Myung Il Roh Kyu Yeul Lee Computational Ship Design Springer Singapore 2018

Myung-Il Roh
Kyu-Yeul Lee
Computational
Ship Design
Computational Ship Design
Myung-Il Roh • Kyu-Yeul Lee
Computational Ship Design

Myung-Il Roh Kyu-Yeul Lee
Naval Architecture and Ocean Naval Architecture and Ocean
Engineering Engineering
Seoul National University Seoul National University
Seoul, Korea (Republic of) Seoul, Korea (Republic of)
ISBN 978-981-10-4884-5 ISBN 978-981-10-4885-2 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-4885-2
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017945806
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018

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Preface
Ship design has long been done manually because of the special features of a ship,
such as its purposes, external forces, and production methods. With the develop-
ment of computer technology, ship design has seen rapid growth in both academic
and industrial research. Many obstacles can be overcome by adopting systematic
methods and applying automation concepts to such a field.
As one such approach, this book offers systematic methods and related theories
for ship design and applications based on computational methods. It reflects the
authors’ own experiences in ship design and R&D activities and incorporates
improvements based on feedback received from many experts on shipyards. The
comprehensive description of each design step presented in this book offers sys-
tematic methodologies and guidelines in ship design for academics, researchers,
students, and industrial manufacturers from diverse fields, including ocean engi-
neering and mechanical engineering. In addition, it will be of great value to those
involved in designing a new ship or improving an existing ship. This book offers
detailed descriptions of problems, related theories, mathematical formulation,
selection of algorithms, and other core design information. Details of applications
have been provided based on actual examples in the field.
With 17 chapters and appendices, this book covers all steps of ship design, from
a detailed description of design theories to the cutting-edge applications based on
computational methods. It provides both systematic methodologies and guidelines
related to ship design for the present and future leaders in both academic and
industrial sectors.
Chapter 1 gives an introduction to ship design. Basic requirements and func-
tions, terminologies, and design stages of a ship are explained. Chapter 2 deals with
the analysis of a ship owner’s requirements that are the starting point of ship design.
Chapter 3 explains various design constraints of the ship, including the physical,
economic, and regulatory. Chapter 4 gives methods for estimating lightship weight
(simply, lightweight). Chapter 5 deals with how to predict the resistance and power
of the ship. Chapter 6 deals with the selection of the main engine based on the
predicted resistance and power. Chapter 7 explains how to calculate the principal
v
vi Preface
dimensions of the propeller. Chapter 8 gives a method for estimating the capacity of
the cargo hold. Chapter 9 introduces the ICLL (International Convention on
Load Lines) to calculate the minimum required freeboard. Chapter 10 explains
how to decide on the principal dimensions of the ship according to its type.
Chapter 11 deals with hull form design, including generation, variation, fairing,
and performance evaluation of the hull form. Chapter 12 deals with general
arrangement design, including that of the various compartments in the hull, and
stability evaluation of the ship. Chapter 13 introduces hull structural design con-
siderations for design loads and various strengths based on the CSR (Common
Structural Rules). Chapter 14 deals with outfitting of the hull, machinery, accom-
modations, and electrical system. Chapter 15 introduces a methodology for the
economic evaluation of the ship, including shipbuilding and operating costs, RFR
(Required Freight Rate), and OPF (Operational Profit Factor). Chapter 16 gives an
example of how to calculate the principal dimensions of a VLCC (Very Large
Crude oil Carrier). Chapter 17 presents examples of ship design models, including
hull form, compartments, and hull structure.
This book also includes appendices to help readers understand optimization
methods and gives examples of optimal ship design.
Most of the book is based on the authors’ lecture notes, which were developed
over the past two decades, for the undergraduate course on ship design in the
Department of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering at Seoul National Uni-
versity in Korea. The lecture notes can be also found on the website of
OpenCourseWare at this university (http://ocw.snu.ac.kr). For understanding the
contents presented in this book, the readers are assumed to have basic knowledge of
courses in fluid mechanics, mechanics of materials, ship stability (or naval archi-
tectural calculation), and numerical methods, which are commonly taught as
prerequisite courses in most departments related to the field of naval architecture
and ocean engineering at universities.
Finally, the authors would like to thank Springer for the cooperation in publish-
ing this book.
Seoul, Korea Myung-Il Roh

Seoul, Korea Kyu-Yeul Lee
February 2017
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Generals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Basic Requirements and Functions of a Ship . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Ship Terminologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3.1 Principal Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3.2 Ship Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.3 Weight and Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.4 Speed and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 Design Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2 Analysis of Ship Owner’s Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1 Generals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Ship Owner’s Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3 Survey of Parent Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4 Review of Rules and Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4.1 IMO (International Maritime Organization) . . . . . . . . 16
2.4.2 Classification Societies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4.3 Administrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3 Design Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.1 Generals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2 Physical Constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3 Economical Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3.1 Volume Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3.2 Service Speed and DFOC
(Daily Fuel Oil Consumption) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.4 Regulatory Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.4.1 Required Freeboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.4.2 Required Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
vii
viii Contents
3.5 Computational Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3.5.1 Weight Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.5.2 Volume Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.5.4 Required Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4 Estimation of Lightweight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.1 Generals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.2 Method 1: Using the Lightweight of Parent Ship . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.3 Method 2: Using the Ratio of Deadweight to Total Weight . . . . . 28
4.4 Method 3: Using the Length, Breadth, and Depth . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.5 Method 4: Dividing into Structural, Outfit, and Machinery
Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.5.1 Structural Weight (Ws) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.5.2 Outfit Weight (Wo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.5.3 Machinery Weight (Wm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.5.4 Lightweight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.6.1 Method 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.6.2 Method 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.6.3 Method 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.6.4 Method 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5 Prediction of Resistance and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.1 Generals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.2 Ship Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.3 Methods for Prediction of Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.4 Prediction of Resistance by Holtrop and Mennen’s Method . . . . 40
5.4.1 Frictional Resistance (RF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.4.2 Appendage Resistance (RAPP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.4.3 Wave Resistance (RW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.4.4 Additional Pressure Resistance of Bulbous
Bow (RB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.4.5 Additional Pressure Resistance of Immersed
Transom (RTR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.4.6 Model-Ship Correlation Resistance (RA) . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.4.7 Total Resistance (RT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.5 Prediction of Propulsion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.5.1 Propulsive Efficiency (ηD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.5.2 Propeller Efficiency in Open Water (ηO) . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.5.3 Hull Efficiency (ηH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.5.4 Relative Rotative Efficiency (ηR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.5.5 Wake Fraction Coefficient (w) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.5.6 Thrust Deduction Coefficient (t) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Contents ix
5.6 Power Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

5.6.1 Effective Horse Power (EHP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.6.2 Thrust Horse Power (THP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.6.3 Delivered Horse Power (DHP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.6.4 Shaft Horse Power (SHP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.6.5 Brake Horse Power (BHP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.6.6 Normal Continuous Rating (NCR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.6.7 Maximum Continuous Rating (MCR) . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.7.1 Method for Prediction of Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.7.2 Method for Prediction of Propulsion Factors . . . . . . . 55
5.7.3 Method for Prediction of Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6 Selection of Main Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.1 Generals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.2 Characteristics of Diesel Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.3 Power and Speed of Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.4 Layout Diagram of Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.5 Selection of Main Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.6 Estimation of DFOC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.7 Estimation of Capacity of Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.8.1 Selection of Main Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.8.2 Estimation of DFOC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.8.3 Estimation of Capacity of Fuel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7 Determination of Principal Dimensions of Propeller . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.1 Generals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.2 Principal Dimensions of Propeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.2.1 Propeller Diameter (DP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.2.2 Propeller Pitch (Pi) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.2.3 Expanded Area Ratio (AE/AO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.2.4 Number of Blades (z) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
7.2.5 Propeller Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
7.3 Non-dimensional Coefficients in Propeller Design . . . . . . . . . 73
7.3.1 Advance Ratio (J) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
7.3.2 Thrust Coefficient (KT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
7.3.3 Torque Coefficient (KQ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
7.3.4 Propeller Efficiency in Open Water (ηO) . . . . . . . . . . 75
7.4 Determination of Principal Dimensions of Propeller . . . . . . . . 76
7.4.1 Stage 1: Assumption of Propeller Diameter . . . . . . . . 77
7.4.2 Stage 2: Determination of Engine Power and Speed,
and Propeller Pitch for Maximization of ηO . . . . . . . . 79
x Contents
7.4.3 Stage 3: Determination of Optimal Principal

Dimensions of Propeller and Maximum
Ship Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
7.4.4 Stage 4: Determination of Engine Power and Speed
Using the Determined Propeller Dimensions . . . . . . . . . 91
7.4.5 Stage 5: Generation of Speed-Power Curve . . . . . . . . 93
7.5 Relation Between Propeller Speed, Diameter,
and Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
7.6.1 Stage 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
7.6.2 Stage 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
7.6.3 Stage 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
7.6.4 Stage 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
7.6.5 Stage 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
8 Estimation of Capacity of Cargo Hold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
8.1 Generals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
8.2 Method 1: Using the Length, Breadth, and Depth . . . . . . . . . . 101
8.3 Method 2: Using the Length of Cargo Hold, Breadth,
and Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
8.4.1 Method 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
8.4.2 Method 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
9 Calculation of Freeboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
9.1 Generals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
9.2 Freeboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
9.3 Freeboard Deck and Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
9.3.1 Freeboard Deck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
9.3.2 Freeboard Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
9.4 Calculation of the Required Freeboard by ICLL
(International Convention on Load Lines) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
9.4.1 Classification of Ship Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
9.4.2 Calculation of Tabular Freeboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
9.4.3 Addition for Block Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
9.4.4 Correction for Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
9.4.5 Correction for Position of Deck Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
9.4.6 Deduction for Superstructures and Trunks . . . . . . . . . 119
9.4.7 Correction for Sheer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
9.4.8 Addition for Minimum Bow Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
9.4.9 Addition for Reserve Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
9.4.10 Calculation of Minimum Freeboards . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
9.5 Check for the Freeboard Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
9.6 Load Line Mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Contents xi

9.7.1 Calculation of the Required Freeboard . . . . . . . . . . . 132
9.7.2 Check for the Freeboard Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
10 Determination of Principal Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
10.1 Generals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
10.2 Weight Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
10.3 Volume Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
10.4 Required Freeboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
10.5 Types of Ships Considering Cargo Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
10.6 Procedure for Determining Principal Dimensions of Ship . . . . . . 137
10.6.1 Procedure for Deadweight Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
10.6.2 Procedure for Volume Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
11 Hull Form Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
11.1 Generals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
11.2 Generation of Hull Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
11.2.1 Primary Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
11.2.2 Secondary Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
11.2.3 Generation of Wireframes of Hull Form . . . . . . . . . . 147
11.2.4 Hull Form Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
11.2.5 Sectional Area Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
11.3 Hull Form Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
11.3.1 Dimensional Variation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
11.3.2 CP Variation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
11.4 Hull Form Fairing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
11.4.1 Modification of Hull Form Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
11.4.2 Evaluation of the Quality of Hull Form . . . . . . . . . . . 166
11.5 Performance Evaluation of Hull Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
11.5.1 Stability Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
11.5.2 Resistance and Propulsion Performance . . . . . . . . . . . 168
11.5.3 Maneuverability Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
11.6 Generation of Hull Lines Plan and Hull Form Surface . . . . . . . 176
11.6.1 Hull Lines Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
11.6.2 Hull Form Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
11.7 Appendage Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
12 General Arrangement Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
12.1 Generals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
12.2 Various Types of Tankers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
12.3 Rules and Regulations for Tanker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
12.3.1 Requirement for Double Hull Structure . . . . . . . . . . . 182
xii Contents
12.3.2 Limitation of the Size of Cargo Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

12.3.3 Installation of Slop Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
12.3.4 Installation of Segregated Ballast Tanks . . . . . . . . . . 186
12.3.5 Protection of Fuel Oil Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
12.4 Cargo Hold Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
12.4.1 Watertight Bulkhead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
12.4.2 Frame Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
12.4.3 Double Bottom Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
12.4.4 Side Tank Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
12.4.5 Cofferdam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
12.4.6 Hopper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
12.4.7 Cargo Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
12.4.8 Helicopter Landing and Winching Mark . . . . . . . . . . 191
12.5 Fore Body Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
12.5.1 Length of Fore Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
12.5.2 Height of Fore Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
12.5.3 Hull Tanks and Compartments Arrangement
in Fore Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
12.6 Engine Room Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
12.6.1 Length of Engine Room . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
12.6.2 Height of Engine Room . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
12.6.3 Hull Tanks Arrangement in Engine Room . . . . . . . . . 197
12.6.4 Rooms Arrangement in Engine Room . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
12.7 After Body Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
12.7.1 Length of After Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
12.7.2 Height of After Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
12.7.3 Hull Tanks and Rooms Arrangement
in After Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
12.8 Stability Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
12.8.1 Capacity Calculation of Compartments . . . . . . . . . . . 202
12.8.2 Intact Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
12.8.3 Damage Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
12.9 Generation of General Arrangement Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
13 Hull Structural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
13.1 Generals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
13.1.1 Hull Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
13.1.2 Principal Dimensions for Hull Structural Design . . . . . 217
13.1.3 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
13.1.4 Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
13.1.5 Procedure of Hull Structural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
13.2 Design Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
13.2.1 Generals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
13.2.2 Dynamic Load Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Contents xiii
13.2.3 Ship Motions and Accelerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

13.2.4 Hull Girder Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
13.2.5 External Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
13.2.6 Internal Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
13.2.7 Design Load Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
13.3 Hull Girder Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
13.3.1 Hull Girder Bending Strength Assessment . . . . . . . . . 237
13.3.2 Hull Girder Shear Strength Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . 239
13.4 Hull Local Scantling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
13.4.1 Loads for Hull Local Scantling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
13.4.2 Minimum Thicknesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
13.4.3 Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
13.4.4 Stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
13.5 Buckling Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
13.5.1 Generals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
13.5.2 Buckling Utilization Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
13.5.3 Slenderness Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
13.5.4 Buckling Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
13.5.5 Buckling Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
13.6 Fatigue Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
13.6.1 Generals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
13.6.2 Fatigue Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
13.6.3 Fatigue Strength Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
13.7 Verification of Hull Structural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
13.7.1 Cargo Hold Structural Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
13.7.2 Local Structural Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
13.7.3 Fatigue Strength Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
13.7.4 Global Structural Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
13.8 Generation of Hull Structural Plans and Hull
Structural Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
14 Outfitting Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
14.1 Generals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
14.2 Hull Outfitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
14.2.1 Anchoring Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
14.2.2 Mooring Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
14.2.3 Cargo Handling Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
14.2.4 Life-Saving and Firefighting Equipment . . . . . . . . . . 270
14.2.5 Pilot Transfer Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
14.2.6 Equipment Numeral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
14.3 Machinery Outfitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
14.3.1 Equipment in Engine Room . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
14.3.2 Piping Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
xiv Contents
14.4 Accommodation Outfitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

14.4.1 Accommodation Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
14.4.2 Deck House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
14.4.3 Funnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
14.4.4 Visibility Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
14.5 Electric Outfitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
14.5.1 Power System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
14.5.2 Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
14.5.3 Navigation and Communication System . . . . . . . . . . 293
14.5.4 Lighting System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
14.5.5 Fire Detection and Alarm System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
14.6 Generation of P&ID (Piping & Instrumentation Diagram)
and WD (Wiring Diagram) Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
15 Economic Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
15.1 Generals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
15.2 Estimation of Shipbuilding Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
15.2.1 Material Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
15.2.2 Labor Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
15.2.3 Overhead Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
15.2.4 Shipbuilding Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
15.3 Estimation of Operating Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
15.3.1 Voyage Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
15.3.2 Time Constant Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
15.3.3 Operating Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
15.4 Estimation of RFR (Required Freight Rate) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
15.5 Estimation of OPF (Operational Profit Factor) . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
15.6.1 Estimation of Shipbuilding Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
15.6.2 Estimation of Operating Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
15.6.3 Estimation of RFR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
15.6.4 Estimation of OPF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
16 Example of Determination of Principal Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
16.1 Generals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
16.2 Ship Owner’s Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
16.3 Determination of Principal Dimensions of Ship . . . . . . . . . . . 311
16.3.1 Weight Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
16.3.2 Volume Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
16.4 Prediction of Resistance and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
16.4.1 Prediction of Resistance by Holtrop and Mennen’s
Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
16.4.2 Prediction of Propulsion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
16.4.3 Prediction of Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Contents xv
16.5 Selection of Main Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336

16.5.1 Selection of Main Engine Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
16.5.2 Estimation of Engine Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
16.5.3 Estimation of DFOC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
16.6 Determination of Principal Dimensions of Propeller . . . . . . . . 338
16.6.1 Problem Definition for Stage 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
16.6.2 Use of Torque Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
16.6.3 Check for Thrust Force Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
16.6.4 Check for Non-cavitation Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
16.6.5 Principal Dimensions of Propeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
16.7 Calculation of Equipment Numeral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
16.8 Check for Non-visibility Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
16.9 Summary of Principal Dimensions of Ship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
17 Examples of Ship Design Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
17.1 Generals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
17.2 Examples of Hull Form Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
17.3 Example of Compartment Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
17.4 Example of Hull Structural Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Generals
In this chapter, basic requirements and functions, terminologies, and design stages
of a ship are explained. How a ship floats in the water, what terminologies should be
known to understand ship design, and how a ship is designed are described in each
section.
1.2 Basic Requirements and Functions of a Ship
A structure can be defined as a ship if it satisfies basic requirements and has basic
functions. The basic requirements are minimum conditions for a ship and there are
four basic requirements. First, a ship should float and be stable in the water. The
weight of the ship is equal to its buoyancy in static equilibrium. Second, a ship
should transport cargoes. For this purpose, inner space should be large enough for
storing the cargoes. Third, a ship should move fast to the destination and be possible
to control by itself. For this purpose, the shape of the ship should be made to keep
low resistance. And the ship should be equipped with propulsion and steering
equipment like a diesel engine and a rudder. Lastly, a ship should be strong enough
in all her life. For this purpose, in general, the ship is made of welded structures of
steel plates and stiffeners. How does a ship float in the water? The force that enables
it is the buoyant force directed upward. The buoyant force cancels out the
gravitational force directed downward and makes the ship to keep static equilib-
rium state, that is, floating condition. According to the Archimedes’ principle, the
magnitude of the buoyant force acting on a floating body in the fluid is equal to the
weight of fluid which is displaced by the floating body. The weight of displaced
fluid by the floating body is called displacement.
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018 1

M.-Il. Roh, K.-Y. Lee, Computational Ship Design,
DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-4885-2_1
2 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.1 Buoyant force and

gravitational force acting on
the ship
Thus, when the ship is in static equilibrium, the displacement (Δ) is equal to the
weight of the ship (W) according to the Archimedes’ principle, as shown in Fig. 1.1.
Here, the weight of the ship consists of its own weight, called lightship weight or
lightweight (LWT), and cargo weight, called deadweight (DWT). This fact can be
stated as shown in Eq. (1.1).
j Displacement ðΔÞ j¼j Buoyant force j¼j Weight ðWÞ j

jΔj ¼ L B T CB ρ jgj ¼ jWj ¼ ðLWT þ DWTÞ jgj ð1:1Þ
∴L B T CB ρ ¼ LWT þ DWT
1.3 Ship Terminologies
We introduce some terminologies of the ship first.
1.3.1 Principal Dimensions
Lengths of the ship are variously expressed in accordance with purposes of use, as
shown in Fig. 1.2.
(a) LOA (Length Over All): Maximum length of the ship from aftmost to foremost
(b) LBP (Length Between Perpendiculars)
• AP (After Perpendicular): Normally, center line of rudder stock
• FP (Fore Perpendicular): Intersection line between the design draft and fore
side of the stern excluding plate thickness, which is perpendicular to the
baseline
1.3 Ship Terminologies 3
Fig. 1.2 Lengths of the ship
Fig. 1.3 Breadths, depths,

and drafts of the ship
(c) LWL (Length at WaterLine): Basis of calculation of resistance

(d) Lf (freeboard length): Basis of calculation of freeboard and damage stability
• 96% of LWL at 0.85D or LBP at 0.85D, whichever is greater
(e) Ls (rule length, scantling length): Basis of hull structural design and equip-
ment selection
• Intermediate one among 0.96LWL at scantling draft, 0.97LWL at scantling
draft, or LBP at scantling draft
In Fig. 1.2, WL and BL are the waterline and the baseline of the ship,
respectively.
Other measurements of the ship are defined as below and shown in Fig. 1.3.
(a) B (Breadth): Breadth of the ship measured amidships
• Bmolded (molded breadth): Breadth excluding shell plate thickness
• Bextreme (extreme breadth): Breadth including shell plate thickness
4 1 Introduction
(b) D (depth): Distance from the baseline to the side line of the main deck,
normally uppermost exposed deck
• Dmolded (molded depth): Depth excluding keel plate thickness
• Dextreme (extreme depth): Depth including keel plate thickness
(c) T (draft): Distance from the baseline to the waterline
• Td (design draft): Main operating draft. In general, the basis for ship’s
deadweight, speed and power performance, etc.
• Ts (scantling draft): Basis for hull structural design. Normally, greater than
design draft
• Air draft: Height above the waterline only or including operating draft
restricted by port facilities, the navigating route, etc.
In this figure, CL is the center line of the ship. Other explanations about the
geometry of ships can be found in various references (Letcher and Paulling 2010;
Babicz 2015).
1.3.2 Ship Components
A ship consists of hull and outfitting. The hull consists of hull form, compartment,
and hull structure. First, a hull form is an outer shape of the hull that is streamlined
in order to satisfy ship owner’s requirements such as deadweight, ship speed, and so
on, as shown in Fig. 1.4. Figure 1.5 shows three two-dimensional plans, called
hull lines plan of the hull form of a VLCC (Very Large Crude oil Carrier).
Second, a compartment is a space to load cargoes in the ship and divided by
bulkheads, as shown in Fig. 1.6. Compartment design consists of compartment
modeling and naval architectural calculation. The compartment modeling is a task
that divides interior parts of the hull form into a number of compartments. The
Fig. 1.4 Hull form of a VLCC

Fig. 1.5 Example of hull lines plan of a VLCC
Fig. 1.6 Compartment of a VLCC
naval architectural calculation is a task that evaluates the ship owner’s require-
ments, e.g., required cargo capacity, ship speed, etc., and, at the same time, the
satisfaction of international rules and regulations related to safety and stability of
IMO (International Maritime Organization), such as SOLAS (Safety Of Life
At Sea), ICLL (International Convention on Load Lines), MARPOL (Interna-
tional Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships), International
Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships, and so on. Based on the com-
partment design a general arrangement plan is made, as shown in Fig. 1.7.
Third, a hull structure is a frame of the ship that consists of a number of hull
structural parts such as plates, stiffeners, brackets, and so on, as shown in Fig. 1.8. It
is like a skeleton of a human. Hull structural design is a task that determines the
specifications of the hull structural parts such as number, location, size, thickness,
material, and so on. The result of hull structural design is hull structural plans
such as midship section plan, as shown in Fig. 1.9.
6 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.7 Example of general arrangement plan of a VLCC
Fig. 1.8 Hull structure of a VLCC
An outfitting is a series of equipment and instrument to be required for operating

a ship, as shown in Fig. 1.10. It can be classified into four categories; hull outfitting,
machinery outfitting, accommodation outfitting, and electric outfitting. Outfitting
design is a task that determines the type, number, and specifications of the outfit-
ting. One of the important results of outfitting design is P&ID (Piping and
Instrumentation Diagram) plans, as shown in Fig. 1.11.
Fig. 1.9 Example of midship section plan of a VLCC
Fig. 1.10 Outfitting

(piping) of a VLCC
1.3.3 Weight and Volume
Some terminologies related to weight and volume of the ship are defined as below.
(a) Displacement: Weight of the water displaced by ship’s underwater volume
(b) Deadweight (DWT): Cargo weight, including consumables (e.g., fuel oil,
diesel oil, lubrication oil, fresh water, etc.) and deadweight constant (e.g.,
operational liquid in the machinery and pipes, provisions for crew, etc.)
8 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.11 Example of P&ID plan of a VLCC
(c) Lightship weight (simply, lightweight, LWT): Total of structural weight,

outfit weight, and machinery weight
(d) Trim: Difference between drafts at AP and FP
(e) LCB (Longitudinal Center of Buoyancy): Longitudinal position of center of
buoyancy of the ship
(f) LCG (Longitudinal Center of Gravity): Longitudinal position of center of
gravity of the ship
(g) Tonnage: Measurement of ship’s volume. In the past, 100 ft3 (¼ 2.83 m3) ¼ 1
ton. Currently, it follows international regulation such as International Conven-
tion on Tonnage Measurement of Ships (IMO 1969).
• GT (Gross Tonnage): Total sum of volumes of every enclosed space
• NT (Net Tonnage): Total sum of volumes of every cargo space
• CGT (Compensated Gross Tonnage): The rated gross tonnage. It means the
amount of work that is necessary to build a given ship and is calculated by
multiplying GT of a ship by a coefficient, which is determined according to
the type and size of a particular ship.
Among the above terminologies, displacement, deadweight, and tonnage are
used as criteria for the size of the ship. The displacement is used when representing
the size of naval ships. The deadweight is used when representing the size of
commercial ships (tanker, bulk carrier, etc.). And the tonnage is used when
representing the size of passenger ships. The displacement and deadweight are
about weight and the tonnage is about volume.
1.4 Design Stages 9
1.3.4 Speed and Power
Terminologies about speed and power are defined as below.

(a) Service speed (or ship speed): Average speed maintained by a ship under
normal load and weather conditions, that is, speed at NCR (Normal Continuous
Rating) power with a specific margin called sea margin (e.g., 15%)
(b) EHP (Effective Horse Power): Required power to maintain the intended speed
of the ship
(c) DHP (Delivered Horse Power): Power actually delivered to the propeller with
some power loss in a stern tube bearing and in any shaft tunnel bearings
between the stern tube and the site of torsion meter
(d) BHP (Brake Horse Power): Power at the crankshaft coming out of the main
engine
(e) Sea margin: Power reserve for influence of storm seas and wind including
effects of fouling and corrosion
(f) NCR (Normal Continuous Rating): Power at which the main engine can be
operated most efficiently, economically, and with least maintenance. Typically
8595% MCR. This is usually the contractual output for which the propeller is
designed.
(g) MCR (Maximum Continuous Rating) or DMCR (Derated MCR): Maxi-
mum continuous power that can be produced by the main engine continuously
without causing failure to propulsion machinery
(h) NMCR (Nominal MCR): Maximum power of the main engine provided by the
engine manufacturer
More details will be explained in Sect. 5.6 and Chap. 6.
1.4 Design Stages
A ship is constructed according to a certain procedure, as shown in Fig. 1.12. In this

figure, various processes, including five key events, i.e., contract, steel cutting, keel
laying, launching, and delivery, are performed. In addition, various parties such as a
ship owner, a shipyard, and a classification society are participating to construct a
ship. First, the contract is an event that the contract for building a ship is made
between the ship owner and the shipyard. Second, the steel cutting (or work
commencement) is an event that steel for building the ship is cut at the first time.
Third, the keel laying is an event that the first block of the ship lays down on the
dock. Fourth, the launching is an event that the ship floats and is launched from the
dock. Fifth, the delivery is an event that the ship is delivered to the ship owner after
quay work, sea trial, and naming ceremony.
The procedure of ship design is explained in detail, as shown in Fig. 1.13.
According to the level of details, ship design can be divided into four stages;
10 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.12 Construction procedure of the ship and five key events
Fig. 1.13 Procedure of ship design
conceptual design (or contract design), initial design (or basic design), detail
design, and production design.
A workflow for the conceptual design is shown in Fig. 1.14. The conceptual
design starts with input data such as ship owner’s requirements and includes several
steps such as determination of principal dimensions, freeboard calculation, and so
on. Some of steps need iterations as time goes.
After the contract, initial design which includes hull form design, general
arrangement design, initial hull structural design, and initial outfitting design &
cost estimation is progressed. A workflow for the initial design is shown in
Fig. 1.15.
1.4 Design Stages 11
Fig. 1.14 Work flow for

the conceptual design
After the initial design, the detail design and the production design are
progressed. In the stage of detail design, the overall design of the ship finishes.
In the stage of production design, BOM (Bill of Materials), assembly plans,
cutting plans, and so on are made. A workflow for the detail design and the
production design for hull structure is shown in Fig. 1.16 and for outfitting in
Fig. 1.17, respectively.
Other explanations about the design and production stages of ships can be found
in various references (Lamb 2003; Storch et al. 2007; Papanikolaou 2014; Bruce
and Eyres 2012).
12 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.15 Work flow for the initial design
Fig. 1.16 Work flow for the detail and the production design for hull structure
References 13
Fig. 1.17 Work flow for the detail and the production design for outfitting
References
Babicz, J. (2015). Wartsila encyclopedia of ship technology (2nd ed.). Helsinki: Wartsila.
Bruce, G. J., & Eyres, D. J. (2012). Ship construction (7th ed.). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
IMO. (1969). TONNAGE (International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships) 1969.
IMO.
Lamb, T. (2003). Ship design and construction. Jersey City: The Society of Naval Architects and
Marine Engineers.
Letcher, J., & Paulling, J. R. (2010). The principles of naval architecture series: The geometry of
ships. Jersey City: The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers.
Papanikolaou, A. (2014). Ship design methodologies of preliminary design. Dordrecht: Springer.
Storch, R. L., Hammon, C. P., Bunch, H. M., & Moore, R. C. (2007). Ship production. USA: The
Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers.
Chapter 2
Analysis of Ship Owner’s Requirements
2.1 Generals
The first step of the initial design of a ship is to analyze a ship owner’s require-
ments. Then, the data of parent ships are surveyed and collected in order to
effectively perform ship design. In addition, rules and regulations should be
reviewed. Other explanations about ship owner’s requirements can be found in
various references (Lamb 2003).
2.2 Ship Owner’s Requirements
A ship should be designed according to a ship owner’s requirements which are

stated in the building specifications through contract. Examples of the requirements
are listed below.
(a) Ship type: Tanker, bulk carrier, container ship, etc.
(b) Deadweight (DWT)
(c) Capacity of cargo hold (VCH)
• Volume of cargo hold, containers in holds and on deck, area of car deck, etc.
• Capacity of water ballast
(d) Service speed (VS): Speed at NCR power with a specific sea margin
(e) Dimensional limitations: Limitations of canals and ports
(f) Maximum draft (Tmax)
(g) Cruising range
(h) Daily Fuel Oil Consumption (DFOC): Related with ship’s economics
(i) Delivery day

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-4885-2_2
16 2 Analysis of Ship Owner’s Requirements
• Large amount of penalty per delayed day according to the contract

(j) Price
• Material cost + labor cost + overhead cost + margin
(k) Special requirements
• Ice class, air draft, bow/stern thruster, special rudder, twin-skeg, etc.
2.3 Survey of Parent Ships
Ship design is rather improvements than creation. A ship is designed based on

similar previous ships called parent ships, mother ships, or basis ships. Therefore,
it is important to survey data of parent ships such as principal dimensions, light-
weight, deadweight, capacity of cargo hold, speed, and so on.
2.4 Review of Rules and Regulations
Rules and regulations are should be reviewed and considered when a ship is
designed. If ship design does not satisfy the rules and regulations, the ship cannot
get approval from classification society and finally cannot be built. There are a lot of
rules and regulations by various organizations and those are listed below.
(a) International Maritime Organizations (IMO)
(b) Classification societies
(c) Administrations: Flag, port
(d) Regional organizations: EU, USCG (United States Coast Guard), etc.
(e) International Standard Organizations (ISO)
2.4.1 IMO (International Maritime Organization)
As a specialized agency of the United Nations, IMO is the global standard-setting

authority for the safety, security, and environmental performance of international
shipping. As of 2017, IMO consists of 171 states and has 3 associate members.
Therefore, IMO creates regulatory framework about ships and maritime, and it
becomes fundamental regulations for other organizations. IMO has a lot of instru-
ments, and those are listed below.
2.4 Review of Rules and Regulations 17
(a) Conventions
• SOLAS 1974, MARPOL 1973, ICLL 1966, TONNAGE 1969, COLREGs
1972, etc.
(b) Protocols
• SOLAS 1978 and 1988, MARPOL Protocol 1978 and 1997, ICLL Protocol
1988, etc.
(c) Codes
• ISM (International Safety Management), LSA (Life-Saving Appliance), IBC
(International Bulk Chemical), IGC (International Gas Carrier), IMDG (Inter-
national Maritime Dangerous Goods), etc.
(d) Resolutions
• Assembly, MSC (Maritime Safety Committee), MEPC (Marine Environment
Protection Committee), etc.
(e) Circulars
• MSC, MEPC, Sub-committees, etc.
Among them, important rules and regulations related to safety and stability of
ship are below.
(a) SOLAS (International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea) (IMO 1974)
(b) MARPOL (International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from
Ships) (IMO 1973)
(c) ICLL (International Convention on Load Lines) (IMO 1966)
(d) TONNAGE (International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of
Ships) (IMO 1969)
(e) COLREGs (Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Colli-
sions at Sea) (IMO 1972)
(f) Radio Regulations of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU 1992)
2.4.2 Classification Societies
Ship design also should satisfy rules of classification societies. A specific classifi-
cation society is chosen during contract of a ship, and the ship is designed comply-
ing with its rules. As of 2017, IACS (International Association of Classification
Societies) consists of 12 member societies, details of which are listed below.
Chairmanship of IACS is on a rotational basis with each member society taking a
turn.
(a) ABS (American Bureau of Shipping), USA
(b) BV (Bureau Veritas), France
(c) CCS (China Classification Society), China
18 2 Analysis of Ship Owner’s Requirements
(d) CRS (Croatian Register of Shipping), Croatia

(e) DNV GL (Det Norske Veritas Germanischer Lloyd), Norway
(f) IRS (Indian Register of Shipping), India
(g) KR (Korean Register of Shipping), Republic of Korea
(h) LR (Lloyd’s Register), United Kingdom
(i) NK (Nippon Kaiji Kyokai), Japan
(j) RRS (Polish Register of Shipping), Poland
(k) RINA (Registro Italiano Navale), Italy
(l) RS (Russian Maritime Register of Shipping), Russia
2.4.3 Administrations
In addition, a ship should satisfy rules and regulations of administrations such as the
registered country and FOC (Flag Of Convenience). A ship has nationality like
human and it should be registered in a certain country. Therefore, the ship should
hoist a national flag and belong to the exclusive jurisdiction of the nation in
international waters. FOC is a business practice whereby a ship is registered in a
country other than that of the ship owner, and the ship flies that country’s civil
ensign. Ship owner may register the ship under a flag of convenience to reduce
operating costs or avoid the regulations of the ship owner’s country. Some exam-
ples of the registered country and FOC are listed below.
(a) Registered country
• USCG (USA), DOT (UK), SBG (Germany), SNMA (Sweden), NMD
(Norway), AMSA (Austrailia), KG (Korea), etc.
(b) Flag of convenience
28 countries including Panama, Liberia, etc.
References
IMO. (1966). ICLL (International Convention on Load Lines) 1966, as Amended by the protocol of
1988. IMO.
IMO. (1969). TONNAGE (International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships) 1969.
IMO.
IMO. (1972). COLREGs (Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions
at Sea) 1972. IMO.
IMO. (1973). MARPOL (International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships)
1973, as Amended by the Protocol of 1978 and 1997 (Annex VI). IMO.
IMO. (1974). SOLAS (International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea) 1974, as Amended by
the Protocol of 1978 and 1988. IMO.
ITU. (1992). Radio Regulations of the International Telecommunication Union 1992, ITU.
Marine Engineers.
Chapter 3
Design Constraints
3.1 Generals
At the early design stage, there are few data available to determine the principal
particulars of design ship. Therefore, initial values of the principal particulars can
be estimated based on the parent ship, whose dimensional ratios and hull form
coefficients are similar to the ship being designed. Principal particulars include
principal dimensions, hull form coefficients, speed and engine power, DFOC,
capacity of cargo hold, cruising range, crew, class, and so on.
Principal dimensions and hull form coefficients decide many characteristics of
a ship such as stability, capacity of cargo hold, resistance, propulsion, power
requirements, and economic efficiency. Therefore, determination of the principal
dimensions and hull form coefficients is most important in ship design. The length
(L), breadth (B), depth (D), draft (T), and block coefficient (CB) should be deter-
mined first.
In ship design, the principal dimensions cannot be determined arbitrarily; rather,
they have to satisfy three types of design constraints. The first one is a physical
constraint. For example, a ship should have floatability, in other words, a ship
should satisfy hydrostatic equilibrium which can be expressed as weight equation.
The second one is economical constraints which are related with ship owner’s
requirements such as ship type, deadweight, capacity of cargo hold, service speed,
maximum draft, and so on. The last one is regulatory constraints such as IMO
regulations and the rules of classification societies. These constraints should be
considered when determining the principal dimensions of the ship.

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-4885-2_3
20 3 Design Constraints
3.2 Physical Constraint
The physical constraint is a basic, important constraint in ship design. A ship must
be designed to float in the water. For a ship to float in the water, the ship must satisfy
hydrostatic equilibrium and thus the gravitational force (total weight, W) of
the ship must be equal to the buoyant force (FB) acting on the underwater volume
of the ship. This constraint can be stated as the following equation.
j FB j ¼ j W j ð3:1Þ
In the equation, the total weight of the ship can be expressed as the sum of
lightweight (LWT) and deadweight (DWT) of the ship. It gives Eq. (3.2).
jWj ¼ ðLWT þ DWT Þ jgj ð3:2Þ
According to the Archimedes’ principle, the buoyant force (FB) on the under-
water volume has the same magnitude as the weight of the fluid (e.g., sea water)
displaced by the underwater volume. It gives Eq. (3.3).
jFB j ¼ jΔj ¼ ρ ∇ jgj ð3:3Þ
where, ∇ is underwater volume (also called displacement volume) of ship, ρ∇ is

displacement mass of the ship, and ρ∇g is displacement (Δ) of the ship. As a
result, in shipbuilding and shipping society, the buoyant force is called in another
word, displacement.
In the right side of Eq. (3.4), the underwater volume of the ship can be expressed
by block coefficient (CB).
∇molded ¼ L B T CB ð3:4Þ
where, L, B, and T are length (LBP), molded breadth, and draft of the ship,
respectively.
In general, we have to consider the displacement of shell plates and appendages
such as propeller, rudder, shaft, and so on. Thus, the total underwater volume of
the ship can be expressed as the following equation.
∇total ¼ L B T CB ð1 þ αÞ ð3:5Þ
where, α is a fraction of the shell appendage allowance which adapts the molded volume
to the actual volume by accounting for the volume of shell plates and appendages.
As a result, on the left side of Eq. (3.1), the buoyant force can be expressed as the
following equation.
jFB j ¼ ρ ∇total jgj ¼ ρ L B T CB ð1 þ αÞ jgj ð3:6Þ
From Eqs. (3.2) and (3.6), the physical constraint can be described by the
following equation.
3.3 Economical Constraints 21
ρ L B T CB ð1 þ αÞ jgj ¼ ðLWT þ DWT Þ jgj ð3:7Þ
In shipping and shipbuilding world, “ton” is used instead of “Mg” (megagram)

for the unit of the lightweight and deadweight in practice. Thus, Eq. (3.7) can be
stated as a kind of mass equation without gravitational acceleration (g), as shown in
Eq. (3.8). This equation means the physical constraint and it is also called weight
equation, actually mass equation.
ρ L B T CB ð1 þ αÞ ¼ LWT þ DWT ð3:8Þ
In this equation, if DWT is given for the design draft (DWTd), T is the design
draft (Td). And if DWT is given for the scantling draft (DWTs), T is the scantling
draft (Ts).
3.3 Economical Constraints
3.3.1 Volume Equation
The capacity of cargo hold is one of the ship owner’s requirements and the principal
dimensions of ship have to satisfy the required capacity of cargo hold. For tanker,
bulk carrier, and so on, the volume of cargo hold can be used as an index of the
capacity. The volume of ship can be expressed as a function of the length, breadth,
and depth of the ship, as the following equation.
V CH ¼ f ðL; B; DÞ ð3:9Þ
where, VCH means the volume of cargo hold required by the ship owner.
This equation means an economical constraint in the aspect of the capacity of
cargo hold and it is also called volume equation. Thus, the principal dimensions
should be determined in accordance with this equation.
3.3.2 Service Speed and DFOC (Daily Fuel Oil

Consumption)
Ship owner wants a ship to be economically designed under the given service speed.
For this, fuel consumption of the ship such as DFOC (Daily Fuel Oil Consump-
tion) should be considered. It is strongly related to the main engine of the ship.
Again the selection of main engine is based on the total resistance and power of
the ship. To select the main engine, at first, we have to estimate the total resistance
of ship in the calm water. Then, the required power such as EHP, DHP, BHP, NCR,
and MCR are estimated. Finally, the main engine having suitable NMCR is selected
considering MCR. After the main engine is selected, DFOC which is a function of
several parameters can be estimated by the following equation.
DFOC ¼ f ðNCR; SFOCÞ ð3:10Þ
where, NCR is normal continuous rating and SFOC is specific fuel oil consumption.
More details will be explained in Sect. 6.6.
3.4 Regulatory Constraints
3.4.1 Required Freeboard
A freeboard means the distance between the water surface and the top of the
freeboard deck, normally the main deck at the side. It includes the thickness of
deck plate. The freeboard is closely related to the draft of the ship. Freeboard
calculation determines whether the depth of ship is permissible in accordance with
ICLL 1966 (IMO 1966), that is, the actual freeboard (Df – Ts) of the ship should not
be less than the freeboard required by ICLL regulation (FbICLL), as the following
equation.
Df T s FbICLL ðL; B; D; CB Þ ð3:11Þ
Here, Df is depth for the freeboard calculation and it is the summation of the
molded depth (Dmolded) and the thickness of deck plate (tdeck). Ts is the maximum
summer draft or scantling draft of the ship. More details will be explained in
Chap. 9.
3.4.2 Required Stability
A ship should have sufficient stability. There are two kinds of stability; intact
stability and damage stability. At the early design stage, the intact stability of ship
can be roughly estimated with the initial stability. The stability of the ship is
related to restoring moment when the ship is inclined. The restoring moment
which is also called righting moment depends on righting arm (GZ). The statical
stability curve (or GZ curve) is a plot of the righting arm against the angle of
inclination for a given loading condition. There are IMO regulations for this curve
and the satisfaction of the regulations should be evaluated in the design stage, as
shown in Eq. (3.12). For a small angle of inclination, GZ can be approximated as
GM (metacentric height). GM can be used as an index for the initial stability at
the early design stage. More details will be explained in Sect. 12.8.
GZ ðL; B; D; T; CB Þ GZ IMO ð3:12Þ

3.5 Computational Guide 23
3.5 Computational Guide
In this section, a computational guide to deal with the constraints is briefly

described.
3.5.1 Weight Equation
1. Problem definition
The problem for the weight equation can be defined as below.
(a) Given: deadweight (DWT), draft (T, if given), shell appendage allowance (α) of
the parent ship
(b) Find: length (L ), breadth (B), depth (D), and block coefficient (CB) of the design
ship
2. Mathematical formulation
The mathematical formulation for this problem is one equality constraint (or one
equation) as the following equation.
In this equation, generally nonlinear equation, the lightweight (LWT) should be

determined according to the suitable methods for the estimation of lightweight in
Chap. 4.
3. Selection of algorithms
The weight equation in Eq. (3.13) is a kind of indeterminate equation with five
unknowns (L, B, D, T, and CB), since the number of unknowns is greater than the
number of equation. The indeterminate equation has a number of solutions. If we
assume the problem as an optimization problem by introducing an objective
function, we can get the optimum solution using an optimization method which
optimizes the objective function. More details about optimization methods and
examples of optimal design are given in Appendices. Instead of the optimization,
we can use a numerical method to solve this problem. If the values of three
unknowns (¼ the number of unknowns – the number of equations ¼ 4–1 ¼ 3) are
assumed as certain values, the indeterminate equation becomes a determinate
nonlinear equation and thus one solution can be obtained. Suppose that we assume
the values of B, T, and CB, we can get the value of L from this equation. If we
assume the values of three unknowns as different values, we can obtain the different
value of L. Thus, we can have many alternative solutions by this method, as well.
From these solutions we determine an appropriate solution considering certain
design criteria, called objective function, which gives maximum efficiency.
A determinate nonlinear equation can be solved by one of the numerical methods

such as the Newton-Raphson method. The Newton-Raphson method, also known
as the Newton’s method, is a powerful technique for solving nonlinear equations
numerically. Like so much of the differential calculus, it is based on the simple idea
of sequential linear approximation. It finds successively better approximations to
the roots of a real-valued function. More details about this method can be found in
various references (Atkinson 1989).
The problem for the volume equation can be defined as below.
(a) Given: the required volume of cargo hold (VCH) of the design ship
(b) Find: length (L ), breadth (B), and depth (D) of the design ship
The mathematical formulation for this problem has one equation as the follow-
ing equation.
In this equation, the volume of cargo hold as a function of L, B, and D should be

determined using suitable methods. More details about the estimation of capacity of
cargo hold will be explained in Chap. 8.
This equation is an indeterminate equation having one equation with three
unknowns (L, B, and D). It can be solved by using one of the optimization methods
given in Appendices or the numerical methods described in Sect. 3.5.1.
The problem for the required freeboard can be defined as below.
(a) Given: length (L ), breadth (B), depth (D), block coefficient (CB), scantling draft
(Ts), the thickness of deck plate (tdeck), and so on of the design ship
(b) Find: the required freeboard (FbICLL) and satisfaction of the freeboard require-
ment of the design ship
References 25
The mathematical formulation for this problem has one inequality as the fol-
lowing equation.
In this equation, FbICLL should be calculated in accordance with ICLL 1966.

More details about ICLL will be explained in Chap. 9.
An inequality constraint can be checked algebraically if all components are
known.
3.5.4 Required Stability
The problem for the required stability can be defined as below.
(a) Given: length (L ), breadth (B), depth (D), draft (T ), block coefficient (CB), and
so on of the design ship, the required restoring moment (GZIMO)
(b) Find: restoring moment (GZ) and satisfaction of the stability requirement of the
design ship
lowing equation.
GZ ðL; B; D; T; CB Þ GZ IMO ð3:16Þ
In this equation, GZ as a function of the L, B, D, T, and CB should be estimated or

calculated with suitable formulas or accurate calculation from compartment model.
known.
References
Atkinson, K. E. (1989). An introduction to numerical analysis. New York: Wiley.

IMO (International Maritime Organization). (1966). ICLL (International Convention on Load
Lines) 1966, as Amended by the Protocol of 1988. IMO
Chapter 4
Estimation of Lightweight
4.1 Generals
As mentioned earlier, for a ship to float in the water, the ship must satisfy
hydrostatic equilibrium and thus the total weight (W) of the ship must be equal to
the buoyant force (FB) acting on the underwater volume of the ship. The buoyant
force on the underwater volume has the same magnitude as the weight of the fluid
displaced by the underwater volume. This fact gives the weight equation as a
physical constraint in ship design, as shown in Eq. (3.8). In this equation, the
deadweight (DWT) is given as one of ship owner’s requirements, whereas the
lightweight (LWT) is not given value. The lightweight is a function of the principal
dimensions and main engine of the ship and it should be estimated. There are
several methods to estimate it and some of them will be explained below.
4.2 Method 1: Using the Lightweight of Parent Ship
At the early design stage, there are few data available for the estimation of
lightweight. Therefore, the simplest, possible way of estimating the lightweight is
to assume that the lightweight does not change in the variation of the principal
dimensions of the ship, as the following equation.
LWT ¼ LWT P ð4:1Þ
where, LWT and LWTP are the lightweight of design ship and parent ship,
respectively.
As a result, the weight equation in Eq. (3.8) can be rewritten as the following
equation.

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-4885-2_4
28 4 Estimation of Lightweight
ρ L B T CB ð1 þ αÞ ¼ LWT P þ DWT ð4:2Þ
4.3 Method 2: Using the Ratio of Deadweight to Total

Weight
Since the lightweight is assumed to be invariant in the Method 1, even though the
principal dimensions of the ship are changed, the Method 1 might give a too rough
estimation. Therefore, for more accuracy, the Method 2 assumes that the design
ship and the parent ship have the same ratio of deadweight to total weight, as the
following equation.
DWT P DWT
¼ ð4:3Þ
WP W
DWT
W¼ WP ð4:4Þ
DWT P

WP
LWT ¼ W DWT ¼ DWT 1 ð4:5Þ
DWT P
where, W and WP are the total weight of design ship and parent ship, respectively.
And DWTP is the deadweight of parent ship.
Therefore, the total weight of design ship can be estimated by the ratio of
deadweight to total weight of the parent ship and the weight equation in Eq. (3.8)
can be rewritten by using Eq. (4.4) as the following equation.
DWT
ρ L B T CB ð1 þ αÞ ¼ WP ð4:6Þ
DWT P
4.4 Method 3: Using the Length, Breadth, and Depth
The lightweight estimated by the Method 2 still has nothing to do with the variation
of the principal dimensions of the ship. To improve the accuracy of Method 2, the
Method 3 assumes that the lightweight is dependent on the principal dimensions
such as L, B, and D. That is, it can be assumed that the lightweight is proportional to
LBD, as the following equation.
LWT ¼ CLWT L B D ð4:7Þ
where, CLWT is a coefficient obtained by assuming that the coefficient of design ship
is same as that of parent ship, as the following equation.
4.5 Method 4: Dividing into Structural, Outfit, and Machinery Weights 29
LP BP DP
CLWT ¼ ð4:8Þ
LWT P
where, LP, BP, and DP are length, breadth, and depth of the parent ship,
respectively.
As a result, the weight equation in Eq. (3.8) can be rewritten as the following
equation.
ρ L B T CB ð1 þ αÞ ¼ DWT þ CLWT L B D ð4:9Þ
4.5 Method 4: Dividing into Structural, Outfit,

and Machinery Weights
It can be assumed that a ship is composed of hull structure, outfit, and machinery.
Based on this assumption, the lightweight estimation would be more accurate if we
could estimate the weight of each component, as the following equation.
LWT ¼ W s þ W o þ W m ð4:10Þ
where, Ws, Wo, and Wm represent the structural weight, outfit weight, and machinery
weight of the ship, respectively. If these weights are dependent on the principal
dimensions, they can be estimated in components.
4.5.1 Structural Weight (Ws)
First, it can be assumed that the structural weight (Ws) is a function of L, B, and D,
as the following equation.
W s ¼ f ðL; B; DÞ ð4:11Þ
Since the structural weight of the ship is actually composed of stiffened plates,
some types of area variables would be expected to provide a better correlation. If
the area variables such as LB or BD are used, Eq. (4.11) can be rewritten as the
following equation.
W s ¼ f ðL B; B DÞ ð4:12Þ
For example, assuming that the structural weight is proportional to Lα and

(B + D)β, Eq. (4.12) can be rewritten as the following equation.
W s ¼ Cs Lα ðB þ DÞβ ð4:13Þ
where, Cs is a coefficient for the structural weight obtained by assuming that the
coefficient of design ship is same as that of parent ship. Unknown parameters such
as α and β can be obtained from the regression analysis by using a number of data of
the parent ships.
For example, using the data of parent ships, values of α and β can be obtained as
α ¼ 1.6 and β ¼ 1. Then, it gives Eq. (4.12).
W s ¼ Cs L1:6 ðB þ DÞ ð4:14Þ
Eq. (4.14) reflects that the length of the ship (L ) will exponentially affect the
structural weight much more than other variables such as the breadth (B) and the
depth (D).
Other explanations about the estimation of the structural weight of ships can be
found in various references (U.S. DOC 1962; Murray 1965; Johnson and Rumble
1968).
4.5.2 Outfit Weight (Wo)
Second, the outfit weight (Wo) can be assumed as a function of L and B, as the
following equation.
W o ¼ f ðL; BÞ ð4:15Þ
For example, assuming that the outfit weight is proportional to L and B,

Eq. (4.15) can be rewritten as the following equation.
W o ¼ Co L B ð4:16Þ
where, Co is a coefficient for the outfit weight obtained by assuming that the
coefficient of design ship is same as that of parent ship.
4.5.3 Machinery Weight (Wm)
Lastly, the machinery weight (Wm) can be assumed as a function of NMCR

(Nominal Maximum Continuous Rating) of the main engine, as the following
equation.
4.5 Method 4: Dividing into Structural, Outfit, and Machinery Weights 31
W m ¼ f ðNMCRÞ ð4:17Þ
For example, assuming that the machinery weight is proportional to NMCR,

Eq. (4.17) gives Eq. (4.18).
W m ¼ Cm NMCR ð4:18Þ
where, Cm is a coefficient for the machinery weight obtained by assuming that the
Thus, Eq. (4.10) can be stated as in the following equation by using Eqs. (4.14),
(4.16), and (4.18).
LWT ¼ W s þ W o þ W m
ð4:19Þ
¼ Cs L1:6 ðB þ DÞ þ Co L B þ Cm NMCR
NMCR is the maximum power and speed combination available for the main
engine and is a criterion for the size, weight, power, and cost of the main engine.
NMCR can be estimated based on the prediction of resistance and propulsion power
of the design ship. However, since there are few data available for the estimation of
NMCR at the early design stage, at first we estimate DHP (Delivered Horse Power).
DHP of a ship in the calm water can be expressed as a function of displacement (Δ)
and speed of the ship (VS), as the following equation.
DHP ¼ f ðΔ; V S Þ ð4:20Þ
For example, assuming that the DHP in the calm water is proportional to Δα and
V Sβ ,
Eq. (4.21) can be obtained from the regression analysis by using the data of
parent ships.
DHP ¼ CDHP Δ2=3 V S 3 ð4:21Þ
where, CDHP is a coefficient for estimating the DHP. It can be obtained from the
data of parent ship.
As a result, Eq. (4.21) can be rewritten as the following equation.
Δ2=3 V S 3
DHP ¼ ð4:22Þ
Cad
where, Cad is a coefficient obtained by assuming that the coefficient of design ship
is same as that of parent ship. This coefficient is related to the CDHP and is defined
as Cad ¼ 1/CDHP.
Cad, called admiralty coefficient, is defined as shown in the following formula,
called admiralty formula.
DHP
Cad ¼ ð4:23Þ
Δ2=3 V S 3
Since Δ2/3 VS3 is proportional to EHP (Effective Horse Power), the admiralty
coefficient can be regarded as a kind of the propulsive efficiency (ηD) in Eq. (4.24).
EHP
ηD ¼ ð4:24Þ
DHP
However, this should be used only for rough estimation. After the principal
dimensions of the ship are determined, the DHP needs to be estimated more
accurately based on the resistance and power prediction.
Because the displacement (Δ) is expressed with the weight equation, Eq. (4.22)
can be rewritten as the following equation.
ðρ L B T CB ð1 þ αÞÞ2=3 V S 3
DHP ¼ ð4:25Þ
Cad
Using Eq. (4.25), the NMCR can be rewritten as the following equation.

