Assignment: No 2

Module Code: CE 4005

Module Title: Advance Structural Design
Name of the Lecturer: Dr.Kamal Karunananda
Date of Submission: 06/06/2018

Code Development on Water

Retaining Structures

Name: K.A.N.C.Perera
Student ID No: 150130
Graduate Diploma (Semester 7)
Introduction

The design of water-retaining structures and retaining walls is based on analysis and design
techniques. Because they have specialized nature, however, design is acted by factors which
may be regarded as secondary in normal reinforced concrete work. This structures used to
retain earth or water where conditions are not considered the mass to assume its natural slope.
The main function of retaining walls is to stabilize hillsides and control erosion. In this extensive
grading may not be possible and retaining walls become necessary to allow for safe
construction and acceptable slope conditions for adjacent land uses. Where soils are unstable,
slopes are quite steep, or heavy runoff is present, retaining walls help to stem erosion.
Excessive runoff can undermine roadways and structures, and controlling sediment runoff is a
major environmental and water quality consideration.
And also this is common practice to use reinforced or pre-stressed concrete structures for the
storage of water. Similar design methods also be used to design basements in buildings where
groundwater must be excluded. For like purposes, concrete is generally the most economical
material of construction and, when correctly designed and constructed, it will provide long life
and low maintenance costs. The design methods and code development in this report are
appropriate for the following types of structure storage tanks, reservoirs, swimming pools,
elevated tanks, ponds, settlement tanks, basement walls, and similar structures. In water
retaining structures, according to the above information those structures are designed using
reinforcements without cracks or leakages by satisfying the Serviceability Limit State and to come
strength and it is checked by the Ultimate Limit State Requirements.

Cracking

If a reinforced concrete slab is laterally loaded, the concrete on the side of the tension
reinforcement will raise and, dependent on the magnitude of loading (other factors being
equal), it will eventually crack as the load is increased. At the instant that a crack forms, it will
have a positive width. Further increases in load will produce more cracks and a widening of
existing cracks that have formed, ultimately leading to a stabilized crack pattern, all the time
increasing the stress in the reinforcement. For the same concrete section and load but with a
greater quantity of reinforcement, the service stresses in the steel will be reduced, and the
crack widths will potentially be narrower. The two main cracks which are structural cracks and
Intrinsic crack, can be occurred.

Intrinsic cracks can be categorized into three divisions.

 Plastic-Plastic settlement/shrinkage
 Early thermal contraction
 Long term drying shrinkage
 Types of intrinsic cracks

Type of Most common Time of

Causes Controlling
cracking location appearance
Plastic  Deep sections (over Excess bleeding  Reduce air 10 mins to 3
settlement r/f) and rapid early entrainment hrs.
 Top of column drying  Re-vibration
 Change indepth
Plastic  Roads and slabs Rapid early drying Improve early 30 mins to 6
shrinkage (diagonal crack) and curing. hrs.
 Reinforced slab reinforcement
(random cracks and near surface.
over r/f)
Early thermal Thick walls and slabs Excess heat Reduce the heat Within 3
contraction generation generation. days.
Long term Thin slabs and walls In-efficient joints  Reduce water Within 7
drying content. days or later.
shrinkage  Improve curing.
Crazing (pre-  Against formwork.  Impermeable More than
setting cracks)  Floated concrete. formwork. two years.
 Over
trowelling.
Corrosion of Columns and beams Lack of cover and More than
reinforcement poor quality two years.
concrete

Structural cracks are due to poor construction sites, swollen soil, poor soil bearing or
overloading and deformation of the structure due to overloading or design deficiency.
Cracks are main failures in water retaining structures. Concrete has a possibility to form cracks
during its plastic state and hardened state due to stresses. Crack controlling is most important
to the serviceability of the structure to perform its functional aspect. The objective of this is to
analyze the design methods used in different standards to control cracking in water retaining
structures.

There are numerous international codes to design water retaining structures there may be
functions where the specified crack width limit from those codes may not satisfy the leakage
requirement.

Crack control in CP 2007 was assumed to be achieved by limiting the permissible stresses.
However, reports that experience has shown that structures designed to CP 2007 can exhibit
cracking because of shrinkage and early thermal movement in the immature concrete. From CP
2007 onward, all non-water retaining codes provide formulae for calculating crack widths (w)
although for routine work, crack width was concerned to have been controlled by the use of
reinforcement rules. BS 5337 attempted to improve upon the problems in CP 2007 mainly in
two ways
• the code permits three different types of design as referred to previously.
• by providing the designer with greater flexibility. This is achieved by introducing three classes
of exposure with three corresponding maximum crack width values as shown

BS 5337 exposure class and maximum crack widths (w)

