Insurance // Property Risk Engineering / GAPS

Dark Warehouses:
Loss Prevention, Fire Protection
Challenges and Risk Mitigation Measures
Dark Warehouses: Loss Prevention,
Fire Protection Challenges and Risk
Mitigation Measures

By Luis Arango, CFPS, PE

Senior Loss Prevention Consultant

Table of Contents

Introduction.................................................................................1
Dark Warehouse Overview..........................................................1
Loss Prevention and Fire Protection Challenges ......................3
Statistical Causes of Fires and Trends........................................4
Risk Mitigation Measures for Dark Warehouses.........................7
Building Design.................................................................7
Natural Catastrophes......................................................8
Fire Protection .................................................................9
Loss Prevention Programs............................................ 10
Conclusions .............................................................................. 13
References................................................................................ 13
Contact...................................................................................... 14

Introduction
Companies looking for ways to
cost-effectively manage the storage and
delivery of goods to customers are taking
more advantage of new technologies and
optimized warehouse space. And many
are not afraid of the dark. In other words,
they are turning to “Dark Warehouses,”
a heavily-automated distribution center
operation that requires minimal lighting and
pushes new boundaries on just how high
shelving and storage configurations can go.  forklifts, and automatic retrieval systems. Stacker cranes are
Since ideal warehouse locations are in
centralized locations with good access to
transportation, and those can be more pricey
locations, companies are continuously looking
to maximize a warehouse’s operations. High
real estate values, land conditions, available
autonomous technologies and increasing
labor costs are all playing a major role in
determining the size and the capacity of
these warehouse facilities of the future.
This whitepaper explores trends in the warehousing in industry,
the challenges of very high piled storage in so-called “Dark
Warehouses”, their benefits, loss prevention and fire protection
challenges, and recommended risk mitigation measures to reduce
the potential for high property damage and business interruption.
1
Dark Warehouses Overview
Advances in technology have made it possible for better
utilization of warehouse space by increasing vertically their
storage capacity, which result in higher storage density or
increase in the number of pallet load positions. It is now common
to encounter warehouses storing commodities over 40 ft. and
even 100 ft. A Dark Warehouse is a term used for a storage facility
that does not require the use of lighting for normal operation.
The storage facility is usually located near shipping and receiving
area, and uses vision-guided robotic equipment for picking
up goods from the palletizer area to the storage location,
and automated and storage retrieval system for transferring
palletized cased goods to and from the racks. Depending on
the type and size of goods handled, these warehouses operate
automatic guided vehicles, which include palletizers, self-guided
also utilized in this type of warehouses; the cranes are designed
to work in narrow aisles nearly 100 feet off the ground. The
cranes are fitted with optical equipment that use laser measuring
devices for controlling the drive and lifting position, detecting
crossbeams on racks to allow for precise stacking the pallet on a
specific postion within the rack.
The automated equipment is programmed to pick up goods
at a central location or production area, and carries it to the
palletizer area where the pallet is assembled, and then the goods
are transported to the warehouse using either conveyor belts
or robotic equipment where a crane picks up the pallet load to
place it in a specific location within the rack. Photocells and laser
measuring technology used by automated material handling
equipment allows for distinguishing the rack’s structure supports,
measuring distances to the racks’ crossbars and uprights, and
recognizing aisles, as well as barcode scanners read codes for
stacking products in the right position.
Dark warehouses with very tall storage configurations are more
appropriate for handling same-sized items, including automotive
parts, pharmaceuticals, beauty aid products such as cosmetics,
and in facilities with harsh operating environment such as
refrigerated warehouses, especially those handling frozen goods.
Warehousing utilize double row or multiple row open frame steel
racks, which have been coded according to the desired location of
the goods; usually determined by rate of turnover and/or type of
goods. See figure 1 for photos of dark warehouses.
2

Figure 1

Robotic Equipment transporting commodities from palletizer to

Building with 90-ft. high Multi-Row Racks
racks, and from racks to shipping area
(Semi-Dark Warehouse)

Plastic Products in +60 ft. high Rack Storage (Dark Warehouse)

+90 ft. storage in double and multi-racks storage configuration

From the business operations standpoint, the benefits of highly
automated facilities using high-density storage facilities with
storage up to 100 feet is very significant as they provide means
for nearly 100% error-free operation, optimize storage with
nearly perfect alignment of goods within the racks, result in low
rejection of goods due to proper handling, and help track goods
from point of origin to shipping by real-time inventory control. In
comparison to conventional warehouses, the use of automated
dark warehouse facilitates the management of warehousing, it
maximizes the available space in the building by allowing stacking
product to very high levels, and reducing the potential for damage
due to mishandling of goods, causing significantly less errors, and
therefore resulting in lower cost and faster delivery of the goods
to the customer.