1 Sea Margin 1 1
NMCR ¼ 1 þ DHP
ηT 100 Engine Margin Derating Ratio
¼ C1 DHP
C1 2=3
¼ ρ L B T CB ð1 þ αÞ VS3
Cad
ð4:26Þ
where, ηT is the transmission efficiency and the coefficient C1 is defined as

C1 ¼ (1/ηT)(1 + Sea Margin/100)(1/Engine Margin)(1/Derating Ratio). More
detailed definitions of NMCR, DHP, transmission efficiency, Sea Margin, and
Engine Margin are given in Sect. 5.6, and Derating Ratio in Chap. 6. Lastly,
using Eq. (4.26), the machinery weight can be rewritten as the following equation.
W m ¼ Cm NMCR
C1 2=3
¼ Cm ρ L B T CB ð1 þ αÞ VS3
Cad ð4:27Þ
2=3
¼ Cpower ρ L B T CB ð1 þ αÞ VS3
where, the coefficient Cpower is defined as Cpower ¼ CmC1/Cad.

Other explanations about the estimation of machinery weight of ships can be
found in various references (Watson and Gilfillan 1976; Barrass and Derrett 2012).
4.5.4 Lightweight
In summary, Eq. (4.10) of the lightweight can be stated as Eq. (4.28) according to
the Method 4.
¼ Cs L1:6 ðB þ DÞ þ Co L B ð4:28Þ
2=3
þ Cpower ρ L B T CB ð1 þ αÞ VS3
Now, the weight equation can be rewritten as the following equation using
Eq. (4.28).
ρ L B T CB ð1 þ αÞ ¼ DWT þ Cs L1:6 ðB þ DÞ þ Co L B
2=3
þ Cpower ρ L B T CB ð1 þ αÞ VS3
ð4:29Þ
This indeterminate equation is a highly nonlinear in terms of unknown vari-

ables (L, B, D, T, and CB) for given data of DWT, α, Cs, Co, Cpower, VS, and ρ.
In this section, a computational guide to estimate the lightweight is briefly

described.
4.6.1 Method 1
The problem for this method can be defined as below.
(a) Given: lightweight (LWTp) of the parent ship
(b) Find: lightweight (LWT) of the design ship
The mathematical formulation for this problem has one equation as below.
LWT ¼ LWT P ð4:30Þ
This problem of one equation has one unknown (LWT) and can be solved.
4.6.2 Method 2
(a) Given: total weight (WP) and deadweight (DWTP) of the parent ship, dead-
weight (DWT) of the design ship
(b) Find: lightweight (LWT) of the design ship

WP
LWT ¼ DWT 1 ð4:31Þ
DWT P
This problem of one equation has one unknown (LWT) and can be solved.
4.6.3 Method 3
(a) Given: CLWT of the parent ship
(b) Assumed: length (L ), breadth (B), and depth (D) of the design ship
(c) Find: lightweight (LWT) of the design ship
LWT ¼ CLWT L B D ð4:32Þ
This problem of one equation has formally one unknown (LWT) and can be
solved, if and only if L, B, and D of the design ship are assumed. The assumption of
L, B, and D is a key point to solve this equation.
References 35
4.6.4 Method 4
(a) Given: Cs, Co, and Cm of the parent ship
(b) Assumed: length (L ), breadth (B), depth (D), and NMCR of the design ship
(c) Find: lightweight (LWT) of the design ship
ð4:33Þ
¼ Cs L1:6 ðB þ DÞ þ Co L B þ Cm NMCR
In this equation, NMCR should be determined through the selection of main

engine in Chap. 6. However, at the early design stage, NMCR can be approximately
estimated by the admiralty formula described above.
This problem of one equation has formally one unknown (LWT) and can be
solved, if and only if L, B, D, and NMCR of the design ship are assumed.
However, the actual task of solving this equation is how to assume L, B, D, and
NMCR of the design ship.
References
Barrass, B., & Derrett, D. R. (2012). Ship stability for masters and mate (7th ed.). Amsterdam:
Butterworth-Heinemann.
Johnson, R. P., & Rumble, H. P. (1968). Determination of weight, volume, and construction for
tankers and dry cargo ships (Memorandum RM-3318-1-PR). Santa Monica: Rand
Corporation.
Murray, J. M. (1965). Large bulk carriers. London: Lloyd’s Register.
U.S. DOC (United States Department of Commerce and Secretary of Commerce). (1962). Clas-
sification of weights: Standard grouping for merchant ships. U.S. DOC.
Watson, D. G. M., & Gilfillan, A. W. (1976). Some ship design methods. Transactions of the Royal
Institution of Naval Architects, 119, 279–324.
Chapter 5
Prediction of Resistance and Power
5.1 Generals
To estimate the machinery weight in Eq. (4.18), the main engine which can produce
the power required for the service speed should be determined. For this, the total
resistance and power should be estimated for the design ship. This chapter describes
how to predict the resistance and power of a ship.
5.2 Ship Resistance
The resistance of a ship at given speed in the calm water is the force required to tow
the ship at that speed in the calm water, assuming no interference from the towing
ship. And this resistance is usually decomposed into various components, although
all these components usually can interact each other and most of them cannot be
measured individually. The concept of resistance decomposition helps in designing
the hull form as a designer can focus on how each component of the resistance
influences on the total resistance.
In the classical treatment of the resistance, it is divided into two components,
which are governed by different laws, so that they can be separately extrapolated
from model to full-scale ship size. The two components are as below.
(a) Skin frictional resistance, which is governed by the Reynolds number
(b) Residual resistance, taken mainly to be wave-making and wave-breaking,
which is governed by the Froude number
More precisely, it is usual to consider the total resistance in the calm water as
being made up of four main components. And they also governed by different laws

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-4885-2_5
38 5 Prediction of Resistance and Power
and can be separately extrapolated from a model to a full-scale ship. The four
components are as below.
(a) Frictional resistance, due to ship motion through a viscous fluid
(b) Wave-making and wave-breaking resistance (simply, wave resistance), due
to the energy that must be supplied continuously by the ship to the wave system
created on the surface of the water
(c) Eddy resistance, due to the energy carried away by eddies shed from the hull or
appendages. Local eddying will occur behind appendages such as bossings,
shafts and shaft struts, and from stern frames and rudders if these items are not
properly streamlined and aligned with the flow
(d) Air resistance experienced by the above-water part of the main hull and
superstructures due to ship motion through the air
In ship design, the most basic and popular decompositions are made by are
Froude and Huges. Froude decomposed total resistance (RT) into frictional resis-
tance (RF), residual resistance (RR), and model-ship correlation resistance
(ΔRF), as the following equation.
RT ¼ RF þ RR þ ΔRF ð5:1Þ
On the other hand, Huges decomposed total resistance into viscous resistance
(RV) and wave resistance (RW), as the following equation.
R T ¼ RV þ RW ð5:2Þ
In the resistance decomposition by Froude, the frictional resistance can be

predicted by assuming it as a function of the Reynolds number. Therefore, the
frictional resistance is usually predicted taking the resistance of an equivalent flat
plate of the same area and length, as the following equation.
1
RF ¼ ρCF SV 2 ½N ð5:3Þ
2
where, ρ is the density of sea water (¼ 1,025 kg/m3), CF is a frictional resistance

coefficient, V is ship speed in m/s, and S is wetted surface area of the ship in m2.
The frictional resistance coefficient (CF) is expressed by the formula of the
ITTC (International Towing Tank Committee) 1957, as the following equation.
0:075
CF ¼ ð5:4Þ
ðlog Rn 2Þ2
where, Rn is the Reynolds number defined by Rn ¼ VLWL/ν. Here, LWL is the

length of the ship at the waterline, and ν is kinematic viscosity, taken as
ν ¼ 1.13902106 m2/s at sea water of 15.0 C (ITTC 1999).
5.3 Methods for Prediction of Resistance 39
In the resistance decomposition by Hughes, the viscous resistance can be

expressed as a 3-dimensionalized (3D) form of the frictional resistance using the
form factor, as the following equation.
RV ¼ RF ð1 þ kÞ þ ΔRF ð5:5Þ
where, 1 þ k is a form factor describing the viscous resistance of the hull form in
relation to RF which considers only 2-dimensionalized (2D) flat plate form of the
frictional resistance.
A ship creates typical wave system which contributes to the total resistance. For
a fast, slender ship, resistance by the wave system dominates the total resistance.
Especially, there are breaking waves at the bow which dominates for a slow, full
ship, but may also be considerable for a fast ship. The interaction of various wave
systems is complicated leading to the non-monotonous function of the wave
resistance coefficient. The wave resistance depends strongly on the local shape of
the hull form. Therefore the wave resistance can be predicted by assuming it as a
function of the local shape, as the following equation.
RW ¼ f ðLWL =B; B=T; CB ; Fn ; LCBÞ ð5:6Þ
where, Fn is the Froude number defined by Fn ¼ V/(gLWL)0.5. Here, g is the

gravitational acceleration and LCB is the longitudinal position of center of buoy-
ancy of the ship.
More details about the resistance of ships can be found in various references
(Larsson et al. 2010).
5.3 Methods for Prediction of Resistance
There are several methods for the prediction of resistance. Traditional and standard
series methods are analytic methods which predict the resistance with a series of
some functions. Statistical methods are to estimate the resistance by using empir-
ical formulas, including some coefficients derived by regression analysis of the data
from many resistance model tests. Numerical methods are computational methods
which predict numerically the resistance by using some equations. CFD (Compu-
tational Fluid Dynamics) is one of the numerical methods. Lastly, experimental
methods predict the resistance from model tests.
As the resistance of a full-scale ship cannot be measured directly, our knowledge
about the resistance of the ship comes from the model tests although it needs much
time and cost. However, at the early design stage, the model for design ship is not
provided. Furthermore, the design ship and the parent ship are not preserved
geometrical similarity. Therefore, statistical methods can be ones of alternatives
to predict the resistance of the ship in the initial design stage. Many designers are
using statistical methods at the early design stage and know they can give
acceptable results although a number of the formulas of methods seem quite

complicated and the physics behind them are not at all clear. One of the statistical
methods, Holtrop and Mennen’s method, which was originally presented in the
Journal of International Shipbuilding Progress in 1978 (Holtrop and Mennen 1978),
revised in 1982 (Holtrop and Mennen 1982), again in 1984 (Holtrop 1984), and in a
paper presented to SMSSH (Scientific and Methodological Seminar on Ship Hydro-
dynamics) in 1988 (Holtrop 1988), uses a formula derived by regression analysis of
the considerable resistance test data.
5.4 Prediction of Resistance by Holtrop and Mennen’s

Method
A formula for the resistance prediction proposed by Holtrop and Mennen can be
stated in Eq. (5.7). According to the formula, total resistance of the ship is equal to
sum of frictional resistance considering the form factor of hull (RF(1 þ k)),
appendage resistance (RAPP), wave resistance (RW), additional pressure resistance
of bulbous bow near the water surface (RB), additional pressure resistance of
immersed transom stern (RTR), and model-ship correlation resistance (RA).
RT ¼ RF ð1 þ k1 Þ þ RAPP þ RW þ RB þ RTR þ RA ð5:7Þ
Each component of the right side of the formula will be explained below.
5.4.1 Frictional Resistance (RF)
As mentioned in Eq. (5.3), the frictional resistance can be expressed as the follow-
ing equation.
1
RF ¼ ρCF SBH V 2 ½N ð5:8Þ
2
where, CF is the frictional resistance coefficient according to the ITTC 1957 friction
formula in Eq. (5.4) and SBH is the wetted surface area of the bare hull in m2.
If the value of SBH is not available, it can be calculated by using several hull form
coefficients such as the block coefficient (CB), the waterplane coefficient (CWP),
and the midship section coefficient (CM), as the following equation.
5.4 Prediction of Resistance by Holtrop and Mennen’s Method 41
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
SBH ¼ LWL ð2T þ BÞ CM ð0:4530 þ 0:4425CB 0:2862CM
ð5:9Þ
0:003467B=T þ 0:3696CWP Þ þ 2:38ABT =CB ½m2
where, all hull form coefficients are based on the length at waterline (LWL). And
ABT means the transverse sectional area of bulb at the position where the still-
water surface intersects the stem.
The frictional resistance is 3-dimensionalized by the form factor (1 þ k1), which
is expressed with the prismatic coefficient (CP), the prismatic coefficient based on
the length at waterline (LWL), and the length of the run (LR), as the following
equation.
1 þ k1 ¼ 0:93 þ 0:487118 C14 ðB=LWL Þ1:06806 ðT=LWL Þ0:46106

ð5:10Þ
ðLWL =LR Þ0:121563 ðLWL 3 =∇Þ0:36486 ð1 CP Þ0:60247
In this equation, the coefficient C14 is defined by the following equation.
C14 ¼ 1 þ 0:011Cstern ð5:11Þ
where, Cstern is the coefficient representing the shape of stern and is defined by;
Cstern ¼ 25 for pram stern with gondola shape, Cstern ¼ 10 for V-shaped section
stern, Cstern ¼ 0 for normal section stern, and 10 for U-shaped section stern.
And LR/LWL can be obtained from the following equation.
LR =LWL ¼ 1 C þ 0:06CP lcb=ð4CP 1Þ ð5:12Þ
where, lcb is the longitudinal position of the center of buoyancy forward of 0.5LWL
as a percentage (%) of LWL; (þ) for forward and () for afterward.
5.4.2 Appendage Resistance (RAPP)
Appendage resistance is expressed with the wetted surface area of appendages

(SAPP), the appendage resistance factor (1 þ k2), and the frictional resistance
coefficient (CF), as the following equation.
1
RAPP ¼ ρCF SAPP V 2 ð1 þ k2 Þeq ½N ð5:13Þ
2
In this equation, (1 þ k2) is determined according to the type of the appendage as

follows.
(a) Rudder behind skeg: 1.5~2.0

(b) Rudder behind stern: 1.3~1.5
(c) Twin-screw balanced rudders: 2.8
(d) Shaft brackets: 3.0
(e) Skeg: 1.5~2.0
(f) Strut bossings: 3.0
(g) Hull bossings: 2.0
(h) Shafts: 2.0~4.0
(i) Stabilizer fins: 2.8
(j) Dome: 2.7
(k) Bilge keels: 1.4
And if there are a combination of appendages, the equivalent value of this factor,
(1 þ k2)eq, is determined from the following equation.
P
SAPP, i ð1 þ k2 Þi
ð1 þ k2 Þeq ¼ P ð5:14Þ
SAPP, i
where, SAPP,i is the wetted surface area of the ith appendage and (1 þ k2)i is the
corresponding appendage resistance factor.
5.4.3 Wave Resistance (RW)
As mentioned above, the wave resistance depends strongly on the local shape of
hull form. Therefore the wave resistance can be predicted by assuming it as a
function of the local shape and it is expressed below.
RW ¼ ρg∇C1 C2 C5 expfm1 Fnd þ m4 cos ðλF2

n Þg ½N ð5:15Þ
In this equation, some variables are changed in relation to the speed of the ship.
In low-speed range (Fn < 0.4), breaking waves at the bow is dominant. However, in
high-speed range (Fn 0.55), breaking waves for a full hull is considerable.
For low-speed range (Fn 0.4), C1 in Eq. (5.15) is expressed with C7 and the
half angle of the entrance (iE) in deg ( ).
C1 ¼ 2,223,105C7 3:78613 ðT=BÞ1:07961 ð90 iE Þ1:37565 ð5:16Þ
where, C7 is determined according to the value of B/LWL as below.

0
0:229577ðB=LWL Þ0:33333 when B=LWL < 0:11
@
C7 ¼ B=LWL when 0:11 B=LWL < 0:25 ð5:17Þ
0:5 0:0625ðLWL =BÞ when 0:25 B=LWL
And iE is the angle of the waterline at the bow in [ ] with reference to the
center plane but neglecting the local shape at the stem. At the early design stage, if
the value of iE is unknown, it can be obtained from the following equation.

ðLWL =BÞ0:80856 ð1 CWP Þ0:30484 ð1 CP 0:0225lcbÞ0:6367
0:34574
iE ¼ 1 þ 89e ðLR =BÞ ð100∇=LWL 3 Þ0:16302 ½∘
ð5:18Þ
In Eq. (5.15), C2 is the coefficient which accounts for the reduction of the wave
resistance due to the action of a bulbous bow and expressed as the following
equation.
pffiffiffiffi
C2 ¼ e1:89 C3
ð5:19Þ
where, if there is no bulb, C2 ¼ 1 is used for this coefficient.

In this equation, C3 is the coefficient that determines the influence of the bulbous
bow on the wave resistance and is expressed with the transverse bulb area (ABT), the
vertical position of the centroid of ABT above the baseline (hB), and the fore draft of
the ship (TF).
n pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi o
C3 ¼ 0:56ABT 1:5 = B T 0:31 ABT þ T F hB ð5:20Þ
The coefficient C5 expresses the influence of a transom stern on the wave

resistance and can be calculated by the following equation.
C5 ¼ 1 0:8AT =ðB T CM Þ ð5:21Þ
where, AT represents the immersed part of the transverse sectional area of transom
at AP at zero speed.
For low-speed range, m1 in Eq. (5.15) is expressed as the following equation.
m1 ¼ 0:0140407LWL =T 1:75254∇1=3 =LWL ð5:22Þ

4:79323B=LWL C16
In this equation, C16 is determined according to the value of prismatic

coefficient.

8:07981CP 13:8673CP 2 þ 6:984388CP 3 when CP < 0:8
C16 ¼ ð5:23Þ
1:73014 0:7067CP when 0:8 CP
In Eq. (5.15), d is 0.9 and m4 can be calculated by the following equation.

3:29
m4 ¼ C15 0:4e0:034Fn ð5:24Þ
where, C15 is determined below.

0
1:69385 when LWL 3 =∇ < 512
C15 ¼ @ 1:69385 þ ðLWL =∇1=3 8:0Þ=2:36 when 512 LWL 3 =∇ 1, 726:91
0 when 1, 726:91 < LWL 3 =∇
ð5:25Þ
In Eq. (5.15), λ is determined according to the value of LWL/B.

1:446CP 0:03LWL =B when LWL =B < 12
λ¼ ð5:26Þ
1:446CP 0:36 when 12 LWL =B
For high-speed range (Fn 0.55), only the coefficient C1 and m1 in Eq. (5.15)
are changed as Eqs. (5.27) and (5.28).
C1 ¼ 6,919:3CM 1:3346 ð∇=LWL 3 Þ2:00977 ðLWL =B 2Þ1:40692 ð5:27Þ

0:326869 0:605375
m1 ¼ 7:2035ðB=LWL Þ ðT=BÞ ð5:28Þ
For middle-speed range (0.4 Fn < 0.55), waves generated by the bow and full
hulls should be both considered. Therefore, the wave resistance is calculated with a
combination of the wave resistance prediction for Fn ¼ 0.4 according to the formula
in the low-speed range (RW,at Fn ¼ 0.4) and the wave resistance prediction for
Fn ¼ 0.55 according to the formula in the high-speed range (RW,at Fn ¼ 0.55), as
the following equation.
RW ¼ RW , at Fn ¼ 0:4 þ ð10Fn 4Þ
fRW , at Fn ¼ 0:55 RW , at Fn ¼ 0:4 g=1:5 ½N ð5:29Þ
5.4.4 Additional Pressure Resistance of Bulbous Bow (RB)
A bulbous bow of the ship makes pressure near the water surface because of its form
and resistance occurred. The additional pressure resistance of the bulbous bow near
the water surface is expressed as the following equation.
2
RB ¼ 0:11eð3PB Þ
Fni 3 ABT 1:5 ρg=ð1 þ Fni 2 Þ ½N ð5:30Þ
where, the coefficient PB is a measure for the emergence of bulbous bow and Fni is
the Froude number based on the immersion of bulbous bow. These can be calcu-
lated from Eqs. (5.31) and (5.32), respectively.
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
PB ¼ 0:56 ABT =ðT F 1:5hB Þ ð5:31Þ
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Fni ¼ V= gðT F hB 0:25 ABT Þ þ 0:15V 2 ð5:32Þ
However, in the recent research, this additional pressure resistance of the

bulbous bow is assumed to be zero.
5.4.5 Additional Pressure Resistance of Immersed Transom

(RTR)
As the bulbous bow, the immersed transom also makes pressure because of its form
and resistance occurred. The additional pressure resistance of the immersed tran-
som immersion is expressed as the following equation.
1
RTR ¼ ρC6 AT V 2 ½N ð5:33Þ
2
where, AT is the immersed area of the transom and the coefficient C6 is deter-
mined according to the value of the Froude number based on the immersion of
transom (FnT) as below.

0:2ð1 0:2FnT Þ when FnT < 5
C6 ¼ ð5:34Þ
0 when 5 FnT
In this equation, FnT is calculated by the following equation.

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
FnT ¼ V= 2gAT =ðB þ B CWP Þ ð5:35Þ
where, CWP is the waterplane area coefficient.
5.4.6 Model-Ship Correlation Resistance (RA)
Because the calculated resistance based on the model ship has some difference with
the real ship resistance, the model-ship correlation resistance (RA) is used to
improve the calculated resistance of the model ship. It is supposed to describe
primarily the effect of the hull roughness and the still-air resistance. The model-
ship correlation resistance is expressed as the following equation.
1
RA ¼ ρCA SBH V 2 ½N ð5:36Þ
2
In the equation, the coefficient CA can be calculated by the following equation.
CA ¼ 0:006ðLp þ 100Þffi0:16 0:00205

WLffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ð5:37Þ
þ 0:003 LWL =7:5CB 4 C2 ð0:04 C4 Þ
In this equation, the coefficient C4 is determined according to the value of TF/

LWL as below.

T F =LWL when T F =LWL < 0:04
C4 ¼ ð5:38Þ
0:04 when 0:04 T F =LWL
5.4.7 Total Resistance (RT)
Now, the total resistance of the ship can be predicted by calculating each compo-
nent and by using (5.7). At this time, if the data of model tests are available the
calculated resistance can be adjusted by using the data to increase its accuracy. For
this, the following relation can be used.
RT , parent, model tests RT , design

¼ ð5:39Þ
RT , parent, Holtrop & Mennen RT , design, Holtrop & Mennen
In the equation, RT,parent,model tests is the total resistance by model tests of parent
ship. RT,parent,Holtrop & Mennen and RT,design,Holtrop & Mennen are the total resistance of
parent ship and design ship that is calculated by using the Holtrop and Mennen’s
method, respectively. Then, the total resistance of design ship (RT,design) can be
estimated by the following equation.
RT , parent, model tests

RT , design ¼ RT , design, Holtrop & Mennen
RT , parent, Holtrop & Mennen ð5:40Þ
¼ RT , design, Holtrop & Mennen cHM
where, CHM means a correction factor to adjust the total resistant by using the
Holtrop and Mennen’s method to that by model tests.
5.5 Prediction of Propulsion Factors 47
5.5 Prediction of Propulsion Factors
5.5.1 Propulsive Efficiency (ηD)
The propulsive efficiency (ηD) is defined as the ratio between the effective horse
power (EHP) and the delivered horse power (DHP) at the propeller, as the follow-
ing equation.
EHP EHP THP

ηD ¼ ¼ ¼ ηH ηO ηR ð5:41Þ
DHP THP DHPbehind hull
where, ηH ¼ EHP/THP, ηO,B ¼ THP/DHPbehind hull ¼ ηOηR. Here, THP is the thrust
horse power, ηO,B is the efficiency of the propeller attached to the hull, and ηO is the
propeller efficiency in open water without the hull. Thus, ηR ¼ ηO,B/ηO. More
detailed explanations are given in the following sections.
5.5.2 Propeller Efficiency in Open Water (ηO)
The propeller efficiency (ηO) is related to working in open water, that is, the
propeller works in a homogeneous wake field with no hull in front of it. The
propeller efficiency in open water is defined by the following equation.
THP
ηO ¼ ð5:42Þ
DHPopen water
The propeller efficiency can vary between approximately 0.35~0.75, with the
high value being valid for propellers with a high advance speed of the propeller
(VA). At the early design stage, the propeller efficiency can be estimated by
following formula.

pffiffiffiffiffiffi
ηO ¼ 1= 0:97 þ 0:14 BP k ð5:43Þ
In this formula, the coefficients k and BP are defined by the following equations.
k ¼ 1:11 0:11fðAE =AO Þ=0:6g ð5:44Þ

nðNCR ηT ηR Þ0:5
BP ¼ ð5:45Þ
V ð1 wÞ
where, AE/AO is expanded area ratio of the propeller, n is propeller speed in rps,
NCR is normal continuous rating of the main engine in kW, ηT is transmission
efficiency of the propulsion shaft (normally, ηT ¼ 0.97~0.99), ηR is relative
rotative efficiency, V is ship speed in m/s, and w is wake fraction coefficient,

respectively.
5.5.3 Hull Efficiency (ηH)
The hull efficiency (ηH) is defined as the ratio between the effective horse power
(EHP) and the thrust horse power (THP), as the following equation.
EHP RT V RT =T 1t
ηH ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ ð5:46Þ
THP T V A V A =V 1 w
where, T is thrust force, VA is the advance speed of the propeller, w is wake fraction
coefficient and t is thrust deduction coefficient. More details about EHP, THP, T,
VA, w, and, t will be explained in Sects. 5.6.1, 5.6.2, 5.5.5, and 5.5.6, respectively.
For a ship with one propeller, the value of ηH is usually in the range of 1.1~1.4,
with the high value for ships with high block coefficients. For ships with two
propellers and a conventional form of after body of the hull, the value of ηH is
approximately 0.95~1.05, again with the high value for a high block coefficient.
However, for a twin-skeg ship with two propellers, the hull efficiency will be almost
unchanged compared with the single-propeller case.
5.5.4 Relative Rotative Efficiency (ηR)
The actual velocity of the water flowing to the propeller behind the hull is neither
constant nor at right angles to the blade area of the propeller, but has a kind of
rotational flow. Therefore, compared with when the propeller is working in open
water, the propeller efficiency is affected by a factor called the relative rotative
efficiency (ηR), as the following equation.
ηO, B
ηR ¼ ð5:47Þ
ηO
where, ηR means the ratio between the efficiency of a propeller attached to a ship
(ηO,B) and in open water (ηO).
The relative rotative efficiency can be estimated by using the following formula.
0
0:9922 0:05908AE =AO þ 0:07424ðCP 0:0225lcbÞ
! when nshaf t ¼ 1
B
ηR ¼ @
0:9737 þ 0:111ðCP 0:0225lcbÞ 0:06325Pi =DP when nshaf t ¼ 2
ð5:48Þ
where, nshaft is the number of shafts, Pi is the propeller pitch, and DP is the propeller
diameter.
The value of ηR is, normally, around 1.0~1.07 for ships with a single propeller, in
other words, the rotation of the water has a beneficial effect. The value of ηH for a
ship with a conventional hull shape and with two propellers will normally be less,
approximately 0.98, whereas, for a twin-skeg ship with two propellers, the value of
ηH will be almost unchanged. In combination with w and t, ηR is probably often
being used to adjust the results of model tests to the theory.
The propeller diameter can be estimated by using the following formula.
0:2
MCR
DP ¼ 15:4 C12 ½m ð5:49Þ
nMCR 3
where, MCR is Maximum Continuous Rating of main engine in bhp (British horse
power, 1 bhp ¼ 76 kgfm/s ¼ 0.74556 kW) and nMCR is the propeller speed at MCR
in rpm (1/min). And the coefficient C12 is given as follows.

1 when z ¼ 5
C12 ¼ ð5:50Þ
1:05 when z ¼ 4
Here, z is the number of blades of the propeller.
5.5.5 Wake Fraction Coefficient (w)
When the ship is moving, the friction of the hull will create a so-called friction belt
or boundary layer of water around the hull. In this friction belt, the velocity of
water on the surface of the hull is equal to that of the ship but is reduced with its
distance from the surface of the hull. At a certain distance from the hull, the water
velocity is equal to zero. The thickness of the friction belt increases with its distance
from the fore end of the hull. The friction belt is, therefore, thickest at the aft end of
the hull and this thickness is nearly proportional to the length of the ship. This
means that there will be a certain wake velocity caused by the friction along the
sides of the hull. Thus, the water at the propeller will have an effective wake
velocity (Vw) which has the same direction as the ship speed (V). As a result, the
velocity of arriving water at the propeller (i.e., the advance speed of the propeller,
VA) given as the average velocity over the blade area of the propeller is lower than
the ship speed. In summary, the effective wake velocity at the propeller is equal to
Vw ¼ V – VA and may be expressed in dimensionless form by means of the wake
fraction coefficient (w). The normally used wake fraction coefficient given by
Taylor is defined by the following equation.
Vw V VA VA
w¼ ¼ ¼1 ð5:51Þ
V V V
From this, Eq. (5.52) can be derived.
V A ¼ V ð1 wÞ ½m=s ð5:52Þ
The value of wake fraction coefficient depends largely on the shape of the hull,
but also on the location and size of the propeller, and has great influence on the
propeller efficiency. The propeller diameter (DP) or the ratio between propeller
diameter and length at the waterline (LWL) of the ship has some influence on this
coefficient, as DP/LWL gives a rough indication of the degree to which the propeller
works in the wake field of the hull. Thus, the larger the ratio DP/LWL, the lower
coefficient will be. This coefficient increases when the hull is fouled. For ships with
one propeller, this coefficient is normally in the region of 0.20~0.45, corresponding
to a flow velocity to the propeller (VA) of 0.80~0.55 of the ship speed (V ). The
larger the block coefficient, the larger is this coefficient. For ships with two pro-
pellers and a conventional after body form of the hull, the propellers will normally
be positioned outside the friction belt, for which reason this coefficient will be
lower. However, for a twin-skeg ship with two propellers, this coefficient will be
almost unchanged (or maybe slightly lower) compared with the case with one
propeller.
The wake fraction coefficient can be estimated by using the following formula.

LWL CV
w ¼ C9 CV 0:0661875 þ 1:21756C11
TrA ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð1 CP1 Þ
B 0:09726 0:11434 ð5:53Þ
þ 0:24558 þ
LWL ð1 CP1 Þ 0:95 CP 0:95 CB
þ 0:75Cstern CV þ 0:002Cstern
where, TA is the after draft of the ship.

In this formula, the coefficient C9 depends on a coefficient C8 defined by the
following equations.

B SBH =ðLWL D T A Þ when B=T A < 5
C8 ¼ ð5:54Þ
SBH ð7B=T A 25Þ=fLWL D ðB=T A 3Þg when 5 B=T A

C8 when C8 < 28
C9 ¼ ð5:55Þ
32 16=ðC8 24Þ when 28 C8
The coefficient CV, is the viscous resistance coefficient which can be calculated
from the following equation.
CV ¼ ð1 þ k1 ÞCF þ CA ð5:56Þ
And C11 and, CP1 can be obtained from the following equations.

T A =D when T A =D < 2
C11 ¼ ð5:57Þ
0:0833333ðT A =DÞ3 þ 1:33333 when 2 T A =D
CP1 ¼ 1:45CP 0:315 0:0225lcb ð5:58Þ
5.5.6 Thrust Deduction Coefficient (t)
The rotation of propeller causes the water in front of it to be sucked back towards
the propeller. This results in an extra resistance on the hull called augment of
resistance or, if related to the total required thrust force (T ) on the propeller, thrust
deduction coefficient (t), as shown in Eq. (5.59). This means that the thrust force
on the propeller has to overcome both the total resistance of the ship (RT) and this
loss of thrust (T – RT).
T RT RT
t¼ ¼1 ð5:59Þ
T T
From this, Eq. (5.60) can be derived.
RT
T¼ ð5:60Þ
1t
The thrust deduction coefficient for a single screw ship with a conventional stern
can be estimated by using the following formula.
t ¼ 0:001979LWL =ðB B CP1 Þ þ 1:0585C10

ð5:61Þ
0:00524 0:1418D2 =ðB TÞ þ 0:0015Cstern
where, the coefficient C10 is defined by the following equation.

0:25 0:003328402=ðB=LWL 0:134615385Þ when LWL =B < 5:2
C10 ¼
B=LWL when 5:2 LWL =B
ð5:62Þ
5.6 Power Prediction
After the total resistance is estimated, the required power of the ship can be
predicted by a series of processes below.
5.6.1 Effective Horse Power (EHP)
The effective horse power (EHP) in the calm water is the power required to move
the ship at a given ship speed in the absence of propeller action. That is, EHP is not
related with power train system of the ship. EHP in the calm water is the product of
the total resistance (RT) in the calm water and the ship speed (V), as the following
equation.
EHP ¼ RT V ½W ð5:63Þ
5.6.2 Thrust Horse Power (THP)
The thrust horse power (THP) is the power produced by the propeller as TVA.
Considering VA ¼ V(1 – w) in Eq. (5.52), T ¼ RT/(1 – t) in Eq. (5.60), and the hull
efficiency ηH in Eq. (5.46), THP can be expressed as the following equation.
THP ¼ T V A
RT 1 w EHP ð5:64Þ
¼ V ð1 wÞ ¼ RT V ¼ ½W
1t 1t ηH
5.6.3 Delivered Horse Power (DHP)
The power delivered to the propeller (DHP) in the calm water can be expressed
with THP, the propeller efficiency, and the relative rotative efficiency, as the
following equation.
THP
DHP ¼ ½W ð5:65Þ
ηO ηR
From Eqs. (5.64) and (5.65), Eq. (5.66) can be derived with the propulsive
efficiency (ηD).
5.6 Power Prediction 53
EHP
DHP ¼ ½W ð5:66Þ
ηD
For a well-design ship, the value of ηD is about 0.6.
5.6.4 Shaft Horse Power (SHP)
If the ship has reduction gears between the main engine and the shaft, the shaft
horse power (SHP) can be defined. SHP is the power output after the reduction
gears. Then, SHP can be expressed as the following equation.
SHP ¼ DHP=ηT ½W ð5:67Þ
where, the value of transmission efficiency (ηT) is normally 0.97~0.99 for a ship
having the main engine in stern and 0.95 for a ship having the main engine at
midship.
5.6.5 Brake Horse Power (BHP)
The brake horse power (BHP) means the power out at the crankshaft coming out of
the main engine. If there are reduction gears, SHP is same as “BHP – losses in the
reduction gears”. If there are no reduction gears, BHP is same as SHP and thus
Eq. (5.68) can be used instead of Eq. (5.67).
BHP ¼ DHP=ηT ½W ð5:68Þ
In summary, the relation of each power is shown in Fig. 5.1. If all efficiency
between each component, the relative magnitude of each component is as follows.
EHP < THP < DHP < SHP < BHP ð5:69Þ
5.6.6 Normal Continuous Rating (NCR)
Now, the normal continuous rating (NCR) can be predicted with BHP in the calm
water by considering sea margin, as shown in Eq. (5.70). NCR means the power at
which the main engine can be operated most efficiently, economically and with least
maintenance. This is usually the contractual output for which the propeller is
designed.
Fig. 5.1 Relation between the components of the power

Sea Margin
NCR ¼ BHPcalm water 1þ ½W ð5:70Þ
100
In this equation, Sea Margin is a margin in percentage which reflects the

increase of total resistance due to the ocean environmental loads such as waves,
winds, currents, and so on.
5.6.7 Maximum Continuous Rating (MCR)
Then, the maximum continuous rating (MCR) can be predicted from Eq. (5.71).
MCR means the maximum power that can be produced by the main engine contin-
uously without causing failure to the propulsion machinery.
NCR
MCR ¼ ½W ð5:71Þ
Engine Margin
where, Engine Margin represents the ratio between NCR and MCR. NCR is
typically 85~95% MCR. Thus, Engine Margin is about 0.85~0.95.
Finally, the nominal MCR (NMCR) which means the maximum power of the
main engine provided by an engine manufacturer can be determined by considering
MCR. NMCR is related to the selection of the main engine of the ship and will be
further described in Chap. 6.
In this section, a computational guide to predict the resistance, propulsion factors,

and power is briefly described.
5.7.1 Method for Prediction of Resistance
(a) Given: length at waterline (LWL), breadth (B), draft (T ), block coefficient (CB),
and so on of the design ship
(b) Find: total resistance in the calm water (RT) of the design ship
In this equation, RT can be determined by calculating each component in the

right side of the equation. For this, the following subfunctions to be implemented
are required.
(a) Calculation of the frictional resistance (RF) in Eq. (5.8)
(b) Calculation of the appendage resistance (RAPP) in Eq. (5.13)
(c) Calculation of the wave resistance (RW) in Eq. (5.15)
(d) Calculation of the resistance of bulbous bow (RB) in Eq. (5.30)
(e) Calculation of the resistance of immersed transom (RTR) in Eq. (5.33)
(f) Calculation of the model-ship correlation resistance (RA) in Eq. (5.36)
This problem of one equation has one unknown (RT) and can be solved algebra-
ically after each component of RT is calculated.
5.7.2 Method for Prediction of Propulsion Factors
(a) Given: length at waterline (LWL), breadth (B), depth (D), draft (T ), block
coefficient (CB), ship speed (V ), expanded area ratio of the propeller (AE/AO),
propeller speed (n), NCR, and so on of the design ship
(b) Find: propulsive efficiency (ηD) of the design ship

ηD ¼ ηO ηH ηR ð5:73Þ
In this equation, ηD can be determined by calculating each component in the

right side of the equation. For this, the following subfunctions to be implemented
are required.
(a) Calculation of the propeller efficiency in open water (ηO) in Eq. (5.43)
(b) Calculation of the hull efficiency (ηH) in Eq. (5.46)
(c) Calculation of the relative rotative efficiency (ηR) in Eq. (5.48)
This problem of one equation has one unknown (ηD) and can be solved algebra-
ically after each component is calculated. At the early design stage, each compo-
nent can be determined by referring the data of parent ship or by using empirical
formulas. In general, the empirical formula for each component is a determinate
problem and thus it can be easily solved. Meanwhile, the propeller efficiency in
open water (ηO) can be accurately obtained after the propeller design in Chap. 7 is
performed.
5.7.3 Method for Prediction of Power
(a) Given: total resistance in the calm water (RT), ship service speed (VS), propeller
efficiency (ηD), transmission efficiency (ηT), sea margin, engine margin, and so
on of the design ship
(b) Find: MCR of the design ship
NCR
MCR ¼ ½W ð5:74Þ
Engine Margin
In this equation, MCR can be determined by calculating NCR. As described in

Sect. 5.6, NCR can be determined from BHP considering sea margin. BHP can be
determined from DHP, where DHP can be determined from EHP. Finally, EHP can
References 57
be determined from the total resistance in the calm water (RT). Thus, the following
subfunctions to be implemented are required.
(a) Calculation of EHP in Eq. (5.63)
(b) Calculation of THP in Eq. (5.64)
(c) Calculation of DHP in Eq. (5.65)
(d) Calculation of SHP in Eq. (5.67)
(e) Calculation of BHP in Eq. (5.68)
(f) Calculation of NCR in Eq. (5.70)
This problem of one equation has one unknown (MCR) and can be solved
algebraically after each component for obtaining MCR such as NCR, BHP, SHP,
DHP, THP, and EHP are calculated. At the early design stage, each component can
be determined based on the total resistance and propulsion factors by using empir-
ical formulas. However, if the total resistance and propulsion factors become
updated through more accurate methods such as model tests, the power should be
calculated again.
References
Holtrop, J. (1984). Statistical re-analysis of resistance and propulsion data. International Ship-
building Progress, 31(363), 272–276.
Holtrop, J. (1988, October 17–22). A statistical resistance prediction method with a speed
dependent form factor. In Proceedings of SMSSH (Scientific and Methodological Seminar on
Ship Hydrodynamics), (pp. 1–7), Varna.
Holtrop, J., & Mennen, G. G. J. (1978). A statistical power prediction method. International
Shipbuilding Progress, 25(290), 253–256.
Holtrop, J., & Mennen, G. G. J. (1982). An approximate power prediction method. International
Shipbuilding Progress, 29(335), 166–170.
Larsson, L., Raven, H. C., & Paulling, J. R. (2010). The principles of naval architecture series:
Ship resistance and flow. Jersey City: The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers.
ITTC. (1999). ITTC – Recommended procedures and guidelines: Testing and extrapolation
methods, general density and viscosity of water, 7.5-02-01-03. ITTC.
Chapter 6
Selection of Main Engine
6.1 Generals
After the resistance and the required power of the ship are predicted, a suitable
engine which can produce the required power should be selected. This chapter
describes how to select the main engine of the ship, including generals of the
engine.
6.2 Characteristics of Diesel Engine
There are some kinds of power engines for a ship such as steam turbine, gas turbine,
diesel engine, and so on. Among them, a diesel engine is first designed for land,
however, after the 1930s, its usage is expanded to ship, automobile, train, and so
on. Nowadays, the diesel engine is the most frequently used engine in shipbuilding
industry because it has the highest thermal efficiency among the power engines and
its efficiency is around 50%. Moreover, the diesel engine can use substandard oil,
thus it has fuel economy effect. The diesel engine for using ship is not produced by
the mass production system, but by make-to-order production system which pro-
duces the engine after considering the ship owner’s requirements. And recently
high efficiency and low-noise engines are continuously developed.
In this chapter, it is assumed that the diesel engine is used as the main engine of
the ship.

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-4885-2_6
60 6 Selection of Main Engine
6.3 Power and Speed of Engine
The engine consists of several parts such as piston, cylinder, crankshaft, connecting
rod, bearings, and so on. The crankshaft in the engine is a device to transform the
linear motion of the pistons into the rotational motion that is transmitted to the shaft
of the propeller. At this time, the power which is delivered to the crankshaft from
the engine is called as BHP (Brake Horse Power).
BHP of the engine in kW can be calculated by the following equation.
BHP ¼ Pme L A nE Z ð6:1Þ
where, Pme is the mean effective pressure in kN/m2, L is the stroke of the piston in
m, A is the transverse sectional area of the piston in m2, nE is the engine speed in rps
in 1/s, and Z is the number of cylinders.
In this equation, if the transverse sectional area of the piston (A) and the number
of cylinders (Z ) are given, this equation can be expressed as the following equation.
BHP ¼ CE Pme nE ð6:2Þ
Therefore, the BHP of the diesel engine is proportional to the engine speed (nE)
and the mean effective pressure (Pme).
6.4 Layout Diagram of Engine
The relation between the engine speed and the engine power (BHP) can be shown in
Fig. 6.1. In this figure, the engine speed is on the horizontal-axis and the engine
power is on the vertical axis. Because the power of diesel engine is proportional to
the engine speed, the graph of power can be represented as different straight lines
for a different Pme. Finally, considering the minimum and maximum value of
engine speed and the two values of Pme form a yellow region in the figure. The
yellow region where the engine can operate is called the layout diagram of
the engine.
The graph shown in Fig. 6.1 can be represented in the logarithmic scale, as
shown in Fig. 6.2.
In this figure, the point L1 of MAN/B&W engines corresponds to NMCR
(Nominal MCR) of the engine which determines the size, weight, power, and
cost. In the case of Wartsila engines, the point R1 indicates NMCR of the
engine (Wartsila 2017).
6.5 Selection of Main Engine
Since the engine can operate only in the interior region of the layout diagram, a
suitable main engine should be selected considering the required NCR and MCR of
the ship. Each engine which is made by the engine manufacturer can produce a
6.5 Selection of Main Engine 61
Fig. 6.1 Relation between

the engine speed and the
engine power
Fig. 6.2 Layout diagram of the engine represented in the logarithmic scale
different maximum power such as NMCR, as shown in Fig. 6.3. Thus, the main
engine which has NMCR greater than MCR should be selected. There can be
several alternative engines which satisfy such requirement for power. Then, the
best engine can be selected as the main engine by considering some aspects such as
Power
kW
x1,000
100
80 S90ME-C9
G95ME-C9 S90ME-C10
60
40 S80ME-C9
G50ME-C9
L70ME-C8
S65ME-C8
20 S70ME-C8
S60ME-C8
S50ME-B9
S50ME-C8
G70ME-C9 S46ME-B8
10
8 G60ME-C9 S40ME-B9
6 G50ME-B9
G50ME-C9
G45ME-C9
4
G40ME-C9
S35ME-B9
2 S30ME-B9
1 Speed
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 r/min
Fig. 6.3 Example of layout diagrams of two-stroke diesel engines (Marine Engines &
Systems 2017)
cost, fuel consumption, low maintenance, and so on. Factors considered for
selecting the main engine can be summarized below.
(a) Propeller efficiency
(b) Weight of the engine
(c) Arrangement of the engine room
(d) Initial investment cost
(e) Operation cost
Figure 6.3 shows an example of layout diagrams of two-stroke diesel engines.
The engine manufacturers such as MAN/B&W (now, Marine Engines & Sys-
tems) and Wartsila use a specific naming convention for their engines. That is, each
engine produced by them has its own model name. For example, Fig. 6.4 shows the
naming convention of engine types made by MAN/B&W. As shown in this figure,
the number of cylinders, the stroke/bore ratio, the diameter of the piston, and so on
can be seen from the model name of the engine.
If any specific engine is determined, the layout diagram of the engine, including
the NMCR can be found in the catalog of the engine manufacturer. Figure 6.5
shows the layout diagram of “S90ME-C10” engines and the SFOC (Specific Fuel
Oil Consumption) in g/kWh.
In addition, the engine size can be obtained from the catalog of the engine.
Figure 6.6 shows the dimensions of “S90ME-C10” engines. This information of the
engine size will be used to determine the length of the engine room.
Fig. 6.4 Naming convention of engines made by MAN/B&W (Marine Engines & Systems 2017)
Fig. 6.5 Layout diagram and SFOC of the S90ME-C10 engines (Marine Engines &
Systems 2017)
Fig. 6.6 Dimensions of the S90ME-C10 engines (Marine Engines & Systems 2017)
6.6 Estimation of DFOC
After the main engine is selected, all information about the engine, including the
SFOC can be obtained. Then, the DFOC (Daily Fuel Oil Consumption) in ton/day
can be estimated by the following equation.
DFOC ¼ NCR SFOC 24 106 ½ton=day ð6:3Þ
where, NCR is in kW and SFOC is specific fuel oil consumption in g/kWh.

6.7 Estimation of Capacity of Fuel Oil
The weight of heavy fuel oil (WHFO) in ton is now estimated from the following
equation.
Distance 1
W HFO ¼ DFOC þ MarginHFO ½ton ð6:4Þ
VS 24
where, Distance and VS are the cruising range in nautical miles (N/M) and the
service speed in knots of the ship, respectively, and MarginHFO is margin of fuel oil.
Finally, the total volume of fuel oil tank (VHFO) in m3 can be calculated by the
following equation.
W HFO
V HFO ¼ ½m3 ð6:5Þ
ρHFO
where, ρHFO is the density of fuel oil in ton/m3.
In this section, a computational guide to select the main engine is briefly described.
6.8.1 Selection of Main Engine
(a) Given: NCR and MCR of the design ship, Derating Ratio of the parent ship
(b) Find: Main engine (NMCR) of the design ship
The mathematical formulation for this problem has one inequality constraint as
NMCR > MCR ð6:6Þ
That is, NMCR of the main engine should be greater than MCR considering the
derating ratio. There are several alternative engines which can produce MCR. Thus,
the best one should be selected considering dry weight (mass), size, SFOC, and so
on, as described in Sect. 6.5.
An inequality constraint can be checked algebraically when we select main
engine.
6.8.2 Estimation of DFOC
(a) Given: NCR and SFOC of the design ship
(b) Find: DFOC of the design ship
This problem of one equation has one unknown (DFOC) and can be easily
solved.
6.8.3 Estimation of Capacity of Fuel Oil
(a) Given: DFOC, cruising range (Distance), service speed (VS), margin of fuel oil
(MarginHFO) of the design ship
(b) Find: weight of heavy fuel oil (WHFO) and total volume of fuel oil tank (VHFO)
of the design ship
The mathematical formulation for this problem has two equations as below.
Distance 1
W HFO ¼ DFOC þ MarginHFO ½ton ð6:8Þ
VS 24
W HFO
V HFO ¼ ½m3 ð6:9Þ
ρHFO
References 67
If the value of WHFO is determined, the value of VHFO can be automatically

determined from the above equation.
This problem of two equations has two unknowns (WHFO and VHFO). Thus, this
problem is a kind of a determinate problem and each equation can be solved
sequentially.
References
Marine Engines & Systems. (2017). http://marine.man.eu.

Wartsila. (2017). http://www.wartsila.com.
Chapter 7
Determination of Principal Dimensions
of Propeller
7.1 Generals
To efficiently use the power from the main engine and produce sufficient thrust
force for a ship, a propeller should be optimally designed. This chapter describes
how to determine the principal dimensions of propeller considering the relation
with the ship and the main engine.
7.2 Principal Dimensions of Propeller
A propeller is a moving blade which converts engine power to thrust power. And it
is most frequently used as a thruster for a ship because it is the most efficient
thruster in the range of ship speed. Propeller design includes determining the
principal dimension of propeller such as diameter, pitch, expanded area ratio,
and so on.
Propeller design of the ship can be compared with wheel design of a carriage
with cargo by one horse, as shown in Fig. 7.1. In the wheel design, one horse and
friction force are given as input, to find maximum speed of the carriage and wheel
diameter, while in the propeller design, the main engine and ship resistance are
given as input, to find maximum speed of the ship and the principal dimensions of
the propeller.
In the propeller design, the ship speed can be maximized if the propeller
efficiency (ηO) is maximized.
The principal dimensions of the propeller and related coefficients are introduced
as below. More details about the propulsion of ships can be found in various
references (Kerwin and Paulling 2010).

