.
Jayas, D. S. and S. Sokhansanj. 1989. Design data on resistance of
airflow through canola (rapeseed). Transactions of the ASAE 32(1):295– Stark, B. and K. James. 1982. Airflow characteristics of grains and
296. seeds. National Conference Publication N:82/8. 242–243. The Institution
of Engineers, Australia.
Jayas, D. S. and W. E. Muir. 1991. Airflow-pressure drop data for model-
ling fluid flow in anisotropic bulks. Transactions of the ASAE 34(1):251– Steele, J. L. 1974. Resistance of peanuts to airflow. Transactions of the
254. ASAE 17(3):573–577.
Jayas, D. S., K. Alagusundaram and D. A. Irvine. 1991. Resistance to
airflow through bulk flax seed as affected by the moisture content, direc-
tion of airflow and foreign material. Can. Agric. Eng. 33(2):279–285.

02-MSc Grain Preservation and Processing

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Chapter-1

Grain Preservation and

Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal,

• Process of removing moisture from agricultural products in

• Bacteria require near 100% relative humidity for growth

• Insects depend upon agricultural products for moisture they

• Food containers were hand made tin plate cylinders,

• These cylinders were called Canisters from which the word

• Food Preservation examples from Hazrat Yousaf (A.S)

Refrigeration works because the respiration and metabolic rate of living

Group Temperature ,°C

• The rate of reaction is approximately halved for every 10°C decrease

Source: C.J. Bern, 1992

Source: farm Structure FACTSHEET

2. Chemical treatment can take several forms including direct

3. The means by which chemical prevents deterioration is much

Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal,

Mw = 100 w/(w+Wd) or Mw(w+Wd) = 100 w

Mw(w+100 w/Md) = 100 w because Md=100w/Wd

Mww+100 Mww/Md = 100 w divide both sides by w

100 - Mw = 100 Mw/Md

Md = Mw/(1-0.01 Mw) Hence proved

Soybeans 60 13.0 52.20

Oats 32 13.0 27.84

Wheat 60 12.0 52.80

Solution: DM1 = DM2

Direct method is further categorized into the followings

• Weigh 25-30 gram samples and place in the oven

• Heat for 72-96 hours at 90-100 °C

• Remove from the oven and place in a desicater

• Grain sample should be in the oven until weigh decrease stops

• Log R is directly proportional to mc

• Used for 11-16 % mc range

• Experiments conducted for wheat

• Drawback-variation with temperature

• If mc > 16 %, the above expression parabolic

• Also not efficient below 7% mc as no change in R with mc

• Water from a grain sample can be removed by

Equilibrium Moisture Contents

Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal,

air dry this corn if the

What moisture content will

• At high moisture content, water will come off easily and

• In the middle range of moisture content, water will come off

At high temperature, the air expands, therefore,

W1 83333.3 0.12(83333.3)= 0.88(83333.3)=

W2 25000.00 0.25(25000)= 0.75(25000)=

Wt=W1+W2 108333.33 0.15(108333.33)= 0.85(108333.33)=

• What is the dry basis mc of grain with wet

• Md= 0.24/(1-0.24)=0.324 = 32.4%

Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal,

• The air within the drier undergoes substantial changes in

• These changes are of prime importance in assessing the drier

• These can be calculated mathematically but these calculations

• Psychrometric chart provides a useful mean for rapid

Dry bulb temperature,Tdb(C or F)

N2= 78.09 % = 0.7809

CO2= 0.03 % = 0.0003

The ratio of weight of water vapors to the weight of completely

Assume Wa kg of air and Ww kg of water behave as an ideal gas,

PwV =nwRoTab (General gas equation)

PwV =(Ww/Mw)RoTab Eq. 1

PaV =(Wa/Ma)RoTab Eq. 2

Put these values in eq. (2)