Loss Prevention and Fire Protection Challenges
Warehouses are used for the storage of various commodities,
including goods and packaging materials that, from a fire
protection standpoint, present their own challenges. In addition
to the classification of the commodities, other factors such as the
size of the facility, storage configurations, building construction
and location of the facility also need to be considered during the
design and protection of these facilities.
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) has long
recognized that warehouses present special challenges for fire
protection because their contents and layouts are conducive
to fire spread and present obstacles in manual fire suppression
efforts. An increase in the number of very large and tall
warehouses in recent years, has resulted in an increase of the
potential fuel loads. As such, it has an impact on the warehouse
fire loss experience and warehouse fire protection systems,
specifically the response by emergency personnel for firefighting,
and the effectiveness of automatic sprinklers for promptly
detecting and controlling a fire.
Although the risk of accidents and damage to the racks is
negligible, the very tall warehouses utilize the rack system, which
is usually integrated into the building during construction; the
racks support the building roof. This arrangement presents a
potential for roof collapse under severe fire conditions, as the
rack’s upright members of the racks, are under compression loads
and unless adequate protection is provided they will lose its load-
carrying capacity, causing supports to buckle and eventually the
collapse of the entire rack system and roofs. This also constitutes
a life-threatening potential to emergency responders.
Warehouse sites located in a region exposed to natural
catastrophes such as flood, wind, tornado, earthquake,
and lightning presents high property damage and business
interruption loss potential. These exposures should be taken
under consideration in the design and construction of the facility
and the rack system.
3
Dark warehouses operate with very minimum lighting. Usually,
lights, operating under dimmed conditions, are limited to the
warehouse’s emergency exit locations. Under normal operating
conditions, personnel will not be present in the warehouse; but,
this presents a challenge to emergency personnel such as the fire
brigade or fire department to respond to a fire situation, and may
reduce their effectiveness with fire fighting.
Overload of storage racks, mechanical failures of equipment
associated with automated warehouses present a potential for
property damage. Failures of stacking equipment could cause
damage to goods, some of which may include materials that
present unique challenges such as aerosols, alcohol or solvent-
based products, exposed and expanded plastics. Incidents
involving this type of commodities are potentially conducive to
fires that might result in high property damage and interruption
to warehousing and logistics operations.
Automated tall dark warehouses usually operate under narrow
aisles. This dark warehouse characteristic, along with the
presence of high-density smoke within the building, would be
major obstacles to emergency responders in particular the fire
department for manual fire fighting efforts. Storage heights
exceeding 40 ft. and 45 ft. which are the currently recognized
maximum heights for ceiling sprinkler only fire protection
by the NFPA 13 and FM Data Sheet 8-9, present major fire
protection challenges. Therefore, dark warehouses require
several considerations for the design of effective fire protection.
Sprinklers approved for fire protection of commodities storage
require minimum 6 ft. or 8 ft. aisles. For narrower aisles, fire
protection requires the use of combination ceiling and in-rack
sprinklers to limit the spread of a fire.
4

Statistical Causes of Fires and Trends

The electric installations associated with the automated
equipment such as the cranes or other retrieval systems, battery
systems, and programmable logic controllers introduces a
potential source of ignition to the warehouse. Regardless of
the cause of a fire within a dark warehouse, high fire growth
accompanied by high heat release rate is expected in warehouses
containing open-frame storage racks. The type and size of
commodities, the storage configuration, the height of the
storage, and other factors present unique challenges in designing
appropriate fire protection for dark warehouses. Early fire
detection and quick response by the fire protection system are
imperative for property loss prevention and control.
According to a report issued by the U.S. Fire Administration’s
(USFA’s) National Fire Incident Reporting System (NFIRS), and the
NFPA’s annual fire department experience survey, during the five-
year period of 2009-2013, U.S. fire departments responded to an
estimated average of 1,210 fires in warehouse properties per year
(excluding refrigerated or cold storage). These fires caused an
annual average of $155 million in direct property damage, three
civilian deaths, and 19 civilian injuries. The statistical data shown
in Figure 2 was published by the NFPA Research Foundation on a
report issued in January 2016:
The data indicates that nearly one-fifth of these fires were set
intentionally. Electrical distribution or lighting equipment was
involved in 18% of fires. Arcing is the most common heat source
(13% of fires) in warehouse fire. Electrical failure or malfunction
was the leading factor contributing to the ignition of warehouse
fires, as well as in contributing to 17% direct property damage.
Therefore, implementing proper loss prevention and control
programs and protective measures such as surveillance, proper
design, and installation of electrical and heating equipment,
preventive maintenance for all equipment, and smoking control
will reduce the potential for property loss from these factors.
The NFPA Research report indicates that fires in warehouse
properties have declined substantially over the past 30 years. The
number of structure fires in U.S. warehouses has been reduced
by 74% since 1980, falling from 4,700 fires per year in 1980 to
1,200 in 2013. However, the value of direct property damage
caused by warehouse fires has not shown a similar decrease when
adjustments are made for inflation.