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-4885-2_7
70 7 Determination of Principal Dimensions of Propeller
Fig. 7.1 Comparison between wheel design of a carriage and propeller design of a ship
7.2.1 Propeller Diameter (DP)
Propeller diameter (DP) is a distance from tip to tip of the propeller blades. The
propeller diameter is usually the biggest determinant of the propeller efficiency (ηO)
and subsequently the entire power train system of the ship. Except for high-speed
ships, the larger the diameter the higher the propeller efficiency. Typically, the
diameter is limited by the draft and appendages of the ship, so it is best to use the
largest diameter with appropriate clearance in the aspect of the propeller efficiency.
Besides the efficiency, for a given DHP, the larger the diameter, the slower the
propeller speed (i.e., propeller rpm) is required.
7.2.2 Propeller Pitch (Pi)
One turn of the screw results in a movement forward which corresponds to the pitch
of the screw. Similarly, the propeller has a pitch which can be regarded as the angle
of the propeller blades (e.g., pitch angle). That is, the pitch (Pi) is theoretical
distance a propeller would move in one revolution. The pitch angle is the angle
of the blade concerning the incoming flow. The angle usually varies from root to tip.
Sometimes, the ratio of the pitch and the diameter (Pi/DP, pitch ratio) can be used
instead of the pitch. The fixed pitch is said that the pitch is constant all the way from
the blade root to the blade tip.
7.2.3 Expanded Area Ratio (AE/AO)
The expanded area ratio (EAR, AE/AO) is a ratio of the actual area of the propeller
blades (AE) to the area of the circle described by the diameter of the blades (AO,
7.2 Principal Dimensions of Propeller 71
Fig. 7.2 Blade area and

swept area of the propeller
Fig. 7.3 Expanded, projected, and developed areas of the propeller blade
swept area). Figure 7.2 shows blade area and swept area of the propeller. The
expanded area is same as the developed area when all blades are flexibly unwrapped
on a flat surface so that all sections were parallel. EAR is sometimes referred to as
BAR (Blade Area Ratio). There are some areas of the propeller blades, as shown in
Fig. 7.3. The projected area is the area of the outline as projected onto a surface
below. The developed area is the area of the blade outline if it could be untwisted
(i.e., as if the whole blades were unattached from the hub and brought to zero pitch).
In the propeller design, the minimum value of the EAR where no cavitation
occurs should be chosen because, if the ratio becomes smaller, the possibility of
cavitation becomes higher although the propeller efficiency becomes higher. In
most cases, a value of 0.55 for the EAR is considered as being acceptable. For ships
with particularly heavy-loaded propellers with five or six blades, the value of the
EAR may have a higher value. On naval surface ships, it can be as high as 1.2.
7.2.4 Number of Blades (z)
In general, the propeller can be manufactured with from two to six blades. The
fewer the number of blades (z), the higher the propeller efficiency will be. However,
in the aspect of strength, propellers to be subjected to heavy loads cannot be
manufactured with only two or three blades. Normally propellers with four to six
blades are used on commercial ships. Most of the commercial ships use four blades
except for container ships which generally use five or six blades.
In addition, the optimum propeller speed (or rpm: revolution per minute)
depends on the number of blades. For example, for the same propeller diameter, a
propeller with six blades has an about 10% lower optimum rpm than a propeller
with five blades. For vibrational reasons, propellers with certain numbers of blades
may be avoided in individual cases in order not to give rise to the excitation of
natural frequencies in the hull or superstructure of the ship.
7.2.5 Propeller Speed
As described in Sect. 6.3, the engine power (PE) produced by the main engine can
be stated as Eq. (7.1).
PE ¼ BHP ¼ Pme L A nE Z ð7:1Þ
where, PE is the engine power, Pme is the mean effective pressure in kN/m2, L is the
stroke of the piston in m, A is the transverse sectional area of the piston in m2, nE is
the engine speed in rps in 1/s, and Z is the number of cylinders.
From this equation, the engine power (PE) is proportional to the engine speed
(nE), if Pme, L, A, and Z are given, as below.
PE / nE ð7:2Þ
On the other hand, the power absorbed by the propeller (PP, DHP) can be
expressed as the following equation.
PP ¼ DHP ¼ 2π nP QP ¼ 2πρ nP 3 DP 5 K Q ð7:3Þ
where, QP is torque absorbed by the propeller

and KQ is non-dimensional propeller
torque coefficient defined by K Q ¼ QP = ρ n2P D5P .
From this equation, the relation between the propeller power (PP) and the
propeller speed (nP) is given as follows.
7.3 Non-dimensional Coefficients in Propeller Design 73
Fig. 7.4 Matching of the

power and speed between
the power provider (main
engine) and the power
absorber (propeller)
P P / nP 3 ð7:4Þ
If there are reduction gears between the main engine and the propulsion shaft,
the propeller speed will be different from the engine speed, normally nE > nP. If
there are no reduction gears, that means the propeller is directly coupled with the
main engine through the shaft and thus the propeller speed will be same as the
engine speed (nE ¼ nP). In general, large-size ships do not have reduction gears.
Figure 7.4 shows the matching of the power and speed between the power
provider, i.e., main engine and the power absorber, i.e., propeller. If the engine
speed and the propeller speed are in the region A, the providing engine power will
be greater than the absorbing propeller power (of course, the transmission effi-
ciency should be considered between two powers). In this case, more power will be
produced by the main engine than the power which can be absorbed by the
propeller. It means there will be a waste of energy. If two speeds are in the region B,
the engine power will be smaller than the propeller power. In this case, less power
will be produced by the main engine than the propeller power. It results in the
shortage of the thrust power by the propeller. As a result, ship speed will be
decreased. Considering this fact, two speeds should be matched, as shown in the
following equations. This is called matching of the main engine and the propel-
ler, which means the speed and power of the propeller are same as those of the
engine if there are no reduction gears.
PE ¼ PP ð7:5Þ
nE ¼ nP ð7:6Þ
7.3 Non-dimensional Coefficients in Propeller Design
To evaluate the propeller efficiency, propeller open water (POW) test is carried
out under the ideal condition in which the propeller does not get disturbed by the
hull form. In the test, using input data such as propeller dimensions (DP, Pi, AE/AO,
Fig. 7.5 Advance speed
and z), the propeller rpm, and advance speed), the results of the POW test such as
thrust force, propeller torque, and propeller efficiency are derived.
For carrying out the POW test with a model propeller and analyzing the propeller
performance, some non-dimensional coefficients of the propeller are used. The
coefficients are derived from dimensional analysis and listed as below.
7.3.1 Advance Ratio (J)
The difference between the pitch of the propeller and the real movement is called
slip, as shown in Fig. 7.5. The slip is necessary in order for the blades to grip and set
the water in motion. This means that when the propeller has rotated one turn in the
water it has only advanced part of the pitch, usually in the order of 75~95%. At the
same time, the ship will drag water with it, somewhat in front of the propeller. The
speed reduction of the water is called wake which affects the slip. Therefore,
advance speed (VA) is a speed of advance per unit of time considering the wake,
typically the water speed of the ship, and it can be expressed as the following
equation.
V A ¼ V ð1 wÞ ð7:7Þ
where, V is ship speed and w is wake fraction coefficient.

Now, the advance ratio (J) can be defined. This is a ratio between the distance
the propeller moves forward through the water during one revolution and the
propeller diameter. And, it can be expressed as the following equation.
V A ð1=nP Þ VA
J¼ ¼ ð7:8Þ
DP nP DP
where, nP is the propeller speed in rps (1/s).

7.3 Non-dimensional Coefficients in Propeller Design 75
7.3.2 Thrust Coefficient (KT)
The thrust force (TP) generated by the propeller is expressed dimensionless by

introducing non-dimensional thrust coefficient (KT) as the following equation.
TP
KT ¼ ð7:9Þ
ρ nP 2 D P 4
7.3.3 Torque Coefficient (KQ)
The torque (QE) produced by the engine is defined as in Eq. (7.10). The torque (QP)
absorbed by the propeller is expressed dimensionless by introducing
non-dimensional torque coefficient (KQ) as in Eq. (7.11). To match the main engine
and the propeller, QE ¼ QP and nE ¼ nP should be valid.
DHP
QE ¼ ð7:10Þ
2π nE
QP
KQ ¼ ð7:11Þ
ρ nP 2 D P 5
7.3.4 Propeller Efficiency in Open Water (ηO)
The propeller efficiency (ηO) is related to working in open water, that is, the
propeller works in a homogeneous wake field with no hull in front of it. This is
an efficiency of a propeller itself and one of the components of propulsive effi-
ciency (ηD). Especially, the propeller efficiency depends on the advance speed (VA),
the thrust force absorbed by the propeller (TP), the propeller speed (nP), the
diameter (DP). It also depends on the principal dimensions of the propeller such
as the pitch ratio, the EAR, the number of blades, and so on. The propeller
efficiency can vary between approximately 0.35~0.75, with the high value being
valid for propellers with a high advance speed. The propeller efficiency (ηO) by
definition is expressed as below.
THP
ηO ¼ ð7:12Þ
DHPopen water
where, THP is the power generated by the propeller and DHP is the power absorbed
by the propeller.
To define ηO in terms of the coefficients related with propeller, THP and DHP
can be expressed by using KT, KQ, and J, as in Eq. (7.13).
ηO ¼ DHPopen
THP
water
TP VA K T :ρ nP 2 DP 4 V A J KT ð7:13Þ
¼ ¼ ¼
2π nP QP 2π nP K Q ρ nP DP
2 5 2π K Q
where, J ¼ VA/(nPDP).
The propeller efficiency behind hull can be obtained with the relative rotative
coefficient (ηR), as the following equation.
ηO, B ¼ ηO ηR ð7:14Þ
For accomplishing model test, a model propeller for the POW test must satisfy
geometric similarity with an actual propeller first. And then, the non-dimensional
coefficients of the model propeller should be same with those of the actual
propeller.
As a result of the POW test, propeller open water diagrams (simply, POW
diagrams) which are also called propeller diagrams are obtained. In the diagrams,
values of KT, KQ, and ηO for different pitch ratios (Pi/DP) are presented, as in
Fig. 7.6, which shows the POW diagrams of the Wageningen B-series propellers for
AE/AO ¼ 0.55 and z ¼ 4.
With the POW diagrams, it is possible to find the principal dimensions of
the propeller, including the propeller efficiency, thrust force, delivered power,
and so on.
Through regression analysis of the results of many POW tests, non-dimensional
coefficients such as KT and KQ can be expressed as polynomials which are functions
of advance ratio (J), pitch ratio (Pi/DP), EAR (AE/AO), and number of blades (z), as
X
K T and K Q ¼ Cs, t, u, v ðJ Þs ðPi =DP Þt ðAE =AO Þu ðzÞv ð7:15Þ
where, the indices of s, t, u, and v of the Wageningen B-series propellers are defined
as in Table 7.1 (Bernitsas et al. 1981).
7.4 Determination of Principal Dimensions of Propeller
As described above, the principal dimensions of the propeller, including propeller

speed, should be determined by considering the match between the propeller and
the main engine. The overall procedure for the determination of the principal
dimensions of the propeller is shown in Fig. 7.7. As shown in the figure, the
7.4 Determination of Principal Dimensions of Propeller 77
Fig. 7.6 POW diagrams of the Wageningen B-series propellers for AE/AO ¼ 0.55 and z ¼ 4
procedure includes five major stages from Stage 1 to Stage 5. The detailed expla-
nation of each stage is described below.
7.4.1 Stage 1: Assumption of Propeller Diameter
After the total resistance of design ship is estimated, the engine power from the
EHP to MCR can be predicted, as described in Sect. 5.6. Then, the delivered power
to the propeller (DHP) from the main engine can be assumed with the engine speed.
At the early design stage, the engine speed of design ship can be assumed as same as
that of parent ship.
Next, the propeller diameter (DP) of design ship is assumed in Stage 1. There are
two methods to estimate the propeller diameter of design ship. The first method is to
use the propeller diameter of parent ship as that of design ship, as the following
equation.
Table 7.1 Coefficients of the KT and KQ polynomials of the Wageningen B-series propellers for
Rn ¼ 2 106
KT KQ
st u v st u v
(Pi/ (AE/ (Pi/ (AE/
Cs,t,u,v (J ) DP) AO) (z) Cs,t,u,v (J ) DP) AO) (z)
þ0.00880496 0 0 0 0 þ0.00379368 0 0 0 0
0.204554 1 0 0 0 þ0.00886523 2 0 0 0
þ0.166351 0 1 0 0 0.032241 1 1 0 0
þ0.158114 0 2 0 0 þ0.00344778 0 2 0 0
0.147581 2 0 1 0 0.0408811 0 1 1 0
0.481497 1 1 1 0 0.108009 1 1 1 0
þ0.415437 0 2 1 0 0.0885381 2 1 1 0
þ0.0144043 0 0 0 1 þ0.188561 0 2 1 0
0.0530054 2 0 0 1 0.00370871 1 0 0 1
þ0.0143481 0 1 0 1 þ0.00513696 0 1 0 1
þ0.0606826 1 1 0 1 þ0.0209449 1 1 0 1
0.0125894 0 0 1 1 þ0.00474319 2 1 0 1
þ0.0109689 1 0 1 1 0.00723408 2 0 1 1
0.133698 0 3 0 0 þ0.00438388 1 1 1 1
þ0.00638407 0 6 0 0 0.0269403 0 2 1 1
0.00132718 2 6 0 0 þ0.0558082 3 0 1 0
þ0.168496 3 0 1 0 þ0.0161886 0 3 1 0
0.0507214 0 0 2 0 þ0.00318086 1 3 1 0
þ0.0854559 2 0 2 0 þ0.015896 0 0 2 0
0.0504475 3 0 2 0 þ0.0471729 1 0 2 0
þ0.010465 1 6 2 0 þ0.0196283 3 0 2 0
0.00648272 2 6 2 0 0.0502782 0 1 2 0
0.00841728 0 3 0 1 0.030055 3 1 2 0
þ0.0168424 1 3 0 1 þ0.0417122 2 2 2 0
0.00102296 3 3 0 1 0.0397722 0 3 2 0
0.0317791 0 3 1 1 0.00350024 0 6 2 0
þ0.018604 1 0 2 1 0.0106854 3 0 0 1
0.00410798 0 2 2 1 þ0.00110903 3 3 0 1
0.000606848 0 0 0 2 0.000313912 0 6 0 1
0.0049819 1 0 0 2 þ0.0035985 3 0 1 1
þ0.0025983 2 0 0 2 0.00142121 0 6 1 1
0.000560528 3 0 0 2 0.00383637 1 0 2 1
0.00163652 1 2 0 2 þ0.0126803 0 2 2 1
0.000328787 1 6 0 2 0.00318278 2 3 2 1
þ0.000116502 2 6 0 2 þ0.00334268 0 6 2 1
þ0.000690904 0 0 1 2 0.00183491 1 1 0 2
þ0.00421749 0 3 1 2 þ0.000112451 3 2 0 2
þ0.0000565229 3 6 1 2 0.0000297228 3 6 0 2
0.00146564 0 3 2 2 þ0.000269551 1 0 1 2
(continued)
Table 7.1 (continued)

KT KQ
s t u v ts u v
(Pi/ (AE/ (Pi/ (AE/
Cs,t,u,v (J ) DP) AO) (z) Cs,t,u,v (J ) DP) AO) (z)
þ0.00083265 2 0 1 2
þ0.00155334 0 2 1 2
þ0.000302683 0 6 1 2
0.0001843 0 0 2 2
0.000425399 0 3 2 2
þ0.0000869243 3 3 2 2
0.0004659 0 6 2 2
þ0.0000554194 1 6 2 2
DP ¼ DP, P ð7:16Þ
where, DP,P is the propeller diameter of parent ship.

The second method is to use an empirical formula if the propeller diameter of
parent ship is not available, as the following formula.
0:2
MCRP
DP ¼ 15:4 c1 ð7:17Þ
nMCR, P 3
where, MCRP and nMCR,P is MCR and engine speed at MCR of the parent ship,
respectively. And c1 is 1.05 for the propeller with four blades and 1.0 for the
propeller with five blades.
7.4.2 Stage 2: Determination of Engine Power and Speed,

and Propeller Pitch for Maximization of ηO
In Stage 2, the engine power, the engine speed, and the propeller pitch which
maximizes the propeller efficiency with the assumed propeller diameter from Stage
1 are determined. The problem for determining them can be summarized in
Table 7.2.
When we solve this problem, we can use two governing equations. The first one
is an equation from the relation between the main engine and the propeller, called
torque equation. That is, this equation says that the propeller should absorb the
torque (QP) delivered from the main engine (QE). This equation of QE ¼ QP can be
stated as the following equation.
Fig. 7.7 Overall procedure for the determination of principal dimensions of propeller
Table 7.2 Problem definition at Stage 2

Item Unit Description
Given DP m Propeller diameter
(Assumed) AE/ – Expanded area ratio (EAR)
AO
z – Number of blades
V m/s Ship speed (i.e., Service speed VS)
RT kN Resistance in the calm water for given ship speed
Find Pi m Propeller pitch
PE kW Delivered power to propeller from main engine (¼ DHPηR)
nE 1/s Engine speed (¼ Propeller speed, nP)
PE
¼ ρ nP 2 DP 5 K Q ð7:18Þ
2π nE
where, nE ¼ nP.
In this equation, the left side means the torque delivered from the main engine
(QE) and the right side means the torque which the propeller can absorb (QP).
The second equation is an equation from the relation between the ship and the
propeller, called the thrust force equation. That is, the equation says that the
propeller should produce the required thrust force at a given speed. This equation
of TS ¼ TP can be stated as below.
RT
¼ ρ n P 2 DP 4 K T ð7:19Þ
1t
In this equation, the left side means the thrust force which is required to propel
the ship for the given speed (TS) and the right side means the thrust force produced
by the propeller (TP).
The problem of Stage 2 has three unknowns (Pi, PE, and nE) and two equations.
Thus, this problem is a kind of an indeterminate problem since the number of
unknowns is greater than the number of equations. The indeterminate problem has
many solutions. If we assume the problem as an optimization problem by intro-
ducing an objective function, we can get the best solution which optimizes the
objective function. Here, the objective function is a criterion to compare different
solutions and to determine the best solution.
Since this problem is relatively simple, we can solve it by manually. First, from
Eq. (7.19) the thrust coefficient (KT) can be expressed as a quadratic function with
respect to the advance ratio (J).
That is, the thrust force equation in Eq. (7.19) can be rearranged as the following
equation.
RT 1
KT ¼ ð7:20Þ
ð1 tÞ ρ DP 4 n 2
P
The advance ratio can be expressed as the following equation.
VA
nP ¼ ð7:21Þ
J DP
Substituting Eq. (7.21) into Eq. (7.20), it gives the following equation.

RT J DP 2
KT ¼
ð1 tÞ ρ DP 4 VA ð7:22Þ
RT
¼ J 2 ¼ c2 J 2
ð1 tÞ ρ DP 2 V A 2
where, c2 is defined as below and it can be calculated from the given data of Stage 2.
RT
c2 ¼
Fig. 7.8 Calculation of the

intersection point between
KT curves
Now, using POW diagram of the Wageningen B-series propellers for given
values of AE/AO and z, we calculate the intersection points between KT curves of
the series propeller and quadratic curves of KT for design propeller in Eq. (7.22).
As shown in Fig. 7.8, the POW diagram is given for specific values of AE/AO, z,
and Pi/DP. The quadratic curves of KT in Eq. (7.22) is also plotted in this diagram.
From two curves of KT, the intersection point can be obtained. For the intersection
point of KT,1, the advance ratio (J1), the KQ coefficient (KQ,1), and the propeller
efficiency (ηO,1) at J1 can be also found.
If we repeat this step for various pitch ratios, the advance ratio (Jx) which
maximizes the propeller efficiency can be determined, as shown in Fig. 7.9.
From the pitch ratio which corresponds to the intersection point, the pitch can be
obtained from the following equation.
Pi, x ¼ ðPi =DP Þx DP ð7:23Þ
Using Jx and Eq. (7.21), the corresponding speed of propeller (same as the
engine speed) can be calculated by the following equation.
VA
nx ¼ ð7:24Þ
J x DP
Now, using the torque equation in Eq. (7.18), the engine power can be calculated
by the following equation.
Px ¼ 2π ρ nx 3 DP 5 K Q, x ð7:25Þ
In the above equations, Px and nx are the engine power (PE) and the engine speed
(nE) which correspond to the propeller having the maximum propeller efficiency
and the pitch (Pi,x). These are solutions of Stage 2.
Fig. 7.9 Determination of the advance ratio for the maximum propeller efficiency
With the use of this engine power, BHP, NCR, and MCR of the design ship can
be predicted again. At this time, ηR should be considered to change from the
delivered power without the hull to the delivered power at the after body because
the POW diagrams were generated from POW tests of propellers in open water.
DHP Px =ηR Px
BHP ¼ ¼ ¼ ð7:26Þ
ηT ηT ηR ηT

Sea Margin
NCR ¼ BHP 1 þ ð7:27Þ
100
NCR
MCR ¼ ð7:28Þ
Engine Margin
Also, the engine speed at NCR and MCR can be obtained from the following
equations by using the relation between the propeller power and the propeller speed
in Eq. (7.4) and by considering the match between main engine and propeller.
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
3 NCR
nNCR ¼ ð7:29Þ
c3
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
3 MCR
nMCR ¼ ð7:30Þ
c3
Fig. 7.10 Power prediction from the engine power and the engine speed determined at Stage 2
where,
DHP Px =ηR
c3 ¼ ¼
nx 3 nx 3
Figure 7.10 shows the result of power prediction according to the above
equations.
Finally, if NMCR of the main engine of design ship (initially, the main engine
can be assumed as that of parent ship) cannot include NCR and MCR, including
engine speeds at those powers, the main engine of design ship should be reselected
as another one having greater power.
7.4.3 Stage 3: Determination of Optimal Principal

Dimensions of Propeller and Maximum Ship Speed
At Stage 3, optimal principal dimensions of the propeller and the maximum speed
of the ship will be determined. That is, with the engine power and the engine speed
determined at Stage 2, principal dimensions of the propeller such as propeller
diameter, propeller pitch, and EAR are determined. At this time, the number of
blades is fixed as that of parent ship like in the problem of Stage 2.
At first, the design point of propeller should be determined as below. Fig-

ure 7.11 shows how to determine the design point of the propeller in the layout
diagram of the main engine in logarithmic scales. In this diagram, we can define the
load diagram as the power and speed limits for continuous as well as overload
operation of an installed engine having an optimizing point and a specified MCR
point according to the ship’s specification. In this figure, Curve ① represents the
propulsion curve with clean hull called ‘light running propeller’. Curve ②
represents the propulsion curve with fouled hull and heavy weather called ‘heavy
running propeller’. Curve ③ represents the torque and speed limit of the main
engine at which an ample air supply is available for combustion and imposes a
limitation on the maximum combination of torque and speed. This limit is propor-
tional to the engine speed to the second (/ n2E ). Curve ④ represents the maximum
level of mean effective pressure of the main engine for continuous operation. Curve
⑤ represents the maximum power for continuous operation of the main engine.
Curve ⑥ represents the maximum speed of the main engine for continuous
operation. The point M corresponds to the specified MCR (Maximum Continuous
Rating or Derated MCR), the point S is NCR (Normal Continuous Rating), and the
point B is BHP.
The point M can be any point within the layout diagram of the main engine.
When choosing this point, we have to consider the propeller speed, the fuel
consumption, and others together. Once the point M has been chosen the shaft
and auxiliary equipment have been dimensioned accordingly, the point M is now
the maximum continuous rating (MCR). That is, MCR becomes the basis of all
power and speed of the main engine.
The point G1 is the intersection point of Curve ① with the power considering the
sea margin and the point G2 is the intersection point of Curve ① with the reduced
power without taking into account the sea margin. One of these points can be used
as the design point of propeller but normally the point G1 is used as the design point.
Similar to Fig. 7.11, Fig. 7.12 shows the design point of the propeller in the
layout diagram of the main engine in real scales. In this figure, Curve ②’ represents
the propulsion curve with the increased resistance as compared with Curve ②.
In this figure, the reason why one of the design points of propeller should be G1 is
as follows. If the propeller were designed at the point S, the propulsion curve would
become Curve ②. When the resistance of ship increases with time, then the
propulsion curve will move to the curve ②’. Thus, the propeller and engine
match at the point S0 , at which the engine power is smaller than NCR. This means
the propeller cannot absorb the engine power of NCR, which results in the reduction
of ship speed. On the other hand, if the propeller was designed at the point G1, the
propulsion curve would become Curve ①. When the resistance of ship increases
with time, the propulsion curve will move to Curve ② so that the propeller can
operate at the point S, at which the propeller can absorb the engine power of NCR.
In summary, the design point of the propeller can be the point G1 (NCR, nMCR) or
the point G2 (BHP, nNCR).
Fig. 7.11 Design point of the propeller in the layout diagram of the main engine in logarithmic
scales
Now, the problem of Stage 3 for the determination of optimal principal dimen-
sions of the propeller and the maximum speed of ship can be summarized in
Table 7.3. If the point G1 is used as the design point of the propeller, the engine
power and the engine speed are NCR and nMCR from Stage 2, as shown in Table 7.3.
In solving this problem, we can use three governing equations. The first one is
that the propeller should absorb the torque delivered from the main engine, as
shown in Eq. (7.18). The second one is that the propeller should produce the
required thrust force at a given speed, as shown in Eq. (7.19). The last one an
equation is about the non-cavitation criterion of the propeller. That is, this equation
says that EAR (AE/AO) should be determined so that the cavitation does not occur. If
EAR becomes smaller, the possibility of cavitation becomes higher although the
propeller efficiency becomes higher. Thus, this equation gives the minimum
requirement of EAR), as shown in Eq. (7.31) called Keller’s formula for mini-
mum EAR.
ð1:3 þ 0:3zÞ T
AE =AO K þ ð7:31Þ
DP 2 ðp0 þ ρgh∗ pv Þ
where, K is 0.2 for ships with a single propeller and 0.1 for ships with two propellers
(i.e., twin-screw ships). T is the thrust force of the propeller in kN. ( p0 – pv) is
0.9947 kN/m2 at sea water of 15 C. h* and h are the shaft immersion depth in m and
the shaft center height (height from the baseline) in m, respectively.
Fig. 7.12 Design point of the propeller in the layout diagram of the main engine in real scales
Table 7.3 Problem definition at Stage 3

Given PE kW Delivered power to propeller from main engine (¼ NCR)
nE 1/s Engine speed nMCR (¼ Propeller speed, nP)
RT kN Resistance according to ship speed
Find DP m Propeller diameter
Pi m Propeller pitch
AE/AO – Expanded area ratio (EAR)
Vmax m/s Maximum ship speed
Instead of this formula, Burrill’s formula for minimum EAR can be also used

F ηO =ð1=J Þ2
AE =AO 0:375 ð7:32Þ
1 þ 4:826ð1=J Þ2 ð1:067 0:229Pi =DP Þ
where, F and BP are calculated as below and DHP is in bhp (British Horse Power),
VA is in knots, and nP is in rpm (1/min).
ηR BP 2 V A 1:25
F¼
278:4ð10:18 þ hÞ0:625
BP ¼ nP ðDHP ηR Þ0:5 =V A 2:5
The problem formulation for Stage 3 has four unknowns (DP, Pi, AE/AO, and V)
with two equalities (equations) and one inequality. Thus, this problem is a kind of
an indeterminate problem since the number of unknowns is greater than the number
of equations. If we assume the problem as an optimization problem by introducing
an objective function, we can get the best solution which optimizes the objective
function as in Stage 2.
The indeterminate problem can be solved by manually, as well. If the values of
two unknowns (¼ the number of unknowns – the number of equations ¼ 42 ¼ 2)
are assumed, the indeterminate problem becomes a determinate problem and thus
one solution can be obtained.
Here, we will solve this problem by assuming the values of AE/AO, and V. The
detailed steps are given as below. In the first step, we assume the value of AE/AO as a
specific value. In the second step, we assume the value of V as a specific value, as
well. In the third step, from Eq. (7.18) the torque coefficient (KQ) can be expressed
as a quintic function with respect to the advance ratio (J).
That is, the torque equation in Eq. (7.18) can be rearranged as the following
equation.
PE 1
KQ ¼ 5 ð7:33Þ
2π ρ nP DP
3
The advance ratio can be expressed as the following equation.
VA
DP ¼ ð7:34Þ
J nP
Substituting Eq. (7.34) into Eq. (7.33), it gives the following equation.

PE J nP 5
KQ ¼
2π ρ nP 3 VA ð7:35Þ
P E nP 2 5
¼ J ¼ c4 J 5
2π ρ V A 5
where, c4 is defined as below and it can be calculated from the determined data at
Stage 2.
PE nP 2
c4 ¼
2π ρ V A 5
Fig. 7.13 Calculation of

the intersection point
between KQ curves
In the fourth step, using POW diagram of the Wageningen B-series propellers
for given values of AE/AO and z, we calculate the intersection points between
KQcurves in the POW diagram and quintic curves of KQ in Eq. (7.35).
As shown in Fig. 7.13, the POW diagram is given for specific values of AE/AO, z,
and Pi/DP. The quintic curves of KQ in Eq. (7.35) is also plotted in this diagram.
From two curves of KQ, the intersection point can be obtained. For the intersection
point of KQ,1, the advance ratio (J1), the KT coefficient (KT,1), and the propeller
efficiency (ηO,1) at J1 can be also found.
If we repeat this step for various pitch ratios, the advance ratio (Jx) which
maximizes the propeller efficiency can be determined, as shown in Fig. 7.14.
Using Jx and Eq. (7.34), the diameter of the propeller can be calculated by the
following equation.
VA
DP, x ¼ ð7:36Þ
J x nE
From the pitch ratio which corresponds to the intersection point, the pitch can be
Pi, x ¼ ðPi =DP Þx DP, x ð7:37Þ
In the fifth step, the thrust force equation in Eq. (7.19) which means the relation
between the ship and the propeller should be checked. Eq. (7.19) can be stated as the
following equation.
RT
¼ ρ nx 2 D P , x 4 K T , x ð7:38Þ
1t
Fig. 7.14 Determination of the advance ratio for the maximum propeller efficiency
In this equation, total resistance (RT) is a function of ship speed. If this equation
is not satisfied, we go to the second step and assume the ship speed with another
value. If this equation is satisfied, the ship speed becomes the maximum ship speed
(Vmax) with the determined principal dimensions of the propeller and we go to the
next step. In the last step, Eq. (7.31) or Eq. (7.32) which means the non-cavitation
criterion of propeller should be checked. If Eq. (7.31) is used here, Eq. (7.39)
should be checked.
ð1:3 þ 0:3zÞ T x
AE =AO K þ ð7:39Þ
DP, x 2 ðp0 þ ρgh∗ pv Þ
where, Tx can be obtained from the following equation.
RT
T x ¼ ρ nx 2 D P , x 4 K T , x or T x ¼ ð7:40Þ
1t
If this inequality is not satisfied, we go to the first step and assume the EAR with
another value. If this inequality is satisfied, the values of the principal dimensions
of the propeller and the maximum ship speed will be the best solution of this
problem. The steps for finding the best solution for this problem can be represented
in Fig. 7.15.
Fig. 7.15 Overall steps for

solving the problem of
Stage 3
Table 7.4 Problem definition in Stage 4

Given DP m Propeller diameter
Find PE kW Delivered power to propeller from main engine (¼ NCR)
7.4.4 Stage 4: Determination of Engine Power and Speed

Using the Determined Propeller Dimensions
At Stage 4, the engine power and the engine speed are re-determined by using the
determined optimal dimensions of the propeller in the previous step. That is, this
stage is similar to Stage 2. The problem for determining them can be summarized in
Table 7.4.
When we solve this problem, we use two governing equations which were
already described above. The first one is the torque equation, as shown in
Eq. (7.18). The second one is the thrust force equation, as shown in Eq. (7.19).
The problem of Stage 4 has two unknowns (PE and nE) and two equations. Thus,
this problem is a kind of a determinate problem since the number of unknowns is
equal to the number of equations. The determinate problem has a unique solution if
the equations are independent of each other. The problem can be stated as below.
Find PE and nE
which
Satisfy
PE
¼ ρ nP 2 D P 5 K Q
2π nP
RT
¼ ρ nP 2 D P 4 K T
1t
First, from Eq. (7.19) the thrust coefficient (KT) can be expressed as a quadratic
function with respect to the advance ratio (J). As described in the problem of Stage
2, the thrust force equation in Eq. (7.19) can be rearranged as Eq. (7.41).
K T ¼ c2 J 2 ð7:41Þ
where, c2 is defined as below and it can be calculated from the given data of
Stage 4.
RT
c2 ¼
Now, using POW diagram of the Wageningen B-series propellers for given
values of AE/AO, z, and Pi/DP, we calculate the intersection point between a KT
curve in the POW diagram and a quadratic curve of KT in Eq. (7.41).
As shown in Fig. 7.16, the POW diagram is given for specific values of Pi/DP,
AE/AO, and z. The quadratic curve of KT in Eq. (7.41) is also plotted in this diagram.
From two curves of KT, the intersection point can be obtained. For the intersection
Fig. 7.16 Calculation of

the intersection point
between KT curves
point of KT,x, the advance ratio (Jx), the KQ coefficient (KQ,x), and the propeller
efficiency (ηO,x) at Jx can be also found.
Using Jx and Eq. (7.21), the corresponding speed of propeller (same as the
engine speed) can be obtained from the following equation.
VA
nx ¼ ð7:42Þ
J x DP
Now, using the torque equation in Eq. (7.18), the engine power can be calculated
Px ¼ 2π ρ nx 3 DP 5 K Q, x ð7:43Þ
In the above equations, Px and nx are the engine power of NCR and the engine
speed at MCR (nMCR) which correspond to the design point of the propeller at Stage
3. These are the solution for Stage 4 (PE and nE, respectively). At this time, we
check NCR and nMCR are same as those values at Stage 3 which were bases for the
determination of optimal principal dimensions of the propeller. If they are not same
to each other, we go to Stage 3 and repeat to solve the problem at Stage 3 until they
converge. If all is done, the solution will be the final principal dimensions of the
propeller having the maximum propeller efficiency.
7.4.5 Stage 5: Generation of Speed-Power Curve
At Stage 5, we determine the required power and the engine speed for a given speed
of the ship. Furthermore, we determine the ship speed for a given power and engine
speed. That is, we generate the speed-power curve. First, we repeat the steps with
the optimal propeller at Stage 4 for various ship speeds. Then, calculate c2, J, nE (¼
nP), and ηO for each ship speed. In addition, EHP, DHP, and BHP can be calculated
by using Eqs. (7.44), (7.45) and (7.46).
EHP ¼ RT V ð7:44Þ
EHP EHP
DHP ¼ ¼ ð7:45Þ
ηD ηO ηH ηR
DHP
BHP ¼ ð7:46Þ
ηT
From these calculations, we can get a table of the power prediction for different
ships speeds. Table 7.5 shows an example of the power prediction for different ship
speeds ranging from 12.5 to 14.5 knots with a step of 0.5 knots.
In this table, PS is one of the units for the power, that is, German horse power.
1 PS ¼ 75 kgfm/s ¼ 0.73575 kW.
Table 7.5 Example of the power prediction for different ship speeds
Speed
(knot) EHP (PS) w t BHP (PS) c2 ¼ KT/J2 J nE or nP (rpm) ηO
12.5 1,686 0.381 0.224 2,867 1.374 0.355 202 0.470
13.0 1,965 0.380 0.223 3,367 1.418 0.352 212 0.465
13.5 2,240 0.379 0.221 3,844 1.435 0.351 221 0.463
14.0 2,536 0.377 0.219 4,376 1.443 0.348 232 0.460
14.5 2,898 0.375 0.216 5,020 1.470 0.345 243 0.457
Fig. 7.17 Generation of speed and power curves considering sea margin
With the data in this table, we can mark points of the engine power (BHP) and
the engine speed (nE) according to the ship speeds, as shown in Fig. 7.17. By
connecting the points (black circle) for BHP and nE, the propulsion curves (also
called the speed-power curves) in the calm water (① and ②, dashed line) can be
made.
Now, we draw a horizontal line corresponding to NCR (design point of the
propeller) and get an intersection point (red circle) with Curve ① of the engine
power at the ship speed V1. On a vertical line corresponding to that speed, if we get
an intersection point (green circle) with Curve ② of the engine speed, the point
corresponds to nMCR. Now, we can draw a horizontal line corresponding to BHP
without considering sea margin (i.e., calm sea) and get an intersection point (gray
circle) with Curve ① of the engine power at the ship speed V2. On a vertical line
corresponding to that speed, we get an intersection point (pink circle) with Curve ②
of the engine speed, and intersection points (yellow boxes) with horizontal lines
corresponding to NCR and the nMCR. If we move Curves ① and ② so that they pass
through the yellow boxes, we can get new Curves ③ and ④. These curves mean
propulsion curves with sea margin. Finally, with these curves, we can get the ship
speed and the engine speed (or the propeller speed) under the given engine power.
That is, if NCR is given as the engine power, the ship speed (service speed) will be
13.5 knots in this example.
7.5 Relation Between Propeller Speed, Diameter,

and Efficiency
The relation between the propeller speed (same as the engine speed in case of no
reduction gears), diameter, and the propeller efficiency is discussed below.
We assume that the optimum advance ratio (J ) in Eq. (7.8) is constant in the
optimum range. Under this assumption, if the propeller speed (n) decreases, the
propeller diameter (DP) will increase. Then, the torque coefficient (KQ) in
Eq. (7.11) becomes smaller than the thrust coefficient (KT) in Eq. (7.9). Finally,
the propeller efficiency (ηO) in Eq. (7.13) increases.
From this discussion, if the propeller speed decreases, the optimum diameter of
the propeller becomes larger, and the propeller efficiency increases. On the other
hand, if the propeller speed increases, the optimum diameter of the propeller
becomes small, and the propeller efficiency decreases.
In this section, a computational guide to determine the principal dimensions of

the propeller is briefly described.
7.6.1 Stage 1
The problem for this stage can be defined as below.
(a) Given: propeller diameter (DP,P), MCR (MCRP), and the engine speed at MCR
(nMCR,P) of the parent ship
(b) Find: propeller diameter (DP) of the design ship

0:2
MCRP
DP ¼ DP, P or DP ¼ 15:4 c1 ð7:47Þ
nMCR, P 3
This equation has one unknown (DP) and can be easily solved.
7.6.2 Stage 2
The problem for this stage can be defined as below or in Table 7.2.
(a) Given: propeller diameter (DP), EAR (AE/AO), number of blades (z), ship speed
(V ), and total resistance according to the ship speed (RT) of the design ship
(b) Find: propeller pitch (Pi), delivered power to the propeller from main engine
(PE), and engine speed (nE) of the design ship
The mathematical formulation for this problem has two equations as below.
PE
¼ ρ nP 2 DP 5 K Q ð7:48Þ
2π nP
RT
¼ ρ n P 2 DP 4 K T ð7:49Þ
1t
The problem of this stage has three unknowns (Pi, PE, and nE) and two equations.
Thus, this problem is a kind of an indeterminate problem since the number of
unknowns is greater than the number of equations. The indeterminate problem has a
number of solutions. If we assume the problem as an optimization problem by
introducing an objective function, we can get the best solution which optimizes the
objective function. Here, the objective function is a criterion to compare different
solutions and to determine the best solution. In this problem, the maximization of
the propeller efficiency in open water (ηO) can be used as the objective function of
the optimization problem. The optimization problem can be mathematically for-
mulated as below.
Find (design variables) Pi, PE, and nE

which
Minimize (objective function) ηO
Subject to (constraints)
PE
¼ ρ nP 2 D P 5 K Q
2π nP
RT
¼ ρ nP 2 D P 4 K T
1t
This optimization problem is a kind of a constrained optimization problem
and it can be solved by using any kind of constrained optimization methods such as
SLP (Sequential Linear Programming) (Arora 2016), SQP (Sequential Qua-
dratic Programming) (Arora 2016), and so on.
7.6.3 Stage 3
(a) Given: delivered power to the propeller from main engine (PE ¼ NCR), engine
speed (nE ¼ nMCR), number of blades (z), and total resistance according to the
ship speed (RT) of the design ship
(b) Find: propeller diameter (DP), propeller pitch (Pi), EAR (AE/AO), maximum
ship speed (Vmax) of the design ship
The mathematical formulation for this problem has two equalities (equations)
and one inequality.
PE
¼ ρ nP 2 DP 5 K Q ð7:50Þ
2π nP
RT
¼ ρ n P 2 DP 4 K T ð7:51Þ
1t
ð1:3 þ 0:3zÞ T
AE =AO K þ 2 or
DP ðp0 þ ρgh∗ pv Þ
ð7:52Þ
FðηO =ð1=JÞ2 Þ
AE =AO
ð1 þ 4:826ð1=JÞ2 Þ0:375 ð1:067 0:229Pi =DP Þ
The problem of this stage has four unknowns (DP, Pi, AE/AO, and V ), and two
equalities and one inequality. If we assume the problem as an optimization prob-
lem, it can be mathematically formulated as below.
Find (design variables) DP, Pi, AE/AO, and V
which
PE
¼ ρ nP 2 D P 5 K Q
2π nP
RT
¼ ρ n P 2 DP 4 K T
1t
ð1:3 þ 0:3zÞ T
AE =AO K þ 2 or
DP ðp0 þ ρgh∗ pv Þ
FðηO =ð1=JÞ2 Þ
AE =AO
ð1 þ 4:826ð1=JÞ2 Þ0:375 ð1:067 0:229Pi =DP Þ
This optimization problem is a kind of a constrained optimization problem and it can
be solved by using any kind of constrained optimization methods, as mentioned above.
7.6.4 Stage 4
(a) Given: propeller diameter (DP), propeller pitch (Pi), EAR (AE/AO), maximum
ship speed (Vmax), and total resistance according to the ship speed (RT) of the
design ship
(b) Find: delivered power to the propeller from main engine (PE ¼ NCR), engine
speed (nE ¼ nMCR) of the design ship
The mathematical formulation for this problem is two equations as below.
PE
¼ ρ nP 2 DP 5 K Q ð7:53Þ
2π nP
RT
¼ ρ n P 2 DP 4 K T ð7:54Þ
1t
The problem of this stage has two unknowns (PE and nE) and two equations.
Thus, this problem is a determinate problem since the number of unknowns is equal
to the number of equations. The determinate problem has a unique solution if the
equations are independent of each other.
A determinate problem having several nonlinear equality constraints like this
problem can be solved with one of the numerical algorithms such as the Newton-
Raphson method.
7.6.5 Stage 5
The problem for this stage can be defined as below if we calculate the required
power for a given speed of the ship. For this, we have to repeat the steps with the
optimal propeller of Stage 4 for various ship speeds.
(a) Given: ship speed (V ) of the design ship
(b) Find: BHP (or NCR) for each ship speed of the design ship
DHP
BHP ¼ ð7:55Þ
ηT
In this equation, BHP can be determined by calculating DHP in the right side of
the equation. As described in Sect. 5.6, DHP can be determined from EHP
considering propulsive efficiency (ηD). Thus, the following subfunctions are
required to implement.
(a) Calculation of EHP in Eq. (7.44)
(b) Calculation of DHP in Eq. (7.45)
This problem of one equation has one unknown (BHP) and can be solved
algebraically after each component for obtaining BHP such as EHP and DHP are
calculated.
References
Bernitsas, M. M., Ray, D., & Kinley, P. (1981). KT, KQ and efficiency curves for the Wageningen
B-series propellers. Technical Report, University of Michigan, USA.
Kerwin, J. E., & Paulling, J. R. (2010). The principles of naval architecture series: Propulsion.
The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, USA
Chapter 8
Estimation of Capacity of Cargo Hold
8.1 Generals
One of ship owner’s requirements is the capacity of cargo hold. In the case of
a tanker, bulk carrier, and so on, the volume of cargo hold can be used as an index of
the capacity. As mentioned earlier, the requirement about the volume is represented
as the volume equation which is one of economical constraints, as shown in
Eq. (3.9). In this equation, the required volume of cargo hold (VCH) is given by a
ship owner. And the volume of design ship according to the principal dimensions
such as L, B, and D should be estimated. For this purpose, two methods can be used
at the early design stage and will be explained below. Other explanations about the
determination of principal dimensions of the ship can be found in various references
(Barrass and Derrett 2012; Papanikolaou 2014).
8.2 Method 1: Using the Length, Breadth, and Depth
First, it can be assumed that the volume of cargo hold is proportional to L, B, and D,
V CH ¼ CCH LBP B D ½m3 ð8:1Þ
where, CCH is a coefficient for estimating the volume of cargo hold by using the
Method 1. It can be obtained from the data of parent ship and it is assumed that the

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-4885-2_8
102 8 Estimation of Capacity of Cargo Hold
8.3 Method 2: Using the Length of Cargo Hold, Breadth,

and Depth
The volume of cargo hold can be estimated more accurately by considering the
length of cargo hold (LH) instead of the length of the ship. In the Method 2, it is
assumed that the volume is proportional to LH, B, and D, as the following equation.
V CH ¼ CCH LH B D ½m3 ð8:2Þ
where, CCH is a coefficient for estimating the volume of cargo hold by using the
Method 1. It can be obtained from the data of parent ship.
The length of cargo hold is defined by the following equation.
LH ¼ LBP LAPT LER LFPT ½m ð8:3Þ
where, LAPT, LER, and LFPT are the length of the after body, the length of the engine
room, and the length of the fore body of the ship in m, respectively, as shown in
Fig. 8.1.
In this section, a computational guide to estimate the capacity of cargo hold is

briefly described.
8.4.1 Method 1
Fig. 8.1 Length of cargo hold of the ship

References 103
(a) Given: CCH of the parent ship, length (L ), breadth (B), and depth (D) of the
design ship
(b) Find: volume of cargo hold (VCH) of the design ship
V CH ¼ CCH L B D ð8:4Þ
This problem of one equation has one unknown (VCH) and can be easily solved.
8.4.2 Method 2
(a) Given: CCH of the parent ship, length of cargo hold (LH), breadth (B), and depth
(D) of the design ship
(b) Find: volume of cargo hold (VCH) of the design ship
The mathematical formulation for this problem is one equation as below.
V CH ¼ CCH LH B D ð8:5Þ
where, LH ¼ LBP – LAPT – LER – LFPT.

This problem of one equation has one unknown (VCH) and can be easily solved.
References
Chapter 9
Calculation of Freeboard
9.1 Generals
As one of the international regulations, the freeboard requirement is assessed in this

chapter. The method to calculate the minimum required freeboard in this chapter is
based on ICLL (International Convention on Load Lines) 1966 by IMO (1966).
9.2 Freeboard
A ship needs an additional safety margin to maintain her buoyancy and stability
while operating at sea. This safety margin is provided by reserve buoyancy of the
hull located above the waterline which is called as a freeboard, as shown in Fig. 9.1.
As a result, the freeboard should be over some expected level of the margin and
there are regulations about the freeboard called ICLL 1966.
Freeboard is defined as the height of freeboard deck (normally main deck)
above the waterline (or load line) measured at deck edge at mid-length between the
perpendiculars. In other words, the freeboard is the distance between the water
surface and top of the freeboard deck at the side, as shown in Fig. 9.2.
The freeboard can be expressed as the following equation.
Fb ¼ Dmolded þ tdeck T s ¼ Df T s ð9:1Þ
where, Dmolded is the molded depth excluding keel plate thickness, tdeck is the
thickness of deck plate, Ts is the scantling draft excluding keel plate thickness,
and Df is the freeboard depth including the thickness of deck plate, that is,
Df ¼ Dmolded + tdeck. As explained in Sect. 1.3.1, there are two molded drafts;
design draft (Td) and scantling draft (Ts). The design draft is the primary operating

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-4885-2_9
106 9 Calculation of Freeboard
Fig. 9.1 Role of freeboard in the ship
Fig. 9.2 Freeboard and freeboard depth
draft and the scantling draft is a basis for structural design. Normally, the scantling
draft is greater than the design draft. Thus, the scantling draft is used in the
freeboard calculation since it is a more severe case.
According to ICLL regulation, the actual freeboard of the ship (Fbactual) must
not be less than the required freeboard by ICLL (FbICLL), as the following equation.
Fbactual ¼ Df T s FbICLL ð9:2Þ
The freeboard influences the characteristics of the ship such as dryness of deck,
reserve buoyancy in damaged condition, intact stability, and damage stability. For
example, a dry deck is desirable because walking on wet deck can be dangerous.
And it is also desirable as a safety measure against water entering through the deck
openings. Finally, it prevents violent seas from destroying the superstructure of
the ship. Of course, the other characteristics such as reserve buoyancy in damaged
condition, intact stability, and damage stability are also important because they are
all related to the safety of the ship.
To increase the freeboard there are three possible alternatives. The first one
would be increasing the depth which results in decreasing the breadth under the
condition of maintaining constant displacement. However, increasing the depth and
decreasing the breadth in Fig. 9.3a would decrease stability. The second alternative
is the addition of the superstructure, as shown in Fig. 9.3b.
9.3 Freeboard Deck and Length 107
Fig. 9.3 Methods for large freeboard. (a) Increase of depth and decrease of breadth. (b) Addi-
tional superstructure
Fig. 9.4 Ship with and without sheer having the same under-deck volume
The third one is increasing the sheer. Sheer is a measure of the longitudinal
curvature of the main deck. It also affects ship stability and is considered in the
freeboard calculation. If a ship is constructed without sheer, the ship has better
stowage of containers in holds and on deck. Moreover, it can be constructed with a
cheaper method and has the greater capacity for containers with a constant under-
deck volume. Figure 9.4 shows a ship with and without sheer.
9.3 Freeboard Deck and Length
9.3.1 Freeboard Deck
A freeboard deck is defined in ICLL regulation as bellow.