Exposure class (to BS Description Maximum w
5337)
A Exposed to a moist or corrosive atmosphere or 0.1mm
subject to alternate wetting and drying
B Exposed to continuous or almost continuous 0.2mm
contact with liquid
C Not exposed to liquid nor to moist or corrosive 0.3mm
conditions

The exposure conditions were revised in BS 8007 as were the maximum design surface crack
widths w, as follows.
• severe or very severe exposure = 0.2mm
• critical aesthetic appearance = 0.1mm

The fundamental differences between the approach to crack width of BS 5337 and BS 8007 was
in the calculation of the strain due to the stiffening effect of concrete between the cracks. This
resulted in a larger average strain at the surface hence a closer spacing of bars, and increased
reinforcement area were required to give an acceptable crack width in BS 8007 design.
Reinforcement

High tensile steel was used in all comparative designs. In the CP 2007 designs, the most notable
differences are the permissible stresses in the steel and concrete and this has a significant
bearing on the satisfactory root width (h). The reduced permissible stresses in CP 2007 gave a
41.2% increase in wall root thickness and 50.2% extra reinforcement. The bars chosen for all
comparative designs exceeded 16mm diameter requiring the use of 425N/mm² in the designs
to BS 5337.Design to BS 8007 used a characteristic yield strength of 460N/mm² for all high yield
steel bar sizes.
Also the code recommended to provide reinforcements near the concrete surface by giving
covering also to control shrinkage and thermal cracking. And if not joints should be placed
nearly. The recommended that to construct water retaining structures in the grade C35A with
using a minimum cement content of 325kg/m3 and a water cement ratio of 0.55. Because
higher grade concrete will give more durability for the water retaining structures. The grade
35A is the minimum grade that can used for the water retaining structures. But in BS5337
states that to use G25 for the construction.
The considerations are,
 The partial safety factor for retained wall is 1.4 for ultimate limit state and 1.0 for
serviceability limit state with respect to BS8110.
 The factor of safety is 1.1 against the flotation

The code states that the bending and tension should considered while designing. The minimum
spacing should be 300mm.
However, for the ultimate limit state conditions, the liquid limit should take as the top of the
walls and assuming all outlets are blocked. For Serviceability limit conditions the liquid levels
should take as the over flow and working top level and assuming all outlets are opened.

Permissible stress (N/mm²)

Code Concrete High yield deformed steel reinforcement
(N/mm²) Liquid retaining face (N/mm²) Outer face (N/mm²)
CP2007 11.67 82.8 138

Span depth ratio

A much lower ratio was dictated by the greatly reduced permissible stresses permitted by CP
2007. BS 8007 recognizes that reservoir walls are usually tapered for aesthetic and economic
reasons. Clause 2.2.3.4 states that for triangular loading on a cantilever wall, a net reduction
factor should be applied to the basic span/depth ratio if the thickness at the top of the wall is
less than 0.6 times the thickness at the base. This reduction factor can be assumed to vary
linearly between 1.0 and 0.78 where the thickness at the top varies between 0.6 and 0.3 times
the thickness at the bottom. The information in BS 8007 (Clause 2.2.3.4), which is given as a
reduction factor can also be interpreted to give an increased modification factor where
htop/hbottom is greater than 0.6. This modification factor was only introduced in BS 8007, The
triangular loading modification factors were used for all limit state designs in this report study.

Triangular loading modification factor

htop/hbottom
1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3
Triangular 1.25 1.19 1.13 1.06 1.00 0.92 0.85 0.78 Modification
loading factor
Conclusion

In this code comparison research every revised code included in this comparison yielded
savings in terms of economy. Excluding CP 2007 which was very uneconomical. Standards for
water retaining structure design
 CP7
 CP2007
 BS5337
 BS8007

CP7 and CP2007 design codes considered that if the stress in steel and concrete were of a
relative by law order, then there should be few problems. Structural cracks are of serious
concern and should be assessed, monitored, and repaired by professionals. As repair works can
be expensive, prevention of cracks is the most important point. The Engineer has to consider
the solutions to prevention of cracks. Design engineers should be familiar with the
fundamentals of concrete technology and construction methods and contractors should be
constantly reminded of the principles of good concreting. Cracks can be reduced by good design
and good concrete using. It is generally recognized that pre-stressed concrete is most suitable
in preventing cracking and is normally used in Water retaining structures. This code (BS 5337)
presents about the behavior of concrete more closely and how to prevent cracking in concrete
during the construction and working life.

Reference

 http://dl.lib.mrt.ac.lk/handle/123/11557

 http://www.civil.mrt.ac.lk/conference/ICSECM_2015/book_2/Extract/SECM-15-122.pdf

 Lecture note – Dr.Kamal Karunananda