Figure 2

Leading Causes of Warehouse Structure Fires: 2009 - 2013

18%
Intentional
32%
Electrical distribution or 18%
lighting equipment 17%
8%
Heating equipment
3%
7%
Exposure fire
7%
Fires
Smoking materials 5%
11% Property damage

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
 5

Figure 3

Structure Fires in Warehouses by Leading Cause: 2009-2013

Annual Averages (Top 5 are listed)
40 38% Fires
35 32% Civilian Injuries
30
Direct Property Damage
25 21%
20 18% 18% 17%
15
11%
10 8% 7% 7%
5%
5 3%
0% 0% 0%
0
Intentional Electrical Heating Exposure fire Smoking
disribution and equipment materials
lighting
equipment

As shown in Figure 3, intentionally set fires caused 32% of
direct property damage, while electrical distribution and lighting
equipment accounted for 17% of direct property damage.
Timing of warehouse fires: Warehouse fires were less likely to
take place on a Saturday (12% of fires) or Sunday (11% of fires), as
is generally the case with business properties, with all the other
days of the week accounting for 15% or 16% of fires.
In general there was little seasonal variation in the distribution
of fires by month, with all months having between 8% and 9% of
the total. This implies that loss prevention and control measures
should be consistently maintained during the course of the week
and month of the year; however, warehouses exclusively devoted
for storage of seasonal products is expected to have some
correlation with the timing of the warehouse fires.
As figure 4 shows, warehouse fires were less common during
evening or overnight hours, but these fires were associated
with higher property loss. Fires between midnight and 6 a.m.
accounted for 17% of fires, but 26% of direct property damage,
while fires between 6 p.m. and midnight accounted for 26% of
fires, but 29% of direct property damage.
The data suggest that higher property damage is likely to be
experienced during unattended periods of the building as
response may be delayed. Therefore, it suggests that developing
a pre-fire plan in conjunction with the implementation of
surveillance systems that includes security guards and alarm
systems may have positive impact on property loss experience.
Rubbish, trash, or waste was the item first ignited in 12% of
warehouse fires, and they caused just 2% of direct property
damage. Flammable and combustible liquids and gases, piping
and filter were the item first ignited in 6% of fires, but these fires
caused 12% of direct property damage. (See Figure 5).

Figure 4

Structure Fires in Warehouses by Time of Day: 2009-2013

Fires

Civilian Injuries
50
43%
Direct Property Damage
40 38%
32%
29%
30 26% 25% 27% 26%
17%
20 17% 18%
14%

10
5%

0
Midnight - 6 am 6 am - 12 pm 12 pm - 6 pm 6 pm - Midnight
6

According to NFPA data, wet pipe sprinklers were effective in 84%
of the fires in which they were present and contributed to a 61%
reduction in dollar loss in those fires. Other protective measures
generally applicable to warehouse properties include automatic
alarms to the fire department and building security systems.
Pre-fire inspections and planning are recommended in order to
identify appropriate protection measures for specific warehouse
environments.
The above-reference data is useful for identifying the leading
causes of fires, timing, and contributing factors to property
damage. The data also suggests that implementation of loss
prevention and control management programs – including proper
pre-fire planning and training, in conjunction with surveillance
systems for early detection, proper maintenance of electrical and
heating equipment, and installation of appropriate fire sprinkler
systems – strongly correlate with the probability of a fire and
direct property damage.

Figure 5

Structure Fires in Warehouses by Item First Ignited: 2009-2013

Fires

35 Civilian Injuries
31%
30 Direct Property Damage

25

20 18%

15 12% 12%
10 8% 7%
5% 6% 6% 6% 6% 5%
5 2%
0% 0%
0
Rubbish, trash or Electrical wire or Unclassified Flammable and Structural
waste cable insulation item first ignited combustible member or
liquids or gases, framing
piping and filter