(a) The freeboard deck is normally the uppermost complete deck exposed to
weather and sea, which has permanent means of closing all openings in the
weather part thereof, and below which all openings in the sides of the ship are
fitted with permanent means of watertight closing, as shown in Fig. 9.5a.
(b) Where a recess in the freeboard deck extends to the sides of the ship and is
greater than 1 m in length, the lowest line of exposed deck and the continuation
of that line parallel to the upper part of the deck is taken as the freeboard deck,
as shown in Fig. 9.5b.
Fig. 9.5 Definition of the freeboard deck. (a) Freeboard deck of a ship without recess.
(b) Freeboard deck of a ship with recess over the length of 1 m
Fig. 9.6 Definition of freeboard length
9.3.2 Freeboard Length
Freeboard length (Lf) is a basis for the freeboard calculation and defined as the
following equation.
Lf ¼ maxðL1 ; L2 Þ ð9:3Þ
In this equation, L1 is 96% of the total length, including the thickness of stem and
stern, on a waterline at 85% of the molded depth measured from the top of the keel.
And L2 is the length on a waterline at 85% of the molded depth from the foreside of
the stem to the axis of the rudder stock. Figure 9.6 shows the definition of freeboard
length.
In the freeboard regulation, the after perpendicular (AP) is established using
the center line of rudder stock and the forward perpendicular (FP) is located at the
point of the intersection of the waterline at 85% of the molded depth with the
forward edge of the stem. The reason why 85% of the molded depth is used instead
of the draft is that the draft to which usually the length is related may not be
available as an input value since the draft is only known after the freeboard
calculation finishes. The center line of rudder stock in Fig. 9.6 is shown in
Fig. 9.11b.
9.4 Calculation of the Required Freeboard by ICLL (International Convention on. . . 109
9.4 Calculation of the Required Freeboard by ICLL

(International Convention on Load Lines)
In this section, a procedure for the calculation of freeboard by the ICLL regulation
is described. To calculate the freeboard of the ship in accordance with this regula-
tion, some data and plans are required as follows.
(a) Hull lines plan or offsets table
(b) General Arrangement (G/A) plan
(c) Hydrostatic table
(d) Midship section plan
(e) Shell expansion plan
(f) Construction profile plan
With these data and plans, the overall procedure for the calculation of the
required freeboard is shown in Fig. 9.7. More details about each step are presented
below.
Fig. 9.7 Overall procedure for the calculation of the required freeboard by ICLL
9.4.1 Classification of Ship Types
For the purposes of the freeboard calculation, a ship should be divided into a Type
A and a Type B.
1. Type A ships
Type A ship is one which; (a) is designed to carry only liquid cargoes in bulk,
(b) has a high integrity of the exposed deck with only small access openings to
cargo compartments, closed by watertight gasketed covers of steel or equivalent
material, and (c) has low permeability of loaded cargo compartments. Type A ship
over 150 m in length when loaded in accordance with initial conditions of loading,
should be able to withstand the flooding of any compartment or compartments,
consequent upon the damage assumptions, and should remain afloat in a satisfac-
tory condition of equilibrium. For example, a tanker, an LNG carrier, and so on are
Type A ships.
2. Type B ships
Type B ships are all ships which do not come within the provisions regarding
Type A ships. For example, a bulk carrier, a container ship, and so on are Type B
ships.
9.4.2 Calculation of Tabular Freeboard
Type A ship should be assigned a freeboard not less than the tabular freeboard (Ft,A)
for Type A shown in Table 9.1. Freeboards at intermediate lengths of ships should be
obtained by linear interpolation.
Freeboards for Type A ships with lengths between 365 and 400 m are deter-
mined by the following equation.
Ft, A ¼ 221 þ 16:10Lf 0:02Lf 2 ½mm ð9:4Þ
where, the tabular freeboard (Ft,A) is in mm and the freeboard length is in

m. Freeboards for Type A ships with the length of 400 m and above are the constant
value, 3,460 mm.
Type B ships which have hatchways fitted with hatch covers complying with the
requirements should be assigned freeboards not less than the tabular freeboards (Ft,
B) for Type B in Table 9.2. At this time, Type B ships which have hatchways fitted
with hatch covers not complying with the requirements (i.e., portable covers
secured weathertight by tarpaulins and battening devices) should be assigned
freeboards based upon the values given in Table 9.2, increased by additional values
given in the regulation.
Table 9.1 Freeboard table for Type A ships
Length of Freeboard Length of Freeboard Length of Freeboard Length of Freeboard Length of Freeboard
ship (m) (mm) ship (m) (mm) ship (m) (mm) ship (m) (mm) ship (m) (mm)
24 200 93 1,029 162 2,155 231 2,880 300 3,262
25 208 94 1,044 163 2,169 232 2,888 301 3,266
26 217 95 1,059 164 2,184 233 2,895 302 3,270
27 225 96 1,074 165 2,198 234 2,903 303 3,274
28 233 97 1,089 166 2,212 235 2,910 304 3,278
29 242 98 1,105 167 2,226 236 2,918 305 3,281
30 250 99 1,120 168 2,240 237 2,925 306 3,285
31 258 100 1,135 169 2,254 238 2,932 307 3,288
32 267 101 1,151 170 2,268 239 2,939 308 3,292
33 275 102 1,166 171 2,281 240 2,946 309 3,295
34 283 103 1,181 172 2,294 241 2,953 310 3,298
35 292 104 1,196 173 2,307 242 2,959 311 3,302
36 300 105 1,212 174 2,320 243 2,966 312 3,305
37 308 106 1,228 175 2,332 244 2,973 313 3,308
38 316 107 1,244 176 2,345 245 2,979 314 3,312
39 325 108 1,260 177 2,357 246 2,986 315 3,315
40 334 109 1,276 178 2,369 247 2,993 316 3,318
41 344 110 1,293 179 2,381 248 3,000 317 3,322
42 354 111 1,309 180 2,393 249 3,006 318 3,325
43 364 112 1,326 181 2,405 250 3,012 319 3,328
44 374 113 1,342 182 2,416 251 3,018 320 3,331
45 385 114 1,359 183 2,428 252 3,024 321 3,334
9.4 Calculation of the Required Freeboard by ICLL (International Convention on. . .
46 396 115 1,376 184 2,440 253 3,030 322 3,337

47 408 116 1,392 185 2,451 254 3,036 323 3,339
(continued)
111
112
48 420 117 1,409 186 2,463 255 3,042 324 3,342
49 432 118 1,426 187 2,474 256 3,048 325 3,345
50 443 119 1,442 188 2,486 257 3,054 326 3,347
51 455 120 1,459 189 2,497 258 3,060 327 3,350
52 467 121 1,476 190 2,508 259 3,066 328 3,353
53 478 122 1,494 191 2,519 260 3,072 329 3,355
54 490 123 1,511 192 2,530 261 3,078 330 3,358
55 503 124 1,528 193 2,541 262 3,084 331 3,361
56 516 125 1,546 194 2,552 263 3,089 332 3,363
57 530 126 1,563 195 2,562 264 3,095 333 3,366
58 544 127 1,580 196 2,572 265 3,101 334 3,368
59 559 128 1,598 197 2,582 266 3,106 335 3,371
60 573 129 1,615 198 2,592 267 3,112 336 3,373
61 587 130 1,632 199 2,602 268 3,117 337 3,375
62 600 131 1,650 200 2,612 269 3,123 338 3,378
63 613 132 1,667 201 2,622 270 3,128 339 3,380
64 626 133 1,684 202 2,632 271 3,133 340 3,382
65 639 134 1,702 203 2,641 272 3,138 341 3,385
66 653 135 1,719 204 2,650 273 3,143 342 3,387
67 666 136 1,736 205 2,659 274 3,148 343 3,389
68 680 137 1,753 206 2,669 275 3,153 345 3,392
69 693 138 1,770 207 2,678 276 3,158 346 3,394
70 706 139 1,787 208 2,687 277 3,163 347 3,396
71 720 140 1,803 209 2,696 278 3,167 348 3,399
72 733 141 1,820 210 2,705 279 3,172 349 3,401
9 Calculation of Freeboard
73 746 142 1,837 211 2,714 280 3,176 350 3,403
74 760 143 1,853 212 2,723 281 3,181 351 3,406
75 773 144 1,870 213 2,732 282 3,185 352 3,408
76 786 145 1,886 214 2,741 283 3,189 353 3,410
77 800 146 1,903 215 2,749 284 3,194 354 3,412
78 814 147 1,919 216 2,758 285 3,198 355 3,414
79 828 148 1,935 217 2,767 286 3,202 356 3,416
80 841 149 1,952 218 2,775 287 3,207 357 3,418
81 855 150 1,968 219 2,784 288 3,211 358 3,420
82 869 151 1,984 220 2,792 289 3,215 359 3,422
83 883 152 2,000 221 2,801 290 3,220 360 3,423
84 897 153 2,016 222 2,809 291 3,224 361 3,425
85 911 154 2,032 223 2,817 292 3,228 362 3,427
86 926 155 2,048 224 2,825 293 3,233 362 3,428
87 940 156 2,064 225 2,833 294 3,237 363 3,430
88 955 157 2,080 226 2,841 295 3,241 364 3,432
89 969 158 2,096 227 2,849 296 3,246 365 3,433
90 984 159 2,111 228 2,857 297 3,250
91 999 160 2,126 229 2,865 298 3,254
92 1,014 161 2,141 230 2,872 299 3,258
113
Table 9.2 Freeboard table for Type B ships
114
24 200 93 1,135 162 2,560 231 3,750 300 4,630
25 208 94 1,154 163 2,580 232 3,765 301 4,642
26 217 95 1,172 164 2,600 233 3,780 302 4,654
27 225 96 1,190 165 2,620 234 3,795 303 4,665
28 233 97 1,209 166 2,640 235 3,808 304 4,676
29 242 98 1,229 167 2,660 236 3,821 305 4,686
30 250 99 1,250 168 2,680 237 3,835 306 4,695
31 258 100 1,271 169 2,698 238 3,849 307 4,704
32 267 101 1,293 170 2,716 239 3,864 308 4,714
33 275 102 1,315 171 2,735 240 3,880 309 4,725
34 283 103 1,337 172 2,754 241 3,893 310 4,736
35 292 104 1,359 173 2,774 242 3,906 311 4,748
36 300 105 1,380 174 2,795 243 3,920 312 4,757
37 308 106 1,401 175 2,815 244 3,934 313 4,768
38 316 107 1,421 176 2,835 245 3,949 314 4,779
39 325 108 1,440 177 2,855 246 3,965 315 4,790
40 334 109 1,459 178 2,875 247 3,978 316 4,801
41 344 110 1,479 179 2,895 248 3,992 317 4,812
42 354 111 1,500 180 2,915 249 4,005 318 4,823
43 364 112 1,521 181 2,933 250 4,018 319 4,834
44 374 113 1,543 182 2,952 251 4,032 320 4,844
45 385 114 1,565 183 2,970 252 4,045 321 4,855
46 396 115 1,587 184 2,988 253 4,058 322 4,866
47 408 116 1,609 185 3,007 254 4,072 323 4,878
48 420 117 1,630 186 3,025 255 4,085 324 4,890
49 432 118 1,651 187 3,044 256 4,098 325 4,899
50 443 119 1,671 188 3,062 257 4,112 326 4,909
51 455 120 1,690 189 3,080 258 4,125 327 4,920
52 467 121 1,709 190 3,098 259 4,139 328 4,931
53 478 122 1,729 191 3,116 260 4,152 329 4,943
54 490 123 1,750 192 3,134 261 4,165 330 4,955
55 503 124 1,771 193 3,151 262 4,177 331 4,965
56 516 125 1,793 194 3,167 263 4,189 332 4,975
57 530 126 1,815 195 3,185 264 4,201 333 4,985
58 544 127 1,837 196 3,202 265 4,214 334 4,995
59 559 128 1,859 197 3,219 266 4,227 335 5,005
60 573 129 1,880 198 3,235 267 4,240 336 5,015
61 587 130 1,901 199 3,249 268 4,252 337 5,025
62 601 131 1,921 200 3,264 269 4,264 338 5,035
63 615 132 1,940 201 3,280 270 4,276 339 5,045
64 629 133 1,959 202 3,296 271 4,289 340 5,055
65 644 134 1,979 203 3,313 272 4,302 341 5,065
66 659 135 2,000 204 3,330 273 4,315 342 5,075
67 674 136 2,021 205 3,347 274 4,327 343 5,086
68 689 137 2,043 206 3,363 275 4,339 345 5,097
69 705 138 2,065 207 3,380 276 4,350 346 5,108
70 721 139 2,087 208 3,397 277 4,362 347 5,119
71 738 140 2,109 209 3,413 278 4,373 348 5,130
72 754 141 2,130 210 3,430 279 4,385 349 5,140
73 769 142 2,151 211 3,445 280 4,397 350 5,150
74 784 143 2,171 212 3,460 281 4,408 351 5,160

75 800 144 2,190 213 3,475 282 4,420 352 5,170
(continued)
115
116
76 816 145 2,209 214 3,490 283 4,432 353 5,180
77 833 146 2,229 215 3,505 284 4,443 354 5,190
78 850 147 2,250 216 3,520 285 4,455 355 5,200
79 868 148 2,271 217 3,537 286 4,467 356 5,210
80 887 149 2,293 218 3,554 287 4,478 357 5,220
81 905 150 2,315 219 3,570 288 4,490 358 5,230
82 923 151 2,334 220 3,586 289 4,502 359 5,240
83 942 152 2,354 221 3,601 290 4,513 360 5,250
84 960 153 2,375 222 3,615 291 4,525 361 5,260
85 978 154 2,396 223 3,630 292 4,537 362 5,268
86 996 155 2,418 224 3,645 293 4,548 362 5,276
87 1,015 156 2,440 225 3,660 294 4,560 363 5,285
88 1,034 157 2,460 226 3,675 295 4,572 364 5,294
89 1,054 158 2,480 227 3,690 296 4,583 365 5,303
90 1,075 159 2,500 228 3,705 297 4,595
91 1,096 160 2,520 229 3,720 298 4,607
92 1,116 161 2,540 230 3,735 299 4,618
Freeboards for Type B ships with lengths between 365 and 400 m are determined
Ft, B ¼ 587 þ 23Lf 0:0188Lf 2 ½mm ð9:5Þ
where, the tabular freeboard (Ft,B) is in mm and the freeboard length is in

m. Freeboards for Type B ships with the length of 400 m and above are the constant
value, 5,605 mm.
The tabular freeboard for Type B ship of between 24 and 100 m in length having
enclosed superstructures with an effective length of up to 35% of the length of the
ship (Lf) should be increased by using Eq. (9.6).

þ LSE
Ft , B ¼ 7:5 ð100 LF Þ 0:35 ½mm ð9:6Þ
Lf
where, Ft,B+ is an increase in Ft,B in mm. LSE is an effective length of superstructure

excluding trunk in m which will be explained in Sect. 9.4.5 (3).
Any Type B ship of over 100 m in length may be assigned freeboards less than
those required provided that, in relation to the amount of reduction granted such as
60% (type ‘B-60’), 100% (type ‘B-100’), and so on. In the case of type ‘B-60’ ship,
the tabular freeboard (Ft,B-60) can be calculated by the following equation.
Ft, B60 ¼ Ft, B 0:6 ðFt, B Ft, A Þ ð9:7Þ
And in the case of a type ‘B-100’ ship, the tabular freeboard (Ft,B-100) can be
calculated by the following equation.
Ft, B100 ¼ Ft, B 1:0 ðFt, B Ft, A Þ ¼ Ft, A ð9:8Þ
In addition, small ships such as a lighter, barge, or other ship without indepen-
dent means of propulsion should be assigned a freeboard under the provisions of the
regulation.
9.4.3 Addition for Block Coefficient
According to the block coefficient of the ship, the tabular freeboard should be
modified. That is, if the block coefficient of ship exceeds 0.68, the value (cCB) in
mm in Eq. (9.9) should be added to the tabular freeboard.

0 ½mm when CBf < 0:68
cCB ¼ ð9:9Þ
Ft fðCBf þ 0:68Þ=1:36 1g ½mm when 0:68 CBf
where, the block coefficient for freeboard (CBf) means the block coefficient at 85%
of the molded depth and is defined as below.
∇f
CBf ¼
Lf B T f
In this equation, Tf is the draft at 85% of the molded depth at freeboard deck and
∇f is the displacement volume at Tf.
9.4.4 Correction for Depth
According to the freeboard depth (Df) of the ship, the tabular freeboard should be
modified.
First, if the freeboard depth exceeds Lf/15, the freeboard shall be increased by
the value (cD) in mm in as the following equation.

Lf
cD ¼ Df R ½mm ð9:10Þ
15
where, the coefficient R is defined as below.

R ¼ Lf =0:48 when Lf < 120½m
R ¼ 250 when 120½m Lf
Then, if the freeboard depth is less than Lf/15, no correction is made. However, if
the ship has an enclosed superstructure covering at least 0.6Lf amidships, with a
complete trunk, or a combination of detached enclosed superstructures and trunks
which extend all fore and aft, the freeboard should be reduced at the rate (cD). At
this time, if the actual height of superstructure or trunk is less than the
corresponding standard height, the calculated reduction should be corrected in the
ratio of the height of the actual superstructure or trunk to the applicable standard
height, as the following equation.
HS
cD ¼ cD ½mm ð9:11Þ
H S, S
where, HS,S and HS are the standard height and the actual height of superstructure,
respectively.
Freeboard deck
Df
Freeboard
depth (Df) Upper edge of
the deck line
Thickness of (DDL)
Upper edge of deck plate
Dmolded
the deck line (tdeck)
(DDL)
Molded depth
(Dmolded)
Fig. 9.8 Correction for position of deck line
9.4.5 Correction for Position of Deck Line
If the actual depth to the upper edge of deck line (DDL) is greater or less than the
freeboard depth (Df), the difference between the depths (cDL) shall be added to or
deducted from the freeboard, as shown in Eq. (9.12). Figure 9.8 shows an example
that the actual depth is less than Df since the freeboard deck is inclined. In this
example, the freeboard should be reduced by the difference. However, most of
the shipyards do not consider this correction in these days.
cDL ¼ DDL Df ½mm ð9:12Þ
9.4.6 Deduction for Superstructures and Trunks
1. Standard height of superstructure

A superstructure is a decked structure on the freeboard deck, extending from side
to side of the ship or with the side plates not being inboard of the shell plates more
than 4% of the breadth. The dimensions of the superstructure are expressed with
height and length. The height of a superstructure is the least vertical height
measured at the side from the top of superstructure deck beams to the top of
freeboard deck beams, as shown in Fig. 9.9.
The standard height of a superstructure (HS,S) is as given in Table 9.3. The
standard heights at intermediate lengths of the ship are obtained by linear
interpolation.
2. Length of superstructure
The length of a superstructure (LS) is the mean length of the parts of the
superstructure which lie within the freeboard length (Lf), as shown in Fig. 9.10.
Fig. 9.9 Measurement of

the height of superstructure
Table 9.3 Standard height of a superstructure

Lf (m) Raised quarter deck (m) All other superstructures (m)
30 or less 0.90 1.80
75 1.20 1.80
125 or more 1.80 2.30
Fig. 9.10 Length of superstructure
Poop and forecastle are kinds of superstructures, which locate at after body and fore
body of the ship, respectively, as shown in this figure.
3. Effective length of superstructure
The effective length of the superstructure (LSE) can be determined as follows.
(a) The effective length of an enclosed superstructure of standard height is its
length.
(b) In all cases where an enclosed superstructure of standard height is set in from the
sides of ship, the effective length is the length modified by the ratio of b/BS, where
b is the breadth of superstructure at the middle of its length; and BS is the breadth
of ship at the middle of length of the superstructure. If a superstructure is set in for
a part of its length, this modification should be applied only to the set in part.
(c) If the height of an enclosed superstructure is less than the standard height, the
effective length should be its length reduced in the ratio of the actual height to
the standard height, as shown in Eq. (9.13). However, if the height exceeds the
standard, no increase is made to the effective length of the superstructure.
LS ½minðH S, S ; HS Þ
LSE ¼ ½m ð9:13Þ
HS
where, HS,S and HS are the standard height and the actual height of superstruc-
ture, respectively.
(d) The effective length of a raised quarter deck, if fitted with an intact front
bulkhead, should be its length up to a maximum of 0.6Lf. A raised quarterdeck
is a superstructure which extends forward from AP, generally, has a height less
than a normal superstructure, and has an intact front bulkhead (side scuttles of the
non-opening type fitted with efficient deadlights and bolted man hole covers).
Where the forward bulkhead is not intact due to doors and access openings, the
superstructure is then to be considered as a poop of less than standard height.
(e) Finally, superstructures which are not enclosed have no effective length.
4. Standard height of trunk
A trunk or similar structure which does not extend to the sides of the ship should
be regarded as efficient on the following conditions;
(a) The trunk is at least as strong as a superstructure.
(b) The breadth of the trunk is at least 60% of the breadth of the ship.
(c) If there is no superstructure, the length of the trunk is at least 0.6Lf.
The standard height of a trunk is the standard height of a superstructure in
Table 9.3 other than a raised quarter deck. Figure 9.11 shows an example of
the trunk, the raised quarter deck, the poop, and the freeboard deck. As mentioned
above, poop and forecastle are kinds of superstructures, which locate at after body
and fore body of the ship, respectively.
5. Effective length of trunk
The effective length of the trunk (LTE) is the full length of an efficient trunk
reduced in the ratio of its mean breadth to B. If the height of trunk is less than the
standard height, its effective length should be reduced in the ratio of the actual to
the standard height similar to Eq. (9.13).
6. Deduction for superstructures and trunks
If the effective length of superstructures and trunks (LE ¼ LSE + LTE) is 1.0Lf, the
deduction from the freeboard (cST) should be 350 mm at 24 m length of the ship,
Fig. 9.11 Trunk, raised quarter deck, poop, and freeboard deck. (a) Trunk. (b) Raised quarter
deck
Table 9.4 Percentage of deduction from the freeboard for type A and B ships
Total effective length of superstructures and trunks
0 0.1Lf 0.2Lf 0.3Lf 0.4Lf 0.5Lf 0.6Lf 0.7Lf 0.8Lf 0.9Lf 1.0Lf
Percentage of 0 7 14 21 31 41 52 63 75.3 87.7 100
deduction
860 mm at 85 m length, and 1,070 mm at 122 m length and above, as shown in

Eq. (9.14). Deductions at intermediate lengths can be obtained by linear interpolation.
0
350 ½mm when Lf ¼ 24½m
cST ¼ @ 860 ½mm when Lf ¼ 85½m ð9:14Þ
1, 070 ½mm when 122½m Lf
If the total effective length of superstructure and trunks is less than 1.0Lf, the
deduction should be a percentage obtained from one of Table 9.4. Percentage of
deduction at intermediate steps in this table can be obtained by linear interpolation.
9.4.7 Correction for Sheer
Sheer is measured from the deck at side to a line of reference drawn parallel to the
keel through the sheer line amidships, as shown in Fig. 9.12. If the actual sheer is
less than the standard sheer (Fig. 9.12a), an addition to the freeboard is made, and if
not (Fig. 9.12b), a deduction is made. In general, recent ships do not have sheer on
the upper deck if they have superstructures in order to build them easily.
Fig. 9.12 Actual sheer and standard sheer. (a) Standard sheer > actual sheer. (b) Standard
sheer < actual sheer
The correction for sheer (cS) can be calculated by using Eq. (9.15) and the
value is added to the tabular freeboard.

LST
cS ¼ ðSt þ sÞ 0:75 ½mm ð9:15Þ
2Lf
where, St is the deficiency or excess of sheer in mm and can be calculated by

subtracting the mean ordinate of actual sheer (AO) from that of standard sheer (SO),
that is, St ¼ SO – AO. And s is sheer credit in mm, which will be explained in Sect.
9.4.6 (3) and LST which is different from the effective length of the superstructure
(LSE) is the total length of superstructures except for trunks in m. LST is similar to
LS but different from each other. LS is the mean length of the parts of the structure
which lie within the length (Lf). In most cases, LST is almost same as LS.
1. Calculation of mean ordinate of standard sheer
The ordinates of the standard sheer profile are given in Table 9.5.
In this table, AP and FP are perpendiculars defined in Sect. 9.2. Safter and Sforward
are the mean ordinates of standard sheer in the after half and the forward half,
respectively. Safter and Sforward can be obtained by calculating the area under the
sheer in the forward and after halves with Simpson’s 2nd rule, as shown in
Eq. (9.16) and by dividing the area by Lf/2, with the assumption that the shape of
sheer is a parabola.
Table 9.5 Standard sheer profile

Part Station Ordinate (Si) of standard sheer at each profile (mm) Factor
After body AP 25.0(Lf/3 þ 10) 1
Lf/6 from AP 11.1(Lf/3 þ 10) 3
Lf/3 from AP 2.8(Lf/3 þ 10) 3
Amidships 0 1
Mean (Safter) Safter ¼ 8.34(Lf/3 þ 10)
Fore body Amidshps 0 1
Lf/3 from FP 5.6(Lf/3 þ 10) 3
Lf/6 from FP 22.2(Lf/3 þ 10) 3
FP 50.0(Lf/3 þ 10) 1
Mean (Sforward) Sforward ¼ 16.68(Lf/3 þ 10)
X 3
A¼ð Si FactorÞ h ð9:16Þ
8
where, h ¼ Lf/6 and Factor at each profile is shown in Table 9.5.

Then, Safter and Sforward can be calculated as the following equations.
A X 3 Lf 2
Saf ter ¼ ¼ð Si FactorÞ
Lf =2 8 6 Lf
1 X
¼ ð Si FactorÞ
8 ð9:17Þ
25:0 1 þ 11:1 3 þ 2:8 3 þ 0:0 1 Lf
¼ þ 10
8 3

Lf
¼ 8:34 þ 10 ½mm
3
A X 3 Lf 2
Sf orward ¼ ¼ð Si FactorÞ
Lf =2 8 6 Lf
1 X
¼ ð Si FactorÞ
8 ð9:18Þ
50:0 1 þ 22:2 3 þ 5:6 3 þ 0:0 1 Lf
¼ þ 10
8 3

Lf
¼ 16:68 þ 10 ½mm
3
Now, the mean ordinate of standard sheer (SO) can be calculated as the
following equation.
Saf ter þ Sf orward

SO ¼
2 ð9:19Þ
8:34 þ 16:68 Lf Lf
¼ þ 10 ¼ 12:51 þ 10 ½mm
2 3 3
2. Calculation of mean ordinate of actual sheer

If a superstructure is set in for a part of ship length (Lf) or if a superstructure
extends over the whole length of ship but the height of an enclosed superstructure is
less than the standard height, the ordinates of actual sheer are measured at the
freeboard deck, as shown in Fig. 9.13a.
If a superstructure extends over the whole length of the ship and the height of an
enclosed superstructure is greater than the standard height, the ordinates of actual
sheer are measured at the superstructure deck, as shown in Fig. 9.13b. At this time,
if the height of superstructure exceeds the standard height, the least difference (z)
between the actual and standard heights should be added to each end ordinate
(FP and AP). Similarly, the intermediate ordinates at distances Lf/6 and Lf/3 from
each perpendicular shall be increased by 0.444z and 0.111z, respectively. These
Fig. 9.13 Measurement of the ordinates of actual sheer. (a) Standard height of structure > actual
height of structure. (b) Standard height of structure < actual height of structure
ordinates of actual sheer (Ai) will be used to calculate the mean ordinate of actual
sheer (AO) below.
Similar to the mean ordinates of standard sheer (Safter and Sforward), the mean
ordinates of actual sheer (Aafter and Aforward) can be calculated. The mean ordinate
of actual sheer (AO) can be determined by comparing Aafter and Aforward with Safter
and Sforward from the following five cases.
(a) When Safter > Aafter and Sforward > Aforward,
Aafter þ Aforward
AO ¼
2
(b) When Safter < Aafter and Sforward > Aforward,
Safter þ Aforward
AO ¼
2
(c) When 0.75Safter Aafter and Sforward Aforward,
Aafter þ Aforward
AO ¼
2
(d) When 0.75Safter > Aafter > 0.5Safter and Sforward Aforward,
Aafter þ A0forward
AO ¼
2
where, A0 forward is calculated from the modified ordinates of actual sheer as the
following equation.

4Aforward
A0 ¼ S i þ ð Ai S i Þ 2 ð9:20Þ
Sforward
In this equation, Si is the ordinate of standard sheer and Ai is the ordinate of

actual sheer at each profile.
(e) When 0.5Safter > Aafter and Sforward Aforward,
Aafter þ Sforward
AO ¼
2
3. Sheer credit for poop or forecastle

If a superstructure is set in for a part of ship length (Lf) and the actual height of an
enclosed poop or forecastle is greater than the standard height, the difference is
defined as y and then sheer credit is calculated by using Eq. (9.21). If the actual
height is less than the standard height, y equals zero and there is no correction. The
sheer credit for a poop (sa) or forecastle (sf) is deducted from the deficiency or
added to the excess of sheer. Of course, there is only an enclosed poop or forecastle
superimposed on the superstructure, sheer credit should be allowed for such a poop
or forecastle.
0
y L
sa or sf ¼ ½mm ð9:21Þ
3 Lf
where, y is the difference between actual height (AH) and standard height (SH) of
poop (P) at the after perpendicular or of forecastle (F) at the forward perpendicular,
that is, y ¼ AHP,F – SHP,F at AP and FP in mm. And L0 means the enclosed length of
poop or forecastle up to a maximum length of 0.5Lf in m.
4. Addition for deficiency in sheer
If the sheer is less than the standard, the correction for deficiency in sheer should
be added to the freeboard, as shown in Eq. (9.15).
5. Deduction for excess sheer
In ships where an enclosed superstructure covers 0.1Lf before and 0.1Lf abaft
amidships, the correction for the excess of sheer (cS) in Eq. (9.15) is deducted from
the freeboard. Of course, in ships where no enclosed superstructure covers amid-
ships, no deduction shall be made from the freeboard.
In ships where an enclosed superstructure covers less than 0.1Lf before and 0.1Lf
abaft amidships, the deduction is obtained by linear interpolation. For example, the
length of an enclosed superstructure is less than 0.2Lf, cS in Eq. (9.15) is reduced to
LST
cS ¼ cS ½mm ð9:22Þ
0:2Lf
where, LST is the total length of superstructures except for trunks in m.

In addition, if the actual height of superstructure or raised quarter deck is less
than the standard height, cS in Eq. (9.15) is reduced to the following equation.
HS
cS ¼ cS ½mm ð9:23Þ
H S, S
The maximum deduction for excess sheer should be at the rate of 125 mm per
100 m of length (Lf).
9.4.8 Addition for Minimum Bow Height
The actual bow height (BH) is defined as the vertical distance at the forward
perpendicular between the waterline corresponding to the assigned summer free-
board with the designed trim and the top of exposed deck at side. BH can be
estimated as the following equation.
BH ¼ Df þ H S þ H F T S ð9:24Þ
where, HS is the height of superstructure, HF is the height of forecastle at FP, and

TS is the maximum summer draft. Instead of TS, the scantling draft (Ts) can be
used.
The height should be not less than the minimum bow height (BHmin) which is
given by Eq. (9.25).
2 3
Lf Lf L
BH min ¼ 6, 075 1, 875 100 þ 200 100f
100 ð9:25Þ
Lf
2:08 þ 0:609CBf 1:603CWF 0:0129 ½mm
Tf
where, CWF is the waterplane area coefficient forward of Lf/2 which is defined as
Eq. (9.26) and Tf is the draft at 85% of molded depth in m.
AWF
CWF ¼ ð9:26Þ
0:5Lf B
where, AWF is the waterplane area forward of Lf/2 in m2.

At this time, if the bow height is obtained by sheer, the sheer should extend for at
least 10% of the length of the ship measured from FP. Where it is obtained by fitting
a superstructure, such superstructure should extend from the stem to a point at least
0.07Lf abaft FP, and should be enclosed.
If actual bow height (BH) is greater than the minimum bow height, the addition
for bow height (cBH) in mm is zero. And if not, the addition for bow height is equal
to the difference between the minimum bow height and the actual bow height, as the
following equation.

0 ½mm when BH min < BH
cBH ¼ ð9:27Þ
BH min BH ½mm when BH BH min
9.4.9 Addition for Reserve Buoyancy
All ships assigned to the Type B freeboard, other than oil tankers, chemical tankers,
and gas carriers, should have additional reserve buoyancy in the fore end. Within
Fig. 9.14 Areas for

calculating the reserve
buoyancy
the range of 0.15LF abaft of FP, the sum of the projected area between the summer
load line and the deck at the side (A1 and A2) and the projected area of an enclosed
superstructure, if fitted, (A3) should satisfy the following criterion.

Lf
A1 þ A 2 þ A3 0:15 RBminþ 4 þ 10 Lf =1, 000 ½m2 ð9:28Þ
3
where, RBmin is calculated by RBmin ¼ (Ft cCB) þ cD in mm. Ft is the tabular

freeboard in mm, cCB is the correction for block coefficient in Eq. (9.9), cD is the
correction for depth in mm in Eq. (9.10). If this is not satisfied, the correction for
reserve buoyancy (cRB) in mm should be added to the freeboard. This addition will
increase the height of freeboard deck and the freeboard depth (Df) and thus the area
of A1 will increase as well. If necessary, the value of cRB should be manually
determined by trial and error such that the above criterion is satisfied. Figure 9.14
shows areas for calculating the reserve buoyancy.
9.4.10 Calculation of Minimum Freeboards
Finally, the minimum freeboard (FbICLL) in Eq. (9.2) depending on the seasons and
zone can be obtained as below.
1. Summer freeboard
The minimum freeboard in summer (FbS), i.e., summer freeboard should be the
tabular freeboard (Ft), as modified by the corrections for block coefficient (cCB),
depth (cD), position of deck line (cDL), superstructures and trunks (cST), sheer (cS),
and if applicable, correction for minimum bow height (cBH) and reserve buoyancy
(cRB), as the following equation.
FbS ¼ Ft þ cCB cD cDL cST cS þ cBH þ cRB ½mm ð9:29Þ
The freeboard in salt water, as calculated in accordance with the above equation,
but without the correction for the position of the deck line should not be less than
50 mm. For ships having hatchways with covers not complying with the require-
ments, the freeboard should not be less than 150 mm.
2. Tropical freeboard
The minimum freeboard in the Tropical Zone (FbT) should be the freeboard
obtained by a deduction from the summer freeboard of one forty-eighth (1/48) of
the summer draft measured from the top of the keel to the center of ring of the load
line mark, as the following equation.
1
FbT ¼ FbS T S ½mm ð9:30Þ
48
where, TS is the summer draft in sea water.

3. Winter freeboard
The minimum freeboard in winter (FbW) should be the freeboard obtained by an
addition to the summer freeboard of one forty-eighth (1/48) of the summer draft
measured from the top of the keel to the center of ring of the load line mark, as the
following equation.
1
FbW ¼ FbS þ T S ½mm ð9:31Þ
48
4. Winter North Atlantic freeboard

The minimum freeboard for ships of not more than 100 m in length which enter
any part of the North Atlantic during the winter seasonal period should be the winter
freeboard plus 50 mm, as shown in Eq. (9.32). For other ships, the winter North
Atlantic freeboard should be the winter freeboard.

FbW þ 50 ½mm when Lf < 100½m
FbWNA ¼ ð9:32Þ
FbW ½mm when 100½m Lf
5. Fresh water freeboard

The minimum freeboard in the fresh water of unit density (e.g., 1.0 ton/m3)
should be obtained by deducting the value in Eq. (9.33) from the minimum
freeboard in salt water.
9.6 Load Line Mark 131
Δ
½mm ð9:33Þ
4TPC
where, Δ is the displacement in salt water in tons at the summer load line and TPC
is the tons per one centimeter immersion in salt water at the summer load line. If the
displacement at the summer load line cannot be certified, the deduction should be
one forty-eighth of the summer draft measured from the top of the keel to the center
of the ring of the load line mark.
For example, the minimum freeboard in summer in fresh water (FbSF) can be
Δ
FbSF ¼ FbS ½mm ð9:34Þ
4TPC
Similarly, the minimum freeboard in summer in the Tropical Zone fresh water
(FbSF) can be obtained from the following equation.
Δ 1 Δ
FbTF ¼ FbT ¼ FbS T S ½mm ð9:35Þ
4TPC 48 4TPC
9.5 Check for the Freeboard Requirement
Now, the maximum summer draft (TS,max) can be calculated by subtracting the
minimum freeboard in summer (FbS) in Eq. (9.29) from the freeboard deck (Df),
T S, max ¼ Df FbS ð9:36Þ
Considering this maximum summer draft, the scantling draft (Ts) of the ship
should be determined. Furthermore, the depth of design ship should satisfy the
regulatory constraint in Eq. (9.37), as explained in Sect. 3.4.1.
Df T s FbS ð9:37Þ
9.6 Load Line Mark
From the calculation of minimum freeboards, the load line mark can be made. The
load line mark consists of a ring 300 mm in outside diameter and 25 mm wide
which is intersected by a horizontal line 450 mm in length and 25 mm in breadth,
the upper edge of which passes through the center of the ring. The center of the ring
should be placed amidshps and at a distance equal to the assigned summer free-
board measured vertically below the upper edge of deck line, as shown in Fig. 9.15.
Fig. 9.15 Load line mark and lines to be used with this mark
In this section, a computational guide for the calculation of required freeboard and
for the check of freeboard requirement is briefly described.
9.7.1 Calculation of the Required Freeboard
(a) Given: ship type, freeboard length (Lf), breadth (B), depth (D), block coefficient
(CB), scantling draft (Ts), the thickness of deck plate (tdeck), and so on of the
design ship
(b) Find: minimum freeboard (FbICLL) of the design ship
FbS ¼ Ft þ cCB cD cDL cST cS þ cBH þ cRB ½mm ð9:38Þ

Reference 133
In this equation, the minimum freeboard in summer (FbS) can be determined by

calculating each component of the right side of the equation. For this, the following
subfunctions to be implemented are required.
(a) Classification of types of ships in Sect. 9.4
(b) Calculation of tabular freeboard (Ft) in Table 9.1 or Table 9.2
(c) Calculation of the addition for block coefficient (cCB) in Eq. (9.9)
(d) Calculation of the correction for depth (cD) in Eq. (9.10)
(e) Calculation of the correction for position of deck line (cDL) in Eq. (9.12)
(f) Calculation of the deduction for superstructures and trunks (cST) in Eq. (9.14)
(g) Calculation of the correction for sheer (cS) in Eq. (9.15)
(h) Calculation of the addition for minimum bow height (cBH) in Eq. (9.27)
(i) Calculation of the addition for reserve buoyancy (cRB) in Sect. 9.4.8
This problem of one equation has one unknown (FbS) and can be solved
algebraically after each component of FbS is calculated.
9.7.2 Check for the Freeboard Requirement
(a) Given: freeboard depth (Df), scantling draft (Ts), and minimum freeboard in
summer (FbS) of the design ship
(b) Find: satisfaction of the freeboard requirement of the design ship
lowing equation.
Df T s FbS ð9:39Þ
known.
Reference

Lines) 1966, as Amended by the Protocol of 1988. IMO
Chapter 10
Determination of Principal Dimensions
10.1 Generals
In this chapter, a design model for determining optimal principal dimensions of a

ship is explained based on the methods described earlier. That is, design constraints
in Chap. 3 will be used as governing equations to determine the principal dimen-
sions and in these equations, the values of several components, such as lightweight,
resistance and power, main engine, propeller, capacity of cargo hold, and required
freeboard, will be estimated, predicted, or selected by using suitable methods. Other
explanations about the determination of principal dimensions of the ship can be
found in various references (Papanikolaou 2014).
10.2 Weight Equation
As explained in Sect. 3.2, the physical constraint of the ship can be stated as the
following weight equation.
In the right side of this equation, the deadweight (DWT) is given as one of the
ship owner’s requirements. However, the lightweight (LWT) should be estimated by
using the principal dimensions of the ship such as L, B, D, and CB.
There are many methods to estimate lightweight, as described in Chap. 4. If a
ship is composed of hull structure, outfit, and machinery, the lightweight can be
estimated as the summation of structural weight, outfit weight, and machinery
weight. From this method, the weight equation can be written as the following
equation.

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-4885-2_10
136 10 Determination of Principal Dimensions
ρ L B T CB ð1 þ αÞ ¼ Cs L1:6 ðB þ DÞ þ Co L B
ð10:2Þ
þCm NMCR þ DWT
where, NMCR is related to the principal dimensions of the ship and can be obtained
from the selection of the main engine as described in Chap. 6. Again, the selection
of the main engine is based on the prediction of resistance and power as described in
Chap. 5, and the determination of principal dimensions of the propeller as described
in Chap. 7.
The weight equation above is a kind of indeterminate equation having five
unknowns (L, B, D, T, and CB), which has many solutions. If we assume this
indeterminate equation as an optimization problem by introducing an objective
function, we can get an optimum solution using an optimization method which
optimizes the objective function. Here, the objective function is a criterion to
compare different solutions and to determine the optimum solution.
10.3 Volume Equation
As explained in Sect. 3.3.1, one of the economical constraints of ship owner’s

requirements can be stated as the following volume equation.
In the left side of this equation, VCH is given as the volume of cargo hold required
by the ship owner. The right side should be estimated based on the principal
dimensions of the ship.
There are several methods to estimate the capacity of cargo hold, as described in
Chap. 8. If the volume of cargo hold is assumed to be proportional to L, B, and D, it
can be estimated as the following equation.
The volume equation is also a kind of indeterminate equation having three

unknowns (L, B, and D), which has many solutions. If we assume this indeterminate
equation as an optimization problem by introducing an objective function, we can
get an optimum solution using an optimization method which optimizes the objec-
tive function.
10.6 Procedure for Determining Principal Dimensions of Ship 137
10.4 Required Freeboard
As explained in Sect. 3.4.1, one of the regulatory constraints of ship is required

freeboard by ICLL regulation (IMO 1966), as the following equation.
In this equation, FbICLL is the freeboard required by ICLL regulation. It is a

function of the principal dimensions of ship and can be calculated according to the
procedure as described in Sect. 9.4.
10.5 Types of Ships Considering Cargo Density
Considering cargo density ships can be classified into two types; deadweight carrier
and volume carrier.
A deadweight carrier is a ship whose weight is a critical factor when the cargo
to be carried is heavy in relation to the space provided for it. A ship will be weight
critical when the ship carries a cargo which has a density greater than 0.77 ton/m3 or
inversely less than 1.29 m3/ton. A tanker, bulk carrier, ore carrier, and so on are
deadweight carriers. For example, an ore carrier loads the iron ore (den-
sity ¼ 7.85 ton/m3) in alternate holds called alternated loading. Therefore,
the deadweight carrier needs less volume of cargo hold.
A volume carrier is a ship whose volume is a critical factor when the cargo to
be carried is light in relation to the space provided for it. A ship will be volume
critical when the ship carries a cargo which has a density less than 0.77 ton/m3 or
inversely greater than 1.29 m3/ton. Container carrier, LNG carrier, cruise ship, and
so on are volume carriers. For example, in a container carrier, containers are
arranged in bays in lengthwise, rows in beamwise, and tiers in depthwise. There-
fore, length, breadth, and depth of the container carrier vary stepwise according to
the number and size of containers. Moreover, the container carrier loads containers
on deck and thus it can cause a stability problem. A cruise ship is also a kind of
volume carrier because it has many decks and large space for passengers. This ship
has also a high value of the vertical center of gravity (KG) and thus it can cause a
stability problem, as well.
10.6 Procedure for Determining Principal Dimensions

of Ship
Now, we determine the principal dimensions of the ship with relevant governing
equations mentioned above. The procedure can be different from the type of
the ship; deadweight carrier and volume carrier.
Fig. 10.1 Procedure for the determination of the principal dimensions of deadweight carriers
10.6.1 Procedure for Deadweight Carriers
In the first step, length (L), breadth (B), draft (T ), and block coefficient (CB) of the
deadweight carrier are determined by using the weight equation. In the second step,
depth (D) is determined considering the required cargo hold capacity according to
the volume equation. Finally, it should be checked whether the depth and the draft
satisfy the freeboard regulation of ICLL. Figure 10.1 shows the procedure for the
determination of the principal dimensions of the deadweight carrier.
10.6.2 Procedure for Volume Carriers
In the first step, length (L ), breadth (B), and depth (D) of the volume carrier are
determined considering the required cargo hold capacity according to the volume
equation. In the second step, the draft (T ) and the block coefficient (CB) are
determined by using the weight equation. Finally, it should be checked whether
the depth and the draft satisfy the freeboard regulation of ICLL. Figure 10.2 shows
the procedure for the determination of the principal dimensions of the volume
carrier.
Fig. 10.2 Procedure for the determination of principal dimensions of volume carriers
In this section, a computational guide how to formulate the optimization model for
the determination of the principal dimensions of the ship is briefly described.
(a) Given: data of the parent ship, including principal dimensions
(b) Find: length (L), breadth (B), depth (D), draft (T ), and block coefficient (CB) of
the design ship
The mathematical formulation for this problem has two equalities (equations)
and one inequality.
ð10:6Þ
þCm NMCR þ DWT
3. Optimization model
As mentioned earlier, this mathematical formulation can be regarded as an
indeterminate problem since the number of unknowns, i.e., five unknowns (L,
B, D, T, and CB) is greater than the number of equations, i.e., two equations (weight
equation and volume equation). The indeterminate problem has many solutions. If
we assume the problem as an optimization problem by introducing an objective
function, e.g., minimization of shipbuilding cost, the optimization problem can
be mathematically formulated with unknowns (design variables), equalities and
an inequality (constraints), and an objective function as below, so called optimi-
zation model.
Find (design variables) L, B, D, T, and CB
which
Minimize (objective function) Shipbuilding cost
: weight equation
þ Cm NMCR þ DWT
V CH ¼ CCH L B D : volume equation
Df T s FbICLL ðL; B; D; CB Þ : required freeboard
To solve the weight equation and the volume equation, to check the requried
freeboard, and the calculate the shipbuilding cost, the following subfunctions to be
implemented are required.
(a) Solving of the weight equation as described in Sects. 3.5.1, 4.6.4, 5.7, 6.8, and
7.6
(b) Solving of the volume equation as described in Sects. 3.5.2 and 8.4.1
(c) Check for the required freeboard as described in Sect. 9.7
(d) Calculation of the shipbuilding cost as described in Sect. 15.6.1
This optimization problem is a kind of constrained optimization problem
which can be solved by using any kind of constrained optimization methods, as
described in Appendices.
References

Lines) 1966, as Amended by the Protocol of 1988. IMO.
Chapter 11
Hull Form Design
11.1 Generals
A hull form is an outer shape of the hull that is streamlined in order to satisfy
ship owner’s requirements such as deadweight, ship speed, and so on. A funda-
mental task of hull form design is to develop a hull form which has a good
performance in the various aspects such as resistance, propulsion, maneuvering,
and so on.
Overall procedure of hull form design is shown in Fig. 11.1. A hull form can be
represented by various hull form curves in the form of wireframes. If a good
performance hull form of parent ship is given, the hull form of design ship can be
obtained by the variation of the parent ship’s hull form, called hull form variation.
After finishing the hull form fairing, the hull form surface can be obtained. With
this surface, the performance of the hull form is evaluated through the model tests,
the numerical analysis (CFD: Computational Fluid Dynamics), and so on. If the
hull form satisfies some criteria (e.g., ship speed), the hull form is transferred to the
next design step such as the general arrangement design and the hull structural
design, as forms of the 2D plan called hull lines plan and the 3D surface model.
The tasks of hull form design include several steps, as shown in Fig. 11.2. Each
step will be presented in the following sections.
11.2 Generation of Hull Form
As mentioned above, the hull form can be represented as hull form curves. The hull
form curves are classified into two types; primary curves and secondary curves.
The primary curves define the outer shape of hull form and include profile line,
bottom tangent line, side tangent line, deck side line, and so on. The secondary

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-4885-2_11
142 11 Hull Form Design
Fig. 11.1 Overall procedure of hull form design
Fig. 11.2 Tasks of hull

form design
curves define the inner shape of hull form under the outer shape defined by the
primary curves and include section line, buttock line, waterline, space line, and
so on.
11.2 Generation of Hull Form 143
Fig. 11.3 Coordinate

system for hull form
Fig. 11.4 Profile line of a VLCC
11.2.1 Primary Curves
There are several primary curves which represent the outer shape of a hull form.
Most of them are kinds of planar curves represented on the planes such as x-, y-, and
z-planes. Figure 11.3 shows the coordinate system for hull form.
1. Profile line
The profile line is an intersection or tangent curve between the hull form surface
and the center plane, which is defined as the plane whose y-coordinate is zero,
except for deck. This profile line is also called center line. Figure 11.4 shows an
example of the profile line of a VLCC which has a single propeller.
In the case of twin-skeg ships having two propellers, there are more profile lines,
as shown in Fig. 11.5. This figure represents profile lines of a twin-skeg container
ship.
2. Bottom tangent line
The bottom tangent line is an intersection or tangent curve between the hull
form surface and the base plane, which is defined as the plane whose z-coordinate
is zero. Figure 11.6 shows an example of the bottom tangent line of a VLCC.
Fig. 11.5 Profile lines of a twin-skeg container ship
Fig. 11.6 Bottom tangent line of a VLCC
Fig. 11.7 Side tangent line of a VLCC
Fig. 11.8 Deck side line of a VLCC
3. Side tangent line

The side tangent line is an intersection or tangent curve between the hull form
surface and a plane whose y-coordinate is the half of breadth of the ship.
Figure 11.7 shows an example of the side tangent line of a VLCC.
4. Deck side line

The deck side line is a curve which represents the side of the upper deck. Both
ends of this line contact with the profile line. Figure 11.8 shows an example of the
deck side line of a VLCC.
11.2.2 Secondary Curves
There are several secondary curves which represent the inner shape of the hull form.
Some of them can be generated from the intersection between primary curves. Most
of them are 2D planar curves except for space line, which is a 3D curve.
1. Section line
The section lines are intersection curves between the hull form and transverse
sections which are parallel to the y-z plane. In general, since the section lines are
located at the stations, they are called station lines. Stations mean transverse
sections at a spacing of the length divided by 20 (L/20). The station ‘0’ is located
at AP, the station ‘20’ is located at FP, and the station ‘10’ therefore represents
Fig. 11.9 Body plan of a VLCC

Fig. 11.10 Buttock plan of a VLCC
Fig. 11.11 Water plan of a VLCC
Fig. 11.12 Space line of a twin-skeg container ship
midship section. The station lines make up the body plan of hull lines plan.
Figure 11.9 shows an example of the body plan of a VLCC.
2. Buttock line
The buttock lines are intersection curves between the hull form and lateral
sections which are parallel to the x-z plane. The buttock lines make up the sheer
plan or buttock plan of hull lines plan. Figure 11.10 shows an example of the
buttock plan of a VLCC.
3. Waterline
The waterlines are intersection curves between the hull form and horizontal
sections which are parallel to the x-y plane. The waterlines make up the water plan
or half-breadth plan of hull lines plan. Figure 11.11 shows an example of the water
plan of a VLCC.
4. Space line
The space lines are 3D curves located in 3D space, as compared with planar
curves such as section lines, buttock lines, waterlines, and so on. For the
Fig. 11.13 Overall procedure for the generation of space line. (a) Projection on y-z plane.
(b) Generation of 2D auxiliary line and intersection calculation with the existing curves.
(c) Generation of space line
complicated hull form, the space lines are additionally required with the planar
curves to define properly the shape of hull form. Figure 11.12 shows an example of
the space lines of a twin-skeg container ship which has a complicated hull form.
The procedure for generating the space line is shown in Fig. 11.13. First, the hull
form is projected on the y-z plane. Then, a 2D auxiliary line is defined on this plane.
The intersection calculation between this line and the existing curves is performed.
Finally, the curve which passes through the intersection points is generated. This is
the corresponding space line.
11.2.3 Generation of Wireframes of Hull Form
When the primary curves and some of the secondary curves are given, other
secondary curves can be generated by using the intersection calculation. In this
Fig. 11.14 Generation of waterlines of a VLCC
section, it is assumed that the primary curves (profile line, bottom tangent line, side
tangent line, and deck side line) and the secondary curves (section lines) are given.
1. Generation of waterlines
The hull form is projected on the y-z plane. At a specific position of z ¼ a, a
horizontal line is defined. The intersection calculation between the horizontal line
and the existing station lines is performed. The z-coordinates of all intersection
points will have same z-coordinates to each other but have different values of the x-
and y-coordinates. Then, the curve which passes through all intersection points of
different values of x- and y-coordinates at z ¼ a is generated by using the scheme of
Bezier curve or B-spline curve (Farin 2001). If this procedure is repeated for
different values of z position, all other waterlines can be generated. Figure 11.14
shows an example of the generated waterlines of a VLCC.
2. Generation of buttock lines
The hull form is projected on the y-z plane. At a specific position of y ¼ b, a
vertical line is defined. The intersection calculation between the vertical line and
the existing station lines is performed. The y-coordinates of all intersection points
Fig. 11.15 Generation of buttock lines of a VLCC
will have same y coordinates to each other but have different values of x- and
z-coordinates. Then, the curve which passes through all intersection points of
different values of x- and z-coordinates at y ¼ b is generated by using the scheme
of Bezier curve or B-spline curve. If this procedure is repeated for different values
of y position, all other buttock lines can be generated. Figure 11.15 shows an
example of the generated buttock lines of a VLCC.
11.2.4 Hull Form Coefficients
Hull form coefficients which represent the characteristics of hull form are defined as
below.
1. Block coefficient
The block coefficient (CB) represents the obesity of hull form. It is defined as the
ratio of the displacement volume to the volume of a rectangular solid which
surrounds the ship, as shown in Fig. 11.16 and Eq. (11.1). Thus, its value is less
Fig. 11.16 Block

coefficient
than 1.0. The greater its value, the more fat the ship is. Its value is different from
ship types; about 0.8~0.85 for tankers and bulk carriers, about 0.75 for LNG
carriers, about 0.65~0.7 for container ships, about 0.5 for high-speed ships, and
about close to 1.0 for barges.
∇
CB ¼ ð11:1Þ
LBT
where, L, B, T, and ∇ are length (LBP), molded breadth, molded draft, displacement
volume in m3, respectively.
This coefficient is also related with the maneuverability of the ship. The obesity
coefficient can be defined as the ratio of the block coefficient to L/B. In the aspect of
maneuverability, it is recommended that its value is less than 0.15, as the following
equation.
CB
0:15 ð11:2Þ
L=B
In addition, a recommendation value for CB was proposed by Watson and

Gilfillan (1976), as the following formula.
CB 0:70 þ 0:125tan 1 ðð23 100Fn Þ=4Þ ð11:3Þ
where, Fn is the Froude number of the ship. This formula seems to confirm its
continuing validity and many naval architects are using this equation up to now at
the early design stage.
2. Prismatic coefficient
The prismatic coefficient (CP) is similar to the block coefficient. It is defined as
the ratio of the displacement volume to the swept volume of the midship section, as
shown in Fig. 11.17 and Eq. (11.4).
Fig. 11.17 Prismatic

coefficient
Fig. 11.18 Vertical

prismatic coefficient
∇
CP ¼ ð11:4Þ
L AM
where, AM is the midship section area in m2.

For the same hull form, since the swept volume of the midship section (LAM) is
less than the volume of a rectangular solid (LBT ), the prismatic coefficient is
greater than the block coefficient. This coefficient represents the distribution of
underwater volume along the length of the ship. If the value of CP is less, the
displacement volume is concentrated on the midship and if CP is great, the
displacement volume is evenly distributed in the longitudinal direction.
3. Vertical prismatic coefficient
Similar to the prismatic coefficient, the vertical prismatic coefficient (CVP) is
defined as the ratio of the displacement volume to the swept volume of the water
plane area, as shown in Fig. 11.18 and Eq. (11.5).
Fig. 11.19 Midship section

coefficient
∇
CVP ¼ ð11:5Þ
T AWP
where, AWP is the water plane area in m2.

If the value of CVP is less, the hull form has a V-shaped section and it is great, the
hull form has a U-shaped section.
4. Midship section coefficient
The coefficients mentioned above are from the ratio between two volumes. Now,
we can define other coefficients from the ratio between two areas. The most
representative one is the midship section coefficient (CM), defined as the ratio of
the midship section area to the area of a rectangle which surrounds the midship
section, as shown in Fig. 11.19 and Eq. (11.6). For low-speed ships having the great
capacity of cargo hold, its value is about 0.98~0.99 for tankers and bulk carriers.
AM
CM ¼ ð11:6Þ
BT
From the relation between the block coefficient and the prismatic coefficient, CM
can be derived as the ratio between two coefficients as the following equation.
CB
CM ¼ ð11:7Þ
CP
5. Water plane coefficient

The water plane coefficient (CWP) is defined as the ratio of the water plane area
to the area of a rectangle which surrounds the water plane area, as shown in
Fig. 11.20 and Eq. (11.8).
Fig. 11.20 Water plane

coefficient
Fig. 11.21 Example of the sectional area curve
AWP
CWP ¼ ð11:8Þ
LB
11.2.5 Sectional Area Curve
Sectional area curve is a diagram of transverse sectional areas up to waterline,

plotted along the ship’s length. This diagram is represented as dimensionless by
plotting each ordinate as the ratio of the area (A) of any section to the area of the
maximum section, that is, the midship section area (AM). Then, the ratio of the area
under this curve to the area of a rectangle which surrounds this curve will be the
same as the prismatic coefficient, as shown in Eq. (11.9). Thus, this curve is also
called the CPcurve. This curve represents the distribution of underwater volume
along the ship’s length. The longitudinal position of the centroid of the area under
the curve is LCB (Longitudinal Center of Buoyancy). Figure 11.21 shows an
example of the sectional area curve.
∇ Areaunder curve
CP ¼ ¼ ð11:9Þ
L AM Arearectangle
In general, since it is expected that the hull form (i.e., transverse sectional area)
is smoothly changed along the ship’s length, the CP curve can be used to check the
quality of the hull form at the step for fairing.
11.3 Hull Form Variation
In order to design a ship with a good performance, the hull form of similar parent
ship is chosen and modified to the design ship. Thus, the modified hull form of
design ship would be able to maintain good hydrostatic and hydrodynamic proper-
ties of the parent ship. However, the principal dimensions of design ship are
different from those of parent ship, a suitable task to change the hull form of parent
ship to that of design ship is required. The task is called hull form variation.
Figure 11.22 shows an example of hull form variation from a deadweight 300,000
ton VLCC (parent ship) to a deadweight 320,000 ton VLCC (design ship).
There are two kinds of hull form variation methods. One is the dimensional
variation method and the other is the CP variation method. The dimensional
variation method is to change the principal dimensions of the hull form such as
the length, breadth, depth, and draft. That is, this method is used for macro change
of the hull form and also can change the hull form parameters such as the transom
height, shaft center height, bossing end radius, maximum deck height, bilge radius,
and so on. The CP variation method is to change CB (actually, displacement) and
Fig. 11.22 Example of hull form variation from a deadweight 300,000 ton VLCC to 320,000 ton
VLCC
11.3 Hull Form Variation 155
Fig. 11.23 Overall

procedure of hull form
variation
Fig. 11.24 Length variation of a VLCC
LCB. That is, this method is used for micro change of the hull form and also can
change the miscellaneous dimensions such as the transom length, bulb length, and
so on.
Figure 11.23 shows the overall procedure of the hull form variation. First, the
dimensional variation is performed. And then, the CP variation follows. After that,
the requirements of hull form are checked through hydrostatics calculation. If the
requirements are not satisfied, the variation is repeated.
11.3.1 Dimensional Variation Method
There are four methods for dimensional variation which correspond to change each
principal dimension of a ship.
1. Change of the length
The length ratio between parent ship and design ship can be calculated as a factor of
α (¼ L/LP). Here, L and LP are the lengths of parent and design ships, respectively.
If x-coordinates of all points in each hull form curve of the parent ship are
multiplied by α, the hull form of design ship can be obtained. Figure 11.24 shows
an example of the length variation of a VLCC.
Fig. 11.25 Breadth variation of a VLCC
Fig. 11.26 Depth variation of a VLCC

Fig. 11.27 Draft variation of a VLCC
2. Change of the breadth

The breadth ratio between parent ship and design ship can be calculated as a
factor of β (¼ B/BP). Here, B and BP are the breadths of parent and design ships,
respectively. If y-coordinates of all points in each hull form curve of the parent ship
are multiplied by β, the hull form of design ship can be obtained. Figure 11.25
shows an example of the breadth variation of a VLCC.
3. Change of the depth
The depth ratio between parent ship and design ship can be calculated as a factor
of γ (¼ D/DP). Here, D and DP are the depths of parent and design ships,
respectively. If z-coordinates of all points in each hull form curve of the parent
ship are multiplied by γ, the hull form of design ship can be obtained. Figure 11.26
shows an example of the depth variation of a VLCC.
4. Change of the draft
The draft ratio between parent ship and design ship can be calculated as a factor
of δ (¼ T/TP). Here, T and TP are the drafts of parent and design ships, respectively.
And the ratio above the draft between parent ship and design ship can be calculated
as a factor of ε (¼ (D-T )/(DP-TP)). If the z-coordinates of all points below the draft
in each hull form curve of parent ship are multiplied by δ and z-coordinates of all
points above the draft are multiplied by ε, the hull form of design ship can be
obtained. Figure 11.27 shows an example of the draft variation of a VLCC.
From these methods, the modified hull form for design ship can be directly
obtained.
11.3.2 CP Variation Method
In designing hull form of a new design ship from the similar parent ship, it is usual
to correct the displacement and LCB by adjusting the longitudinal spacing of the
Fig. 11.28 Generation of a new CP curve for design ship
transverse sections in order to suit a new CP curve. The CP variation method is to

use a CP curve to change CB (actually, displacement) and LCB. The CP variation
method generates a new CP curve by rearranging the longitudinal positions of
transverse sections of the ship. Figure 11.28 shows an example of generating a
new CP curve of design ship from that of parent ship by using the CP variation
method. Here, the CP curve of parent ship means the curve of parent ship that the
dimensional variation method was performed already. In this example, the length
(LBP) of the ship was normalized as a value of 2, that is, 1 from the midship.
In this figure, an example of the procedure for generating the CP curve of design
ship is explained as follows. Suppose that the transverse section of parent ship at
Station 18 (x ¼ 0.8) is moved forward by the distance AB. Then, the transverse
section of design ship at Station 18 can be obtained from that of parent ship located
at Station 17.4. Suppose also that t the transverse section of parent ship located at
Station 14 (x ¼ 0.4) is moved afterward by the distance A0 B0 . Then, the transverse
section of design ship at Station 7 is obtained from that of parent ship located at
Fig. 11.29 Determination of the longitudinal shift of each section in the 1-CP variation method
Station 14.8. If these steps are repeated for several stations, the CP curve for design
ship can be obtained.
There are several methods for CP variation; 1-CP variation method, Lackenby
variation method, swing station method, and so on. 1-CP variation method and
Lackenby variation methods change the displacement and LCB of the ship, and the
swing station method changes LCB only. More details of each method are explained
below.
1. 1-CP variation method
In the 1-CP variation method, when the prismatic coefficient (CP) and LCB of
parent ship, and the required change in the prismatic coefficient (δCP) and LCB
(δLCB) for design ship are given, the longitudinal shift of each section in fore and
after bodies of design ship (δxf,a) can be obtained. In this method, the new spacing
of the sections from the end of the body is made proportional to the difference
between the respective prismatic coefficient and unity, as shown in Fig. 11.29 and
Eq. (11.10).

1 xf , a þ δxf , a : 1 xf , a ¼ 1 CPf , a þ δCPf , a : 1 CPf , a ð11:10Þ
where, xf,a is the fractional distance of any transverse section from the midship in
the fore or after body. δxf,a is the longitudinal shift of each section in the fore or after
body. CPf,a is the prismatic coefficient of the fore or after body of parent ship. δCPf,a
is the required change in the prismatic coefficient of the fore or after body. LPf,a is
the fractional length of the parallel middle body in the fore or after body and δLPf,a
is the consequent change in the parallel middle body. hf,a is the fractional distance
of the centroid of δCPf,a from the midship. xf , a is the fractional distance of the
centroid of the fore or after body from the midship. yf,a is the transverse sectional
area at xf,a expressed as a fraction of the maximum ordinate.
From this equation, the longitudinal shift of each section can be obtained as
below.
δCPf , a
δxf , a ¼ 1 xf , a ð11:11Þ
1 CPf , a
When CP, δCP, LCB, and δLCB are given, δCPf,a are can be obtained from the
2fδCP ðha þ LCBÞ þ δLCBðCP þ δCP Þg

δCPf ¼ ð11:12Þ
hf þ ha

2 δCP hf LCB δLCBðCP þ δCP Þ
δCPa ¼ ð11:13Þ
hf þ ha
where, the sign of LCB and δLCB are positive for forward of the midship and
negative for afterward of the midship.
However, to determine the values of δCPf and δCPa, hf and ha are should be
determined first. To determine the values of hf and ha, Eq. (11.14) can be used.

CPf , a 1 2
xf , a δCPf , a
hf , a ¼ þ 2 1 2CPf , a 1 xf , a ð11:14Þ
1 CPf , a 2 1 CPf , a
If the second term of this equation is ignored, Eq. (11.14) can be expressed as the
following equation.

CPf , a 1 2
xf , a
hf , a ffi ð11:15Þ
1 CPf , a
As shown in this equation, however, the values of CPf,a and xf , a should be known
first. These values can be obtained from the CP curve of parent ship.
The 1-CP variation method, however, has some disadvantages as below.
(a) A hull form having no parallel middle body cannot be increased in displace-
ment without the addition of parallel middle body. That is, if CP changes, the
length of parallel middle body changes. Thus, this method cannot be used to
reduce the displacement of a ship having no parallel middle body. This method
can be applied to a ship having the parallel middle body only.
(b) There is no control over the extent of the parallel middle body in this method.
That is, LP and CP cannot be varied independently.
(c) For a given change in the CP curve, the longitudinal distribution of the dis-
placement cannot be arbitrarily controlled by a designer.
2. Lackenby variation method

The Lackenby variation method (Lackenby 1950) can be an extension of the
1-CP variation method. When the prismatic coefficient (CP), LCB, the length of
parallel middle body (LPf,a) of parent ship, and the required change in the prismatic
coefficient (δCP), LCB (δLCB), and the length of parallel body (δLPf,a) for design
ship are given, the longitudinal shift of each section in fore and after bodies of
design ship (δxf,a) can be obtained. In this method, the longitudinal shift of each
section can be obtained from the following equation.

δLPf , a xf , a LPf , a 1 CPf , a
δxf , a ¼ 1 xf , a þ δCPf , a δLPf , a
1 LPf , a Af , a 1 LPf , a
ð11:16Þ
In this equation, Af,a is defined as below.

Af , a ¼ CPf , a 1 2
xf , a LPf , a 1 CPf , a ð11:17Þ
As shown in this equation, it can be seen that the change in the parallel middle
body (δLPf,a) is included in this method.
In this method, the values of hf and ha can be calculated by the following
equation.
" ( ) #
Bf , a δLPf , a 1 CPf , a δLPf , a 1 2
xf , a
hf , a ¼ CPf , a 1 þ ð11:18Þ
CPf , a δCPf , a 1 LPf , a δCPf , a 1 LPf , a
In this equation, Bf,a is defined as below.

xf , a 3kf , a 2 LPf , a 1 2
CPf , a 2 xf , a
Bf , a ¼ ð11:19Þ
Af , a
In this equation, kf,a is the lever of the second moment (i.e., the radius of
gyration) about midship expressed as a fraction of the length of the fore or after
body, and it can be calculated the following equation.
If , a
kf , a ¼ ð11:20Þ
Sf , a
where, If,a is the second moment about midship expressed as a fraction of the length
of the fore or after body. And Sf,a is the area of the fore or after body.
Substituting Eq. (11.18) into Eqs. (11.12) and (11.13), the equations for δCPf and
δCPa can be obtained from the following equation.
2fδCP ðBa þ LCBÞ þ δLCB ðCP þ δCP Þg þ Cf δLPf Ca δLPa

δCPf ¼
Bf þ Ba
ð11:21Þ

2 δCP Bf LCB δLCB ðCP þ δCP Þ Cf δLPf þ Ca δLPa
δCPa ¼
Bf þ Ba
ð11:22Þ
In this equation, Cf,a is defined as below.

Bf , a 1 CPf , a CPf , a 1 2
xf , a
Cf , a ¼ ð11:23Þ
1 LPf , a
After the values of δCPf and δCPa are determined, substituting those values into
Eq. (11.16), the longitudinal shift of each section can be obtained.
Meanwhile, substituting LPf,a for xf,a in Eq. (11.11), the following equation can
be given.
δCPf , a
δLPf , a ¼ 1 LPf , a ð11:24Þ
1 CPf , a
Substituting Eq. (11.24) into Eq. (11.16), Eq. (11.11) can be obtained again. That
is, we can get the same equation for the 1-CP variation method. Thus, it can be seen
that the 1-CP variation method is a special case of the Lackenby variation method.
The advantages of the Lackenby variation method can be summarized as
below.
(a) The parallel middle body (LPf,a) can be controlled
Fig. 11.30 Example of the Lackenby variation method for a VLCC

Fig. 11.31 Determination of the longitudinal shift of each section in the swing station method
(b) Since δx is proportional to x(1x), this method can be applied to any case for
the simple variation.
(c) The required adjustments to the prismatic coefficients of fore and after bodies to
give any desired change in the LCB position and total prismatic coefficient can
be determined.
Figure 11.30 shows an example of the Lackenby variation method for a VLCC.
This example is to change the hull form of CB ¼ 0.8384 and LCB ¼ 3.48% to that of
CB ¼ 0.8213 and LCB ¼ 3.11%. That is, this variation is to make the existing hull of
parent ship be more slender.
3. Swing station method
The swing station method can be used to change the LCB position of a ship. It is
done by swinging the CP curve. Thus, this method is used only to change LCB with
the displacement being maintained constant. In this method, each transverse
section of parent ship is swung through the same angle (θ), as shown in Fig. 11.31.
When the required change in LCB (δLCB), the transverse sectional area (y(x)) at
x expressed as a fraction of the maximum ordinate, and the vertical centroid (
y) of
the CP curve divided by the area of the maximum section are given, the longitudinal
shift (δx) of each section can be derived as the following equations.
δLCB δx
tan θ ¼ ¼ ð11:25Þ
y y
δLCB
δx ¼ y ð11:26Þ
y
4. Generation of the hull form for design ship

After the CP curve of design ship is determined by the CP variation method, the
hull form, that is, hull lines plan of the design ship should be made. Figure 11.32
Fig. 11.32 Determination of the longitudinal shift of each section by using the CP variation
method
shows an example of generating the hull form for design ship by using the CP curve.
As shown in this figure, the section line at each station of the design ship can be
obtained from that at the corresponding station having the same sectional area of
parent ship. And the section line at the intermediate station can be obtained by
linear interpolation. For example, the section line at Station (St.) 5 of the design
ship can be obtained from that at St. 3.7 of the parent ship. Also, the section line at
St. 18 of the design ship can be obtained from that at St. 17 of the parent ship.
Each section line is linked with waterlines and buttock lines. Thus, all hull form
curves, that is, wireframes hull form should be adjusted according to the result of
the hull form variation. Thus, the overall procedure of the generation of the hull
form by using the CP variation method can be summarized as below.
(a) When CP and LCB of the parent ship are given, calculate or estimate CP at fore
and after bodies (CPf and CPa).
(b) By using the 1-CP variation method or Lackenby variation method, correct the
difference in CB between parent and design ships.
(c) By using the swing station method, correct the difference in LCB between
parent and design ships.
(d) By correcting the local part of the CP curve, determine the CP curve of
design ship.
(e) Modify the body plan (section lines).
(f) Modify the water plan (waterlines).
(g) Modify the sheer plan (buttock lines).
Fig. 11.33 Example of moving an existing point on the curve
Fig. 11.34 Example of inserting a new point on the curve
Fig. 11.35 Example of deleting an existing point on the curve

Fig. 11.36 Check for the quality of the hull form of a twin-skeg container ship
11.4 Hull Form Fairing
The hull form fairing is a kind of touch-up process to increase the quality of the
hull form. In general, the hull form fairing is performed manually. The quality can
be checked roughly with the CP curve.
11.4.1 Modification of Hull Form Curves
The hull form fairing method means various methods for the modification of the
hull form curves through moving, inserting, and deleting points on the curves.
Figure 11.33 shows an example of moving an existing point on the curve.
Figure 11.34 shows an example of inserting a new point on the curve when a
certain curve is modeled with a small number of points.
Figure 11.35 shows an example of deleting an existing point on the curve.
11.4.2 Evaluation of the Quality of Hull Form
Through the repeated fairing work, the quality of hull form can be improved. To
check the quality, the CP curve of the curvature, each of hull form curve, hull
surface model from hull form curves, and so on can be used. Figure 11.36 shows an
11.5 Performance Evaluation of Hull Form 167
example to check the quality of the hull form by using the CP curve and hull surface
model of a twin-skeg container ship.
11.5 Performance Evaluation of Hull Form
The performance of hull form can be evaluated in the aspects of stability, resistance
and propulsion, and maneuverability.
11.5.1 Stability Performance
After the hull form is determined, the stability performance can be roughly evalu-
ated from hydrostatic values. The hydrostatic values include several values related
to the hydrostatic performance of a ship, as shown in Table 11.1. Furthermore, if the
center of gravity of the ship is given such as LCG (Longitudinal Center of Gravity),
VCG (Vertical Center of Gravity, KG), and TCG (Transverse Center of Gravity),
then, GMT, GML, Trim, and so on can be calculated as well.
The hydrostatic values can be represented as a table or a curve. The curve is
called the hydrostatic curve. Figures 11.37 and 11.38 shows an example of the
hydrostatic table and curve of a VLCC, respectively.
Table 11.1 Hydrostatic values

∇ m3 Displacement volume for molded draft
∇ext m3 Displacement volume, including shell plate thickness
Δ ton Displacement for molded draft
Δext ton Displacement, including shell plate thickness
LCB m Longitudinal center of buoyancy from midship
LCF m Longitudinal center of floatation from midship
VCB (KB) m Vertical center of buoyancy above baseline
TCB m Transverse center of buoyancy from center line
BMT m Transverse metacenter radius
BML m Longitudinal metacenter radius
GMT m Transverse metacenter height above baseline
GML m Longitudinal metacenter height above baseline
MTC tonm Moment to change trim by one centimeter
TPC ton Tons (increase in displacement) per one centimeter immersion
SBH m2 Wetted surface area of bare hull
Trim m Difference in fore and after drafts (¼ Ta–Tf)
Fig. 11.37 Hydrostatic table of a VLCC
Fig. 11.38 Hydrostatic curve of a VLCC
11.5.2 Resistance and Propulsion Performance
The resistance and propulsion performance of the hull form can be evaluated
through the model tests, the numerical analysis (CFD), and so on. Such perfor-
mance can be used as criteria for selecting the best hull form among various
alternatives for the hull form. Since the model tests need more time and cost than
Fig. 11.39 Overall procedure of model tests
the numerical analysis although they can give more reliable results, a trade-off is
required between the time and cost, and the accuracy.
1. CFD
The CFD is a branch of fluid mechanics that uses numerical methods and algo-
rithms to solve and analyze problems that involve fluid flows. Computers are used
to perform the calculations required to simulate the interaction of liquids and gases
with surfaces defined by boundary conditions. To reduce the computation time,
high-speed supercomputers are being used now.
The procedures of the CFD consist of three steps; pre-processing, simulation,
and post-processing. In the step of pre-processing, the geometry (physical bounds)
of the problem is defined first. Then, the volume occupied by the fluid is divided into
discrete cells called meshes. At this time the mesh may be uniform or non-uniform.
Next, the physical model is formulated such as the equations of motion, enthalpy,
radiation, species conservation, and so on. Finally, boundary conditions are defined.
This involves specifying the fluid behavior and properties at the boundaries of the
problem. For transient problems, the initial conditions are also defined. In the step
of simulation, the simulation is started and the equations are solved iteratively as a
steady-state or transient. In the step of post-processing, the simulation result is
visualized. At this time, a post-processor is used for the analysis and visualization
of the resulting solution.
There are several methods for the CFD. As discretization methods of the target
model, the finite volume method, finite element method, finite difference method,
spectral element method, boundary element method, high-resolution discretization
schemes, and so on have been studied. As methods for representing turbulence
models, the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes, large eddy simulation, detached
eddy simulation, direct numerical simulation, coherent vortex simulation, proba-
bility density function methods, vortex method, vorticity confinement method,
linear eddy model, and so on have been studied. More details about CFD can be
found in many references (Anderson 1995; Bertram 2011).
2. Model tests
There are several model tests for estimating the resistance and propulsion
performance. Figure 11.39 shows the overall procedure of model tests.
(a) Resistance test
This test is the most representative one. In this test, a model ship is towed by a
carriage and the total longitudinal forces (total resistance) acting on the model are
measured at various speeds. During this test, the model ship is free to move
vertically and in pitch. This test is done at one or several displacements or trim
angles. When the ship speed (VM) is given, the total resistance (RTM) is measured
from this test.
Test procedures are as follows; (1) The model ship is accelerated to the desired
speed with the carriage. (2) The speed is kept constant for at least 10 s or at least
10 load cycles. (3) Average values of the measurements for the period of constant
speed is calculated.
At this time, the tow force can fluctuate considerably, especially for model ships
having the low drag/displacement ratio and the large displacement. In such cases, at
least ten oscillations in the time series are required. In addition, the transient part of
the time series, which is due to the acceleration, should be left out.
(b) Self-propulsion test
In this test, a model ship is self-propelled and free to move vertically and in
pitch. The horse power required to drive the model at various speeds is measured.
When the ship speed (VM) is given, the thrust (TM), torque (QM), propeller speed
(nM), and fore and after drafts are measured from this test. There are two methods
for this test; continental method and British method.
The test procedures of the continental method is as follows; (1) The model
ship is accelerated to the desired speed with its own electric motor. (2) Propeller
speed (nP, propeller rpm) is adjusted so that the model ship is getting the same
speed as the carriage, and then the model ship is released. (3) The measurement is
made with the found speed of propeller for at least 10 s. (4) Average values of the
measurements for the period of constant speed is calculated.
The test procedure of the British method is as follows; (1) The model ship is
accelerated to the desired speed with its own electric motor. (2) Propeller speed is
set to constant value. At this time, the model speed can be different from the
carriage speed. (3) Applied towing force is measured. (4) The test is repeated
with other values of propeller speeds. The values of thrust, torque, and propeller
speeds for correcting towing force are found by interpolation.
In the case of the British method, re-analyses with other towing force values are
possible. And it can be used to get propeller over- and under-load results. However,
it is more time-consuming.
(c) POW (Propeller Open Water) test

This test is carried out under the ideal condition in which the propeller does not
get disturbed by the hull. When the propeller dimensions (DP, Pi, AE/AO, and z), the
propeller speed (nP), and the advance speed (VA) are given, the thrust (KT), torque
(KQ), propeller efficiency in open water (ηO) for Advance Ratio (J) are measured or
calculated.
Test procedures are as follows; (1) The propeller speed is kept constant. (2) The
carriage speed (water speed) is varied in steps from zero speed to zero propeller
thrust. (3) The test is performed at the same speed of propeller as expected for
design speed in the self-propulsion test. (4) The test is repeated at higher propeller
speeds. (5) Results are presented in non-dimensional form.
(d) Cavitation test
This test is performed to investigate the cavitation induced erosion of propeller
blades, the effect of cavitation on the propulsion efficiency, vibrations, and noise.
When the propeller dimensions, the propeller speed, the advance speed (water
speed of the tunnel), the pressure pulse and propeller noise are measured from this
test.
A test procedure is as follows; (1) The water speed in test section according to
actual advance ratio is selected. (2) The after body model is installed and wake field
by mesh screens is adjusted. (3) The propeller model is installed. (4) With atmo-
spheric pressure in the tunnel, the propeller speed and/or water speed is adjusted
until the propeller torque is correct according to the self-propulsion test. (5) Being
water speed and propeller speed kept constant, the tunnel pressure is reduced until
the specified cavitation number is achieved. (6) Necessary cavitation observation
and measurements (noise, erosion, etc.) are performed.
(e) Flow visualization test
Stripes of a paint are applied to the model ship which is then towed at the desired
speed in Froude scale and propeller speed. This leads to the paint streaking along
the flow lines at the boundary layer of the hull of the model ship.
11.5.3 Maneuverability Performance
The maneuverability performance is related to a hull form and appendages such as

propeller and rudder. Thus, this performance should be evaluated at the design stage
of hull form.
1. Key measures
There are several key measures of maneuverability performance. Each measure is
described below.
(a) Turning ability
This is the measure of the ability to turn the ship using hard-over rudder, the
result being a minimum advance at 90 change of heading and tactical diameter
defined by the transfer at 180 change of heading. A turning circle test is to be
performed to both starboard and port. The rudder angle must be the maximum
design rudder angle permissible at the test speed, but is not required to be more than
35 . The rudder angle is executed following a steady approach with zero yaw rate.
The essential information to be obtained from this test is the tactical diameter,
the advance, and the transfer. In addition, the speed lost in a turn and maximum roll
angle, as well as the peak and final yaw rates, should be recorded.
(b) Initial turning ability
The initial turning ability is defined by the change-of-heading response to a
moderate helm, in terms of heading deviation per unit distance sailed or in terms of
the distance covered before realizing a certain heading deviation. That is, it means
time to second execute demonstrated when entering the zig-zag test.
(c) Course changing and yaw checking ability
The course changing ability can be estimated from a zig-zag test. This test is
initiated to both starboard and port and begins by applying a specified amount of
rudder angle to an initially straight approach (“first execute”). The rudder angle is
then alternately shifted to either side after a specified deviation from the ship’s
original heading is reached (“second execute” and following). There are two kinds
of zig-zag tests; the 10/10 and 20/20 zig-zag tests. The 10/10 zig-zag test uses
rudder angles of 10 to either side following a heading deviation of 10 from the
original course. The 20/20 zig-zag test uses 20 rudder angles coupled with a 20
change of heading from the original course. The essential information to be
obtained from these tests is the overshoot angles, the initial turning time to second
execute, and the time to check yaw.
The yaw checking ability is a measure of the response to counter-rudder
applied in a certain state of turning, such as the heading overshoot reached before
the yawing tendency has been canceled by the counter-rudder in a standard zig-zag
test.
(d) Stopping ability
The stopping ability is measured by the track reach and head reach realized in a
stop engine-full astern test performed after a steady approach at the test speed until
ahead speed in ship coordinates changes sign. The track reach means a distance
along the ship’s track that the ship covers from the moment that the full astern
command is given until ahead speed changes sign. The head reach means a distance
along the direction of the course at the moment when the full astern command was
given. The distance is measured from the moment when the full astern command is
given until the ship is stopped dead in the water.
(e) Straight line stability and course keeping ability
The straight line stability means an ability that a ship is straight-line stable on a
straight course if, after a small disturbance, it will soon settle on a new straight
course without any corrective rudder. The resultant deviation from the original
heading will depend on the degree of inherent stability and on the magnitude and
duration of the disturbance.
The course keeping ability is a measure of the ability of the steered ship to
maintain a straight path in a predetermined course direction without excessive
oscillations of rudder or heading. In most cases, reasonable course control is
possible where there is small straight-line instability. The relationship between
rudder angle and yaw rate is used to quantify a magnitude of straight line instability,
in particular with an unstable loop.
To check this ability, the pull-out test and spiral test are performed. The pull-
out test is performed to determine whether a ship is dynamically stable and able to
keep the course. After the completion of the turning circle test, the rudder is
returned to neutral position and kept there until a steady turning rate is obtained.
This test gives a simple indication of a ship’s dynamic stability on a straight course.
If the ship is stable, the rate of turn will decay to zero for turns to both port and
starboard. If the ship is unstable, then the rate of turn will reduce to some residual
rate of turn. The residual rates of turn to port and starboard indicate the magnitude
of instability at the neutral rudder angle. Normally, the pull-out test is performed in
connection with the turning circle, zig-zag, or initial turning tests, but they may be
carried out separately. If the ship is found to be straight-line unstable by the pull-out
test, one of the spiral tests can be performed. One is the direct spiral test called
Table 11.2 Standards and criteria for the evaluation of maneuverability performance
Measures Standards and criteria Test IMO standard
Turning ability Tactical diameter (TD) Turning cir- TD < 5L
Advance (Ad) cle test Ad < 4.5L
Initial turning ability Distance traveled before 10 10/10 l10 < 2.5L
course change (l10) zig-zag test
Course changing and yaw First overshoot angle (α101) 10/10 α101 f101(L/
checking ability zig-zag test V)
Second overshoot angle α102 f102(L/
(α102) V)
First overshoot angle (α201) 20/20 α201 25
zig-zag test
Stopping ability Track Reach (TR) Crash stop TR < 15L
Head reach test None
Straight-line stability and Residual turning rate (r) Pull-out test r 6¼ 0
course keeping ability Width of instability loop Simplified αU fu(L/V )
(αU) spiral test
Dieudonné spiral test. This test is an orderly sequence of turning circle tests to
obtain a steady turning rate versus rudder angle relation. The test requires a very
long time and therefore is not recommended for the sea trial. The other is the
reverse spiral called Bech spiral test. This test may provide a more rapid proce-
dure than the direct spiral test in developing the spiral curve and enables obtaining
the dashed or unstable portion of the yaw rate versus rudder angle relationship
which is not obtainable from the direct spiral test. In the reverse spiral test, the ship
is steered to obtain a constant yaw rate, the mean rudder angle required to produce
this yaw rate is measured and the yaw rate versus rudder angle plot is created. Points
on the curve of yaw rate versus rudder angle may be taken in any order.
2. Standards and criteria
To check the maneuverability performance of a ship, standards and criteria by
IMO (2012) in Table 11.2 are used.
In this table, L is ship length in m and V is ship speed in m/s.
3. Prediction of maneuverability performance
There are several methods to estimate maneuverability performance such as
numerical analysis and model tests.
(a) Numerical analysis
Numerical analysis is based on numerical integration of a system of ordinary
differential equations describing ship motion in a horizontal plane. Such a system is
also called a mathematical model. This numerical analysis is to be performed for a
ship in full load condition. The mathematical model used for numerical analysis is
to be validated with sea trial results for a ship in trial load conditions. Numerical
analysis is the integration of differential equations describing ship motions in a
horizontal plane. The most important input data required by the mathematical
model are hydrodynamic forces and moments acting on the submerged part of the
hull and usually presented in the non-dimensional form commonly known as
hydrodynamic coefficients, maneuvering coefficients or maneuvering derivatives.
The only reliable source of hydrodynamic coefficients is model tests. These coef-
ficients, however, are reusable for a ship with similar underwater hull geometry.
Once hydrodynamic derivatives and other coefficients have been determined
either from parent ships or through model tests, the numerical analysis can be
performed in order to predict maneuverability of design ship. Numerical integration
of a system of ordinary differential equations is a standard mathematical procedure.
(b) Model tests
The model tests can be performed to predict maneuverability performance or to
determine hydrodynamic coefficients for numerical analysis. There are several tests
such as the straight line test, the rotating arm test, the PMM (Planar Motion
Mechanism) test, free running (or radio-controlled) test, and so on.
Other explanations about the maneuverability performance of ships can be found
in various references (Tupper and Rawson 2001).
Fig. 11.40 Hull lines plan (after body) of a VLCC
Fig. 11.41 Hull lines plan (fore body) of a VLCC
Fig. 11.42 Offsets table of a VLCC

Fig. 11.43 Wireframe model and surface model for the hull form of a VLCC
11.6 Generation of Hull Lines Plan and Hull Form Surface
11.6.1 Hull Lines Plan
In general, the result of the design is shared among designers with 2D plans. The
result of hull form design is the hull lines plan. This plan consists of three plans;
body plan, sheer plan, and water plan. As mentioned above, the body plan mainly
consists of section lines, the sheer plan mainly consists of buttock lines, and the
water plan mainly consists of waterlines. Figures 11.40 and 11.41 show an example
of hull lines plan of a VLCC.
Sometimes, the hull lines plan can be represented as a table called offsets table.
This table shows half-breadths of a ship according to the change of the station
(x direction) and the waterline (z direction). Figure 11.42 shows an example of
offsets table of a VLCC. In this table, all half-breadths for a specific station
constructs a section line of the corresponding station. And all half-breadths for a
specific waterline construct a waterline of the corresponding waterline. Thus, the
hull lines plan and the offsets table can be transformed each other.
11.6.2 Hull Form Surface
After the curves of hull form (wireframe model) are determined, it should be also
transformed to the hull form in surface form (surface model), as shown in
Fig. 11.43. As mentioned above, the wireframe model consists of hull form curves.
On the other hand, the surface model consists of hull form surfaces. It can be
automatically generated from the wireframe model. For this, various methods for
surface modeling can be used such as Bezier surface, B-spline surface, and so on.
At the stage of compartment design, compartments are defined in the hull form.
For this, the hull form should be modelled as a surface model with compartment
information (compartment model) not a wireframe model. Similarly, at the stage
of hull structural design, a number of hull structural parts such as plates, stiffeners,
brackets, and so on modeled as a surface model (hull structural model).
11.6 Generation of Hull Lines Plan and Hull Form Surface 177
Fig. 11.44 Single patch approach and piecewise patch approach for surface modeling of the hull
form
Table 11.3 Comparison between single patch approach and piecewise patch approach
Approaches Single patch approach Piecewise patch approach
Advantages It is easy to represent the hull surface. It is suitable for representing the
complicated free form surface.
Mathematically, the 2nd derivatives It is able to represent the knuckle
are continuous at all points on the curve.
surface (C2 continuity).
Disadvantages A single patch approach cannot It should satisfy the complicated
exactly represent a complex shape in continuity equations for the tangen-
the bow and stern parts and also tial plane to generate a fine hull form
knuckle curve. surface.
It needs a special method to handle
the region which is not a rectangle.
Furthermore, at the production stage, more detailed information of the hull form
is required. For example, the production information such as joint length (welding
length), painting area, weight, and CG of blocks, the jig information for curved
blocks, and the cost and duration of the construction should be estimated at the
initial design stage. The estimation of such information starts from the information
of the hull form. Thus, the hull form in the surface model should be prepared at the
end of hull form design.
When generating a surface model for the hull form from the wireframe model,
there are two approaches; single patch approach and piecewise patch (multiple
patches) approach, as shown in Fig. 11.44. The first is to represent the hull form
with one surface patch. The latter is to represent the hull form with several surface
patch. The pros and cons of each approach is shown in Table 11.3.
Fig. 11.45 Example of propeller modeling
Fig. 11.46 Example of modeling of rudder, bolster, and anchor pocket
11.7 Appendage Design
Many appendages are attached on the hull form. Thus, it is required to design some
of them at the stage of hull form design. The most representative one is a propeller.
After principal dimensions of a propeller are determined, its shape should be
modeled. The modeling can start with some curves but finally, surface model
should be generated for its production. Figure 11.45 shows a wireframe model
and a surface model of a propeller.
References 179
A rudder is a primary control surface used to steer a ship and it is related to

maneuverability performance of the ship. An anchor is used to prevent the ship
from drifting from its location due to the wind and tidal currents, larger ships
having two bow and one stern anchor. There are numerous types of ships anchors
and the heavy ones are normally produced through casting or drop-forged from
carbon steel. A bolster means a hole for the anchor. And an anchor pocket is a
passage from the bolster to the chain locker where the anchor chain is stored.
Figure 11.46 shows modeling of a rudder, a bolster, and an anchor pocket.
In this section, a computational guide to establish hull form design program is

discussed. Such program includes the implementation of subfunctions as below.
(a) Generation of hull form in Sect. 11.2
(b) Hull form variation in Sect. 11.3
(c) Hull form fairing in Sect. 11.4
(d) Performance evaluation of hull form in Sect. 11.5
(e) Generation of hull lines plan and hull form surface in Sect. 11.6
Most of these subfunctions except for the performance evaluation can be
implemented by using various methods for CAGD (Computer-Aided Geometric
Design) such as NURBS (Non-Uniform Rational B-Spline). More details about
these methods can be found in many references (Lee et al. 2000, 2002a; Farin
2001). In the case of the performance evaluation, the methods based on numerical
analysis such as CFD can be used for the implementation.
In addition, many commercial programs for this purpose have been also devel-
oped such as AVEVA Initial Design (AVEVA 2017), EzHULL by EzGRAPH
(2017), NAPA Hull Form and Performance (NAPA 2017), SmartMarine 3D by
Intergraph (2017), and so on (in alphabetical order).
References
Anderson, J. D. (1995). Computational fluid dynamics: the basics with applications. New York:
McGraw Hill.
AVEVA. (2017). http://www.aveva.com
Bertram, V. (2011). Practical ship hydrodynamics (2nd ed.). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
EzGRAPH. (2017). http://www.ezgraph.net
Farin, G. (2001). Curves and surfaces for CAGD: A practical guide (5th ed.). Boston: Academic.
IMO. (2012). Standards for ship manoeuvrability. Resolution MSC 137 (76). IMO.
Intergraph. (2017). http://www.intergraph.com
Lackenby, H. (1950). On the systematic geometrical variation of ship forms. Transactions of the
Royal Institution of Naval Architects, 92, 289–309.
Lee, K. Y., Cho, D. Y., & Rhim, J. H. (2000). An improved tracing algorithm for surface/surface
intersections. Journal of Ship Technology Research, 47(3), 126–131.
Lee, K. Y., Cho, D. Y., & Kim, T. W. (2002a). A tracing algorithm for surface/surface intersec-
tions on surface boundaries. Journal of Computer Science and Technology, 17(6), 843–850.
NAPA. (2017). http://www.napa.fi
Tupper, E. C., & Rawson, K. J. (2001). Basic ship theory (5th ed.). Oxford: Butterworth-
Heinemann.
Chapter 12
General Arrangement Design
12.1 Generals
Most important and fundamental task of general arrangement design is to make

compartments inside hull form, called compartment design. Compartments mean
spaces for cargo, including fuel oil, ballast water, fresh water, etc., spaces for the
operating of a ship, e.g., engine room, steering gear room, anchor room, etc., and
also accommodation space for crews. Compartments are made by dividing interior
parts of the hull form with transverse and longitudinal bulkheads into a number of
spaces. To evaluate the suitability of the compartment design, naval architectural
calculation is carried out. It evaluates the economical constraints of the ship
owner’s requirements, e.g., required cargo capacity, deadweight, etc., and, at the
same time, the regulatory constraints of the international regulations such as
MARPOL, SOLAS, and ICLL related to the stability freeboard, etc.
In general, a ship can be divided into four parts, as shown in Fig. 12.1; after
body, engine room, cargo hold, and fore body. The after body is located behind the
engine room. The engine room includes many equipment including a main engine.
The cargo hold is a space to load cargoes and it is an index for profit to a ship owner.
And the fore body is located in front of the cargo hold. In this chapter, a method for
the general arrangement design of each part is described.
12.2 Various Types of Tankers
There are various types of tankers such as crude oil carrier, product carrier,
chemical tanker, and so on, which carry liquid cargo. According to its size, that
is, the capacity of cargo hold, it is called by various names; Handymax
(10,000~60,000 DWT), Panamax (60,000~80,000 DWT, medium range),

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-4885-2_12
182 12 General Arrangement Design
Fig. 12.1 Ship divided into four parts as after body, engine room, cargo hold, and fore body
Aframax (Average Freight Rate Assessment MAXimum, 80,000 ~120,000 DWT,

large range 1), Suezmax (120,000~200,000 DWT, large range 2), VLCC (Very
Large Crude oil Carrier) (280,000~320,000 DWT), ULCC (Ultra Large Crude oil
Carrier) (320,000~550,000 DWT), and so on. Figure 12.2 shows compartment
arrangement of various types of tankers. In general, the Panamax has six transverse
bulkheads in the cargo hold, and one pair of tanks in the transverse direction. The
Aframax and Suexmax have one longitudinal bulkhead and six transverse bulk-
heads in the cargo hold, and two pairs (port and starboard) of tanks in the transverse
direction. And the VLCC has two longitudinal bulkheads and five transverse
bulkheads in the cargo hold, and three pairs (center, port, and starboard) of tanks
in the transverse direction.
12.3 Rules and Regulations for Tanker
There are several rules and regulations for general arrangement of a tanker. It will
be explained as below.
12.3.1 Requirement for Double Hull Structure
According to MARPOL regulation (Annex I, Reg. 19), oil tankers over 600 DWT
delivered on or after 6 July 1996 should have a double hull structure, as shown in
Fig. 12.3b. In this figure, COT and WBT stand for cargo oil tank and water ballast
tank, respectively.
The requirement for the double hull structure of tanker can be summarized in
Table 12.1. According to this requirement, an inner hull of a tanker including slop
tank should have distance of about 2.0 m from outer hull. More details about slop
tanks are described in Sect. 12.3.3.
12.3 Rules and Regulations for Tanker 183
Fig. 12.2 Compartment arrangement of various tankers
Fig. 12.3 Single and double hull structure of tanker. (a) Single hull structure. (b) Double hull
structure
12.3.2 Limitation of the Size of Cargo Tanks
According to MARPOL regulation (Annex I, Reg. 23), oil tankers delivered on or

after 1 January 2010 should consider the limitation of the size of cargo tanks in
Table 12.1 Requirement for the double hull structure of tanker

Item Requirement
Double bottom Over 5,000 h ¼ B/15 (m) or h ¼ 2.0 m, whichever is the lesser, with a
height (h) DWT minimum value of 1.0 m
Less than h ¼ B/15 (m) with a minimum value of 0.76 m
5,000 DWT
Side tank width Over 5,000 w ¼ 0.5 + DWT/20,000 (m) or w ¼ 2.0 m, whichever is the
(w) DWT lesser, with a minimum value of 1.0 m
Less than w ¼ 0.4 + 2.4 DWT/20,000 (m) with a minimum value of
5,000 DWT 0.76 m
Table 12.2 Requirement for the mean oil outflow parameter (OM) for over 5,000 DWT tankers
Total volume of cargo oil Requirement
C 200,000 m3 OM 0.015
200,000 m3 < C 400,000 m3 OM 0.012 + (0.003/200,000)(400,000 – C)
400,000 m3 < C OM 0.012
order to provide adequate protection against oil pollution in the event of collision
or stranding.
For over 5,000 DWT tankers, the mean oil outflow parameter (OM) should
satisfy the value in Table 12.2. In this table, C is total volume of cargo tanks in m3
at 98% tank filling.
The mean oil outflow parameter (OM) can be calculated as the following
equation.
OM ¼ ð0:4 OMS þ 0:6 OMB Þ=C½m3 ð12:1Þ
In this equation, OMS is the mean oil outflow for side damage in m3 and can be
calculated as the following equation.
X
n
OMS ¼ C3 PSðiÞ OSðiÞ m3 ð12:2Þ
i¼1
where, i is each cargo tank under consideration and n is total number of cargo tanks.
C3 is a constant and the value is 0.77 for ships having two longitudinal bulkheads
inside the cargo hold, provided these bulkheads are continuous over the cargo hold
and 1.0 for all other ships. PS(i) is the probability of penetrating cargo tank i from
side damage and OS(i) is the outflow in m3 from side damage to cargo tank i, which
is assumed equal to the total volume in cargo tank i at 98% filling.
And OMB is the mean oil outflow for bottom damage in m3 and can be calculated
12.3 Rules and Regulations for Tanker 185
Table 12.3 Requirement for the size of cargo tanks for less than 5,000 DWT tankers
Item Requirement
No longitudinal bulkhead (0.5bi/B + 0.1)L, but not to
exceed 0.2L
One center longitudinal bulkhead (0.25bi/B + 0.15)L
Two or more longitudinal Wing cargo tanks 0.2L
bulkheads Center cargo bi/B 0.2L 0.2L
tanks bi/B < 0.2L (0.5bi/B + 0.1)L; no
center longitudinal bulkhead
(0.25bi/B + 0.15)L;
center longitudinal bulkhead

OMB ¼ 0:7 OMBð0Þ þ 0:3 OMBð2:5Þ m3 ð12:3Þ
where, OMB(0) and OMB(2.5) are the mean outflow for 0 m and minus 2.5 m tide
condition in m3, respectively and can be calculated as the following equation.
X
n
OMBð0Þ and OMBð2:5Þ ¼ PBðiÞ OBðiÞ CDBðiÞ ½m3 ð12:4Þ
i¼1
where, PB(i) is the probability of penetrating cargo tank i from bottom damage and
OB(i) is the outflow from cargo tank i in m3 (after tidal change for OMB(2.5)). And
CDB(i) is a factor to account for oil capture.
For less than 5,000 DWT tankers, the length of each cargo tank shall not exceed
10 m or one of the values in Table 12.3, whichever is the greater. In this table, bi is
the minimum distance from the ship’s side to the outer longitudinal bulkhead of the
tank in question measured inboard at right angles to the center line at the level
corresponding to the assigned summer freeboard.
12.3.3 Installation of Slop Tanks
According to MARPOL regulation (Annex I, Reg. 29), oil tankers delivered on or

after 31 December 1979 should have sufficient slop tanks. A slop tank is used to
store polluted ballast water and cleansing water for tank. When void cargo hold at
ballast condition is filled with sea water in an emergency, oil from dirty water
generated by tank washing is separated and stored in slop tank. The capacity of slop
tanks should be over 3% of total volume of cargo tanks, except that the Adminis-
tration may accept; (1) 2% for such oil tankers where the tank washing arrange-
ments are such that once the slop tank or tanks are charged with washing water, this
water is sufficient for tank washing and, where applicable, for providing the driving
fluid for eductors, without the introduction of additional water into the system;
(2) 2% where segregated ballast tanks or dedicated clean ballast tanks are provided,
or where a cargo tank cleaning system using crude oil washing is fitted. This
capacity may be further reduced to 1.5% for such oil tankers where the tank
washing arrangements are such that once the slop tank or tanks are charged with
washing water, this water is sufficient for tank washing and, where applicable, for
providing the driving fluid for eductors, without the introduction of additional water
into the system; and (3) 1% for combination carriers where oil cargo is only carried
in tanks with smooth walls. This capacity may be further reduced to 0.8% where the
tank washing arrangements are such that once the slop tank or tanks are charged
with washing water, this water is sufficient for tank washing and, where applicable,
for providing the driving fluid for eductors, without the introduction of additional
water into the system.
12.3.4 Installation of Segregated Ballast Tanks
According to MARPOL regulation (Annex I, Reg. 18), oil tankers over 20,000
DWT delivered on or after 1 June 1982 should have sufficient, segregated ballast
tanks for ballast condition. The capacity of the segregated ballast tanks should be
so determined that the ship may operate safely on ballast condition in Table 12.4
without recourse to the use of cargo tanks for water ballast.
In this table, Ls is the rule length. This length is the distance on the waterline at
the scantling draft (Ts) from the forward side of the stem (FP) to the center line of
the rudder stock (AP). This length should not be less than 96%, and need not be
greater than 97%, of the extreme length on the waterline at the scantling draft (the
summer load waterline).
12.3.5 Protection of Fuel Oil Tanks
According to MARPOL regulation (Annex I, Reg. 12A), oil tankers having an

aggregate fuel oil capacity of over 600 m3 delivered on or after 1 August 2010
should consider the protection of fuel oil tanks. The requirement for the protection
of fuel oil tanks can be summarized in Table 12.5.
Figure 12.4 shows an example of the protection of fuel oil tanks.
Table 12.4 Requirement for Item Requirement

the segregated ballast tanks in
Molded draft (T ) at midship T 2.0 (m) + 0.02Ls
ballast condition
Trim by stern Less than 0.015Ls
Propeller Full immersion
12.4 Cargo Hold Arrangement 187
Table 12.5 Requirement for the protection of fuel oil tanks

Item Requirement
Capacity of Less than 2,500 m3 (at 98% filling)
individual fuel
oil tank
Distance from h ¼ B/20 (m) or h ¼ 2.0 m, whichever is the lesser, with a minimum value
bottom (h) of 0.76 m
Distance from 600~5,000 m3 w ¼ 0.4 + 2.4C/20,000 (m) with a minimum value of
side (w) 1.0 m. However for individual tanks with an oil fuel
capacity of less than 500 m3 the minimum value is
0.76 m.
Over 5,000 m3 w ¼ 0.5 + C/20,000 (m) or w ¼ 2.0 m, whichever is the
lesser, with a minimum value of 1.0 m
Mean oil outflow 600~5,000 m3 OM < 0.0157–1.14106C
parameter (OM) Over 5,000 m3 OM < 0.010
Fig. 12.4 Example of the protection of fuel oil tanks
12.4 Cargo Hold Arrangement
The important concept of general arrangement is to maximize cargo hold space, that
is, capacity of cargo hold since the capacity is the index of ship owner’s profit. To
realize this concept, the size of supporting spaces such as engine room, accommo-
dation, ballast water, after body, fore body and so on should be minimized.
Table 12.6 Considerations of the cargo hold arrangement

Item Rules and regulations Design points
Number of cargo tanks – Total number of cargo tanks
Slop tank
Cargo segregation group
Length of cargo tanks MARPOL Annex I, Reg. 23 Maximum rule length
Maximum volume of cargo tank
Consideration of loading condition
Web space – Structural strength
Lightweight and manufacturability
Consideration of design trend
The considerations of the cargo hold arrangement can be summarized in

Table 12.6.
12.4.1 Watertight Bulkhead
A watertight bulkhead (simply bulkhead) means a structure which is watertight

against water presure. The cargo hold is divided into several compartments or cago
tanks by bulkheads. The bulkhead is a factor for determining the number and length
of cargo hold. The number of bulkheads (in general, transverse bulkhead) should be
determined considering ship length, damage stability, structural strength, and so on.
12.4.2 Frame Space
A frame is a base position to install a hull structural part. The frame is numbered
from AP (frame number is 0). The frame space is a space between frames. In
general, different frame space is used for each part of a ship. In case of engine room,
fore body, and after body, a small value of the frame space is used, whereas in case
of cargo hold, a large value of the frame space is used. When determining the frame
space of the cargo hold, the followings should be considered.
(a) Standardized frame space by classification societies
(b) Arrangement of web floor in double bottom
(c) Arrangement of transverse stiffeners in top side and deck
(d) Even spacing
(e) Hull structure and strength
(f) Manufacturability
12.4 Cargo Hold Arrangement 189
The space of longitudinal stiffeners should be also determined considering

structural strength, manufacturability (lightweight control, man-hour reduction),
and so on.
12.4.3 Double Bottom Height
When determing the double bottom height, the followings should be considered.
(a) Structural strength for SWBM (Still Water Bending Moment) control
(b) Capacity of cargo hold
(c) Capacity of ballast water
(d) Manufacturability: Workable height (about 2.8 m) in double bottom tank
without work platform
As mentioned above, over 5,000 DWT tankers, the double bottom height (h) is
determined by h ¼ B/15 (m) or h ¼ 2.0 m, whichever is the lesser, with a minimum
value of 1.0 m. This is the minimum requirement and a general value for the double
bottom height is 2.46 m for the Aframax, 2.80 m for the Suezmax, and 3.00 m for
the VLCC.
12.4.4 Side Tank Width
When determing the width of the side tank (also called wing tank), the followings
should be considered.
(a) Structural strength for SWBM control
(c) Capacity of ballast water
As mentioned above, over 5,000 DWT tankers, the side tank width (w) is
determined by w ¼ 0.5 + DWT/20,000 (m) or w ¼ 2.0 m, whichever is the lesser,
with a minimum value of 1.0 m. This is the minimum requirement and a general
value for the side tank width is 2.46 m for the Aframax, 2.55 m for the Suezmax,
and 3.38 m for the VLCC.
12.4.5 Cofferdam
A cofferdam is a space for fire prevention between cargo hold and engine room or
watertight space between two watertight bulkheads, which can be empty or use for
ballast. There are several positions for the cofferdam as below.
(a) Between LOT (Lubrication Oil Tank) and FOT (Fuel Oil Tank)
(b) Between water tank and oil tank
(c) Between heated tank and grain store
(d) When FOT ends deck and the lower part of deck is a space for other equipment
or engine room
(e) Between engine room and emergency generator room
(f) The surroundings of the LO (Lubrication Oil) sump tank of main engine
(g) Required part for isolation
There are some regulations related to the installation of cofferdam. In LR, a
cofferdam should be installed at forward and after end of oil cargo space. It should
be able to cover whole area of end bulkhead of cargo space. A pump room, oil fuel
bunker or water ballast tank can be regarded as cofferdam. A cofferdam should be
also installed between cargo oil tanker and convenience space, and between cargo
oil tank and the space where electric equipment is installed. In DNV GL, a product
tanker should have a cofferdam between cargo tank and fuel oil tank. However, a
ship which carries non-dangerous liquid having flash point over 60 C does not have
a cofferdam. The minimum breadth or height of cofferdam is over 760 mm in LR
and BV, and over 600 mm in DNV GL.
12.4.6 Hopper
When determing the hopper size and angle, the followings should be considered.
(a) Structural strength
(c) Manufacturability (Number of stringers)
(d) Hull form angle
(e) Hopper angle: In general, abt. 40~45
Hopper tank can be seen in Fig. 13.1 in Sect. 13.1.1.
Table 12.7 Requirement for the cargo manifolds

Item Design points
Manifold position Amidship of LOA 3 m
Distance form ship 4.6 m
side
Height from upper Not exceed 2.1 m
deck
Manifold space 1.5 m for 16,000~25,000 DWT, 2.0 m for 25,000~60,000 DWT, 2.5 m for
60,000~160,000 DWT, 3.0 m for over 160,000 DWT
Spill tank size Width: 1,800 mm, Depth: 300 mm, Vertical positioning: 900 mm
12.5 Fore Body Arrangement 191
12.4.7 Cargo Manifolds
Cargo manifolds are equipment for loading and unloading cargo and are one of
cargo handling equipment. There is a standard for the cargo manifolds and associ-
ated equipment of tankers by OCIMF (Oil Companies International Marine
Forum). The requirement for the cargo manifolds can be summarized in
Table 12.7.
12.4.8 Helicopter Landing and Winching Mark
There is a guideline between ship and helicopter operations by ICS (International

Chamber of Shipping). Related to this, there are requirements for landing area and
winching area.
1. Landing area
An aiming or touchdown circle should be 0.5d, not higher than 0.1 m. Where,
d is LOA of helicopter including its blades. A clear zone (when extended) should be
d (1.5d), not higher than 0.25 m. And a maneuvering zone (when extended) should
be 1.3d (2.0d ), not higher than 1.25 m.
2. Winching area
All helicopter operations to and from a ship should normally involve landing on
a deck; however, where operations are infrequent or the configuration of the ship
precludes installation of a helicopter deck, then facilities for winching may be
provided. At this time, a clear zone should be d (minimum 5 m) with no obstruction.
A 1.5d area should not be higher than 3 m. And a maneuvering zone should be 2.0d,
not higher than 6 m.
12.5 Fore Body Arrangement
12.5.1 Length of Fore Body
There is a bulkhead between FPT (Fore Peak Tank) and cargo hold. This is called
a collision bulkhead or a fore bulkhead. This is the most strong and forward
bulkhead of a ship, which has a very important safety feature. The position of
collision bulkhead determines the length of fore body. To maximize the capacity of
cargo hold, the length should be minimized.
According to SOLAS regulation (Chapter II-1, Reg. 12), the collision bulkhead
should be watertight from baseline to freeboard deck. And the position of collision
bulkhead should satisfy the following criterion.
Fig. 12.5 Definition of the length of fore body (LFPT), LC, and f
minð0:05Lf , 10Þ LC maxð0:08Lf , 0:05Lf þ 3Þ ð12:5Þ
where, LC is a distance from collision bulkhead to FP or bulbous bow and Lf is

freeboard length.
Figure 12.5 represents the length of fore body (LFPT) from the position of
collision bulkhead.
In this figure, f is calculated as the following equation.
f ¼ minðb=2, 0:015Lf , 3Þ ð12:6Þ
where, b is bulb length in m.