Risk Mitigation Measures for Dark Warehouses
As more businesses look to maximize their
warehouse operations, many more may be
moving to dark warehouses and autonomous
technologies to take advantage of optimal
storage configurations. There are a variety of
property loss preventions considerations that
companies can take to make sure their dark
warehouse are built and operated to minimize
any potential property losses.
7
Building Design
Appropriate building codes should be used in the design of
very tall dark warehouses. This should include the latest State
and Local Codes for building construction, and appropriate
reference to applicable fire protection standards and guidelines
from reputable sources. All walls and their supports should be
designed for loads in accordance with the ASCE-7 Standard
Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings
and Other Structures; this Code describes the methods for
determining dead and live loads, and loads associated with natural
catastrophe events such as earthquake and wind loads, and
their combinations for general structural design. An engineer
registered to practice structural design in the jurisdiction in which
the project is located should be employed to design the building,
storage racks, and bracing systems for nonstructural elements.
The building roof should be designed to resist the effects of
dead loads in combination with the more demanding of the roof
live load or environmental loads exerted from snow, rain, and
any superimposed roof live loads, to account for the use and
maintenance of the roof.
For very tall warehouse buildings with rack storage exceeding
30 ft., it becomes very important that the design of the slab is
relative to lower clear height buildings. Taller racks mean larger
slab loads, and therefore the floor slab would require greater
thickness and tighter specification to ensure rack and load
stability. The steel supports for the racks and the roof would
require being thicker for adequate load bearing.
To control fire spread and protect warehouses from other
operations in the facility, the warehouse and associated shipping
and receiving areas should be separated by walls of at least
2-hour fire rated construction from adjacent areas housing
manufacturing, support and service areas. The following loss
prevention guidelines should be implemented for equipment and
supports facilities associated with the automated warehouse:
• The control room that contains the computer servers and/or
programmable logic controllers for the automated materials
handling equipment should not be located adjacent to the
warehouse, or any hazardous operation. Construction should
consist of minimum 1-hour fire rated construction, and raised
floors and ceiling tiles of 1-hour fire rating. Adequate fire
protection using standard wet pipe or pre-action sprinkler
systems, or as a suitable option install an approved clean agent
fire extinguishing system.
8
• Battery charging operations for automated materials handling
equipment should be located outside warehousing areas,
in a well ventilated area, or in a cut off room equipped with
adequate mechanical exhaust ventilation designed to dissipate
hydrogen vapors generated during battery charging. The
charging area should be provided with spill containment, power
disconnect, and automatic sprinkler protection.
• All pipe and conduit penetrations should have a steel sleeve
and then be sealed with a UL Listed and/or FM Approved wall
and floor penetration fire stop with material of an equal or
greater hourly rating than the wall.
Because the high value of the goods stored in very tall
warehouses, a more stringent design might be required for the
building walls and supports, and/or additional interior subdivision
of the rack storage space using the Maximum Foreseeable Loss
(MFL) concept may be appropriate; the use of this concept
should be determined based on underwriting guidelines. The MFL
concept incorporates the design of walls to stop the spread of
an uncontrolled fire when existing fire protection is impaired and
manual fire fighting is limited or delayed. MFL or high-challenged
walls have 4-hour fire rating and are designed to be free-standing
or remain stable under fire exposure condition.
Guidelines for the design of MFL Walls can be found in the FM
Data Sheet 1-22 and in the NFPA 221 Standard for High Challenge
Fire Walls, Fire Walls, and Fire Barrier Walls.
Natural Catastrophe
One of the first steps in building design is determining the
potential exposure to natural catastrophe from events such as
earthquake, wind, flood, rain, snow, and lightning among others.
The following guidelines can be used to help determine the
magnitude of the exposure and recommended building design
consideration, and loss prevention and control measures to
mitigate these exposures:
• International Code Council, USA. International Building Code.
• International Conference of Building Officials, USA. Uniform
Building Code.
• Appropriate Country Building Code for locations outside USA
• GAP Guideline 15.1.1 Windstorm
• GAP Guideline 2.0.9.1 Seismic Bracing
• FM Data Sheet 1-28 Wind Design
• FM Data Sheet 1-2 Earthquake
• FM Global Data Sheet 1-34 Hail Damage
• FM Data Sheet 1-54 Roof Loads For New Construction
Earthquake
Locations exposed to earthquake activity require an “earthquake
resistant” building design that incorporates seismic bracing
for the structural members to preserve the structural integrity
of the building. Seismic bracing should be also used to restrain
storage racks, battery fixtures, building appliances, and
warehouse equipment. Design buildings, and equipment and
content load-resisting elements and anchorage using the
earthquake acceleration parameters appropriate for the location
of the facility. Anchor floor mounted equipment such as indoor
transformers and switchgear; these need to be secured and
braced at the top to structural elements. Brace floor stands for
items such as battery racks, programmable logic controllers,
and supports for other equipment in two opposing directions
as required to resist movements in the lateral and longitudinal
direction.
For existing buildings of steel construction, earthquake
resistance can be enhanced by strengthening the structural
frames providing bracing of designs ranging from X-brace and
K-brace to tension rod bracing. Floors and roofs which typically
transmit forces in the horizontal plane can be strengthened
by tightening fastenings and improving attachments of wall to
foundations connectors to resist uplift and to resist shear.
The potential for rupture of water, gas and fuel, electrical supply
and communication conduits (piping or wiring) is high, particularly
where materials are brittle types. Therefore, providing isolation
valves and switches, excess flow safety devices, seismic gas shut-
off valves and disconnects are recommended to minimize damage
and retain as much service as possible during an earthquake. A
remote shutoff for electrical service is also essential.
Sprinkler piping and other piping systems that can leak water
or gas should be provided with proper restrains and seismic
bracing to prevent failure during an earthquake. A structural
engineer familiar with seismic response applications must design
restraint devices at facilities located in earthquake hazard to meet
anticipated acceleration per earthquake hazard zone rating.
Windstorm
Protection against damage from exposure to high wind exposure
such as from tropical cyclones begins with a structural design
to withstand the pressure of cyclone wind speeds, quality
workmanship in construction and good maintenance. Code
designs incorporate resistance to the strongest winds normally
anticipated within a region.
Significant property damage can result when warehouses are
not properly designed to withstand the anticipated wind loads
associated with severe storms. Damage to the building cladding,