In the initial design stage, Eq. (12.7) can be used to determine the position of
collision bulkhead of a tanker.

0:02Ls þ 6:0 ½m when Ls < 250 ½m
ð12:7Þ
0:03Ls þ 3:5 ½m when 250 ½m Ls
where, Ls is rule length of a ship in m.

A general value for the positon of collision bulkhead is 10.12 m for the Aframax,
12.92 m for the Suezmax, and 13.00 m for the VLCC.
12.5.2 Height of Fore Body
Some of ships have forecastle. This is a kind of superstructure, which locates at fore
body of ship. In general, the height of forecastle deck is about 3.0 m. A bulwark is a
kind of water breaker. It is installed in the front of warping end. The angle of
12.5 Fore Body Arrangement 193
Fig. 12.6 Examples of fore peak tank
inclination is about 45 and the height is about 1.1 m. Forecastle and bulwark can be
seen in Fig. 12.6.
12.5.3 Hull Tanks and Compartments Arrangement in Fore

Body
1. FPT (Fore Peak Tank)

The FPT can be used as a ballast tank to store ballast water. However, the purpose
is trim and strength control as compared with general tanks. As mentioned above, it
is advantageous to minimize the capacity of FPT under allowable loading. In the
aspect of structural optimization and amount of paint, it is advantageous to deter-
mine the position of FPT as lower as possible. When determining the capacity of
FPT, the followins should be considered; trim control, strength control, stability
control, ballast exchange control, cost and maintenance, and so on. Figure 12.6
shows examples of FPT.
As one of design guidance, top level of FPT is recommended as scantling draft
(Ts) + (0.5~0.7) m.
2. Bosun store
A bosun store is used a warehouse of for body or deck of a ship. In the case of
ships with forecastle, the position of bosun store is in the forecastle. In the case of
ships without forecastle, the position is under the upper deck. The passages for
bosun store are installed in port side for smoothly running of mooring equipment.
12.6 Engine Room Arrangement
The engine room arrangement is also related with the hull form of a ship. If the ship
speed becomes high, the tank top area of engine room becomes small, the allowable
installation position goes forward, and the length of engine room becomes long.
12.6.1 Length of Engine Room
When determining the length of engine room, the followings should be considered.
(a) Minimum space, that is, length should be minimized.
(b) Prevention of vibration through continuity of hull structure
(c) Operating and maintenance space
(d) Space for auxiliary engine, boiler, and other equipment
(e) Accommodation and engine casing space
(f) Space for fuel oil tanks
(g) Trunk for emergency exit
Figure 12.7 shows elevation view of the engine room arrangement of a ship and
length of engine room. In this figure, P is the length of propeller shaft. A is the
distance from after bulkhead to the end of propeller shaft. For A, the distance of
800~1,000 mm is required for the connection of the shaft flange and installation of
the stern tube forward seal. B is the length of intermediate shaft. If the shaft is
pulled out to the inside of engine room, the shaft length, the position of main
engine, etc. should be considered. If the shaft is pulled out in the direction of the
after body, this distance can be shortened independently of shaft. A+B is the length
for pulling the shaft out. It is the space for maintenance and inspection of the shaft
stern tube. This length should be longer than the shaft length by 200~300 mm. C is
the length of main engine. D is the distance from the main engine to the engine
room bulkhead. This is the space for arranging pipes and pumps in front of the main
engine. It is different according to the ship type but required for minimum 3 m. E is
the space for the pump room recess. In case of bulk carriers and container ships, it
does not exist since these ships do not have any pump room. Finally, F is the
distance for installing diesel generator engines. Thus, the length of engine room
(LER) is the distance from A to D.
Overall procedure for the determination of the length of engine room is as below.
In the first step, the distance between main engine bed and outer shell is determined.
At this time, a special web frame can be considered. In the second step, the length of
main engine is determined. It depends on the specification of main engine. In the
third step, the installation space for ballast pumps and other equipment is deter-
mined. In general, 5~6 frames are used for this purpose. In the fourth step, the
installation space for cargo pumps is determined. In general, 4~5 frames are used
for this purpose. In the fifth step, the after space of main engine is determined. In the
sixth step, the space for special options such as shaft generator is considered.
12.6 Engine Room Arrangement 195
Fig. 12.7 Elevation view of the engine room arrangement of a ship and the length of engine room
(LER)
In addition, the frame space of engine room should be determined considering

vibration, web frame of engine room, the relation with deck house, and so on. A
general value for the frame space of the engine room is about 800~900 mm.
12.6.2 Height of Engine Room
When determining the height of engine room, the followings should be considered.
(a) Overhaul height of the main engine piston
(b) Height for intermediate decks: 3 decks for large ship, 2 decks for middle ship
In the case of large ship, there is no problem in the height of engine room.
Figure 12.8 shows the section view of the engine room of a ship. In this figure, H is
the distance between the uppermost deck in the engine room and the center line of
crank shaft of the main engine. This is the height of engine room. F is the distance
between the center line of crank shaft and the crane hook. G is the distance for the
installation of crane and I-beam. W is the height of transverse web frame of the
upper deck in the engine room. K is the height for arrangement of pipe above crane
Fig. 12.8 Height of engine room
(e.g., 250 mm). And X is the clearance margin (e.g., 150~200 mm). Considering all
of these components, the height of engine room (H) should satisfy the following
criterion.
HFþGþWþKþX ð12:8Þ
In addition, A is the space for the installation of side stopper and pipe. B is for
the passage way of the side of turning gear. For this passage way, minimum 600 mm
is required. If not possible, the tuning gear can be installed in the upper part of main
engine. C is for the passage way under air cooler. D is for the passage way around
main engine. Finally, E is the shaft center height from baseline.
The height of tank top is determined by considering propeller diameter, type of
main engine, LO sump tank, cofferdam, and so on. The floor height is
1,500~1,800 mm for 30,000~60,000 DWT tankers. The height of the 4th or 3rd
deck is determined by considering structures and outfitting such as the size of hull
structure below this deck, equipment on the floor, pipes, ducts, cables, and so
on. The height of the 2nd deck is determined by considering the opening of piston
of the diesel generator engines since the diesel generator engines are located on the
3rd deck (sometimes, on the 4th deck). Many structures and outfitting such as pipes,
ducts, cables, and so on are installed in the interval between the 2nd and 4th decks.
The distance between the 2nd deck and upper deck is minimum 4,000 mm for
40,000~60,000 DWT tankers.
After the propeller diameter and main engine were determined, the shaft center
height should be determined by considering propeller immersion, LO sump tank,
and cofferdam height (minimum 600 mm) under the LO sump tank.
12.6.3 Hull Tanks Arrangement in Engine Room
Several hull tanks are arranged in the engine room, including cofferdams. Espe-
cially, in the double bottom, various tanks which should be arranged at the lower
side of a ship are arranged.
1. FOTs (Fuel Oil Tanks)
There are several FOTs in the engine room. A HFO (Heavy Fuel Oil) storage tank is
a tank for storing HFO which is used by the main engine. A HFO settling tank is a
tank for settling impurities in HFO before using it. A HFO service tank is a tank for
storing HFO which is supplied from the settling tank. The oil in service tank is
supplied to the main engine. Thus, HFO is sent from the HFO storage tank, the HFO
settling tank, the HFO service tank, and the main engine. A HFO overflow tank is a
tank for storing over flow from the main engine during injection. It is arranged in
the port side of double bottom of a fore part of the engine room since equipment and
pipes related to fuel oil are arranged in the port side.
All FOTs are arranged as hull tanks. If not possible, they are arranged as potable
tanks having a drip tray. The one surface of FOTs should contact with the top of
double bottom. If not possible (e.g., contact with deck), a cofferdam should be
installed in the upper or lower part of deck. It is reasonable that FOTs are
constructed as one boundary and arranged to contact with forward bulkhead of
the engine room, that is, engine room bulkhead. As mentioned above, any kind of
ship with an aggregate oil fuel capacity of 600 m3 and above requires double hull
protection of fuel oil tanks.
2. DOTs (Diesel Oil Tanks)
There are several DOTs in the engine room. A DO storage tank is a tank for
storing DO which is used by the diesel generator engines. DO settling tank is a tank
for settling impurities in DO before using it. A DO service tank is a tank for storing
DO which is supplied from the settling tank. The oil in service tank is supplied to
the diesel generator engines. Thus, DO is sent from the DO storage tank, the DO
settling tank, the DO service tank, and the diesel generator engines.
3. LOTs (Lubrication Oil Tanks)
There are several LOTs in the engine room. A LO settling tank is a tank for
settling impurities in LO before using it. A LO service tank is a tank for storing LO
which is supplied from the settling tank. A LO sump tank is a tank for storing LO to
Fig. 12.9 Arrangement of hull tanks
be already used by the main engine. A CLO (Cylinder Lubrication Oil) settling tank
is a tank for settling impurities in the CLO before using it. A CLO service tank is a
tank for storing CLO which is supplied from the settling tank. LO tanks should not
contact with side shell.
4. Other tanks
A bilge well tank is a tank for storing dirty water including oil on the floor. It is
arranged at one for an after part, one for the port and starboard side of a fore part of
the engine room, respectively. A bilge holding tank is a tank for storing dirty water
which gathers in the bilge well tank. It is arranged at the port side of double bottom
of an after body of the engine room. That is, dirty water from ship goes to the bilge
well tank and then to the bilge holding tank. A stern tube LO drain tank is a tank
for storing LO to be already used by the stern tube. A cooling fresh water drain
tank is a tank for storing used cooling water. High sea chest is an injection port of
the sea water for filling water ballast tank. It is located in the high part of side hull.
Low sea chest is same as high sea chest. It is located in the lower part of side hull.
In case that tanks are vertically connected, it is reasonable that the horizontal
positions coincide with each other. If not, it is reasonable that upper tanks are
arranged into the center of ship. In other words, it is not reasonable that lower tanks
are arranged into the center of ship because pipes of equipment on tank top are
installed inside of tanks, as shown in Fig. 12.9.
12.6.4 Rooms Arrangement in Engine Room
Many rooms are required for the control of main engine and the work in engine
room.
Fig. 12.10 Plan view of the

engine room showing
various HFO tanks and ECR
1. ECR (Engine Control Room)

ECR has some systems to control the main engine. Such systems have essential
functions for start and stop of the main engine, forward and backward motion, speed
control, and check for normal and abnormal states. ECR should be located near
main equipment such as the main engine, diesel generator engines, boiler, and so on
to conveniently and easily examine them. Actually, it should be installed over the
engine room. It is located in front of the main engine or port side, and the breadth
and length are 5~6 m and 12~14 m, respectively. HFO (Heavy Fuel Oil) service
tank, HFO settling tank, and HFO storage tank should be separated from ECR.
Figure 12.10 shows plan view of the engine room showing various HFO tanks and
ECR.
2. Pump room
For tankers, the pump room is located between the engine room and the cargo
tanks, as shown in Fig. 12.7. The length of pump room is determined by considering
the size of cargo pump and ballast pump, pipe layout, access and maintenance area,
and so on. In general, the maximum height of this room is less 1/3 of the ship depth.
In this room, three cargo pumps and one or two ballast pumps are installed.
3. Emergency escape trunk
An emergency escape trunk over one from the lower deck (floor) to the upper
deck should be prepared in the engine room for fire and emergency. It should be as
continuous as possible and have the minimum distance through the emergency fire
pump room and steering gear room.
Fig. 12.11 Elevation view of the after body of a ship
4. Engine room workshop

This is the space for storing machining tools and mechanical parts which are
used to simply manufacture parts and spare of the main engine, diesel generator
engines, boiler, and so on.
5. Engine room store
This is the space for storing spare parts, tools, and so on of auxiliary equipment.
6. Purifier room
This is the space for installing equipment which are used to purify fuel oil and
LO for ship operation. In this room, a purifier, heater for purifier, feed pump for FO
purifier, and operating water tank should be installed together.
12.7 After Body Arrangement 201
12.7 After Body Arrangement
12.7.1 Length of After Body
There is an after body behind the engine room. Figure 12.11 shows elevation view
of the after body of a ship. A can be obtained from the hull form design. B is rudder
balance ratio and can be obtained from the rudder design. C is the distance for
propeller removal in case of repair work. D is the minimum distance between the
propeller and the hull and it is required for the reduction of reaction, vibration, and
so on by the propeller. E is determined by considering welding work and it is about
the space of two frames. F is required for emergency exit from the engine room and
it is about the space of two frames. Thus, the length of after body (LAPT) is the
distance from B to F. And Hs is the height for steering gear floor and it is determined
as Hs ¼ Ts + (0.6~1.2) m, where Ts is scantling draft.
12.7.2 Height of After Body
The height of after body is determined by the height of a poop.
12.7.3 Hull Tanks and Rooms Arrangement in After Body
1. APT (After Peak Tank)

The APT can be used as a ballast tank to store ballast water. However, the purpose
is trim and strength control like the FPT as compared with general tanks. As
mentioned above, it is advantageous to minimize the capacity of APT under
allowable loading. When determining the capacity of APT, the followins should
be considered; trim control, strength control, stability control, ballast exchange
control, cost and maintenance, etc.
2. FWTs (Fresh Water Tanks)
Fresh water tank is a tank for storing fresh water for the crew. In case of tankers
and bulk carriers, it is located at the port or starboard side in the steering gear room.
In case of container ships, it is located at the forward of engine room or the lower
part of afterward passage way.
3. CWTs (Cooling Water Tanks)
Cooling water tank is a tank for storing water to cool down the heat generated
from the main engine during engine operation. This tank can be an independent
tank or incorporated with the APT. In case of the independent tank, it is located at
0.3~0.5 m above the propeller shaft and aligned with the 4th deck in engine room. A
stern tube cooling water tank is a tank for storing water to cool down the heat
generated from the stern tube during propeller rotation.
4. Steering gear room
Steering gear toom is a space for motor and equipment for the rudder control.
5. Other tanks and rooms
CO2 room is a spacefor storing CO2 to be used for fire fighting.
12.8 Stability Evaluation
After the compartment design is performed throuth the initial general arrangment of
compartments such as tanks and rooms, the stability of the arrangement should be
evaluated. It is done by the naval architectural calculation,which evaluates the
economical constraints of the ship owner’s requirements, e.g., required cargo
capacity, deadweight, etc., and, at the same time, the regulatory constraints of the
international regulations such as MARPOL (IMO 1973), SOLAS (IMO 1974), and
ICLL (IMO 1966) related to the stability freeboard, etc.
Finally, all calculation results are organized in report form called loading
manual or trim and stability booklet.
12.8.1 Capacity Calculation of Compartments
In Chap. 8, the capacity of cargo hold of design ship, that is, the volume of cargo
hold, was roughly estimated by using a simplified formula. After the compartment
design is done, more accurate estimation of the volume of various compartments,
e.g., cargo oil tanks, slop tanks, heavy fuel oil tanks, diesel oil tanks, lubrication oil
tanks, water ballast tanks, fresh water tanks, and other tanks can be performed. The
tables which include calculation results of the volumes are called capacity tables.
Table 12.8 shows an example of the capacity table for cargo oil tanks and slop tanks
of a VLCC. In this table, CCO, SCO, and SG stand for center cargo oil, side cargo
oil, and specific gravity of cargo oil, respectively. The weight of each tank (actually,
liquid in the tank) can be calculated by multiplying the volume by the filling ratio
and the SG. The maximum moment of inertia in the last colume is to be used for
the calculation of free surface moment of the tanks, which will result in the
reduction of the stability.
12.8 Stability Evaluation 203
Table 12.8 Capacity table for the cargo oil tanks of a VLCC
Capacity (SG ¼ 0.98) Center of gravity
LCG VCG Maximum
from from TCG from moment of
Volume Volume Weight midship baseline center line inertia
Name (100%, m3) (98%, m3) (98%, ton) (m) (m) (m) (m4)
CCO TK No. 1 28,358 27,791 27,235 118.214 17.463 0.000 34,135.4
CCO TK No. 2 33,426 32,757 32,102 69.950 17.446 0.000 50,372.5
CCO TK No. 3 33,426 32,757 32,102 18.950 17.446 0.000 50,372.5
CCO TK No. 4 33,426 32,757 32,102 32.050 17.446 0.000 50,372.5
CCO TK No. 5 33,540 32,869 32,212 83.125 17.445 0.000 50,904.6
SCO TK 18,430 18,061 17,700 119.183 17.940 16.522 15,672.8
(P) No. 1
SCO TK 18,430 18,061 17,700 119.183 17.940 16.522 15,672.8
(S) No. 1
SCO TK 21,019 20,599 20,187 69.950 17.511 18.755 14,925.2
(P) No. 2
SCO TK 21,019 20,599 20,187 69.950 17.511 18.755 14,925.2
(S) No. 2
SCO TK 21,019 20,599 20,187 18.950 17.511 18.755 14,925.2
(P) No. 3
SCO TK 21,019 20,599 20,187 18.950 17.511 18.755 14,925.2
(S) No. 3
SCO TK 21,019 20,599 20,187 32.050 17.511 18.755 14,925.2
(P) No. 4
SCO TK 21,019 20,599 20,187 32.050 17.511 18.755 14,925.2
(S) No. 4
SCO TK 15,185 14,881 14,584 77.088 18.529 18.351 11,940.1
(P) No. 5
SCO TK 15,185 14,881 14,584 77.088 18.529 18.351 11,940.1
(S) No. 5
SLOP TK (P) 4,448 4,359 4,272 105.666 20.226 18.039 3,038.4
SLOP TK (S) 4,448 4,359 4,272 105.666 20.226 18.039 3,038.4
Total 364,417 357,128 349,985 17.678 16.372 0.000 387,011.0
12.8.2 Intact Stability
A ship should have sufficient stability. There are two kinds of stability; intact
stability and damage stability. The intact stability means the stability of a ship at
a non-damaged state. On the other hand, the damage stability means the stability
of a ship at a damaged state. The stability of the ship is related with restoring
moment when the ship is inclined. The restoring moment which is also called
righting moment depends on righting arm (GZ). The statical stability curve
(or GZ curve) is a plot of righting arm or righting moment against angle of
inclination for a given loading condition. There are several regulations for this
curve and the satisfaction of the regulations should be evaluated in the design stage.
1. Loading conditions
A ship can be operated at various loading conditions. According to the loading
condition, the displacement, LCG and KG of ship varies. When evaluating the
stability, the following conditions are considered.
(a) Lightship condition
(b) Dry docking condition
(c) IMO SBT (Segregated Ballast Tank) condition
(d) Normal ballast condition (departure and arrival)
(e) Homogeneous loaded condition at design draft (departure and arrival)
(f) Homogeneous loaded condition at scantling draft (departure and arrival)
2. Calculation of draft and trim
For each loading condition, the position and orientation of a ship, that is, draft
and trim, should be also calculated. Trim is the difference of drafts at FP and AP. If
the distribution of the lightweight and the deadweight for each loading condition
and hull form are given, the positions of center of gravity (G) and center of
buoyancy (B) can be accurately determined. From this, the draft and trim of ship
for each loading condition can be calculated. For example, the trim (t) for a certain
loading condition can be calculated as the following equation.
ðLCB LCGÞ Δ
t¼ ½m ð12:9Þ
MTC 100
where, LCB and LCG are longitudinal center of buoyancy and longitudinal center of
gravity, respectively. MTC is moment to change trim by one centimeter in tonm
which is one of the hydrostatic values.
The fore draft (Tf) and after draft (Ta) for a certain loading condition can be
calculated as the following equations. Figure 12.12 shows how to calculate the fore
and after drafts.
Fig. 12.12 Calculation of fore draft and after draft

Fig. 12.13 Overall procedure for the calculation of bending moment curve for a loading condition
L1 t
T a ¼ T eq þ ½m ð12:10Þ
L
L2 t
T f ¼ T eq ½m ð12:11Þ
L
where, F is center of flotation in the water plan where a ship is trimmed. Teq is an
equivalent draft of this loading condition.
3. Calculation of shear force and bending moment
When the loading condition is given, loads such as force and moment acting on
the ship due to cargo loading can be calculated. Such loads will be used as one of
the input data for hull structural design in the next design stage. First, the buoyance
curve b(x) can be made by integrating transverse sectional areas under the water
plane in the longitudinal direction. The weight curve w(x) can be made by
summing up the distribution of the lightweight and the deadweight for each loading
condition. Then, the load curve fS(x) can be generated by summing up the weight
curve and the buoyancy curve considering their signs, that is, fS(x) ¼ b(x) – w(x).
Now, the shear force curve QS(x) can be calculated by integrating the load curve in
the longitudinal direction. Then, the bending moment curve MS(x) can be calcu-
lated by integrating the shear force curve in the longitudinal direction. Figure 12.13
Fig. 12.14 GZ curve for the general criteria of intact stability by IMO regulations
shows overall procedure for the calculation of bending moment curve for a given
loading condition.
If the maximum value of all shear force curves from all loading conditions is
found, this value is an actual still water shear force (Qsw), as shown in Eq. (12.12).

maxðQsw, i Þ ½kN in hogging
Qsw ¼ ð12:12Þ
minðQsw, i Þ ½kN in sagging
where, Qsw,i means the maximum (in hogging) or minimum (in sagging) value of
shear force curve of the ith loading condition.
Similarly, if the maximum value of all bending moment curves from all loading
conditions is found, this value is an actual still water bending moment (Msw), as
shown in Eq. (12.13).

maxðMsw, i Þ ½kN m in hogging
Msw ¼ ð12:13Þ
minðMsw, i Þ ½kN m in sagging
where, Msw,i means the maximum (in hogging) or minimum (in sagging) value of
bending moment curve of the ith loading condition.
These two values will be used to evaluate global strength of a hull structure of a
ship. More details about global strength of a hull structure will be given in Chap. 13.
4. Stability criteria for intact stability
For each loading condition, a GZ curve should be made. With this curve, the
intact stability can be evaluated. Figure 12.14 shows a GZ curve for evaluating the
intact stability of a ship. In this figure, ϕ is an angle of heel of a ship. ϕf means an
angle of down-flooding at which openings in the hull, superstructures or deckhouses
Table 12.9 Criteria for the intact stability by IMO regulations

No Criteria Required value
1 Area under the curve from 0 to 30 0.55 mrad
4 GZ at 30 0.20 m
5 Angle (ϕm) of maximum GZ 25
6 GM0 0.15 m
Fig. 12.15 GZ curve for the severe wind and rolling criteria of intact stability by IMO regulations
which cannot be closed weathertight immerse, and the maximum value of this angle
is 40 . And ϕm is an angle which corresponds to maximum GZ.
The criteria for the intact stability of ship by IMO regulations that should be
satisfied for all loading conditions are as follows.
(a) The area under the GZ curve should not be less than 0.055 mrad to ϕ ¼ 30 .
(b) The area under the GZ curve should not be less than 0.09 mrad up to ϕ ¼ 40 or
ϕf if ϕf is less than 40 .
(c) Additionally, the area under this curve between the angles of heel of 30 and
40 or between 30 and ϕf, if ϕf is less than 40 , should not be less than
0.03 mrad.
(d) The GZ should be at least 0.2 m at an angle of heel equal to or greater than 30 .
(e) The maximum GZ should occur at an angle of heel not less than 25 .
(f) Finally, the initial metacentric height (GM0) shall not be less than 0.15 m.
These criteria are summarized in Table 12.9.
In addition, there is severe wind and rolling criteria called weather criteria from
IMO regulations, as shown in Fig. 12.15. With the satisfaction of this criteria, the
Table 12.10 Severe wind and rolling criteria for the intact stability by IMO regulations
No Criteria Required value
1 Angle of heel under action of steady wind (ϕ0) 16 or 80% of ϕf, whichever is less
2 Area B – Area A 0
Fig. 12.16 GZ curve for the severe wind and rolling criteria of intact stability by IMO regulations
ability of a ship to withstand the combined effects of beam wind and rolling should
be demonstrated as follows.
(a) The ship is subjected to a steady wind pressure acting perpendicular to the
ship’s center line which results in a steady wind heeling lever (lw1).
(b) From the resultant angle of equilibrium (ϕ0), the ship is assumed to roll owing
to wave action to an angle of roll (ϕ1) to windward. The angle of heel under
action of steady wind (ϕ0) should not exceed 16 or 80% of the angle of deck
edge immersion (ϕf), whichever is less.
(c) The ship is then subjected to a gust wind pressure which results in a gust wind
heeling lever (lw2).
(d) Under these circumstances, area B shall be equal to or greater than area A, as
indicated in Fig. 12.15.
In this figure, ϕ0 is angle of heel under action of steady wind, ϕ01 is angle of roll
to windward due to wave action, and ϕ2 is angle of down-flooding (ϕf) or 50 or ϕc,
whichever is less. Where, ϕc is angle of second intercept between wind heeling
lever lw2 and GZ curve. And the wind heeling levers lw1 and lw2 are constant values
at all angles of inclination and can be calculated as the following formulas.
PAZ
lw1 ¼ ½m ð12:14Þ
1, 000 g Δ
lw2 ¼ 1:5 lw1 ½m ð12:15Þ
where, P is wind pressure of 504 Pa. A is projected lateral area of the portion of the
ship and deck cargo above the waterline in m2. Z is vertical distance from the center
of A to the center of the underwater lateral area or approximately to a point at one
half the mean draft in m. Δ is displacement in ton, and g is gravitational acceler-
ation of 9.81 m/s2.
These criteria are summarized in Table 12.10.
Figure 12.16 shows an example of the evaluation result of intact stability for one
loading condition of a VLCC. More details about the intact stability of ships can be
found in various references (Moore and Paulling 2010; Barrass and Derrett 2012).
12.8.3 Damage Stability
1. Change in draft, heel, and trim due to flooding
Table 12.11 International regulations for damage stability according to the type of ships
Prababilistic
Freeboard Deterministic method method
Ship type types MARPOL IBC IGC ICLL SOLAS Examples
Oil tanker A O – – O – Crude oil
B O – – – – tanker,
Product
carrier
Chemical tanker A – O – O – Chemical
B – O – – – tanker
Gas carrier B – O – – LPG car-
rier, LNG
carrier
Bulk carrier B – – – – O Self-
unloader
B-60 – – – O – Bulk
carrier
B-100 – – – O – General
carrier
Container ship, B – – – – O –
Ro-Ro ship,
Passenger ship
Fig. 12.17 Overall

procedure of the evaluation
of damage stability by the
deterministic method
The stability characterization of an intact ship can be considerably changed in a

damaged condition, both longitudinally and transversely. The precise effects on the
stability of a ship due to flooding involve detailed and difficult calculations. A study
of the effects of flooding involves an investigation of the loss of reserve buoyancy
and the effect on transverse stability. If the compartment located at the center of a
ship is damaged, it would be flooded and only the draft of the ship would increase. If
the compartment located at the after body of a ship is damaged, it would be flooded
and the draft of the ship would increase. Also, the after body of the ship would be
more submerged than the fore body; that is, the ship would be trimmed by stern.
2. Methods for the evaluation of damage stability
There are two kinds of methods for the evaluation of damage stability of ship.
One is the deterministic method and the other is the probabilistic method. The
deterministic method is to calculate survivability of a ship based on the position,
stability, and inclination in damaged conditions. Relavant rules of this method are
MARPOL, IBC (International Bulk Chemical) code, IGC (International Gas Car-
rier) code, ICLL, and so on. The probabilistic method is to calculate survivability
of a ship based on the probability of damage. A relavant rule of this method is
SOLAS. Table 12.11 shows international regulations for damage stability
according to the type of ships.
In this table, a Ro-Ro (Roll-on Roll-off) ship is a specilized ship designed to
carry wheeled cargo, such as cars and trucks that are driven on and off the ship on
their own wheels. A self-unloader is a specialized ship equipped with onboard
cargo-handling systems, enabling them to discharge without shore-based unloading
equipment.
Fig. 12.18 Criteria of damage stability by MARPOL regulation
Table 12.12 Criteria for the damage stability by international regulations

Required value
No Criteria MARPOL IBC IGC ICLL
1 Equilibrim angle 25 or 30 30 15 or 17
2 Maximum GZ (GZmax) 0.1 m within the range over 20 from equilib-
rium angle
3 Area under the curve with this range 0.0175 mrad
3. Damage stability evaluation by the deterministic method

Overall procedure of the evaluation of damage stability by the deterministic
method is shown in Fig. 12.17. In the first step, the location of damage according to
the ship length is assumed. In the second step, the extent of damage is assumed. In
the third step, the permeability for compartments are assumed. In the last step, the
damage stability is evaluated with criteria by international regulations.
The criteria of damage stability by MARPOL regulation that should be satisfied
for all damage cases under the given loading conditions are as follows.
(a) The final waterline should be below the lower edge of any opening through
which progressive flooding may take place.
(b) The angle of heel due to unsymmetrical flooding should not exceed 25 ,
provided that this angle may be increased up to 30 if no deck edge immersion
occurs.
(c) The GZ curve has at least a range of 20 beyond the position of equilibrium in
association with a maximum residual righting arm of at least 0.1 m within the
20 range.
(d) The area under the curve within this range should not be less than 0.0175 mrad,
as indicated in Fig. 12.18.
Fig. 12.19 Overall procedure of the evaluation of damage stability by the probabilistic method
These criteria are summarized in Table 12.12, including those of other

regulations.
4. Damage stability evaluation by the probabilistic method
Overall procedure of the evaluation of damage stability by the probabilistic method
is shown in Fig. 12.19. In the first step, virtual subdivision bulkheads are defined. In
the second step, compartments of a ship are subdvided. In the third step, damaged
compartments are defined. In the fourth step, the probability of damage ( pi) is
calculated for all damage cases. In the fifth step, the probability of survival (si) is
calculated for all damage cases. In the sixth step, the attained subdivision index (A)
is calculated. In the final step, the attained subdivision index is compared with the
required subdivision index (R), and A should not be less than or equal to R, A R.
12.9 Generation of General Arrangement Plan
The result of general arrangment design is general arrangment (G/A) plan

consisting of profile plan, upper deck plan, tank top plan, and midship section
plan. The profile plan represents the elevation view of the arrangement which is
shown in the starboard side of a ship. The upper deck plan represents the plan view
of the arrangement at the height of upper deck which is shown in the upper side of a
ship. The tank top plan represents the plan view of the arrangement at the height of
double bottom, that is, tank top. And the midship section plan represents the
Fig. 12.20 General arrangement plan of a VLCC
section view of the arrangement amidships which is shown in the back side of a
ship. In some cases, the G/A plan can include the accommodation arrangement
plan. In the early design stage, the G/A plan can be roughly represented with the
minimum information, called sketch G/A plan. Figure 12.20 shows an example of
G/A plan of a VLCC.
A computational guide to establish a program for general arrangement design is

discussed. Such program includes the implementation of subfunctions as below.
(a) Generation of compartments
(b) Naval architectural calculation for the stability evaluation in Sect. 12.8
(c) Generation of general arrangement plan in Sect. 12.9
The subfunctions “a” and “c” can be implemented by using various methods for
CAGD (Compuer Aided Geometry Design) such as NURBS (Non Uniform Ratio-
nal B-Spline), Boolean operation, and so on. More details about these methods can
be found in many references (Lee et al. 2009a, 2009b). In the case of the
subfunction “b”, the methods based on the numerical analysis for the calculation
of the volume, the center of buoyancy, etc. can be used for the implementation.
oped such as AVEVA Initial Design (AVEVA 2017), EzCOMPART by EzGRAPH
(2017), NAPA Statutory Compliance (NAPA 2017), and so on (in alphabetical
order).
References

Lines) 1966, as Amended by the protocol of 1988. IMO.
IMO. (1973). MARPOL (International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships)
1973, as Amended by the protocol of 1978 and 1997 (Annex VI). IMO.
IMO. (1974). SOLAS (International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea) 1974, as Amended by
the protocol of 1978 and 1988. IMO.
Lee, K. Y., Lee, S. U., & Roh, M. I. (2009a). Development of an optimal compartment design
system of naval ships using compartment modeling and ship calculation modules. Journal of
the Society of Naval Architects of Korea, 46(4), 424–434.
Lee, S. U., Roh, M. I., Cha, J. H., & Lee, K. Y. (2009b). Ship compartment modeling based on a
non-manifold polyhedron modeling Kernel. Advances in Engineering Software, 40(5),
378–388.
Moore, C. S., & Paulling, J. R. (2010). The principles of naval architecture series: Intact stability.
The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers.
Chapter 13
Hull Structural Design
13.1 Generals
A hull structure is a frame of the ship which consists of a number of hull structural
parts such as plates, stiffeners, brackets, and so on. It is like a skeleton of a human.
In the case of VLCC of 300,000 ton deadweight, its lightweight amounts to about
41,000 ton. It means this ship can carry more than seven times its own weight. For
this, the hull structure of ship should have sufficient strength. The fundamental task
of a hull structural designer is to determine the specifications of hull structural parts
such as size, material, and so on inside the hull form and the compartment. Then, to
evaluate the strength of hull structure, a series of analyses are performed.
If the hull structure satisfies some criteria for the strength, the hull structure is
transferred to the next design step, called the detail design stage, as forms of 2D
plans called hull structural plans and 3D model called hull structural model.
On 14 December 2005, the Common Structural Rules for Double Hull Oil
Tankers (CSR-OT) and Common Structural Rules for Bulk Carriers (CSR-BC)
were unanimously adopted by the IACS (International Association of Classification
Societies) Council for implementation on 1 April 2006. The Council was satisfied
that these Rules were based on sound technical grounds, and achieved the goals of
more robust and safer ships. These two sets of Rules were developed independently
and in order to remove variations and achieve consistency, IACS decided to
harmonize these Rules. There is now a single set of Rules “Common Structural
Rules for Bulk Carriers and Oil Tankers” (CSR BC & OT) 2015 comprising of two
parts; Part 1 gives requirements common to both bulk carriers and double hull oil
tankers and Part 2 provides additional specialised requirements specific to either
bulk carriers or double hull oil tankers (IACS 2015). Currently, IACS has no plans
to develop CSR for container ships to follow those already developed for bulk
carriers and oil tankers. This chapter describes a method of hull structural design
and it is based on CSR BC & OT 2015 (IACS 2015), focusing on only oil tankers.

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-4885-2_13
216 13 Hull Structural Design
There are two kinds of the assessment; strength assessment and fatigue assess-
ment. The strength assessment means the assessment for the strength criteria
excluding fatigue, for the loads corresponding to the probability level of 108, for
the ballast water exchange, for harbor conditions, and for flooded conditions. The
fatigue assessment means the assessment for the fatigue criteria for the loads
corresponding to the probability level of 102. In this chapter, the description
will be mainly focused on the strength assessment of oil tankers only based on
CSR BC & OT 2015. Other explanations about the assessment of the strength of
ships can be found in various references (Hughes 1983; Mansour et al. 2008).
13.1.1 Hull Structure
Figure 13.1 shows the midship section of the hull structure of a VLCC and various
hull structural parts. For example, if the load induced by cargo loading acts on the
inner bottom, the load will act on the inner bottom plate first. The load will be
transferred to the longitudinal stiffeners attached to the inner bottom plate. Then, it
will be transferred again to the transverse web frames which are connected with the
longitudinal stiffeners. Next, it will be transferred to the girders which are
connected with the transverse web frames. Like this, any load exerted on the hull
structure is transferred all hull structural parts and they have the resistance (called
strength) to the deformation due to the load. Thus, if the hull structure has more
hull structure parts and thicker, it has higher strength. However, it is heavier and the
lightweight increases and finally the deadweight may decrease. In this sense, it is
necessary to optimize the hull structure.
Fig. 13.1 Midship section of the hull structure of a VLCC

13.1 Generals 217
13.1.2 Principal Dimensions for Hull Structural Design
1. Length
In the hull structural design, the rule length (Ls) is used as a ship length. This length
is the distance, in m, measured on the waterline at the scantling draft (Ts) from the
forward side of the stem (FP) to the center line of the rudder stock (AP). This length
should not be less than 96% and need not be greater than 97% of the extreme length
on the waterline at the scantling draft.
2. Breadth
The molded breadth (B) is the maximum breadth of the ship, measured amid-
ships to the molded line of the frame.
3. Depth
The molded depth (D) is the vertical distance amidships from the baseline to the
molded deck line at the uppermost continuous deck, measured at the deck at side.
4. Draft
The design draft (Td) is the summer load line draft for the ship in operation,
measured from the baseline at amidships. This is less than the maximum summer
draft (TS,max). In general, the scantling draft is used for hull structural design. The
scantling draft (Ts) means the draft at which the strength requirements for the
scantlings of the ship are met.
5. Block coefficient
The block coefficient is to be calculated based on the rule length and the
scantling draft, as shown in the following equation.
∇s
CB ¼ ð13:1Þ
Ls B T s
where, B is the molded breadth in m, measured amidships at the scantling draft, and
∇s is the displacement volume at the scantling draft in m3.
13.1.3 Materials
1. Strength
Steel having a specified minimum yield stress of 235 N/mm2 is regarded as normal
strength hull structural steel called mild steel. Steel having a higher specified
minimum yield stress is regarded as higher strength hull structural steel called
high tensile steel. High tensile steel is a type of alloy steel that provides better
Table 13.1 Mechanical properties of hull steels

Material Specified minimumyield Specified tensile Higher strength
designation stress (ReH, N/mm2) ReH/ReH,NS strength (N/mm2) steel factor (k)
NS 235 235/ 400~520 1.00
235 ¼ 1.00
HT32 315 315/ 440~570 0.78
235 ¼ 1.34
HT36 355 355/ 490~630 0.72
235 ¼ 1.51
HT40 390 390/ 510~660 0.68
235 ¼ 1.65
mechanical properties or greater resistance to corrosion than carbon steel. It has a

carbon content between 0.05~0.25% to retain formability and weldability, including
up to 2.0% manganese, and other elements are added for strengthening purposes.
2. Material grades
There are some material grades of hull structural steels. A, B, D, and E denote
normal strength steel grades. And AH, DH, EH, and FH denote higher strength steel
grades.
3. Higher strength steel factor
For the determination of hull girder section modulus, where high tensile steel is
used, a higher strength steel factor (k) is given in Table 13.1. This table shows
higher strength steel factors for various types of steel used for hull structural design.
In this table, NS means normal strength steel, that is, mild steel and HTXX means
high tensile steel.
13.1.4 Thickness
There are several types of thickness for plates.

1. Net thickness
The net thickness (t) is the thickness required for structural strength in compliance
with the design basis.
2. Corrosion addition
The corrosion addition (tc) is additional thickness considering the corrosion of
plates as time goes.
3. Net required thickness
When selecting the thickness of plates from scantling, the thickness which is
provided by steel manufacturers should be considered. Considering this fact, the
13.2 Design Loads 219
thickness can be selected by the interval of half a millimeter (0.5 mm). For above
0.25 mm, 0.5 mm can be used and for below 0.25 mm, 0.0 mm can be used. For
example, if the thickness of plate from scantling is 15.75 mm, the final thickness
will be 16.0 mm, and if the thickness of plate from scantling is 15.74 mm, the final
thickness will be 15.5 mm. This thickness is called the net required thickness
(treq). That is, this thickness can be obtained by rounding the net thickness (t)
calculated according to the Rules to the nearest half millimeter.
4. Gross required thickness
The gross required thickness (tgr_req) is the thickness obtained by adding the
corrosion addition (tc) to the net required thickness (treq), as shown in the following
equation.
tgr req ¼ treq þ tc ½mm ð13:2Þ
5. Gross offered thickness

The gross offered thickness (tgr_off) is the gross thickness provided at the
newbuilding stage, which is obtained by deducting any thickness for voluntary
addition (tvol_add) from the as-built thickness (tas_built), as shown in the following
equation.
tgr off ¼ tas built tvol add ½mm ð13:3Þ
6. Net offered thickness

The net offered thickness (toff) can be obtained by subtracting the corrosion
addition from the gross offered thickness, as shown in the following equation.
toff ¼ tgr off tc ¼ tas built tvol add tc ½mm ð13:4Þ
13.1.5 Procedure of Hull Structural Design
The oveall procedure of hull structural design presented in CSR is shown in Fig. 13.2.
13.2 Design Loads
13.2.1 Generals
The load combinations are to be derived for the design load scenarios. The dynamic
loads associated with each dynamic load case are based on EDW (Equivalent
Fig. 13.2 Overall procedure of hull structural design
Design Wave) concept. The EDW concept applies a consistent set of dynamic loads
to the ship such that specified dominant load response is equivalent to the required
long term response value.
The strength assessment is to be undertaken for all design load scenarios and the
final assessment is to be made on the most onerous strength requirement. Each
design load scenario for strength assessment is composed of a static (S) load case or
a static plus dynamic (SþD) load case, where the static and dynamic loads are
dependent on the loading condition being considered. The static loads include still
water hull girder loads, external loads, and internal loads. The dynamic loads
include dynamic hull girder loads, external loads, and internal loads.
The ship’s geometry, motions, accelerations, and loads are defined with respect
to the following right-hand coordinate system.
(a) Origin: at the intersection among the longitudinal plane of symmetry of the ship
(center line), the aft end of Ls, and the baseline
(b) x-axis: longitudinal axis, positive forwards
(c) y-axis: transverse axis, positive towards port side
(d) z-axis: vertical axis, positive upwards
Assuming that the direction of incident waves is specified by the angle (β)
between the x-axis and the propagating wave direction, the direction of waves
can be defined as below.
(a) Head sea: waves propagating in the negative x-direction
(b) Beam sea: waves propagating in the positive or negative y-direction
(c) Oblique sea: waves propagating in a direction between head and beam sea
(or following and beam sea)
(d) Following sea: waves propagating in the positive x-direction.
The ship motions are defined with respect to the ship’s COG (Centre Of Gravity)
of the ship as below.
(a) Positive surge: translation in the x-axis direction (positive forward)
(b) Positive sway: translation in the y-axis direction (positive towards port side of
ship)
(c) Positive heave: translation in the z-axis direction (positive upwards)
(d) Positive roll motion: positive rotation about a longitudinal axis through the
COG (starboard down and port up)
(e) Positive pitch motion: positive rotation about a transverse axis through the
COG (bow down and stern up)
(f) Positive yaw motion: positive rotation about a vertical axis through the COG
(bow moving to port and stern to starboard)
The sign conventions of vertical bending moments, vertical shear forces, hori-
zontal bending moments, and torsional moments at any transverse section of
the ship are as below.
(a) Vertical bending moments (Msw and Mwv): positive when they induce tensile
stresses in the strength deck (hogging moment) and negative when they induce
tensile stresses in the bottom (sagging moment).
(b) Vertical shear forces (Qsw and Qwv): positive in the case of downward
resulting forces acting aft of the transverse section and upward resulting forces
acting forward of the transverse section under consideration
Fig. 13.3 Sign conventions

of positive bending
moments, shear force, and
torsional moment
(c) Horizontal bending moment (Mwh): positive when it induces tensile stresses in
the starboard side and negative when it induces tensile stresses in the port side
(d) Torsional moment (Mwt): positive in the case of resulting moment acting aft of
the transverse section following negative rotation around the x-axis, and of
resulting moment acting forward of the transverse section following positive
rotation around the x-axis
The sign convention of the positive vertical bending moment, positive vertical
shear force, positive horizontal bending moment, and positive torsional moment are
shown in Fig. 13.3.
13.2.2 Dynamic Load Cases
The following EDWs are to be used to generate the dynamic load cases for
structural assessment. Here, 1 and 2 denote the maximum or the minimum domi-
nant load component for each EDW. P and S denote that the weather side is on
the port side and on the starboard side, respectively.
(a) HSM load cases: HSM-1 and HSM-2 are head sea EDWs that minimize and
maximize the vertical wave bending moment amidships, respectively.
(b) HSA load cases: HSA-1 and HSA-2 are head sea EDWs that maximize and
minimize the head sea vertical acceleration at FP, respectively.
(c) FSM load cases: FSM-1 and FSM-2 are following sea EDWs that minimize and
maximize the vertical wave bending moment amidships, respectively.
(d) BSR load cases: BSR-1P and BSR-2P are beam sea EDWs that minimize and
maximize the roll motion downward and upward on the port side, respectively,
with waves from the port side. BSR-1S and BSR-2S are beam sea EDWs that
maximize and minimize the roll motion downward and upward on the starboard
side, respectively, with waves from the starboard side.
(e) BSP load cases: BSP-1P and BSP-2P are beam sea EDWs that maximize and
minimize the hydrodynamic pressure at the waterline amidships on the port
side, respectively. BSP-1S and BSP-2S are beam sea EDWs that maximize and
minimize the hydrodynamic pressure at the waterline amidships on the star-
board side, respectively.
(f) OST load cases: OST-1P and OST-2P are oblique sea EDWs that minimize and
maximize the torsional moment at 0.25Ls from the AP with waves from the port
side, respectively. OST-1S and OST-2S are oblique sea EDWs that maximize
and minimize the torsional moment at 0.25Ls from the AP with waves from the
starboard side, respectively.
(g) OSA load cases: OSA-1P and OSA-2P are oblique sea EDWs that maximize
and minimize the pitch acceleration with waves from the port side, respec-
tively. OSA-1S and OSA-2S are oblique sea EDWs that maximize and mini-
mize the pitch acceleration with waves from the starboard side, respectively.
The dynamic load cases described above are to be used for determining the
dynamic loads required by the design load scenarios. These dynamic load cases are
to be applied to the strength assessment for plates, ordinary stiffeners, and primary
supporting members.
13.2.3 Ship Motions and Accelerations
To calculate dynamic loads, ship motions and accelerations should be known. They
can be estimated from simplified formulas. For this, they are assumed to be
sinusoidal. The motion values defined by the formulas are single amplitudes, that
is, half of the crest-to-trough height.
1. Ship motions
(a) Roll motion
The roll period (Tθ) in s can be calculated by the following equation.
2:3π kr
T θ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ½ sec ð13:5Þ
g GM
Table 13.2 Values of kr and GM for oil tankers

Loading condition Draft amidhips (TLC) kr GM
Full load condition Ts (scantling draft) 0.35B 0.12B
Optional conditions having a draft greater than 0.9Ts Actual draft but 0.9Ts 0.35B 0.12B
Partial load condition 0.6Ts 0.40B 0.24B
Ballast conditon Tbal (ballast draft) 0.45B 0.33B
where, kr is the roll radius of gyration in the considered loading condition in

m. GM is the metacentric height in the considered loading condition in m. The
values of kr and GM for oil tankers are shown in Table 13.2.
The roll angle (θ) in can be calculated by the following equation.
9, 000 ð1:25 0:025T θ Þ f p f BK ∘

θ¼ ½ ð13:6Þ
ðB þ 75Þ π
where, fp is same as fps for strength assessment. fps is a coefficient which is

dependent on the applicable design load scenario and to be taken as fps ¼ 1.0 for
extreme sea loads design load scenario, fps ¼ 0.8 for the ballast water exchange
design load scenario, fps ¼ 0.8 for the accidental flooded design load scenario at sea,
and fps ¼ 0.4 for the harbor/sheltered water design load scenario. fBK is 1.2 for ships
without bilge keels and 1.0 for ships with bilge keels.
(b) Pitch motion
The pitch period (Tϕ) in s can be calculated by the following equation.
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2π 0:6 ð1 þ f T Þ Ls
Tϕ ¼ ½ sec ð13:7Þ
g
fT is the ratio between draft (TLC) at a certain loading condition and scantling draft
(Ts), that is, fT ¼ TLC/Ts.
The pitch angle (ϕ) in can be calculated by the following equation.
( )
0:94 2:57 1:2 ∘
ϕ ¼ 1, 350 f p Ls 1:0 þ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ½ ð13:8Þ
g Ls
2. Ship accelerations at COG

(a) Surge acceleration
The longitudinal acceleration due to surge (asurge) in m/s2 can be calculated by
asurge ¼ 0:2 f p a0 g m=s2 ð13:9Þ
where, a0 is the acceleration parameter and can be calculated by the following

equation.

2:4 34 600
a0 ¼ ð1:58 0:47 CB Þ pffiffiffiffiffi þ 2 ð13:10Þ
Ls Ls Ls
(b) Sway acceleration

The transverse acceleration due to sway (asway) in m/s2 can be calculated by the
following equation.

asway ¼ 0:3 f p a0 g m=s2 ð13:11Þ
(c) Heave acceleration

The vertical acceleration due to heave (aheave) in m/s2 can be calculated by the
following equation.

aheave ¼ f p a0 g m=s2 ð13:12Þ
(d) Roll acceleration

The roll acceleration (aroll) in rad/s2 can be calculated by the following equation.
2
π 2π
aroll ¼ f p θ rad=s2 ð13:13Þ
180 T θ
where, θ is the roll angle, in , in Eq. (13.6) using fp equal to 1.0.

(e) Pitch acceleration
The pitch acceleration (apitch) in rad/s2 can be calculated by the following
equation.
2
3:1 π 2π
apitch ¼ f p pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi þ 1:0 ϕ rad=s2 ð13:14Þ
g Ls 180 T ϕ
where, ϕ is the pitch angle, in , in Eq. (13.8) using fp equal to 1.0.

3. Ship accelerations at any position
The accelerations used to derive the inertial loads at any position are defined
with respect to the ship-fixed coordinate system. Hence the acceleration values
defined below include the gravitational acceleration components due to the
instantaneous roll and pitch angles. The followings are accelerations for dynamic
load cases.
(a) Longitudinal acceleration
The longitudinal acceleration at any position (ax), in m/s2, for each dynamic load
case can be calculated by the following equation.
ax ¼ CXG g sin ϕ þ CXS asurge
ð13:15Þ
þ CXP apitch ðz RÞ ½m=s2
where, CXG is the load combination factor to be applied to the longitudinal

acceleration due to pitch motion. CXS is the load combination factor to be applied
to the surge acceleration. CXP is the load combination factor to be applied to the
longitudinal acceleration due to pitch. z is the z-coordinate in m of the considered
point with respect to the coordinate system. The load combination factors (CXG,
CXS, and CXP) are defined in Part 1, Chap. 4, Sect. 13.2 of CSR. R is the vertical
coordinate of the ship rotation center in m and can be taken as the following
equation.
R ¼ minð0:25D þ 0:5T LC ; 0:5DÞ ð13:16Þ
where, TLC is the draft amidships at considered loading condition.

(b) Transverse acceleration
The transverse acceleration at any position (ay), in m/s2, for each dynamic load
case can be calculated by the following equation.
ay ¼ CYG g sin θ þ CYS asway
ð13:17Þ
CYR aroll ðz RÞ ½m=s2
where, CYG is the load combination factor to be applied to the transverse acceler-
ation due to roll motion. CYS is the load combination factor to be applied to the sway
acceleration. CYR is the load combination factor to be applied to the transverse
acceleration due to roll. The load combination factors (CYG, CYS, and CYR) are
defined in Part 1, Chap. 4, Sect. 13.2 of CSR.
(c) Vertical acceleration
The vertical acceleration at any position (az), in m/s2, for each dynamic load case
can be calculated by the following equation.
az ¼ CZH aheave þ CZR aroll y
ð13:18Þ
CZP apitch ðx 0:45Ls Þ ½m=s2
where, CZH is the load combination factor to be applied to the heave acceleration.
CZR is the load combination factor to be applied to the vertical acceleration due to
roll. CZP is the load combination factor to be applied to the vertical acceleration due
to pitch. The load combination factors (CZH, CZR, and CZP) are defined in Part
1, Chap. 4, Sect. 13.2 of CSR. x and y are the x- and y-coordinates in m of the
considered point with respect to the coordinate system, respectively.
13.2.4 Hull Girder Loads
The hull girder loads for the static (S) design load scenarios is to be taken as the still
water loads. The total hull girder loads for the static plus dynamic (SþD) design
load scenarios are to be derived for each dynamic load case and are to be taken as
the sum of the still water loads and the dynamic loads.
The designer should provide the permissible SWBM (Still Water Bending
Moment) and SWSF (Still Water Shear Force) for seagoing and harbor/sheltered
water operations. The permissible hull girder still water loads are to be given at each
transverse bulkhead in the cargo hold region, at the middle of cargo tanks, at the
collision bulkhead, at the engine room bulkhead, and at the mid-point between the
engine room bulkhead and the after bulkhead. The permissible hull girder bending
moments and shear forces at any other position may be obtained by linear interpo-
lation. It is recommended that, for initial design stage, the permissible hull girder
hogging and sagging SWBMs are at least 5% above the maximum SWBM from
loading conditions in the loading manual, and the permissible hull girder shear
forces are at least 10% above the maximum SWSF from loading condition in the
loading manual, to account for growth and design margins during the design and
construction phase of the ship. In addition, The designer should provide the
envelope of permissible SWBM and SWSF in the flooded condition.
1. Minimum still water bending moment
The minimum hull girder SWBM (Msw-h-min and Msw-s-min) in hogging and
sagging conditions can be calculated by the following equations.

171Cw Ls 2 BðCB þ 0:7Þ 103
Mswhmin ¼ f sw ½kN m ð13:19Þ
Mwvhmid

171Cw Ls 2 B ðCB þ 0:7Þ 103
Mswsmin ¼ 0:85f sw ½kN m ð13:20Þ
þMwvsmid
where, fsw is the distribution factor along the ship length and can be taken as
fsw ¼ 0.0 for x 0, fsw ¼ 0.15 at x ¼ 0.1Ls, fsw ¼ 1.0 for 0.3Ls x 0.7Ls,
fsw ¼ 0.15 at x ¼ 0.9Ls, and fsw ¼ 0.0 for x Ls. Intermediate values of fsw are to be
obtained by linear interpolation.
Cw is a wave coefficient and is defined as below.
0
1:5
10:75 300L s
when 90½m Ls < 300½m
B 100
Cw ¼ @ 10:75 when 300½m Ls < 350½m ð13:21Þ
350
1:5
10:75 Ls150 when 350½m Ls 500½m
Mwv-h-mid and Mwv-s-mid are VWBMs (Vertical Wave Bending Moments) for
strength assessment in hogging (Eq. 13.26) and sagging (Eq. 13.27) condition
which are calculated with fp ¼ 1.0 and fm ¼ 1.0, respectively. More details about
VWBMs are described below in “5. Vertical wave bending moment”.
2. Permissible still water bending moment
The permissible SWBMs in seagoing condition (Msw-h and Msw-s) at any longi-
tudinal position are to envelop the followings.
(a) The most severe SWBMs calculated in hogging and sagging conditions, respec-
tively, for the seagoing loading conditions defined in CSR
(b) The most severe SWBMs for the seagoing loading conditions defined in the
loading manual
(c) The minimum SWBM in Eqs. (13.19) and (13.20)
The permissible SWBMs in the harbor/sheltered water and tank testing condition
(Msw-p-h and Msw-p-s) at any longitudinal position are to envelop the followings.
tively, for the harbor/sheltered water loading conditions defined in CSR
(b) The most severe SWBMs for the harbor/sheltered water loading conditions
defined in the loading manual
(c) The permissible SWBMs in seagoing condition (Msw-h and Msw-s)
(d) The minimum SWBM in Eqs. (13.19) and (13.20) increased by 25%
The permissible SWBMs in flooded condition (Msw-f) at any longitudinal position
are to envelop the followings.
tively, for the intact and flooded seagoing loading conditions defined in CSR
(b) The most severe SWBMs for the intact and flooded seagoing loading conditions
(c) The permissible SWBMs in seagoing condition (Msw-h and Msw-s) increased by
10%
3. Minimum still water shear force
For oil tankers with three cargo tanks across the ship breadth (e.g., VLCC), the
minimum hull girder positive and negative SWSF in the seagoing condition (Qsw-min)
in way of transverse bulkheads between cargo tanks can be calculated as the
following equation and taken as the maximum value of Qsw-min calculated for
cargo/ballast tanks forward and aft of the transverse bulkhead.
0 1
0:225ρ g Blocal ltk T s ,
Qswmin ¼ max@ 0:98ðV CT þ 2V ST Þ A ½kN ð13:22Þ
0:5ρ g
0:7Blocal ltk T s
where, ρ is the density of cargo or sea water, not to be taken less than 1.025 ton/m3.
Blocal is the local breadth at Ts at the middle length of the tank under consideration
in m. ltk is the length of cargo tank under consideration, taken at the forward or aft
side of the transverse bulkhead under consideration, in m. VCT and VST are the
volumes of center and side cargo tanks, taken for the cargo tank on the forward or
aft side of the transverse bulkhead under consideration, in m3, respectively.
The minimum hull girder positive and negative SWSF in the harbor/sheltered
water condition (Qsw-p-min) in way of transverse bulkheads between cargo tanks can
be calculated as the following equation and taken as the maximum value of Qsw-p-
min calculated for cargo/ballast tanks forward and aft of the transverse bulkhead.
0 1
0:275ρ g Blocal ltk T s ,
Qswpmin ¼ max@ 0:98ðV CT þ 2V ST Þ A ½kN ð13:23Þ
0:5ρ g
0:6 Blocal ltk T s
For oil tankers with two cargo tanks across the ship breadth (e.g., Aframax and
Suezmax tankers), the minimum hull girder positive and negative SWSF in the
seagoing condition (Qsw-min) can be calculated by the following equation and taken
as the maximum value of Qsw-min calculated for cargo/ballast tanks forward and aft
of the transverse bulkhead.
Qsw-min ¼ 0:4ρ g Blocal ltk T s ½kN ð13:24Þ
The minimum hull girder positive and negative SWSF in the harbor/sheltered
water condition (Qsw-p-min) can be calculated by the following equation and taken as
the maximum value of Qsw-p-min calculated for cargo/ballast tanks forward and aft of
the transverse bulkhead.
Qsw-p-min ¼ 0:45ρ g Blocal ltk T s ½kN ð13:25Þ
4. Permissible still water shear force

The permissible SWSFs in seagoing condition (Qsw) at any longitudinal position
(a) The most severe SWSFs, positive or negative, calculated for the seagoing
loading conditions defined in CSR
(b) The most severe SWSFs for the seagoing loading conditions defined in the
loading manual
(c) The minimum SWSF in Eqs. (13.22) or (13.24)
The permissible SWSFs in the harbor/sheltered water and tank testing condition
(Qsw-p) at any longitudinal position are to envelop the followings.
(a) The most severe SWSFs, positive or negative, calculated for the harbor/shel-
tered water loading conditions defined in CSR
(b) The most severe SWSFs for the harbor/sheltered water loading conditions
(c) The minimum SWSF in Eqs. (13.23) or (13.25)
The permissible SWSFs in flooded condition (Qsw-f) at any longitudinal position
(a) The most severe SWSFs, positive or negative, calculated for the intact and
flooded seagoing loading conditions defined in CSR
(b) The most severe SWSFs for the intact and flooded seagoing loading conditions
(c) The permissible SWBMs in seagoing condition (Qsw)
5. Vertical wave bending moment
The VWBMs (Mwv-hand Mwv-s) in hogging and sagging conditions can be
calculated by the following equations.
Mwv-h ¼ 0:19f nlvh f m f p Cw Ls 2 B CB ½kN m ð13:26Þ

Mwv-s ¼ 0:19f nlvs f m f p Cw Ls 2 B CB ½kN m ð13:27Þ
where, fnl-vh is a coefficient considering nonlinear effects applied to hogging, to be

taken as 1.0 for strength assessment. fnl-vs is a coefficient considering nonlinear
effects applied to sagging, to be taken as fnl-vs ¼ 0.58((CB þ 0.7)/CB) for strength
assessment. fm is the distribution factor for VWBM along the ship length and can be
taken as fm ¼ 0.0 for x 0, fm ¼ 1.0 for 0.4Ls x 0.65Ls, and fm ¼ 0.0 for x Ls.
Intermediate values of fm are to be obtained by linear interpolation. And fp is a
constant and same as fps for strength assessment.
6. Vertical wave shear force
The VWSFs (Vertical Wave Shear Forces), positive or negative, at any longitu-
dinal position can be calculated by the following equations.
Qwv-pos ¼ 0:52f qpos f p Cw Ls B CB ½kN ð13:28Þ
Qwv-neg ¼ 0:52f qneg f p Cw Ls B CB ½kN ð13:29Þ
where, fq-pos is the distribution factor for positive VWSF along the ship length and can
be taken as fq-pos ¼ 0.0 for x 0, fq-pos ¼ 0.92fnl-vh for 0.2Ls x 0.3Ls, fq-pos ¼ 0.7
for 0.4Ls x 0.6Ls, fq-pos ¼ 1.0fnl-vs for 0.7Ls x 0.85Ls, and fq-pos ¼ 0.0 for
x Ls. fq-neg is the distribution factor for negative VWSF along the ship length and can
be taken as fq-neg ¼ 0.0 for x 0, fq-neg ¼ 0.92fnl-vs for 0.2Ls x 0.3Ls, fq-neg ¼ 0.7
for 0.4Ls x 0.6Ls, fq-neg ¼ 1.0fnl-vh for 0.7Ls x 0.85Ls, and fq-neg ¼ 0.0
for x Ls. Intermediate values of fq-pos and fq-neg are to be obtained by linear
interpolation.
7. Horizontal wave bending moment
The HWBM (Horizontal Wave Bending Moment, Mwh) at any longitudinal
position can be calculated by the following equation.

Ls
Mwh ¼ f nlh f p 0:31 þ f m Cw Ls 2 T LC CB ½kN m ð13:30Þ
2,800
where, fnlh is a coefficient considering nonlinear effect to be taken as fnlh ¼ 0.9 for
strength assessment and TLC is the draft amidships at considered loading condition.
8. Wave torsional moment
The wave torsional moment (Mwt) at any longitudinal position with respect to the
ship baseline can be calculated by the following equation.
0 rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 1
Ls
0:4f t1 Cw B D CB A
2
Mwt ¼ f p @ T LC ½kN m ð13:31Þ
þ0:22f t2 Cw Ls B2 CB
where, ft1 is the distribution factor and can be taken as ft1 ¼ 0.0 for x 0, ft1 ¼ |sin
(2πx/Ls)| for 0.0 x Ls, and ft1 ¼ 0.0 for x Ls. ft2 is also the distribution factor
and can be taken as ft2 ¼ 0.0 for x 0, ft2 ¼ (sin(πx/Ls))2 for 0.0 x Ls, and
ft2 ¼ 0.0 for x Ls.
13.2.5 External Loads
There are various external loads; sea pressure, external pressures on exposed decks,
impact pressures for the bow area, impact pressures on superstructure and deck
houses, and so on. Among them, sea pressure is described only in this section.
1. Total sea pressure
The total sea pressure (Pex) at any load point of the hull for the static (S) design load
scenarios can be taken as Pex ¼ PS but not less than 0. The total sea pressure for the
static plus dynamic (SþD) design load scenarios can be derived from each dynamic
load case and can be taken as Pex ¼ PS + PW but not less than 0. Here, PS and PW are
hydrostatic and hydrodynamic pressures, respectively.
2. Hydrostatic pressure
The hydrostatic pressure (PS) at any load point can be obtained from the
following equation.

ρ g ðT LC zÞ ½kN=m2 when z T LC
PS ¼ ð13:32Þ
0 ½kN=m2 when z > T LC
3. Hydrodynamic pressures
There are various hydrodynamic pressures for each dynamic load case (HSM,
HSA, FSM, BSR, BSP, OST, and OSA). Among them, the hydrodynamic pressures
(PW) for HSM load cases (HSM-1 and HSM-2) are described below.
For HSM-1 load case, PW can be calculated by the following equation.
0
maxfPHS , ρ g ðz T LC Þg ½kN=m2 when z T LC
PW ¼ @ PW , WL ρ g ðz T LC Þ ½kN=m2 when T LC < z hw þ T LC
0 ½kN=m2 when z > hw þ T LC
ð13:33Þ
For HSM-2 load case, PW can be calculated by the following equation.

0
maxfPHS , ρ g ðz T LC Þg ½kN=m2 when z T LC
@
PW ¼ PW , WL ρ g ðz T LC Þ ½kN=m2 when T LC < z hw þ T LC
0 ½kN=m2 when z > hw þ T LC
ð13:34Þ
where, PW,WL is the wave pressure at the waterline for the considered dynamic load
case in kN/m2. Thus, PW,WL ¼ PW for z ¼ TLC. hw is the water head equivalent to the
pressure at waterline in m and can be taken as hw ¼ PW,WL/(ρg).
In the above equations, PHS can be calculated by the following equation.
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
L0 þ λ 125
PHS ¼ f ps f nl f h ka kp f yz Cw kN=m2 ð13:35Þ
Ls
where, fnl is a coefficient considering nonlinear effect. For extreme sea loads design
load scenario, it can be taken as fnl ¼ 0.7 at AP, fnl ¼ 0.9 at 0.3Ls, fnl ¼ 0.9 at 0.7Ls,
and fnl ¼ 0.6 at FP (1.0Ls). For ballast water exchange design load scenario, it can
be taken as fnl ¼ 0.85 at AP, fnl ¼ 0.95 at 0.3Ls, fnl ¼ 0.95 at 0.7Ls, and fnl ¼ 0.8 at
FP (1.0Ls). Intermediate values of fnl are obtained by linear interpolation. fh is a
coefficient to be taken as fh ¼ 3.0(1.21–0.66fT). fT is the ratio between draft at a
loading condition and scantling draft (Ts), that is, fT ¼ TLC/Ts but is not to be taken
less than 0.5.
ka is the amplitude coefficient in the longitudinal direction of the ship, to be
taken as the following equation.
Table 13.3 Values of kp for HSM load cases

fxL 0 0.3–0.1fT 0.35–0.1fT 0.8–0.2fT 0.9–0.2fT 1.0
kp 0.25fT(1 þ fyB) 1 1 1 1 1
0 qffiffiffiffiffiffi 2
pffiffiffiffiffiffi 20
Bð0:5 þ f T Þ 3 2 f yB 9 f xL 7 6 f yB þ 3ð1 f T Þ when f xL < 0:15
B
ka ¼ B
B1:0 when 0:15 f xL < 0:7
@ 40 18
1 þ ðf xL 0:7Þ f T 5 þ 2 1 f yB f T ðf xL 0:7Þ 0:25ð2 f T Þ when f xL 0:7
3 CB
ð13:36Þ
where, fxL is the ratio between x-coordinate of the load point and Ls, that is, fxL ¼ x/
Ls, but not to be taken less than 0.0 or greater than 1.0. fyB is the ratio between
y-coordinate of the load point and Bx, that is, fyB ¼ |2y|/Bx, but not greater than 1.0
and fyB ¼ 0 when Bx ¼ 0. Bx is the molded breadth at the waterline, in m, at the
considered transverse section.
kp is the phase coefficient to be obtained from Table 13.3. Intermediate values
are to be interpolated.
fyz is the girth distribution coefficient, to be taken as fyz ¼ z/TLC + fyB þ 1. L0 is
the rule length (Ls), but not to be taken less than 110 m. And λ is the wave length of
the dynamic load case, in m, to be taken as λ ¼ 0.6(1 þ fT)Ls. And Cw is a wave
coefficient defined in Eq. (13.21).
13.2.6 Internal Loads
There are various internal loads; internal pressures due to liquids, internal loads on
non-exposed decks and platforms, sloshing pressures in tanks, design pressure for
tank testing, and so on. Among them, pressures due to liquids are described only in
this section.
1. Total internal pressure due to liquids
The total internal pressure due to liquids in intact conditions, acting on any load
point of a cargo and ballast tank boundary for the static (S) design load scenarios,
can be taken as Pin ¼ Pls but not less than 0. The total internal pressure for the static
plus dynamic (SþD) design load scenarios can be derived from each dynamic load
case and can be taken as Pin ¼ Pls + Pld but not less than 0. Here, Pls is static
pressure due to liquids in cargo and ballast tanks, and Pld is dynamic inertial
pressure due to liquids in cargo and ballast tanks, respectively.
2. Static liquid pressure

(a) Normal operations at sea
The static pressure due to liquids in tanks during normal operations at sea can
be calculated by the following equation.

f cd ρL g ðztop zÞ þ PPV ½kN=m2 for cargo tanks
Pls ¼ ð13:37Þ
ρL g ðztop z þ 0:5hair Þ ½kN=m2 for other cases
where, fcd is a factor for joint probability of occurrence of liquid cargo density and
maximum sea state in 25 years design life and can be taken as fcd ¼ 1.0 for
ρL > 1.025 ton/m3 and fcd ¼ 0.88 for ρL ¼ 1.025 ton/m3. ρL is the density of
the liquid in the cargo or ballast tank in ton/m3, but not less than 1.025 ton/m3 for all
liquids including oil cargoes. If a tank filled at 98% is intended to carry heavier
liquid cargoes than 1.025 ton/m3, then the maximum liquid cargo density is used for
ρL. ztop is the z-coordinate of the highest point of the tank, excluding small
hatchways, in m. z is the z-coordinate of the load point with respect to the reference
coordinate system, in m. PPV is the setting of pressure relief valve, in kN/m2, if
fitted, but not less than 25 kN/m2. And hair is the height of air pipe or overflow pipe
above the top of the tank, in m.
(b) Harbor/sheltered water operations
The static pressure due to liquids in tanks for harbor/sheltered water operations
can be calculated by the following equation.
0

½kN=m
ρL g ztop z þ PPV 2
for cargo tanks
@
Pls ¼ ρL g ztop z þ hair þ
Pdrop ½kN=m2 for ballast tanks ð13:38Þ
ρL g ztop z þ 0:5hair ½kN=m2 for other cases
where, Pdrop is the overpressure due to sustained liquid flow through air pipe or
overflow pipe in case of overfilling or filling during flow through ballast water
exchange, in kN/m2. It is not to be less than 25 kN/m2.
(c) Sequential ballast water exchange
The static pressure due to liquids in ballast tanks associated with sequential
ballast water exchange operations can be calculated by the following equation.

Pls ¼ ρL g ztop z þ 0:5hair kN=m2 ð13:39Þ
(d) Flow through ballast water exchange

The static pressure due to liquids in ballast tanks associated with flow through
ballast water exchange operations can be calculated by the following equation.

Pls ¼ ρL g ztop z þ hair þ Pdrop kN=m2 ð13:40Þ
3. Dynamic liquid pressure

The dynamic pressure due to liquids in tanks can be calculated by the following
equation.

az ðz0 zÞ þ f ulll ax ðx0 xÞ
Pld ¼ f β f cd ρL ½kN=m2 ð13:41Þ
þf ullt ay ðy0 yÞ
where, fβ is the heading correction factor and can be taken as fβ ¼ 1.05 for HSM and
FSM load cases for the extreme sea loads design load scenario, fβ ¼ 0.8 for BSR and
BSP load cases for the extreme sea loads design load scenario, fβ ¼ 1.0 for HSA,
OST, and OSA load cases for the extreme sea loads design load scenario, and
fβ ¼ 1.0 for ballast water exchange at sea, harbor/sheltered water and accidental
flooded design load scenarios in the purpose of strength assessment. fcd is a factor
described below Eq. (13.37). ax, ax, and az are longitudinal, transverse, and vertical
accelerations in m/s2, respectively. x, y, and z are the x-, y-, and z-coordinates of the
load point with respect to the reference coordinate system, in m, respectively. And
x0, y0, and z0 are the x-, y-, and z-coordinates of the reference point, respectively.
full-l is the longitudinal acceleration correction factor for the ullage space above the
liquids in tanks, taken as full-l ¼ 0.62 for cargo tanks filled with any liquids
including water ballast and full-l ¼ 1.0 for other cases in the purpose of strength
assessment. Similarly, full-t is the transverse acceleration correction factor to
account for the ullage space above the liquids in tanks, taken as full-t ¼ 0.67 for
cargo tanks filled with any liquids including water ballast and full-t ¼ 1.0 for other
cases in the purpose of strength assessment.
13.2.7 Design Load Scenarios
For the strength assessment, the principal design load scenarios consist of either S
(Static) loads or SþD (StaticþDynamic) loads. In some cases, the letter ‘A’ pre-
fixes the S or SþD to denote that this is an accidental design load scenario. There
are some additional design load scenarios to be considered which relate to impact
(I) loads, sloshing (SL) loads, and fatigue (F) load. The principal design load
scenarios are given in Table 13.4.
In this table, Msw is the permissible hull girder hogging and sagging SWBM
(Still Water Bending Moment) for seagoing operation, in kNm. Msw-p is the
permissible hull girder hogging and sagging SWBM for harbor/sheltered water
operation, in kNm. Msw-f is the permissible hull girder hogging and sagging SWBM
for seagoing operation in the flooded condition, in kNm. Mwv-LC is the VWBM
(Vertical Wave Bending Moment) for a considered dynamic load case, in kNm.
Table 13.4 Principal design load scenarios

Harbor and Seagoing
sheltered conditions Ballast
water and with extreme water Accidental flooded
Design load scenario testing sea loads exchange conditions
Load components Static (S) Static+ Static Static Static+
Dynamic +Dynamic (A: S) Dynamic
(S+D) (S+D) (A: S+D)
Hull Design vertical Msw-p Msw Msw Msw-f Msw-f
girder bending moment + Mwv-LC + Mwv-LC + Mwv-LC
load Design horizontal Mwh-LC Mwh-LC Mwh-LC
bending moment
Design vertical Qsw-p Qsw Qsw Qsw-f
shear force + Qwv-LC + Qwv-LC + Qwv-LC
Design torsional Mwt-LC Mwt-LC
moment
Local External Hull PS PS + PW PS + PW
loads envelope
External PD
deck for
green sea
Internal Ballast max(Pls, Pls + Pld Pls + Pld
tanks PST)
Liquid
cargo
tanks
Other
tanks
Mwh-LC is the HWBM (Horizontal Wave Bending Moment) for a considered

dynamic load case, in kNm. Mwt-LC is the wave torsional moment for a considered
dynamic load case, in kNm. Qsw is the permissible hull girder positive and negative
SWSF (Still Water Shear Force) for seagoing operation, in kN. Qsw-p is the
permissible hull girder positive and negative SWSF for harbor/sheltered water
operation, in kN. Qsw-f is the permissible hull girder positive and negative SWSF
for seagoing operation in the flooded condition, in kN. Qwv-LC is the VWSF
(Vertical Wave Shear Force) for a considered dynamic load case, in kN. PS is the
static sea pressure at considered draft, in kN/m2. PW is the Dynamic pressure for a
considered dynamic load case, in kN/m2. PD is the green sea load for a considered
dynamic load case, in kN/m2. Pls is the Static liquid pressure in tank, in kN/m2. Pld
is the dynamic liquid pressure in the tank for a considered dynamic load case, in
kN/m2. And PST is the tank testing pressure, in kN/m2.
13.3 Hull Girder Strength 237
13.3 Hull Girder Strength
There are several hull girder strength (also called longitudinal strength); hull
girder yielding strength, hull girder ultimate strength, and hull girder residual
strength. However, in this section, the hull girder yielding strength is focused and
explained only. More detailed explanation can be found in CSR (IACS 2015).
13.3.1 Hull Girder Bending Strength Assessment
Hull girder transverse sections are to be considered as being constituted by the

members contributing to the hull girder longitudinal strength, that is, all continuous
longitudinal members below and including the strength deck. Here, the strength
deck is the uppermost continuous deck. In the case of a superstructure or deck house
contributing to the longitudinal strength, the strength deck is the deck of the
superstructure or the deck of the uppermost deckhouse.
Scantlings of all continuous longitudinal members of the hull girder based on
the moment of inertia and section modulus requirement are to be maintained within
0.4Lsamidships. The material factors (k) are to be defined with respect to the
materials used for the bottom and deck members contributing to the longitudinal
strength.
1. Section modulus
The section modulus at any point of a hull transverse section is obtained from
lyn50 3
Z An50 ¼ m ð13:42Þ
j z zn j
where, ly-n50 is the net moment of inertia, in m4, of the hull transverse section about
its horizontal neutral axis. z is the z-coordinate, in m, of the calculation point with
respect to the reference coordinate system. zn is the z-coordinate, in m, of the hor-
izontal neutral axis of the hull transverse section with net scantling.
Similarly, the section modulus at bottom and deck can be obtained from the
lyn50 3
Z Bn50 ¼ m ð13:43Þ
zn
lyn50 lyn50 3
Z Dn50 ¼ ¼ m ð13:44Þ
VD zD zn
where, VD is the vertical distance of the equivalent deck line, in m. When no

effective longitudinal members are positioned above a line extending from strength
Table 13.5 Normal stresses

Normal stress (σ L, N/mm2)
At any point located below
Operation the strength deck At bottom At deck
Msw þf β Mwv Msw þf β Mwv Msw þf β Mwv
Seagoing σL ¼ zAn50 103 σL ¼ zBn50 103 σL ¼ zDn50 103
Harbor/shel- jMswp j jMswp j jMswp j
σL ¼ zAn50 103 σL ¼ zBn50 103 σL ¼ zDn50 103
tered water
Table 13.6 Permissible hull girder bending stress

Permissible hull girder bending stress (σ perm, N/mm2)
x/ 0.1 < x/ 0.3 x/ 0.7 < x/ x/
Operation Design load Ls 0.1 Ls < 0.3 Ls 0.7 Ls < 0.9 Ls 0.9
Seagoing StaticþDynamic 140/k Linear 190/k Linear 140/k
interpolation interpolation
Harbor/ Static 105/k Linear 143/k Linear 105/k
sheltered interpolation interpolation
water
deck at side to a position (zD– zn)/0.9 from the neutral axis at the center line, VD ¼ zD
– zn. zD is the z-coordinate, in m, of strength deck at side.
2. Normal stresses
The normal stress (σ L) induced by vertical bending moments, should be assessed
for both hogging and sagging conditions, along the full length of the hull girder,
from AP to FP. The normal stress at any point of the hull transverse section located
below the strength deck should satisfy the following equation.
σ L σ perm ð13:45Þ
where, σ L is the normal stress, in N/mm2, induced by vertical bending moments are
given in Table 13.5. And σ perm is the permissible hull girder bending stress, in
N/mm2, as given in Table 13.6. That is, σ Lshould be calculated for design ship and
σ permis given as one of input data.
In this table, fβ is the heading correction factor and can be taken as fβ ¼ 1.05 for
seagoing conditions and fβ ¼ 1.0 for ballast water exchange at sea, harbor/sheltered
water, and accidentally flooded design load scenarios.
For example, the hull girder bending stress, that is, the normal stress conditions
at the bottom and the deck in the midship, induced by vertical bending moments, of
the ship for both hogging and sagging should satisfy the following equations.
Msw þ Mwv 190
103 at the bottom ð13:46Þ
zBn50 k
Msw þ Mwv 190
103 at the deck ð13:47Þ
zDn50 k
Here, k is higher strength steel factor as defined in Table 13.1.

13.3 Hull Girder Strength 239
3. Minimum net moment of inertia and net section modulus at midship section
At the transverse section in the midship region, the net moment of inertia about
the horizontal axis (Iy-n50) should not be less than the value obtained, in m4, from

I yR ¼ 2:7 Cw Ls 3 BðCB þ 0:7Þ 108 m4 ð13:48Þ
At the transverse section in the midship region, the vertical hull girder net
section modulus at the bottom (ZB-n50) and the deck (ZD-n50) should not be less
than the value obtained, in m3, from the following equation.

Z R ¼ 0:9 k Cw Ls 2 BðCB þ 0:7Þ 106 m3 ð13:49Þ
13.3.2 Hull Girder Shear Strength Assessment
The hull girder shear strength requirements apply along the full length of the hull
girder, from AP to FP.
1. Hull girder shear capacity
The total vertical hull girder shear capacity (QR), in kN, is the minimum of the
calculated values for all plates i contributing to the hull girder shear of the
considered transverse section and can be calculated by the following equation.

τiperm tin50
QR ¼ min 103 ½kN ð13:50Þ
i qvi
where, ti–n50 is the net thickness of plate i, in mm. qvi is the contribution ratio for
hull girder shear force per mm, in mm1, for the plate i based on net scantlings with
the deduction of 0.5tc, which is equal to the unit shear flow per mm, in N/mm,
obtained from a numerical calculation based on thin-walled beam theory. τi-perm is
the permissible shear stress, in N/mm2, as given in Table 13.7, for plate i.
2. Permissible vertical shear force
The positive and negative permissible vertical shear forces should satisfy the
Table 13.7 Permissible hull girder shear stress

Permissible hull girder shear stress
Operation Design load (τi-perm, N/mm2)
Seagoing StaticþDynamic 120/k
Harbor/sheltered water Static 105/k
jQsw j þ jf β Qwv j QR for seagoing operation

ð13:51Þ
jQswp j QR for harbor=sheltered operation
where, Qsw and Qsw-p are the permissible positive or negative SWSFs for seagoing
operation and for harbor/sheltered operation, in kN, at the hull transverse section
considered (e.g., midship section), respectively. Qwv is the VWSF in seagoing
condition, in kN, in intact or flooded conditions. Qwv should be taken with the
same sign as the considered shear force Qsw.
3. Vertical still water shear force
The vertical SWSFs, in kN, for all loading conditions should satisfy the follow-
ing equations.
jQswLcd ΔQmdf j jQsw j for seagoing operation

ð13:52Þ
jQswLcdp ΔQmdf j jQswp j for harbor=sheltered operation
where, Qsw-Lcd and Qsw-Lcd-p are the vertical SWSFs for the considered loading
condition in seagoing operation and in harbor/sheltered operation, in kN, respec-
tively. Qsw and Qsw-p should be taken with the same sign as the considered shear
forces Qsw-Lcd and Qsw-Lcd-p, respectively. ΔQmdf is the shear force correction at the
transverse section considered, in kN, taken as ΔQmdf ¼ 0 for oil tankers.
13.4 Hull Local Scantling
This section explains very briefly how to perform local scantling for a hull structure
over the full length of the ship. This section includes requirements for evaluation of
plates and stiffeners, subject to hull girder loads, local loads (external and internal
loads), as applicable. The determined net scantling should be greater than or equal
to the required scantlings based on requirements provided in this section.
13.4.1 Loads for Hull Local Scantling
1. Hull girder loads

The normal stress or hull girder bending stress (σ hg) induced by acting vertical
and horizontal bending moments at the position being considered can be calculated
by the following equation. This stress should be calculated for each design load set
covering all dynamic load cases (Mwv-LC and Mwh-LC) in combination with SWBM
(Msw) both in hogging and in sagging.
13.4 Hull Local Scantling 241

Msw þ MwvLC MwhLC
σ hg ¼ 103 N=mm2 ð13:53Þ
lyn50 =ðz zn Þ lzn50 =y
where, Msw is the SWBM in accordance with the considered design load scenario in
Table 13.4. Mwv-LC and Mwh-LC are VWBM and HWBM of the considered dynamic
load case in accordance with the considered design load scenario in Table 13.4,
respectively. ly-n50 and lz-n50 are the net vertical and horizontal hull girder moment
of inertia at the longitudinal position being considered in m4, respectively. y is the
transverse coordinate of load calculation point, in m. z is the vertical coordinate of
the load calculation point under consideration, in m. And zn is the distance from the
baseline to the horizontal neutral axis, in m.
2. Design load set
Design load sets are the basis for hull local scantling and consist of load
components, drafts, design loads, and loading conditions. The static and dynamic
load components are to be determined in accordance with the considered design
load scenario in Table 13.4. Design load sets for hull local scantling of plates and
stiffeners are given in Table 13.8.
In this table, Pex should be considered for the external shell only.
3. Acceptance criteria
The acceptance criteria are categorized into three acceptance criteria sets; AC-S,
AC-SD, and AC-I. The specific acceptance criteria set that is applied in the rule
requirements is dependent on the probability level of the characteristic combined
load. The acceptance criteria set AC-S is applied for the static design load
Table 13.8 Design load sets for hull local scanting

Design Load Design
Item load set component Draft load Loading condition
External shell and SEA-1 Pex, PD Ts S+D Full load condition
exposed deck SEA-2 Pex Ts S Harbor condition
(external shell only)
Water ballast tank WB-1 Pin-Pex Tbal S+D Normal ballast
condition
WB-2 Pin-Pex Tbal S+D Normal ballast condi-
tion, Water ballast
exchange
WB-3 Pin-Pex 0.25Ts S Harbor/test condition
Cargo oil tank OT-1 Pin Ts S+D Full load condition
OT-2 Pin 0.6Ts S+D Partial load condition
OT-3 Pin – S Harbor/test condition
Other tanks (fuel oil TK-1 Pin-Pex Tbal S+D Normal ballast
tank, fresh water tank) condition
TK-2 Pin-Pex 0.25Ts S Harbor/test condition
combinations, and for the sloshing design loads. The allowable stress for such loads
is lower than that for an extreme load to take into account effects of repeated yield,
allowance for some dynamics, and margins for some selected limited operational
mistakes. The acceptance criteria set AC-SD is applied for the SþD design load
combinations where considered loads are extreme loads with a low probability of
occurrence. The acceptance criteria set AC-I is typically applied for impact loads,
such as bottom slamming and bow impact loads.
13.4.2 Minimum Thicknesses
There are requirements of the minimum thickness of plates and stiffeners.

1. Minimum thickness for plates
The net thickness of plates should comply with the appropriate minimum thickness
requirements given in Table 13.9.
Table 13.9 Minimum net thickness for plates

Net thickness
Element Location Area (mm)
Shell Keel 7.5 þ 0.03L2
Bottom, side shell, bilge Fore body 6.5 þ 0.03L2
Engine room, 7.0 þ 0.03L2
after body
Elsewhere 5.5 þ 0.03L2
Deck Weather deck, strength deck, internal tank 4.5 þ 0.02L2
boundary
Platform deck Engine room 2.8 þ 0.0067s
Elsewhere 6.5
Inner Engine room 6.6 þ 0.024L2
bottom Elsewhere 5.5 þ 0.03L2
Bulkheads Internal tank boundary, transverse/longitudi- 4.5 þ 0.02L2
nal watertight bulkhead
Non-tight bulkhead, wash bulkhead, bulk- 4.5 þ 0.01L2
heads between dry spaces
Pillar bulkheads in fore and aft peaks 7.5
Breast Fore body 6.5
hook
Other Engine casing (in the cargo hold) Cargo hold 5.5
members Engine casing (in the way of accommodation) Accommodation 4.0
Other plates in general 4.5 þ 0.01L2
In this table, L2 is the rule length (Ls) but need not be taken greater than 300 m.
The breast hook is a horizontal piece of plate in the fore peak of a ship. It supports
the stem and bow plates, an area prone to loadings of pounding and slamming.
2. Minimum thickness for stiffeners
Similarly, the net thickness of the web and flange of stiffeners should comply
with the appropriate minimum thickness requirements given in Table 13.10. In
addition, the net thickness (t) of the web of stiffeners should not be less than 40% of
the net required thickness (treq) of the attached plates and should be less than twice
the net offered thickness (toff) of the attached plates.
13.4.3 Plates
An EPP (Elementary Plate Panel) is the unstiffened part of the plate between
stiffeners and/or PSMs (Primary Supporting Members). The length (a) and the
breadth (b) of the EPP are defined respectively as the longest and shortest plate
edges, as shown in Fig. 13.4.
Table 13.10 Minimum net thickness for stiffeners

Element Location Net thickness (mm)
Stiffeners and attached end brackets Watertight boundary 3.5 þ 0.015L2
Other structure 3.0 þ 0.015L2
Fig. 13.4 Length and breadth of the elementary plate panel. (a) Longitudinal/horizontal framing
structure. (b) Transverse/vertical framing structure
Table 13.11 Values of the coefficients α, β, and Ca-max

Acceptance criteria
set Structural member α β Ca-max
AC-S Longitudinal strength Longitudinally stiffened 0.5 0.90 0.80
members plates
Transversely stiffened 1.0 0.90 0.80
plates
Other members 0.0 0.80 0.80
AC-SD Longitudinal strength Longitudinally stiffened 0.5 1.05 0.95
members plates
Transversely stiffened 1.0 1.05 0.95
plates
Other members 0.0 1.00 1.00
1. Plates subjected to lateral pressure

The net thickness (t) of plates should not be taken less than the greatest value for all
applicable design load sets, as defined in Table 13.8, given by the following
equation.
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
j Pj
t ¼ 0:0158αp b ½mm ð13:54Þ
χ Ca ReH
where, αp is the correction factor for the panel aspect ratio to be taken as αp ¼ 1.2-b/
(2.1a), but not to be taken greater than αp ¼ 1.0. a and b are length and breadth of
plate panel, in m, respectively, as shown in Fig. 13.4. P is the design pressure for the
considered design load set, calculated at the load calculation point, in kN/m2. χ is a
coefficient taken equal to 1.0 in intact condition. In the case of flooded condition,
χ ¼ 1.0 for collision bulkheads for acceptance criteria set AC-S, χ ¼ 0.95 for
collision bulkheads for acceptance criteria set AC-SD, and χ ¼ 1.15 for other
watertight boundaries of compartments. Ca is the permissible bending stress coef-
ficient for plate taken equal to β-α|σ hg|/ReH, not to be taken greater than Ca-max. α
and β are coefficients, as defined in Table 13.11. Ca-max is the maximum permissible
bending stress coefficient, as defined Table 13.11. And σ hg is the hull girder bending
stress as defined in Eq. (13.53), and ReH is the specified minimum yield stress as
defined in Table 13.1.
2. Keel plates
The net thickness of the keel plates should not be taken less than the net offered
thickness of the adjacent 2 m width bottom plates, measured from the edge of the
keel strake.
3. Bilge plates
The net thickness (t) of bilge plates should not be taken less than the net offered
thickness for the adjacent bottom shell or adjacent side shell plates, whichever is
greater. Furthermore, the net thickness of rounded bilge plates should not be taken
less than the following equation.
t ¼ 6:45ðPex Sb Þ0:4 R0:6 104 ½mm ð13:55Þ
where, Pex is the design sea pressure for the design load set SEA-1 as defined in
Table 13.8 calculated at the lower turn of the bilge, in kN/m2. Sb is the distance
between transverse stiffeners, webs or bilge brackets, in mm. R is the effective bilge
radius in mm and can be calculated as R0 þ 0.5(Δs1 þ Δs2). R0 is the radius of
curvature of bilge area in mm. Δs1 is the distance between the lower turn of the bilge
and the outermost bottom longitudinal, in mm, where the outermost bottom longi-
tudinal is within the curvature, this distance is to be taken as zero. Δs2 is the
distance between the upper turn of the bilge and the lowest side longitudinal, in
mm, where the lowest side longitudinal is within the curvature, this distance is to be
taken as zero.
4. Side shell plates
The net thickness (t) of the side shell plates within the fender contact zone should
not be taken less than the following equation.

b B T s 0:25
t ¼ 26 þ 0:7Þ ½mm ð13:56Þ
1, 000 ReH 2
The application extends within the cargo hold region, from the ballast draft (Tbal)
to 0.25Ts (minimum 2.2 m) above Ts. Here, b is the breadth of the side shell plates.
5. Deck stringer plates
Within 0.6Ls amidships, the net thickness of the deck stringer plate should not be
less than the net offered thickness (toff) as defined in Eq. (13.4) of the adjacent deck
plates.
6. Aft peak bulkhead
The net thickness of the aft peak bulkhead plates in the way of the stern tube
penetration should be at least 1.6 times the net required thickness (treq) for the
bulkhead plates.
13.4.4 Stiffeners
There are several types of stiffeners; L bar (also called angle), T bar, bulb bar, and
flat bar, as shown in Fig. 13.5 Various types of stiffeners. In the case of L and T
bars, they consist of web and flange.
Fig. 13.5 Various types of stiffener. (a) L bar. (b) T bar. (c) Bulb bar. (d) Flat bar
1. Stiffener web
The minimum net thickness (tw) of the web of a stiffener should not be taken less
than the greatest value calculated for all applicable design load sets, as defined in
Table 13.8, given by the following equation.
f shr jPj s lshr
tw ¼ ½mm ð13:57Þ
d shr χ Ct τeH
where, χCt should not be taken greater than 1.0. fshr is the shear force distribution
factor. In the case of continuous stiffeners with fixed ends, the value of fshr should
not be taken less than 0.5 for horizontal stiffeners and the upper end of vertical
stiffeners, and 0.7 for the lower end of vertical stiffeners. P is the design pressure
for the considered design load set, calculated at the load calculation point, in kN/m2.
s is the stiffener spacing, in mm. lshr is the effective shear span, in m and dshr is the
effective shear depth, in mm. χ is a coefficient taken equal to 1.0 in intact condition.
Ct is the permissible shear stress coefficient for the design load set being consid-
ered, taken as 0.75 for acceptance criteria set AC-S and 0.90 for acceptance criteria
set AC-SD. And τeH is the specified shear yield stress and can be calculated as
below.
ReH
τeH ¼ pffiffiffi N=mm2 ð13:58Þ
3
2. Section modulus
The minimum net section modulus (Z ) of stiffeners should not be taken less than
the greatest value calculated for all applicable design load sets, as defined in
Table 13.8, given by the following equation.
jPj s lbdg 2 3
Z¼ cm ð13:59Þ
f bdg χ Cs ReH
where, lbdg is the effective bending span, in m. fbdg is the bending moment factor. In
the case of continuous stiffeners with fixed ends, the value of fbdg should not be
Table 13.12 Formula for the coefficient Cs

Sign of hull girder bending stress (σ hg) Lateral pressure acting on Fomula for Cs
Tension (positive) Stiffener side jσhg j
C s ¼ β s αs ReH
Compression (negative) Plate side
Tension (positive) Plate side Cs ¼ Cs ‐ max
Compression (negative) Stiffener side
Table 13.13 Values of the coefficients αs, βs, and Cs-max

Acceptance criteria set Structural member αs βs Cs-max
AC-S Longitudinal strength members 1.0 0.85 0.75
Transverse strength members 0.0 0.75 0.75
AC-SD Longitudinal strength members 1.0 1.00 0.90
Transverse strength members 0.0 0.90 0.90
taken higher than 12 for horizontal stiffeners and the upper end of vertical stiff-
eners, and 10 for the lower end of vertical stiffeners. Cs is the permissible bending
stress coefficient as defined in Table 13.12 for the design load set being considered.
In this table, αs, βs, and Cs-max are coefficients, as defined in Table 13.13.
3. Group of stiffeners
For the efficiency of productivity, stiffeners can be arranged by grouping
designated sequentially placed stiffeners of equal scantlings on a single stiffened
panel. It is recommended that the scantling of the group satisfies the following rule;
the average of the required scantling of all stiffeners within a group should not be
taken less than 90% of the maximum scantling required for any one stiffener within
the group. For example, it is assumed that five stiffeners have the thickness of
100, 90, 80, 70, and 60 mm. The average thickness is given by 80 mm 5.
However, the average value is less than 100 mm 90% ¼ 90 mm of the largest
individual requirement, 100 mm. Therefore, the average value should be taken
90 mm 5.
4. Plate and stiffener of different materials
When the minimum specified yield stress of a stiffener exceeds the minimum
specified yield stress of the attached plate by more than 35%, the following criterion
is to be satisfied.

αS σ hg ZP αS σ hg
ReHS ReHP þ ð13:60Þ
βs Z βs
where, ReH-S and ReH-P are minimum specified yield stress of the material of the
stiffener and the attached plate, in N/mm2, respectively. σ hg is the hull girder
bending stress, in N/mm2, as defined in Eq. (13.50) with |σ hg| not to be taken less
than 0.4ReH-P. Z is the net section modulus, in the way of flange plate or free edge of
the stiffener, in cm3. ZP is the net section modulus, in the way of the attached plate
of the stiffener, in cm3.
13.5 Buckling Strength
13.5.1 Generals
Buckling is used as a generic term to describe the strength of structures, generally

under in-plane compressions and/or shear and lateral load. The buckling strength or
capacity can take into account the internal redistribution of loads depending on the
load situation, slenderness, and type of structure. This section describes the strength
criteria for buckling strength of local supporting members. For each structural
member, the characteristic buckling strength should be taken as the most unfavor-
able/critical buckling failure mode. The buckling checks for structural members
should be performed according to the slenderness requirements, the buckling
capacity, and the buckling criteria. Here, the buckling capacity gives a lower
bound estimate of ultimate buckling capacity, or the maximum load that the
panel can carry without suffering major permanent set. The assessment of buckling
capacity uses the positive elastic post-buckling effect for plates and accounts for
load redistribution between the structural components, such as between plates and
stiffeners.
13.5.2 Buckling Utilization Factor
The buckling utilization factor of a structural member means the ratio between the
applied loads and the corresponding ultimate capacity or buckling strength. For
combined loads, the utilization factor (ηact) means the ratio of the applied equiv-
alent stress and the corresponding buckling capacity and can be expressed as the
following equation. In general, the buckling utilization factor is equal to the highest
utilization factor obtained for the different buckling modes.
W act 1
ηact ¼ ¼ ð13:61Þ
Wu γc
where, γ c is the stress multiplier factor at failure.

Wact is the applied equivalent stress and can be calculated for plates and
stiffeners, as shown in the following equation.
13.5 Buckling Strength 249
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
σ x 2 þ σ y 2 þ τ2 ½N=mm2 for plate
W act ¼ ð13:62Þ
σ a þ σ b þ σ w ½N=mm2 for stiffener
where, σ x and σ y are the stresses applied on edge along x- and y-axis of the buckling
panel, in N/mm2, respectively. τ is the applied shear stress, in N/mm2. σ a is the
effective axial stress, in N/mm2, at mid span of the stiffener, acting on the stiffener
with its attached plate. σ b is the bending stress in the stiffener, in N/mm2. σ w is the
stress due to torsional deformation, in N/mm2.
Wu is the equivalent buckling capacity can be calculated for plates and stiffeners,
as shown in the following equation.
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
σ cx 2 þ σ cy 2 þ τc 2 ½N=mm2 for plate
Wu ¼ ð13:63Þ
ReHS =S ½N=mm2 for stiffener
where, σ cx and σ cy are the ultimate buckling stresses in the direction parallel to the
longer and shorter edge of the buckling panel, in N/mm2, respectively. τc is the
ultimate buckling shear stress, in N/mm2. And S is the spacing of primary
supporting member. For each typical failure mode, the corresponding capacity of
structural members is calculated by applying the actual stress combination and then
increasing or decreasing the stresses proportionally until collapse.
13.5.3 Slenderness Requirements
All structural members should comply with the applicable slenderness and propor-
tion requirements.
1. Plates
The net thickness (tp), in mm, of plate panels should satisfy the following
criterion.
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
b ReH
tp ð13:64Þ
C 235
where, b is the breadth of the plate panel. C is the slenderness coefficient taken as
C ¼ 100 for hull envelope and cargo and tank boundaries, and C ¼ 125 for other
structures.
2. Stiffeners
The net thickness, in mm, of web plates (tw) and flange plates (tf) of stiffeners
should satisfy the following criteria.
Table 13.14 Slenderness Type of stiffener cw cf

coefficients
L bar (angle) 75 12
T bar 75 12
Bulb bar 45 0 (no flange)
Flat bar 22 0 (no flange)
hw ReH
tw ð13:65Þ
cw 235
bf out ReH
tf ð13:66Þ
cf 235
where, hw is the depth of stiffener web, in mm. bf-out is the maximum distance, in
mm, from mid thickness of the web to the flange edge. And cw and cf are the
slenderness coefficients of web and flange plates, respectively, as shown in
Table 13.14.
In addition, the total flange breadth (bf), in mm, for L bar and T bar should satisfy
the following criterion.
bf 0:25hw ð13:67Þ
Finally, the net moment of inertia (Ist), in cm4, of the stiffener with the effective
width of attached plate, about the neutral axis parallel to the attached plate, should
satisfy the following criterion.
ReH
I st C l2 Aeff ð13:68Þ
235
where, C is the slenderness coefficient taken as C ¼ 1.43 for longitudinal stiffeners

including sniped stiffeners and C ¼ 0.72 for other stiffeners. l is the span of the
stiffener, in m. Aeff is the net sectional area of the stiffener including effectively
attached plate of seff, in cm2. seff is the effective width of attached plate of
the stiffener, in mm, taken as seff ¼ 0.8s. And ReH is the specified minimum yield
stress of the material of the attached plate, in N/mm2, as defined in Table 13.1.
13.5.4 Buckling Capacity
In order to check the buckling criteria, the buckling utilization factor (ηact) should
be calculated. For this, the buckling capacity should be calculated by using the
stresses (σ x, σ y, and τ) applied on the structural members, in N/mm2. The ultimate
buckling capacity is calculated by applying the actual stress combination and then
13.5 Buckling Strength 251
increasing or decreasing the stresses proportionally until the interaction formulas

explained below are equal to 1.0.
1. Oveall stiffened panel
The ultimate buckling capacity, in N/mm2, of the elastic stiffened panel can be
calculated by the following interaction formula.
Pz
¼1 ð13:69Þ
Cf
where, Pz is the nominal lateral load, in N/mm2, acting on the stiffener due to
stresses (σ x, σ y, and τ) in the attached plate in way of the stiffener mid span. Pz is a
function of γ c, as shown in the following equation. Cf is the elastic support provided
by the stiffener, in N/mm2. From the value of γ c which satisfies the above formula,
the utilization factor (ηact) can be obtained.
π s2
tp pffiffiffi
Pz ¼ σ xl þ 2c γ c σ y þ 2 τ1 N=mm2 ð13:70Þ
s l
2. Plates
The ultimate buckling capacity, in N/mm2, of plates can be calculated according
to the following interaction formulas for different plate limit states.
e e0 =2 e =2 e e0
γ c1 σ x S 0 γ σ S 0 γ σ S 0
σ cx B γc1σσcxx S c1σcyy þ c1σcyy þ γ c1 jτjS
τc ¼1
ð13:71Þ
2=βp 0:25 2=βp 0:25
γ c2 σ x S γ c2 jτjS ð13:72Þ
σ cx þ τc ¼1 for σ x 0
2=βp 0:25 2=βp 0:25
γ c3 σ y S γ c3 jτjS ð13:73Þ
σ cy þ τc ¼1 for σ y 0
γ c4 jτj S
¼1 ð13:74Þ
τc
where, σ x, and σ y are the applied normal stress to the plate panel, in N/mm2. τ is the
applied shear stress to the plate panel, in N/mm2. σ cx and σ cy are the ultimate
buckling stresses in the direction parallel to the longer and shorter edge of the
buckling panel, in N/mm2, respectively. τc is the ultimate buckling shear stress, in
N/mm2. γ c is the stress multiplier factor at failure, taken as min(γ c1, γ c2, γ c3, γ c4).
γ c1, γ c2, γ c3, and γ c4 are the stress multiplier factors at failure for each of the above
different limit states. γ c2 and γ c3 are only to be considered when σ x 0 and σ y 0,
respectively. S is the spacing of primary supporting member. B and e0 are
Table 13.15 Values of the Applied stress B e0

coefficients B and e0
σ x 0 and σ y 0 0.7–0.3βp/α2 2=β0:25
p
σ x < 0 or σ y < 0 1.0 2.0
coefficients given in Table 13.15. From the value of γ c which satisfies the above
formulas, the utilization factor (ηact) can be obtained.
In this table, α is the aspect ratio of the plate panel, taken as a/b. a and b are the
length of the longest and shortest plate edges of the plate panel, in mm, respectively,
as shown in Fig. 13.4.
And βp is the plate slenderness parameter taken as the following equation.
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
b ReHP
βp ¼ ð13:75Þ
tp E
where, E is Young’s modules. The value of E for carbon steel materials is

206,000 N/mm2.
3. Stiffeners
When σ a + σ b + σ w > 0, the ultimate buckling capacity, in N/mm2, of stiffeners
can be calculated according to the following interaction formula.
γ c ðσ a þ σ b þ σ w Þ
S¼1 ð13:76Þ
ReH
where, ReH is the specified minimum yield stress of the material, in N/mm2, and is
taken as ReH-S for stiffener induced failure and ReH-P for plate induced failure. From
the value of γ c which satisfies the above formula, the utilization factor (ηact) can be
obtained.
13.5.5 Buckling Criteria
Structural members such as plates and stiffeners are considered to have an accept-
able buckling strength if it satisfies the following criterion.
ηact ηall ð13:77Þ
where, the allowable buckling utilization factor (ηall) is defined in Table 13.16.
1. Overall stiffened panel
The buckling strength of overall stiffened panels should satisfy the following
criterion.
13.6 Fatigue Strength 253
Table 13.16 Allowable buckling utilization factor

Structural component ηall
Plates and stiffeners 1.00 for load combination SþD
Stiffened and unstiffened panels 0.80 for load combination S
Vertically stiffened side shell plates of single side
Skin bulk carrier
Web plate in ways of openings
Struts, pillars and cross ties 0.75 for load combination SþD
0.65 for load combination S
ηOverall ηall ð13:78Þ
where, ηOverall is the maximum utilization factor of overall stiffened panels and can
be obtained from the ultimate buckling capacity of the overall stiffened panel.
2. Plates
The buckling strength of plates should satisfy the following criterion.
ηPlate ηall ð13:79Þ
where, ηPlate is the maximum utilization factor plates and can be obtained from the
ultimate buckling capacity of plates.
3. Stiffeners
The buckling strength of stiffeners should satisfy the following criterion.
ηStiffener ηall ð13:80Þ
where, ηStiffner is the maximum utilization factor stiffeners and can be obtained from
the ultimate buckling capacity of stiffeners.
13.6 Fatigue Strength
13.6.1 Generals
The fatigue assessment is performed for structural details located in the cargo hold
region of a ship in order to prevent fatigue cracks initiating from the toe of the weld
and propagating into the plate, and fatigue cracks initiating from the free edge of
non-welded details. That is, this assessment is performed for evaluating fatigue
strength of the structural details. This assessment is applied to ships having Ls
between 150 m and 500 m considering an operation time in North Atlantic
environment equal to the design fatigue life (TDF). Here, the value of TDF is
specified by the designer, but not to be taken less than 25 years.
Critical structural details to be checked over the full extent of the cargo hold
region for fatigue assessment are end connections of longitudinal stiffeners to
transverse bulkheads, including swash bulkheads, end connections of longitudinal
stiffeners to floors and web frames, and so on.
13.6.2 Fatigue Stress
Fatigue stress is the stress relevant for fatigue assessment purpose. It can be one of
two. One is the maximum of the two principal hot spot stress for weld toe with the
mean stress effect and thickness effect corrections. The other is local stress at
the free edge with corrections due to the base material surface finishing, mean
stress effect, thickness effect, and material strength.
1. Hot spot stress
Hot spots are locations in the structure where fatigue cracks may initiate due to the
combined effect of nominal structural stress fluctuation and stress raising effects
due to the weld geometry or similar effects due to notch in the base material. Hot
spots may be located at weld toe, weld root of partial penetration or fillet weld, and
base material at the free edge of the plate.
Hot spot stress is the stress at the weld toe taking into account the stress
concentration due to structural discontinuities and presence of welded attachments
but disregarding the nonlinear stress peak caused by the notch at the weld toe. The
hot spot stresses to be considered correspond to the two principal stresses on the
surface plating at the weld toe. The first principal stress acts within 45 , perpen-
dicular to the weld and the second principal stress acts outside 45 . The hot spot
stress can be obtained by multiplying the nominal stress by an SCF (Stress Con-
centration Factor) or directly by a very fine mesh FE analysis. Here, nominal stress
is the stress in a structural component taking into account macro-geometric effect
but disregarding the stress concentration due to structural discontinuities and the
presence of welds. The nominal stress can be obtained either using coarse or fine
mesh FE analysis or using the analytical calculation based on beam theory.
2. Local stress
Local stress at the free edge is the stress at the plate free edge derived using FE
analysis.
13.6 Fatigue Strength 255
13.6.3 Fatigue Strength Assessment
The assessment of the fatigue strength of structural members can be performed

through four steps; (1) calculation of stress ranges, (2) selection of the design S-N
curve, (3) calculation of the cumulative damage and the fatigue life, and (4) check
of fatigue life and acceptance criteria.
1. Calculation of stress ranges
The fatigue stress range for each load case of each loading condition can be
defined for welded joints and for base material free edge. Then, the stress range
of each loading condition ( j) to be considered is the stress range obtained from the
predominant load case (i), as shown in the following equation.