doors, roofs, and roof-top equipment can occur from direct
impact by high wind forces or windborne debris. When sections
of the building component are dislodged, wind and/or wind
driven water will penetrate the warehouse through unprotected
openings and result in high property damage and interruption
of operations. It is highly recommended to design the buildings
to the wind speed associated with Risk Category IV, as specified
by the Applied Technology Council (ATC) or other recognized
insurance industry guidelines.
Note that data collected by FM Global for tornado activity
indicates that for a period of average annual tornado counts per
10,000 square miles between 1991 and 2010, the average gust
wind speed for over 97% of the tornadoes documented was 111 -
135 mph. Therefore, buildings designed to 135 mph will provide a
reasonable resistance to tornado exposure.
Flood
Widespread damage can be caused by flooding water resulting
when a body of water rises above the top of established
channeling, such as a river bank, and overflows onto land.
Conditions sufficiently adverse to create flooding are capable
of damaging the building, indoor equipment, and storage of
goods. The most common cause of flooding is rainfall, whereby a
combination of conditions interacts to maximize surface runoff.
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has defined
flooding as a general and temporary condition of partial or
complete inundation of normally dry land from:
• The overflow of inland or tidal waters. (Riverine & coastal
flooding respectively)
• The unusual and rapid accumulation or run-off of surface
waters from any source. (Surface water run-off)
In the United States, riverine flooding is shown on Flood Insurance
Rate Map (FIRM) published by FEMA. These maps show the 100
yr. and 500 yr. flood recurrence. Other countries around the world
project other intervals of flood recurrence such as 200 yr., 1000
yrs., etc. Canada forecasts on 200 yr. basis. North Sea studies
looked at 400 and 2000 yr. events.
When the site is located within flood prone areas, if possible the
warehouse and support facilities should be built outside flood
exposed areas; otherwise the facilities should be constructed at
least 1 ft. above the 500-year flood level.
Rainstorm
The building roof should be equipped with adequate storm
drains and the support members should be designed to carry
the anticipated loads. Designing roof drain systems based
on 1-hour rainfall intensity with a 1% chance of occurrence is
9
recommended. It is also wise to design flat roofs with a secondary
drainage system.
Snow
The building snow load design should be based on ASCE 7 for
Risk Category IV buildings or other recognized insurance industry
guidelines.
Lightning
Electrostatic energy discharge produced during a thunderstorm
can strike buildings, particular very tall buildings. Unless adequate
protection is provided, such a strike could be an ignition source.
Thus, lightning protection to protect buildings and structures
should be provided for facilities located where there is a known
history of thunderstorms. Protect the warehouse and associated
support facilities from direct lightning strikes by installing
lightning protection systems meeting the requirements of
NFPA 780, UL 96A or LPI-175. Use components listed to UL 964.
Protect buildings and structures from lightning induced surges
traveling along incoming electric power and communications
lines by installing surge arresters at electrical service entrances to
divert these surges to earth. Use listed or certified installers.
Fire Protection
The risk associated with automated dark warehouses presents
a potential for very high property damage loss due to the
high value that is usually associated with the storage. High
concentration of combustible materials, the configuration
of the storage, specifically the height of the storage (100 ft.
or more), the presence of narrow aisles, and lack of lighting,
present high challenges to the design of fixed fire protection
systems, and manual fire fighting. Depending on the type of
goods stored, a fire will cause release of large amount of heat
and smoke creating adverse conditions for fire fighters. Under
these conditions and unless proper protection is provided,
there is high chance for collapse of racks and the structure
in a building whose roof is supported by the rack steel frame.
Therefore, it is utmost important to properly design automatic
sprinkler protection based on widely recognized standards to
control the fire. Proposed fire protection using non-conventional
methods and applications are also outlined in this article as they
use technologies that have been recognized for effective fire
protection of ordinary combustibles and high-hazard materials
such as flammable and combustible liquids.
10
Loss Prevention Programs
In addition to proper building construction, loss prevention and
control management programs should be implemented for safe
operation of warehouses and to reduce the loss potential. These
programs should consider the following:
• The material handling equipment such as crane stackers,
conveyor belts, and robotic equipment should be equipped
with protective devices such as overload, over reaching,
over temperature, high voltage and over current protection,
heat protection for the electric motors, and other protection
measures recommended by the equipment manufacturer for
safe operation.
• An inspection and preventive maintenance program for the
electrical equipment including power distribution equipment,
automated equipment, and their safety protective switches
and sensors. The program should include infrared scanning of
electrical equipment. Set up the program in accordance with
the equipment manufacturer guidelines, and the NFPA 70 B:
Recommended Practice for Electrical Equipment Maintenance.
• Establish comprehensive pre-emergency and response plans
for fires, flood, windstorm, earthquake, and other conceivable
emergency situations. A pre-fire plan should be developed and
discussed with the first and secondary emergency responders.
Salvage and cleanup procedures should be incorporated in the
pre-emergency plan.
• Set up a checklist-based inspection program for the storage
racks to verify that they are in good condition, and well
secured.
• An inspection and functional test program for the fixed and
portable fire protection program.
• A work permit system that will require task safety analysis
before maintenance work is allowed to be performed. This
should include formal hot work permit system, and de-
energizing all electrical equipment prior to allowing personnel
entering a Dark Warehouse.
• Surveillance systems such as on-site security, video cameras,
and fire and burglar alarms should be provided in all warehouses
for early detection of abnormal operating condition, and for
intrusion detection.
Fire Protection by Conventional Methods
In selecting the type of fire protection, contributing factors
such as the total value of the goods stored in the building, and
their susceptibility to damage from smoke, heat, and water
play a significant role in this decision. For early fire detection
and depending on the commodities stored and operating
environment (ambient vs. low temperature), consider the
installation of very early suppression system, or a linear heat
detection system installed at all levels of the storage racks.
Additionally, the systems should be arranged to transmit a local
audio visual alarms, and also to transmit the alarm to a constantly
attended location and UL Listed Alarm Monitoring Central
Station. The installation of the fire detection system should be
completed in accordance with the requirements of the NFPA 72:
Fire Alarm and Signaling Code.
Adequately designed automatic sprinkler systems are essential
for proper fire protection. The design and installation should
be based on the requirements of the NFPA 13: Standard for the
Installation of Automatic Sprinkler Systems. A sprinkler design
scheme should be selected from this standard and/or from
the FM Data Sheet 8-9: Storage of Class 1, 2, 3, 4, and Plastic
Commodities.
Because the height of the rack storage exceeds the maximum
level of storage and building specified by these standards for
ceiling sprinkler protection only, the installation of in-rack
sprinklers in every level of the racks using the horizontal layout
that is specified in the standard is required for adequate fire
protection. The spacing and location of the sprinkler is dependent
upon the configuration of the rack, (single row, double row,
or multiple rows). This will include the installation of in-rack
sprinklers along the longitudinal flue space, at midpoint between
transverse flue space, and along the face of the racks; in-rack
sprinklers on these positions should be staggered vertically. Only
sprinklers that are listed or approved by a recognized testing
laboratory for storage applications should be utilized.
Providing horizontal barriers at prescribed intervals is also an
acceptable fire protection arrangement; however, the use of
these barriers generally reduces the number of in-rack sprinklers
required per level; but, it does not reduce the number of in-rack
levels required.
Water Supply for Fire Protection
Factors such as high value contents, the dimensions of the
racks, the height of storage, and presence of narrow aisles will
restrict the capabilities of firefighting, and therefore total reliance
must be placed upon sprinkler protection for initial control. This
supports the concept for using the MAXIMUM RELIABILITY
approach.

According to the GAP Guideline 10.1.2.1 “Maximum Reliability
for High Rack Storage Protection”, this concept uses a carefully
coordinated protection design that ensures reasonable control
of fire in high racked storage facilities despite any credible single
impairment, such as impairment to a water supply or a valve
closure to any interior or exterior piping. Accordingly, to avoid
total loss to a warehouse, minimum acceptable in-rack sprinkler
protection must be maintained under any reasonably adverse
circumstance. The following arrangement should be implemented
on the design of the firewater distribution system, piping, and
sprinklers:
• Water Supplies: Provide two reliable water supplies; each
one capable of meeting NFPA’s design demands for hose
stream, ceiling sprinklers, and in-rack sprinklers. This should
consist of preferably diesel engine driven fire pumps, or
electric motor driven pumps with connection to emergency
power generators. Each pump should take suction from an
aboveground storage tank of enough capacity to meet the
combined water requirements of the sprinkler system and
hoses for a period of minimum 120 minutes.
• Exterior Piping: Arrange the underground mains as either
looped or gridded and with control valves installed so that
any single impairment (valve closure or piping rupture)
would not interrupt both water supplies to the rack area, or
affect all of the in-rack protection, or any in-rack protection
simultaneously with the ceiling protection.
• Interior Piping: Arrange interior piping so that a single
impairment will not affect all the in-rack protection or one of
the in-rack systems and the ceiling protection. To achieve this
goal implement the following:
• Feed ceiling sprinklers by a separate riser and feed main from
the underground loop.
• Arrange in-rack sprinklers with two separate feeds from the
underground loop so that under any credible impairment or
single valve closure, no more than 50% of such protection
within the warehouse will be affected nor will all the in-rack
protection in any one rack be impaired.
• Arrange in-rack sprinkler protection so that no more than
one tier level, approximately 5 ft. (1.5 m), at the top of the
rack will be unprotected, if the ceiling sprinkler system should
be impaired.
• Sprinklers: Install ordinary temperature, ESFR type ceiling
sprinklers and ordinary temperature, quick response rated
in-rack sprinklers.
Fire Protection by Non-Conventional and Innovative Proposals
To initiate a discussion on possible solutions, the Fire Protection
Research Foundation held a workshop on high-challenge
11
warehouses during the Suppression and Detection Research
and Applications Symposium, or SUPDET, held in February,
2010, in Orlando, Florida. The workshop case study focused
on a hypothetical high-bay warehouse in a rural community — a
common location for today’s mega-warehouses, in fact, due in
part to availability of affordable land. The case study warehouse
was 55 feet (16.7 meters) wide, 150 feet (45.7 meters) long,
and 70 feet (21.3 meters) high, constructed of steel, and stored
cartoned Group A plastics in a 13-level multiple rack array 65 (19.8
meters) feet high. Storage would be handled by an automatic
storage and retrieval system operating in five-foot-wide aisles.
The main rack would be four pallet loads wide. The local fire chief
says firefighters would only enter the building in an effort to save
salvable lives.
During the SupDet workshop presentations from the various
participants offered their visions on the approach for fire
protection for the case study using fixed fire protection
approaches designed to extinguish the fire without fire service
intervention. The approach is based on commercially available
fire protection systems applied in unconventional ways. The fire
protection methods are presented here only as hypothetical
possibilities in conceptual form, not as detailed engineering
realities that have been reviewed by the fire protection
community or subjected to rigorous scientific analysis. The
intent is to stimulate further discussion on a matter of critical
importance to industry, insurers, the fire service, and standards
development organizations such as NFPA, and to press for further
work to create solutions that are both realistic and cost effective.
• Proposal by Aon: Utilization of Early Suppression Fast
Response Sprinklers (ESFR) and Carbon Dioxide (CO2):
The storage space is divided into zones with horizontal and
vertical barriers. A Low Zone for storage of high challenge
commodities, and a high zone for ordinary commodities. The
high zones rely on ESFR sprinklers only, while the low zones
are protected by ESFR sprinklers at the top of the zone, and
supplemented by local application of carbon dioxide to reduce
the oxygen content in the zone to the point where open
burning is not possible. A system of heat detection installed in
the upper and lower zones is used for alarm actuation and ESFR
activation.
The ESFR sprinklers are installed in the flue spaces at only two
levels of the 70-foot-tall (21.3 meters) structure, avoiding the
installation of in-rack sprinklers at every level. The benefit of
using CO2 is its ability to handle fires involving flammable and
combustible liquids; however, it introduces the personnel safety
hazard, and therefore this installation would require incorporating
early warning systems to allow evacuation of personnel, and a
discharge delay as required by the NFPA 12 Standard.
12
• Proposal by FPI Consortium and Hughes Associates:
Utilization of high-expansion foam designed and installed in
accordance with NFPA 11, Low-, Medium-, and High-Expansion
Foam. The design principle consists of using total flooding in a
zoned area to a depth that submerges the fire. To reduce the
total water supply requirement, solid or fabric vertical barriers
are used to divide the space into four equal protection zones.
Two methods of heat detection were considered: ceiling and
in-rack spot heat detectors, and linear heat detection located
within the racks, with lines alternating front-to-back and
side-to-side at each level up the array. Flame detection was
also proposed to cover open building areas and aisles. Video
imaging detector (VID) systems were offered as an option that
could detect either flaming or smoldering fires.
Foam concentrate is delivered to a foam proportioning system
arranged to proportion 3 parts concentrate and 97 parts water
to form a foam solution. The foam solution is then delivered
to a high-expansion foam generator, where one part of foam
solution is mixed with between 500 and 1,000 parts of air to
form high-expansion foam. The foam is delivered by ceiling- or
wall-mounted foam generators that would completely fill the
protected zone and extinguish the fire. The use of which has
already been proven for protecting high-challenge fire hazards
including aircraft hangars, flammable liquids storage, rolled
paper storage, rubber tires storage, and a number of other
applications.
The proposal is very significant as it utilizes proven technology
for high hazard fire protection. It reduces the amount of water
requirement to less than 20 percent of the water requirement
for automatic sprinklers, which means less runoff of
contaminated water. The ability to divide the warehouse space
into multiple zones would further reduce water demands, as
well as stock damage, due to contact with foam.
The automatic storage and retrieval system was assumed
to be hardened to allow operation during a fire. The system
would carry a pallet-mounted, self-contained fire extinguishing
system. The pallet-mounted extinguishing system would
incorporate an infrared camera to locate burning or smoldering
material. A monitor nozzle would apply up to 600 gallons of
compressed air foam to achieve final fire extinguishment.
• Proposal by Rolf Jensen & Associates: The proposal consists
of use of water mist technology that employs a system of air
dampers and exhaust fans to pull water mist through the rack
array. Water mist is a recognized fire suppression system for
a broad range of challenges, from light-hazard occupancies
such as ballrooms to plastic clean-room wet benches where
flammable liquids are in use. NFPA 750, Water Mist Fire
Protection Systems, provides guidance for applying water mist
systems where the system has been specifically listed for the
hazard to be protected.
The system is designed to automatically operate in a zoned
manner based upon the location of the detected fire. A linear
heat detection system is installed at each tier of storage in
the rack array as well as at the ceiling above the racks. High-
pressure water mist nozzles are positioned along the rack
faces on the air louver side of the arrays. Nozzles run parallel
with the aisles at every level up the rack arrays, and are zoned
vertically from floor to ceiling.
Unlike carbon dioxide and high-expansion foam, the water
mist approach does not involve zoning of the warehouse space
with horizontal or vertical barriers. While no estimates of water
demand were developed for this model, it is anticipated that
water mist would use even less water than the high-expansion
foam approach. For rural locations with limited water supplies,
water mist could offer a cost-effective option to automatic
sprinklers supported by fire pump and large water-storage
tanks.
The concept of combining water mist and airflow is intended
to reduce smoke generation and remove from the building
a portion of the smoke that is generated. This delivers the
benefit of improved visibility within the building, along with
the potential for reduced smoke damage to stock. However,
this combined approach is new and would require testing
and the development of design guidelines. In addition, the
development of a listed water mist design for warehouse fire
extinguishment would have to be pursued, since NFPA 750
requires such systems to be specifically listed for the hazard
being protected.

Conclusions
The risk associated with automated dark
warehouses presents considerable loss
potential due to usually high value of the
contents; a fire in this type of warehouse
without appropriate fire protection is likely to
result in major property damage and cause
interruption of the supply chain.
Dark warehouses pose significant fire protection challenges
because of their high-density storage arrangement, building
layout, ceiling heights, and types of commodities stored within
their walls. The lack of lighting and potential for building or rack
collapse would present a challenge to firefighting. To minimize
those risks, it’s crucial to conduct a risk assessment, starting
at the conceptual design stage of the facility for identifying
the potential risk exposures and the required preventive and
protective features. Pre-emergency planning and business
continuity planning area also essential for proper loss control.
The installation of automatic sprinklers is essential for control
of a fire situation, and although in most cases sprinklers do not
extinguish the fires, properly designed sprinkler protection
will control the fire to provide a degree of safety for access for
firefighting. According to the NFPA Journal, properly designed
sprinkler systems are an essential element of warehouse
fire protection. In the most recent NFPA report on the U.S.
experience with sprinklers, fires in warehouses are large
enough to activate sprinklers and wet pipe sprinklers were
effective in 84% of the fires in which they were present and
contributed to a 61% reduction in dollar loss in those fires. It
is also important to develop a pre-fire plan in conjunction with
the fire department that incorporates the resources needed for
complete fire suppression.
13
Loss experience data presented by the NFPA Research
Foundation indicates that fires caused by electrical equipment
or wiring failures is one of the largest contributing causes,
and therefore, emphasis should be placed on the design and
installation of electrical equipment as required by the National
Electric Code (NFPA 70).
The installation of surveillance systems in warehouses and
providing on-site security will provide a deterrent to intentional
set fires, which is the second contributing cause to fires. The
control of other potential sources of ignition such as smoking,
heating equipment, and improperly managed hot work is also
important to loss prevention.
References
• Report issued by the U.S. Fire Administration’s (USFA’s)
National Fire Incident Reporting System (NFIRS), and the
National Fire Protection Association’s (NFPA’s) annual fire
department experience survey, during the five-year period
of 2009-2013.
• NFPA 13: Standard for the Installation of Automatic
Sprinkler Systems
• FM Data Sheet 8-9: Storage of Class 1, 2, 3, 4 and Plastic
Commodities.
• GAP Guideline 15.1.1 Windstorm
• GAP Guideline 2.0.9.1 Seismic Bracing
• GAP Guideline 10.1.2.1 “Maximum Reliability for High Rack
Storage Protection
• FM Data Sheet 1-28 Wind Design
• FM Data Sheet 1-2 Earthquakes
• FM Global Data Sheet 1-34 Hail Damage
• FM Data Sheet 1-54 Roof Loads for New Construction
• NFPA 780-2011, Standard For The Installation Of
Lightning Protection Systems, National Fire Protection
Association
• UL 96A-2007, Standard for Installation Requirements for
Lightning Protection Systems, Underwriters Laboratories
Inc.
• LPI-175, Lightning Protection Institute Standard Practice,
Lightning Protection Institute, Harvard, IL.
Dark Warehouses: Loss Prevention,
Fire Protection Challenges and
Risk Mitigation Measures

Contact
Luis Arango
Senior Loss Prevention Consultant
luis.arango@xlcatlin.com

To learn more, visit the website xlcatlin.com/gaps.com

MAKE YOUR WORLD GO

Global Asset Protection Services LLC (XL GAPS) is a leading property loss prevention service provider
and a subsidiary of XL Group Ltd. XL GAPS provides property loss prevention and risk assessment
reports and other property loss prevention services, as requested. Our personnel, publications,
services, and surveys do not address life safety or third party liability issues. Any services addressing
life safety or third party liability are provided by others. XL GAPS specifically disclaim any warranty
or representation that compliance with any advice or recommendation in any document or other
communication will make a facility or operation safe or healthful, or put it in compliance with any
standard, code, law, rule or regulation. XL Catlin, the XL Catlin logo and Make Your World Go are
trademarks of XL Group Ltd companies. XL Catlin is the global brand used by XL Group Ltd’s (re)
insurance subsidiaries. In the US, the insurance companies of XL Group Ltd are: Catlin Indemnity
Company, Catlin Insurance Company, Inc., Catlin Specialty Insurance Company, Greenwich Insurance
Company, Indian Harbor Insurance Company, XL Insurance America, Inc., and XL Specialty Insurance
1650_09/2017

Company. In Canada, coverages are underwritten by XL Specialty Insurance Company—Canadian

Branch. Coverages may also be underwritten by Lloyd’s Syndicate #2003. Coverages underwritten
by Lloyd’s Syndicate #2003 are placed on behalf of the member of Syndicate #2003 by Catlin Canada
Inc. Lloyd’s ratings are independent of XL Catlin. Coverage may not be available in all jurisdictions.
Information and ratings (if listed) accurate as of September 2017.
© 2017, Global Asset Protection Services, LLC. , an XL Group Ltd company.