Δσ FS, ðjÞ ¼ maxi Δσ FS, iðjÞ ð13:81Þ
where, Δσ FS,i( j ) is the fatigue stress range for load case (i) of loading condition ( j)
for welded joints and base material free edge, in N/mm2.
2. Selection of the design S-N curve
The capacity of welded joints and base material with respect to fatigue strength
is defined by S-N curves which provide the relationship between the stress range
applied to the detail and the number of constant amplitude load cycles to failure.
The fatigue assessment is based on the use of S-N curves which are obtained from
fatigue tests. The design S-N curves are established at two standard deviations
below the mean S-N curves corresponding to 50% of probability of survival for
relevant experimental data.
The basic design curves in-air environment can be represented by linear rela-
tionships between log (Δσ) and log (N), as shown in the following equations.
logðN Þ ¼ logðK 2 Þ m logðΔσ Þ ð13:82Þ
logðK 2 Þ ¼ logðK 1 Þ 2δ ð13:83Þ
where, N is the predicted number of cycles to failure under stress range Δσ. K1 is a
constant related to mean S-N curve and K2 is a constant related to design S-N curve.
δ is the standard deviation of log (N ). m is the inverse slope of the design S-N curve.
3. Calculation of the cumulative damage and the fatigue life
There are three fatigue damages; elementary fatigue damage, combined fatigue
damage, and total fatigue damage. The elementary fatigue damage is the damage
accumulated during a specific loading condition associated with a specific environ-
mental condition such as the protected in-air environment and the unprotected
corrosive environment. The combined fatigue damage is the combination of dam-
age accumulated for a specific loading condition for the in-air and corrosive
environment time. Finally, the total fatigue damage is the sum of the combined
fatigue damages obtained for all loading conditions. From the total fatigue damage,
the fatigue life (TF) can be estimated.
(a) Elementary fatigue damage
The elementary fatigue damage for each fatigue loading condition can be
calculated independently for both protected in-air environment and unprotected
corrosive environment, based on the fatigue stress range obtained for the predom-
inant load case, as shown in the following equation.

αðjÞ N D Δσ FS, ðjÞ m m
DEðjÞ ¼ μ ðjÞ Γ 1 þ ð13:84Þ
K2 ðln N R Þm=ξ ξ
where, α( j ) is the fraction of time in each loading condition for oil tanker and can be
taken as 0.5 for full load condition and normal ballast condition. ND is the total
number of wave cycles experienced by a ship during the design fatigue life and can
be taken as 31.557 106( f0TD)/(4logLs). f0 is the factor taking into account time
in seagoing operations excluding time in loading and unloading, repairs, etc. and
can be taken as 0.85. TD is the design life (25 years). Δσ FS,( j ) is the fatigue stress
range at the reference probability level of exceedance of 102, in N/mm2. NR is the
number of cycles corresponding to the reference probability of exceedance of 102
and can be taken as 100. ξ is the Weibull shape parameter and can be taken as 1. μ( j )
is the coefficient taking into account the change of inverse slope of the S-N curve.
Γ(x) is the complete gamma function.
(b) Combined fatigue damage
The combined fatigue damage (D( j )) in protected in-air environment and
unprotected corrosive environment for each loading condition can be calculated
TD TC TC
DðjÞ ¼ DE, airðjÞ þ DE, corrðjÞ ð13:85Þ
TD TD
where, DE,air( j ) and DE,corr( j ) are the elementary fatigue damages for in-air envi-
ronment and corrosive environment for loading condition ( j) that are calculated
from Eq. (13.84), respectively. And TC is the time in the corrosive environment, in
years, and can be taken as 5 for cargo oil tank and water ballast tank, and 2 for void
space and other areas.
(c) Total fatigue damage
Finally, the total fatigue damage for all applicable loading conditions (D) can
be calculated by the following equation.
X
nLC
D¼ DðjÞ ð13:86Þ
j¼1
where, nLC is the number of applicable loading conditions.

13.7 Verification of Hull Structural Design 257
(d) Fatigue life

Now, the fatigue life (TF), in years, can be calculated by the following equation.
0
TD TD
B Dair ½yr if
Dair
TD TC
TF ¼ B ð13:87Þ
@ TD Dair
TD TC þ TD þ TC ½yr otherwise
Dair Dcorr
where, Dair and Dcorr are the total fatigue damage for all loading conditions for in-
air environment and corrosive environment, respectively, and can be calculated by
the following equations.
X
nLC
Dair ¼ DE, airðjÞ ð13:88Þ
j¼1
X
nLC
Dcorr ¼ DE, corrðjÞ ð13:89Þ
j¼1
4. Check of fatigue life and acceptance criteria

The calculated fatigue life (TF), in years, should satisfy the following criterion.
T F T DF ð13:90Þ
13.7 Verification of Hull Structural Design
To assess more accurately the scantlings of the hull structure, FE (Finite Element)
analysis can be used. After the scantlings mentioned above are performed based on
the Rules, this analysis is performed for the structural parts that were not covered by
the Rules. The FE analysis for structural strength assessment includes several types;
cargo hold structural analysis, local structural strength analysis, fatigue strength
analysis, and global structural analysis. The cargo hold structural analysis is used to
assess the strength of longitudinal hull girder structural members, primary
supporting structural members, and bulkheads. The local structural analysis (also
called local fine mesh analysis) is used to assess detailed stress levels in local
structural details. And the fatigue strength analysis (also called very fine mesh
analysis) is used to assess the fatigue capacity of the structural details. The global
structural analysis (also called whole ship analysis) is used to assess the structural
adequacy of global strength of a ship.
The analysis is to verify (1) stress levels are within the acceptance criteria for
yielding, (2) buckling strength of stiffened panels, plates, and stiffeners are within
the acceptance criteria for bucking, and (3) fatigue capacity of structural details is
within the acceptance criteria.
Fig. 13.6 Example of the FE model for cargo hold structural analysis of a VLCC
13.7.1 Cargo Hold Structural Analysis
The cargo hold structural analysis is used for the assessment of scantlings of
longitudinal hull girder structural members, primary supporting members, and
bulkheads within the cargo hold region. That is, this analysis is used to determine
both the global response of the hull girder and local behavior of primary supporting
members. This analysis is mandatory within the cargo hold region, including the
engine room bulkhead and the collision bulkhead. For this analysis, the FE model
for the hull structures of three cargo holds with the cargo hold region within 0.4Ls
amidships is used. The stress results from this analysis should be suitable for
strength evaluation of the watertight boundaries of cargo holds and non-tight
primary supporting members. In general, the mesh size for this model is about
one stiffener spacing. The overall procedure of this analysis includes (1) FE
modeling, (2) application of boundary conditions, (3) load application, (4) execution
of analysis, and (5) post processing and strength assessment. Figure 13.6 shows an
example of FE model for cargo hold structural analysis, called cargo hold mesh
model, of a VLCC. As shown in this figure, the model includes three cargo holds.
13.7.2 Local Structural Analysis
The local structural analysis is used to assess the local strength of structural details.
In the midship cargo hold region of oil tankers, the following structural details
should be assessed according to this analysis; bracket toes on transverse web frame
13.7 Verification of Hull Structural Design 259
Fig. 13.7 Example of the FE model for local structural analysis of a VLCC
in the cargo tank, hopper region for ship with double side, connections of deck and
double bottom longitudinal stiffeners to transverse bulkhead, holes and openings,
and so on. For these details, fine mesh models are required within all the cargo hold
models covering the midship cargo hold region. In general, the mesh size for this
model is about 50 mm by 50 mm. The overall procedure of this analysis is same as
that of the cargo hold structural analysis. Figure 13.7 shows an example of FE
model for local structural analysis, called local fine mesh model, in the transverse
web frame of a VLCC. As shown in this figure, the model includes three cargo
holds.
13.7.3 Fatigue Strength Analysis
The fatigue strength analysis is used to assess the fatigue capacity of the structural
details. The fatigue assessment by this analysis is based on the hot spot stress
approach. The hot spot stress takes into account structural discontinuities due to the
structural detail of the welded joint, but not taking into account the notch effect at
the weld toe. The evaluation of hot spot stresses for fatigue assessment requires the
use of very fine mesh model, in the way of areas of high-stress concentration. The
following structural details should be assessed according to this analysis; hopper
knuckle connection, horizontal stringer heel connection, and so on. In general, the
mesh size for this model is the net thickness of the plate in the way of the considered
Fig. 13.8 Example of the FE model for fatigue strength analysis of a VLCC
hot spot. The overall procedure of this analysis is same as that of the cargo hold
structural analysis.
Figure 13.8 shows an example of FE model for fatigue strength analysis,
called local very fine mesh model, in the hopper knuckle connection of a VLCC. As
shown in this figure, this model is incorporated into the cargo hold mesh model for
cargo hold structural analysis.
13.7.4 Global Structural Analysis
Recently, ships are becoming larger and larger, and the demand for the safety of
ships is increasing at the same time. Furthermore, the emergence of large ships
requires different criteria for the hull structural design and the verification of its
safety. Existing ships have undergone structural analysis only on major parts of the
hull structure such as the cargo hold region, but large ships are currently being
conducted on the structural analysis of the whole hull structure by the ship owner’s
request. It is generally referred to as global structural analysis and can be divided
into two ways; quasi-static analysis and dynamic analysis.
In the case of the quasi-static analysis, the load applied to a ship has the quasi-
static characteristics. This method assumes the weight of the ship and the hydro-
static pressure applied to the hull structure as the load of the FE model and then
performs the structural analysis. This method calculates the design wave that is
equivalent to the hull girder loads given in the Rules according to loading condi-
tions and applies the static pressure to the outer shell of the hull structure.
13.8 Generation of Hull Structural Plans and Hull Structural Model 261
Fig. 13.9 Example of the FE model for global structural analysis of a VLCC
In the case of the dynamic analysis, the load applied to a ship has the dynamic
characteristics. This method uses not only the weight of the ship and the hydrostatic
pressure but also the dynamic pressure induced by waves and the inertial force due
to the ship motion. The ship motion and the dynamic pressure by waves due to sea
state can be analyzed by using the method based on the potential theory and the
CFD. This method calculates the design wave that is equivalent to the hull girder
loads given in the Rules like in the quasi-static analysis or that is obtained from the
statistical analysis considering sea state. Then, the design wave is used as the load
for the structural analysis.
For this analysis, the FE model for the whole hull structures, called global
structural model, is used. In general, the mesh size for this model is about 3~4
times one stiffener spacing. The overall procedure of this analysis includes (1) FE
modeling, (2) motion analysis, (3) application of boundary conditions, (4) load
application by the design wave, (5) execution of analysis, and (6) post processing
and strength assessment. Figure 13.9 shows an example of FE model for global
structural analysis.
13.8 Generation of Hull Structural Plans and Hull

Structural Model
The result of hull structural design includes hull structural plans, such as midship
section plan, decks and profiles, shell expansion, etc., and hull structural model.
These plans can be also represented as three views; section view, elevation view,
Fig. 13.10 Example of the midship section plan of a VLCC. (a) Transverse section plan. (b)
Ordinary section plan
and plan view. The most representative plans are the midship section plan, as shown
in Fig. 13.10. These plans consist of two parts; ordinary section plan and transverse
section plan. The first shows longitudinal members and the latter shows transverse
members. The hull structural model can be generated by using 3D CAD systems
and it can be used as a basis model to make various plans for production. Fig-
ures 13.10 and 13.11 show an example of the midship section plans and the hull
structual model of a VLCC.
A computational guide to establish a program for hull structural design is discussed.

Such program includes the implementation of subfunctions as below.
(a) Generation of hull structure
(b) Generation of FE model for FE analysis
(c) FE analysis for the strength assessment in Sect. 13.7
(d) Generation of hull structural plans and hull structural model in Sect. 13.8
Most of these subfunctions except for FE analysis can be implemented by using
various methods for CAGD such as NURBS, Boolean operation, and so on. More
details about these methods can be found in many references (Lee et al. 2004; Roh
References 263
Fig. 13.11 Example of the hull structural model of a VLCC
and Lee 2006; Roh et al. 2006; Roh and Lee 2007). In the case of FE analysis, the
methods based on numerical analysis such as FEM (Finite Element Method) can be
used for the implementation.
oped such as AVEVA Hull Detailed Design (AVEVA 2017), EzSTRUCT by
EzGRAPH (2017), NAPA Steel, SmartMarine 3D by Intergraph (2017), and so
on (in alphabetical order).
References

Hughes, O. F. (1983). Ship structural design, a rationally-based, computer-aided, optimization
approach. Jersey City: Wiley.
IACS (International Association of Classification Societies). (2015). Common structural rules for
bulk carriers and oil tankers. IACS.
Lee, K. Y., Lee, W. J., & Roh, M. I. (2004). Development of a semantic product modeling system
for initial hull structure in shipbuilding. Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing
Journal, 20(3), 211–223.
Mansour, A., Liu, D., & Paulling, J. R. (2008). The principles of naval architecture series:
Strength of ships and ocean structures. Jersey City: The Society of Naval Architects and
Marine Engineers.
Roh, M. I., & Lee, K. Y. (2006). Development of a 3D CAD system for modeling hull structure at
the initial ship design stage. Ships and Offshore Structures, 1(2), 135–151.
Roh, M. I., & Lee, K. Y. (2007). Generation of the 3D CAD model of the hull structure at the initial
ship design stage and its application. Computers in Industry, 58(6), 539–557.
Roh, M. I., Lee, K. Y., & Yoo, S. J. (2006). An algorithm for generating the hull structural analysis
model using the seam information of the hull structure at the initial design stage. Journal of
Ship and Ocean Technology, 10(4), 24–33.
Chapter 14
Outfitting Design
14.1 Generals
Outfitting is all equipment and instrument to be required for operating of a ship. It

includes main machinery together with auxiliaries, piping, deck gear, lifeboats,
accommodation equipment, plumbing systems, rigging, and so on for the working
ships. It is like internal organs or blood vessels of a human. It can be classified into
four categories; hull outfitting, machinery outfitting, accommodation outfitting, and
electric outfitting. A fundamental task of outfitting design is to determine types,
numbers, and specifications of the outfitting and then to arrange them in the hull
structure. The result of outfitting is transferred to the next design step, called the
detail design stage, as forms of P&ID (Piping and Instrumentation Diagram) plans
and WD (Wiring Diagram) plans.
14.2 Hull Outfitting
There are several hull outfitting for ships, including anchoring equipment, mooring
equipment, cargo handling equipment, life-saving and firefighting equipment, pilot
transfer equipment, and so on.
14.2.1 Anchoring Equipment
The anchoring means temporary mooring of a ship within a harbor or sheltered

area when the ship is awaiting berth, and so on. The anchoring equipment includes

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-4885-2_14
266 14 Outfitting Design
the anchor, anchor chain, chain compressor, anchor windlass, and so on. To
determine the suitable capacity of anchoring equipment, EN (Equipment
Numeral) formula is used (IACS 2015). This is a formula for anchoring equipment
required to hold a ship in conditions.
1. Anchor
An anchor is a kind of mechanical part which is made of metal and used to connect
a ship to sea bed to prevent the ship from drifting due to winds or currents. A ship
carries two or more temporary anchors, which may be of different designs and
weights. An anchor achieves holding power either by hooking into the seabed, or
via sheer mass, or a combination of the two. Anchors of a large ship get mainly their
holding power from their mass. There are several types of anchors; stockless
anchors, Danforth anchors, Admiralty Pattern anchors, and so on. Though the
holding-power-to-weight ratio of stockless anchors is significantly lower than
admiralty pattern anchors, they are being used widely in large ships due to their
ease of handling and stowage.
2. Anchor chain
A ship is attached to the anchors by the anchor chain (also called the anchor
cable). The anchor chain is made of chain, cable, rope, or a combination of these.
The length and the diameter of the anchor chain can be determined by the EN
formula. The ratio of the length of anchor chain to the water depth is known as
the scope; generally, the anchor chain should be between 5 and 10 times the
depth of the seabed, giving a scope of 5:1 or 10:1; the larger the number, the
shallower the angle is between the anchor chain and the seabed, and the less
upwards force is acting on the anchor. The inboard ends of the anchor chain are to
be secured to the structure of a ship called the chain locker by means of the
anchor windlass.
3. Chain compressor
The chain compressor is installed between anchor windlass and the anchor
pocket (also called anchor chain pipe or hawse pipe) and controls the movement
of anchor chain. The capacity of chain compressor depends on the length and
weight of anchor chain.
4. Anchor windlass
An anchor windlass is an equipment that restrains and manipulates the anchor
chain on a ship, allowing the anchor to be raised and lowered by means of a chain
cable. A notched wheel engages the links of the anchain chain. The anchor windlass
is installed within the forecastle on the main deck of the ship.
Figures 14.1 and 14.2 show the position and an example of anchoring equip-
ment, respectively.
14.2 Hull Outfitting 267
Fig. 14.1 Position of anchoring equipment
Fig. 14.2 Example of anchoring equipment
14.2.2 Mooring Equipment
The mooring means the act of attaching a ship to shore such as quays, mooring
buoys, and so on. With the mooring, a ship is secured to mooring equipment to limit
free movement of the ship on the water. On the other hand, the anchoring is to fix
the position of a ship relative to a point on the seabed. Of course, in these days, there
are special operations called ship-to-ship mooring that a ship is connected to a
different ship on the water. There are several mooring equipment as below.
1. Mooring rope or chain
A mooring rope or chain means a rope of chain for mooring the ship to shore. In
most cases, the mooring rope is made of rope and in some cases, the mooring rope
can be made of chain.
2. Mooring winch
A mooring winch is an equipment that secures the shipboard end of mooring
lines, provide for adjustment of the mooring line length and compensate for
changes in draft and tide.
Figures 14.3 and 14.4 show the position and an example of mooring equipment,
respectively.
14.2.3 Cargo Handling Equipment
The cargo handling equipment is equipment for handling cargo in the ship, includ-
ing loading and unloading cargo, opening and closing the cargo hold, and so on.
1. Cargo manifolds
Cargo manifolds are equipment for loading and unloading cargo and are one of
cargo handling equipment. There is a standard for the cargo manifolds and associ-
ated equipment of tankers by OCIMF (Oil Companies International Marine
Fig. 14.3 Position of mooring equipment
Fig. 14.4 Example of mooring equipment

Fig. 14.5 Position of cargo manifolds, hose handling cranes, and provision cranes
Forum). According to this standard, the cargo manifolds should be located at the
midship, or as near as possible, but in no case should it be more than 3.0 m forward
or after of the midship. The cargo manifolds are installed at the port and starboard
sides of the upper deck, respectively, as shown in Fig. 14.5.
2. Hatch covers and ramps
There are some opening and closing systems for loading and unloading cargo
such as hatch cover and ramp. There is no opening and closing equipment in
tankers. However, in bulk carriers and container ships, hatch covers are installed
on the top of cargo holds. There are several types of hatch cover; folding type,
sliding type, and lifting type. In Ro-Ro ships called PCTCs (Pure Car and Truck
Carriers), there are ramps at the stern and midship.
3. Deck cranes
Several cranes are installed on the upper deck of a ship; hose handling cranes,
provision cranes, jib deck cranes, gantry cranes, and so on.
The hose handling cranes are cranes for handling safely the lengths of hose
typically associated with cargo operations. For example, these cranes are used to
lifting the end of a floating hose out of the water to connect to the cargo manifolds.
Two cranes are installed at the port and starboard sides of the midship of the
upper deck.
The provision cranes are cranes for the provision of food, stores, spares, etc. in
the ship. In general, two cranes are installed at the port and starboard sides of the
after body of the upper deck.
4. Lashing equipment
In container ships, containers are also loaded not only on the deck but also in
holds. To fix the containers on deck from ship motion, various lashing equipment,
including lashing bridge are required and installed on the upper deck. The lashing
bridge installed mainly on mid-large container ships serves to securely hold the
multi-staged container loaded on the hatch cover of the upper deck.
14.2.4 Life-Saving and Firefighting Equipment
1. Lifeboats
The life-saving equipment is equipment used in an emergency. Due to some
accidents in the ship, it is needed for passengers or crew to escape from the ship.
The best-known piece of equipment in ships for saving the life is the lifeboat. There
are two kinds of lifeboats; davit type and free-fall type. The biggest difficulty with
lifeboats has always been launching them, especially if the sea is rough, or the ship
has heeled over. Passengers or crew need to get into the boats, which then need to be
swung out over the ship’s side and then lowered carefully into the sea. All this can
be difficult and dangerous for those in the boat if the ship is heeling or the sea is
rough. Along with lifeboats themselves, the devices for lowering them, called
davits, have evolved to make launching safer. These are davit type lifeboats.
Meanwhile, today ships are often fitted with lifeboats that are totally enclosed.
This protects those inside from the weather, but also means that the crew has a
better chance of escaping if their ship has a dangerous cargo which is leaking.
Imagine trying to escape from a tanker whose cargo is leaking on to the sea and is
ablaze. Where possible, the lifeboat is mounted on a steep ramp fitted above the
stern of the ship. This means that it can be launched even if the ship has a heavy
inclination and it can safely move away from a burning ship. These are free-fall
type lifeboats. Figure 14.6 shows davit type and free-fall type lifeboats.
2. Fire-extinguishing systems
Fire-extinguishing systems are used for fire suppression in the ship. All ships
should carry these systems that can extinguish a fire quickly and effectively. There
are several systems for firefighting; portable/semi-portable fire extinguishers, fixed
water fire-extinguishing systems, fixed gas fire-extinguishing systems, foam fire-
extinguishing systems, and so on.
Fig. 14.6 Davit type and free-fall type lifeboats. (a) David type lifeboat. (b) Free-fall type lifeboat
(Hyundai Lifeboats 2017)
Fig. 14.7 Position of life-saving and firefighting equipment
Portable/semi-portable fire extinguishers are somewhat compact systems for

firefighting. Because a fire starts small, most fires that are discovered early and
attacked quickly are usually controlled and extinguished before they can grow out
of control. The ready availability of suitable portable and semi-portable fire extin-
guishers is therefore very important. Although limited in capacity, portable extin-
guishers are easy to transport and can be used to engage a fire quickly. Semi-
portable extinguishing systems bring larger amounts of extinguishing agent to the
fire but are more difficult to transport. When used properly, both can be very
effective in controlling and extinguishing a small, localized fire.
Fixed water fire-extinguishing systems suppress fires by using water spray, water
sprinkler, and water mist systems. These systems utilize fixed piping systems with
distributed arrays of nozzles located in the overhead, which are supplied from
dedicated pumps.
Fixed gas fire-extinguishing systems typically suppress fires by reducing the
available oxygen in the atmosphere to a point where combustion can no longer take
place or by interrupting the chemical reaction necessary for the progression of
the fire.
Foam fire-extinguishing systems typically suppress fires by using firefighting
form which is used to form a blanket on the surface of the flaming liquid. The
blanket prevents flammable vapors from leaving the surface and prevents oxygen
from reaching the fuel. Oil tankers of over 20,000 DWT should be fitted with
the protection of the cargo tank deck area and cargo tanks by a deck foam system.
The deck foam system is capable of discharging foam at the required rates to the
entire cargo tank deck area, as well as into any cargo tank that is open due to a
rupture in the deck. This system will normally consist of fixed monitors, as well as
required hand line applicators.
Figure 14.7 shows the position of life-saving and firefighting equipment.
14.2.5 Pilot Transfer Equipment
The pilot transfer equipment is equipment for pilots. In a near-shore area, pilots
operate directly the ship instead of captain or mate. For this, a suitable access
measure between the ship and shore should be prepared. One of them is an
Fig. 14.8 Position of accroomodation ladder
accommodation ladder. There is a guideline about the accommodation ladder in

SOLAS regulation. According to this regulation, as far as practicable, the means of
embarkation and disembarkation should be sited clear of working area and should
not be placed where cargo or other suspended loads may pass overhead. That is, the
accommodation ladder should be apart from deck cranes such as provision cranes,
FO davit, and so on. Figure 14.8 shows the position of accommodation ladder.
14.2.6 Equipment Numeral
1. Formula for equipment numeral (EN)

As mentioned above, the anchoring equipment is designed to hold a ship in good
holding ground in conditions such as to avoid dragging of the anchor. In poor
holding ground, the holding power of the anchors will be significantly reduced. The
EN formula for anchoring equipment is based on the current speed of 2.5 m/s, the
wind speed of 25 m/s, and a scope of anchor chain between 6:1 and 10:1. In
addition, it is assumed that under normal circumstances a ship will use only one
bow anchor and anchor chain at a time.
The equipment of anchors and anchor chains is to be based on the EN which is
calculated by the following equation.
2
EN ¼ Δ3 þ 2:0 B h þ 0:1 A ð14:1Þ
where, Δ is the molded displacement in tons to the summer load waterline, B is the
molded breadth in m, h is the effective height in m from the summer load waterline
to the top of the uppermost house. For the lowest tier, h is to be measured at
the center line from the upper deck or from a notional deck line where there is
the local discontinuity in the upper deck, as shown in the following equation.
X
h¼f þ hi ½m ð14:2Þ
In this equation, f is the distance in m from the summer load waterline amidships
to the upper deck and hi is the height in m on the center line of each tier of
accommodation having a breadth greater than B/4.
Fig. 14.9 Meaning of the transverse sectional area and the lateral area of the equipment numeral
(EN)
In addition, A is the area in profile view in m2 of the hull, superstructures, and

accommodation above the summer load waterline where are within the equipment
length of the ship and also have a breadth greater than B/4, as shown in the
following equation.
X 00
A¼f Lþ h l ½m2 ð14:3Þ
where, the equipment length (L ) is LBP but is not to be less than 96% nor greater
than 97% of the extreme length on the summer waterline (measured from the
forward end of the waterline). The second term in this equation is the sum of the
height (h00 ) times length (l ) of each tier of accommodation having a breadth greater
than B/4 and a height greater than 1.5 m.
The meaning of the transverse sectional area and the lateral area of the equip-
ment numeral (EN) are shown in Fig. 14.9.
2. Anchoring equipment table
For the calculated EN value, the specifications of anchor and anchor chain of a
ship can be found from the anchoring equipment table of Table 14.1.
3. Meaning of the EN formula
The EN formula has three components. The first component (Δ2/3) means the
resistance of a fully loaded ship from wind and current. Considering the dimensions
of Δ2/3, it is related to the underwater area on which the current force acts. That is, it
is the wetted surface area. The second component (Bh) means the area on which
the wind force in longitudinal direction acts. That is, it is the transverse sectional
area above the waterline. The last component (A) means the area on which the wind
Table 14.1 Anchoring equipment table

Stockless bower
anchors Stud link chain cable for bower anchors
Minimum diameter (mm)
Total Mild Special
No Mass per length steel quality Estra special
EN (spare) anchor (kg) (m) Gr. 1 Gr. 2 quality Gr. 3
150~175 2 (1) 480 275 22 19 –
175~205 2 (1) 570 302.5 24 20.5 –
205~240 2 (1) 660 302.5 26 22 20.5
240~280 2 (1) 780 330.0 28 24 22
280~320 2 (1) 900 357.5 30 26 24
320~360 2 (1) 1,020 357.5 32 28 24
360~400 2 (1) 1,140 385.0 34 30 26
400~450 2 (1) 1,290 385.0 36 32 28
450~500 2 (1) 1,440 412.5 38 34 30
500~550 2 (1) 1,590 412.5 40 34 30
550~600 2 (1) 1,740 440.0 42 36 32
600~660 2 (1) 1,920 440.0 44 38 34
660~720 2 (1) 2,100 440.0 46 40 36
720~780 2 (1) 2,280 467.5 48 42 36
780~840 2 (1) 2,460 467.5 50 44 38
840~910 2 (1) 2,640 467.5 52 46 40
910~980 2 (1) 2,850 495.0 54 48 42
980~1,060 2 (1) 3,060 495.0 56 50 44
1,060~1,140 2 (1) 3,300 495.0 58 50 46
1,140~1,220 2 (1) 3,540 522.5 60 52 46
1,220~1,300 2 (1) 3,780 522.5 62 54 48
1,300~1,390 2 (1) 4,050 522.5 64 56 50
1,390~1,480 2 (1) 4,320 550.0 66 58 50
1,480~1,570 2 (1) 4,590 550.0 68 60 52
1,570~1,670 2 (1) 4,890 550.0 70 62 54
1,670~1,790 2 (1) 5,250 577.5 73 64 56
1,790~1,930 2 (1) 5,610 577.5 76 66 58
1,930~2,080 2 (1) 6,000 577.5 78 68 60
2,080~2,230 2 (1) 6,450 605.0 81 70 62
2,230~2,380 2 (1) 6,900 605.0 84 73 64
2,380~2,530 2 (1) 7,350 605.0 87 76 66
2,530~2,700 2 (1) 7,800 632.5 90 78 68
2,700~2,870 2 (1) 8,300 632.5 92 81 70
2,870~3,040 2 (1) 8,700 632.5 95 84 73
3,040~3,210 2 (1) 9,300 660.0 97 84 76
3,210~3,400 2 (1) 9,900 660.0 100 87 78
3,400~3,600 2 (1) 10,500 660.0 102 90 78
3,600~3,800 2 (1) 11,100 687.5 105 92 81
(continued)

Stockless bower
Total Mild Special
3,800~4,000 2 (1) 11,700 687.5 107 95 84
4,000~4,200 2 (1) 12,300 687.5 111 97 87
4,200~4,400 2 (1) 12,900 715.0 114 100 87
4,400~4,600 2 (1) 13,500 715.0 117 102 90
4,600~4,800 2 (1) 14,100 715.0 120 105 92
4,800~5,000 2 (1) 14,700 742.5 122 107 95
5,000~5,200 2 (1) 15,400 742.5 124 111 97
5,200~5,500 2 (1) 16,100 742.5 127 111 97
5,500~5,800 2 (1) 16,900 742.5 130 114 100
5,800~6,100 2 (1) 17,800 742.5 132 117 102
6,100~6,500 2 (1) 18,800 742.5 * 120 107
6,500~6,900 2 (1) 20,000 770.0 * 124 111
6,900~7,400 2 (1) 21,500 770.0 * 127 114
7,400~7,900 2 (1) 23,000 770.0 * 132 117
7,900~8,400 2 (1) 24,500 770.0 * 137 122
8,400~8,900 2 (1) 26,000 770.0 * 142 127
8,900~9,400 2 (1) 27,500 770.0 * 147 132
9,400~10,000 2 (1) 29,000 770.0 * 152 132
10,000~10,700 2 (1) 31,000 770.0 * * 137
10,700~11,500 2 (1) 33,000 770.0 * * 142
11,500~12,400 2 (1) 35,500 770.0 * * 147
12,400~13,400 2 (1) 38,500 770.0 * * 152
13,400~14,600 2 (1) 42,000 770.0 * * 157
14,600~16,000 2 (1) 46,000 770.0 * * 162
In this table, ‘*’ chain grade is not to be used at this diameter.
force in transverse direction acts. That is, it is the lateral area above the waterline.
In the case of container ships, the EN formula for anchoring includes the projected
lateral area of cargo (i.e., containers on deck), but that for mooring does not.
The calculated value of EN is proportional to the holding power of anchors (P).
That is, the higher EN, the greater capacity of anchor and anchor chain, as shown in
Table 14.1. The holding power of anchors can be estimated by the following
equation.
P ¼ Pa þ Pc ¼ ðK a W a þ K c Lc W c Þ g ½N ð14:4Þ
where, Pa and Pc are the holding power of anchors and anchor chains in N,
respectively. Ka is the holding power coefficient for anchors, Kc is the holding
Table 14.2 Types of seabed sediment

Types of seabed sediment Mud Hard mud Sand-mud Sand Stone-sand
Ka 2 2 2 3~4 3~4
Kc 0.6 0.6 – 0.75 0.75
power coefficient for anchor chains, Wa is the submerged weight of anchors in kg,
Lc is the length of anchor chains that contact with the seabed in m, Wc is the
submerged weight of anchor chains per unit length (1 m) in kg/m, and g is
gravitational acceleration of 9.81 m/s2.
The coefficients Ka and Kc according to the types of seabed sediment are shown
in Table 14.2.
The holding power of anchors should be equal to or greater than the forces (F)
induced by winds and currents. These forces can be estimated as below.
The current forces according to OCIMF (2008) can be estimated as two com-
ponents of longitudinal and lateral directions. When the direction of current is θ, the
longitudinal component of current force can be stated as the following equation.
1
Fc, x ¼ ρCc, x, θ LTvc 2 ½N ð14:5Þ
2
where, ρ is the density of sea water in kg/m3, Cc,x,θ is the longitudinal current drag
force coefficient which can be obtained from Fig. 14.10, L is the length of the ship in
m, T is the draft of the ship in m, and vc is the speed of the current in m/s.
The lateral component of current force can be stated as the following
equation.
1
Fc, y ¼ ρCc, y, θ LTvc 2 ½N ð14:6Þ
2
where, Cc,y,θ is the lateral current drag force coefficient which can be obtained from
Fig. 14.11.
The wind forces according to OCIMF (2008) can be also estimated as two
components of longitudinal and lateral directions. When the direction of the wind
is θ, the longitudinal component of wind force can be stated as the following
equation.
1
Fw, x ¼ ρa Cw, x, θ AT vw 2 ½N ð14:7Þ
2
where, ρa is the density of air in kg/m3, Cw,x,θ is the longitudinal wind drag force
coefficient which can be obtained from Fig. 14.12, AT is the transverse sectional
area of the ship above the waterline in m2, and vw is the speed of the wind in m/s.
Fig. 14.10 Longitudinal current drag force coefficient for water depth to draft ration of over 4.4
(OCIMF 2008)
The lateral component of wind force can be stated as the following equation.
1
Fw, y ¼ ρa Cw, y, θ AL vw 2 ½N ð14:8Þ
2
where, Cw,y,θ is the lateral current drag force coefficient which can be obtained from
Fig. 14.13 and AL is the projected lateral area of the ship above the waterline in m2.
Suppose that a ship rotates freely toward the direction of winds and currents
while anchoring, the ship will be aligned to the direction of winds and currents as
time goes. Then, we can apply the transverse force of 5 by considering fish tailing
instability for high-speed winds. That is, the ship can have yaw motion due to
vortex shedding due to hydrodynamic force induced by high-speed winds.
Fig. 14.11 Lateral current drag force coefficient for fully loaded tanker (OCIMF 2008)
Thus, the forces (F) induced by winds and currents can be stated as the following
equation.
F ¼ Fc þ Fw ¼ Fc, x, 180 þ Fw, x, 180 þ Fw, y, 175
1 1 1
¼ ρCc, x, 180 LTvc 2 þ ρa Cw, x, 180 AT vw 2 þ ρa Cw, y, 175 AL vw 2
2 2 2
1 1 1
¼ 1, 025 0:04 L T 2:5 þ 1:28 0:96 AT 252 þ 1:28 0:045 AL 252
2
2 2 2
¼ 128:125 L T þ 384 AT þ 18 AL ½N
ð14:9Þ
If we substitute kΔ2/3 for LT and assume k ¼ 1.42, we can obtain the following
equation from the above equation.
Fig. 14.12 Longitudinal wind drag force coefficient (OCIMF 2008)
2
F ¼ 128:125 k Δ3 þ 384 AT þ 18 AL
2
¼ 182
Δ3 þ 384 AT þ 18 AL ð14:10Þ
2
¼ 182 1 Δ3 þ 2:1 AT þ 0:1 AL ½N
If we look at the coefficients of each component, they are very similar to those of
the EN formula. Thus, it can be seen that the EN formula can be regarded as the
forces (F) by winds and currents divided by 182, as shown in the following
equation.
EN ¼ F=182 ð14:11Þ
Fig. 14.13 Lateral wind drag force coefficient (OCIMF 2008)
14.3 Machinery Outfitting
14.3.1 Equipment in Engine Room
For the operation of a ship, major equipment is installed in the engine room, as
shown in Fig. 14.14. The major functions of them are explained below.
1. Main engine
The main engine produces propulsion power by burning HFO (Heavy Fuel Oil). In
tankers, two stroke diesel engine is often used. The main engine uses HFO of
the low quality of about 700 cSt (centistokes: unit of viscosity) and 150 C. Thus, it
needs additional equipment such as circulation pump, purifier, heater, and so
on. Also, LO (Lubrication Oil) is used to prevent pistons from wearing away.
Thus, it needs LO system. For the continuous operation of the main engine, its
cooling is also required and thus cooling system should be equipped in the engine
room. In addition, it is required to process efficiently the exhaust gas produced by
the main engine. For this, exhaust gas system such as exhaust gas boiler is being
used.
2. Auxiliary engine
The auxiliary engine is also called diesel generator engine. This is an engine
for operating a generator which is a source of all electric power in the ship. For this,
four stroke diesel engine is often used. This is a set of auxiliary engine and
generator. In general, three to four engines are installed in one ship and HFO or
DO (Diesel Oil) is used for the operation of the auxiliary engine.
3. Auxiliary boiler
The auxiliary boiler is equipment for generating steam gas which is needed
for heating, cooking, and equipment. In tankers, if a cargo oil pump and a water
14.3 Machinery Outfitting 281
Fig. 14.14 Major equipment in the engine room
ballast pump are the steam driven type, the capacity for them should be also
considered. For general cargo ships, low-pressure gas of 7 kgf/cm2 pressure and
169 C temperature is generated in the boiler. For tanker, steam gas of 16 kgf/cm2
and 212 C, 6 kgf/cm2 and 168 C, and 4 kgf/cm2 and 152 C are generated through
depression from 16 kgf/cm2 in the boiler.
4. Exhaust gas boiler
The exhaust gas boiler is equipment for generating steam gas by using exhaust
gas of about 250 C from the main engine for saving fuel. This is also called
exhaust gas economizer. Steam gas is generated by circulating boiler water in the
auxiliary boiler and heating with exhaust gas through the exhaust gas boiler. It can
operate during voyage since steam gas can be generated when the main engine
operates.
5. Fuel oil system
The FO (Fuel Oil) system means a series of subsystems for supplying FO to the
machinery that generates power. The FO system includes several subsystems as below.
(a) FO filling and transfer system
(b) FO service system: main engine FO service system, auxiliary engine FO service
system, auxiliary boiler FO service system
Fig. 14.15 Fuel oil process in the fuel oil system for main engine
(c) FO purifying system

(d) FO drain system
Figure 14.15 shows FO process in the FO system.
6. Lubrication oil system
The LO (Lubrication Oil) system means a series of subsystems and pipes for
supplying the machinery that requires lubrication and cooling in the engine room
with LO. It has the purpose of lubrication which reduces wear and friction
resistance by forming the oil film between acting parts of the machine and thus
by transforming solid friction to fluid friction. It also has the cooling, cleaning, and
sealing action.
The LO system includes several subsystems as below.
(a) Main engine LO system
(b) Camshaft LO system
(c) Cylinder LO system
(d) Piston load stuffing box LO drain system
(e) Auxiliary engine LO system
(f) LO transfer system
(g) LO purifying system
(h) Stern tube LO system
(i) Scavenging air box drain system
7. Cooling water system
The CW (Cooling Water) system is a series of subsystems for cooling internal
combustion engines such as main engine and auxiliary engine in the engine room,
and for condensing dumping gas and exhaust gas, and for cooling miscellaneous
equipment. The heat balance should be calculated to determine the equipment for
CW and the temperature and flow volume of CW. Based on this, the cooling sea
water system and the cooling fresh water system are constituted. There are two
kinds of CW systems according to its configuration; conventional CW system and
central CW system.
(a) Conventional cooling system
In this system, the jackets of the main engine and the auxiliary engine are cooled
with fresh water (fresh water circuit) and the other equipment is cooled with sea
water (sea water circuit). The sea water circuit consists of two groups; one is
equipment related to the main engine to which cooling sea water is supplied by
main cooling sea water pumps, the other is equipment related to the auxiliary
engine to which cooling sea water is supplied by auxiliary cooling sea water
pumps. By constructing independent cooling systems per equipment function, it
can save operating cost and has the advantage in system operation. However, most
pipes are used for sea water operation and it has the disadvantage in pipe corrosion.
(b) Central cooling system
This system consists of high temperature cooling fresh water circuit for cooling
main engine and auxiliary engine and low temperature cooling fresh water circuit
for cooling the other equipment.
8. Compressed air system
Compressed air is used for startup of main engine and auxiliary engine, for the
operation of equipment for control, monitoring, measurement, and alarm, and for
cleaning machinery. Since high compressed air of 30 kgf/cm2 is used for startup of
main engine and auxiliary engine, compressed air should be made with two or more
compressed air systems of piston type and stored in starting air reservoir for the use
of startup. The compressed air system consists of air compressor that produces
compressed air and air reservoir that stores in the compressed air. There are
several types of compressed air system as below.
(a) Starting air system
This system is used for starting main engine and auxiliary engine in an idle state.
(b) Control air system
This system is used for operating automatic control equipment of control valve,
pneumatic gauge, and so on. The control air is made and used by decompressing the
compressed air through reducing valve, and by using control air compressor and
reservoir. The control air gets through precision parts in the system and thus it should
be filtered by control air dryer to remove dust, moisture, oil, and so on from it.
(c) Service air system
This system is used for cleaning air horn of radar mast and funnel top, fire alarm,
and major equipment. The service air is made by decompressing high-pressure air
of main air reservoir or by using the additional compressor, and stored in service air
reservoir.
(d) Quick closing air system
This is a system which makes shut-off remotely major valves from engine room
outside. In the case of fire, it prevents the fire from spreading when oil leaks from
FO or LO tank. It also prevents oil leakage when tank outlet pipe line is damaged.
9. Fresh water system
The FW (Fresh Water) system is a series of subsystems for generating fresh
water that is needed as household water and boiler feed water by evaporating and
condensing sea water. This is also called fresh water generator or hot and cold
water system.
There are two types of the FW system; heat recovery type and reverse osmosis
type. The heat recovery type evaporates sea water by using residual heat (about
70~80 C) of cooling water after cooling the jacket of the main engine. Sea water can
be evaporated at the low temperature of 40~50 C by raising the degree of vacuum
through suction out of the air with air ejector in the evaporator. The steam is
changed to fresh water by the condenser. Sea water can be used for feed water in
the FW system and for cooling water for condensing steam. In addition, sea water
contributes to making vacuum state by sucking out air with air ejector in the
evaporator. On the other hand, the reverse osmosis type uses osmosis between sea
water and fresh water.
FW system includes several subsystems as below.
(a) FW filling system
(b) Drinking water service system
(c) Cold FW service system
(d) Hot water service system
(e) FW general service system
10. Steam system
The steam system produces steam gas using the auxiliary boiler or exhaust gas
boiler and process it for the use in the ship. The system consists of several
subsystems.
(a) Condensate system
This system collects steam gas generated from the auxiliary boiler or exhaust gas
boiler through the steam trap.
(b) Steam service system
This system provides each equipment with steam gas.
(c) Feed water system
This system provides the auxiliary boiler or exhaust gas boiler with the recov-
ered condensate water.
11. Air vent system

The air vent system is installed to prevent tanks from being damaged due to
vacuum and pressure by discharging gas in the tanks and airtight cofferdams and
by filling liquid in it.
12. Sounding system
The sounding system is equipment for measuring liquid. Here, the sounding
is the process of measuring the quantity of liquid present inside a tank. For
example, each tank in a ship such as FO tank has to be checked for its increase
and decrease of its level during the operation of the ship. For this, the sounding
system is required.
13. Bilge system
Drain from equipment operation is collected at the bottom called bilge well
tanks in the engine room. The drain is also called bilge. The bilge system is a series
of subsystems for processing bilge from the ship. The bilge is exported to the sea by
bilge pump where oil separator is used to separate oil and water. The bilge system
includes several subsystems as below.
(a) Main branch bilge system
(b) Direct bilge system
(c) Emergency bilge system
(d) Oily water separation and transfer system
(e) Sludge transfer and burning system
14.3.2 Piping Design
Piping design means to determine how to connect pipes with equipment. For this,
the connection information among equipment should be determined first. Then,
the number of pipes and the specifications (diameter, material, and so on) of
pipes should be determined. Furthermore, the layout of pipes called pipe routing
should be determined as well. Here, the connection information among equip-
ment is shown in P&ID. At the initial design stage, the result of piping design,
including the connection information, number, and specifications of pipes is
represented as P&ID. Then, at the detail design stage, the pipe routing is
determined by 3D modeling. Finally, 2D plans for the production such as piece
plans used for producing the pipe and installation plans used for installing the
pipe are generated at the production design stage. Fig. 14.16 shows the overall
procedure of piping design.
Figure 14.17 shows an example of 3D modeling of pipes in the engine room.
Fig. 14.16 Overall procedure of piping design
Fig. 14.17 3D modeling of pipes in engine room

14.4 Accommodation Outfitting 287
14.4 Accommodation Outfitting
14.4.1 Accommodation Design
Accommodation design is mainly to perform design of accommodation, deck

house, and funnel (also called engine casing). In accommodation design, the
assurance of space for deck house is most important according to the ship owner’s
requirements. Considerations for determining the length, breadth, and height of
accommodation can be summarized in Table 14.3.
There are two types of accommodation; superstructure type and deck house type.
In the case of the superstructure type, the accommodation is incorporated with the
hull structure of the ship. This type is for small ships. In case of the deck house type,
the deck house exists independently of the hull structure. This type is for large
ships.
14.4.2 Deck House
There are two types of deck house; incorporated type and independent type, as
shown in Fig. 14.18. In the case of the incorporated type, the deck house is
connected with the funnel at the lower deck (i.e., A deck). In the case of the inde-
pendent type, the deck house is separated from the funnel but generally, they are
close to each other over engine room on upper deck. For very large container ships,
the deck house can be arranged near midship to satisfy the visibility regulation.
Table 14.3 Considerations for the accommodation design

Item Design points
Length Consideration of structural safety and vibration by aligning with main bulkheads
Determination of the positions of after and fore bulkheads after determining the length
of engine room
Determination of the space between deck house and funnel (engine casing) by
considering maintenance space in engine room
Determination of deck house length by considering optimum cabin arrangement
Determination of funnel length by considering arrangement of boiler, and so on
Breadth Alignment with longitudinal stiffeners in inner and outer hulls
Alignment with compartments and HFO tanks in engine room
Consideration of lifeboat arrangement
Consideration of minimum equipment numeral
Assurance of passage way on upper deck
Height Assurance of deck clear height for each tier
Assurance of visibility for total tiers
Check of air draft for total tiers
Check of vibration level with no resonance
Fig. 14.18 Types of deck house. (a) Incorporated type. (b) Independent type
Table 14.4 Major use of each tier of deck house

Tier Use
Upper deck Provision store, air conditioned room, changing room, control room, hos-
pital, laundry, gymnasium, store, etc.
A deck Galley, pantry, recreation room, etc.
Other decks Officer cabin, crew cabin, etc.
Navigation bridge Wheel house, chart room, radio room, etc.
deck
In general, deck house has the complement of 25~45 persons. To satisfy this
requirement, deck house has 5~9 tiers and its area is about 2,000~4,000 m2. The
major use of each tier of deck house is summarized in Table 14.4.
14.4.3 Funnel
The funnel is located behind the deck house. Thus, the funnel can have interference
with the deck house. When designing the funnel, the interference between them
should be considered. For example, air flow from the top of deck house should not
disturb gas flow from the funnel. Considering this, the angle between the funnel and
the deck house is recommended as about 20 , as shown in Fig. 14.19.
In addition, a radar mast is installed on the top of the deck house. Thus, the
funnel can have interference with the radar mast as well. Thus, when designing the
funnel, the interference between them should be also considered. For example,
the blind sector should not be made by the funnel when radar works. Considering
this, the angle between the funnel and the radar mast is recommended as about
12~15 , as shown in Fig. 14.19. To minimize the interference, the funnel has a
round shaped face and the height-variable radar can be used by considering air
draft.
14.4 Accommodation Outfitting 289
Fig. 14.19 Angles among the funnel, the deck house, and the radar mast
14.4.4 Visibility Requirements
There are visibility requirements by SOLAS regulation for ships 45 m or more in

length built on or after 1 July 1998. These requirements affect on the accommoda-
tion design. Table 14.5 shows the visibility requirements.
In this table, the coning position means the place in the wheel house with a
commanding view of the ship and its position used by navigators when command-
ing, maneuvering, and controlling the ship. It can be regarded as 1,800 mm from the
bottom of the wheel house, 750 mm afterward from the front wall of the wheel
house.
Figures 14.20, 14.21, and 14.22 show criteria for non-visibility length, criteria
for the blind sector, and criteria for horizontal field of vision, respectively.
The non-visibility length depends on the draft of the ship. The greater draft is,
the shorter non-visibility length is. If a ship can not satisfy the visibility require-
ments, especially criteria for non-visibility length, the height of deck house should
be increased or the longitudinal position of deck house should move to forward.
This problem can occur in container ships since they carry containers on deck.
Thus, it can be seen that very large container ships have the deck house located at
midship.
Table 14.5 Visibility requirements by SOLAS regulation

Item Requirements
Non-visibility The view of the sea surface from the conning position should not be
length obscured by more than two ship lengths, or 500 m, whichever is the less,
forward of the bow to 10 on either side under all conditions of draft, trim
and deck cargo.
Blind sector The blind sector should not exceed 10 .
The total arc of blind sectors should not exceed 20 .
The clear sectors between blind sectors should be at least 5 . However, in
the view described above (10 on either side), each individual blind sector
should not exceed 5 .
Horizontal field of From the conning position, over an arc of not less than 225 , that is, from
vision right ahead to not less than 22.5 , abaft the beam on either side of the ship
From each bridge wing, over an arc at least 225 , that is, from at least 45
on the opposite bow through right ahead and then from right ahead to right
astern through 180 on the same side of the ship
From main steering position, over an arc from right ahead to at least 60 on
each side of the ship
Fig. 14.20 Criteria for non-visibility length
Fig. 14.21 Criteria for blind sector

14.5 Electric Outfitting 291
Fig. 14.22 Criteria for horizontal field of vision
14.5 Electric Outfitting
As mentioned above, electric outfitting can be equal to the blood supply and flow
inside the body. For example, if a necessary structure is made, the required
machinery is installed in the structure, and people live in there, various electrical
equipment should be installed together. There are some considerations of the
installation of electrical equipment as below.
(a) Equipment should have a stable power supply.
(b) Equipment should be controlled and monitored 24 h.
(c) Equipment should be communicated with wheel house in any situation.
(d) Equipment should be operated under extreme condition.
(e) Equipment should be installed considering a suitable number of peoples and
work environment.
A task of electric outfitting consists of the selection of suitable equipment and

their layout. The layout design is a task to arrange all electric equipment in the
limited space such as engine room or wheel house after determining their specifi-
cations (number, size, capacity, and so on). Then, the result of layout design should
be made as 2D plans called WD (Wiring Diagram) plans for the installation of
equipment. These plans include equipment layout, cable way or tray, equipment
seat, information on cable installation, material information, and so on.
14.5.1 Power System
The power system is a series of subsystems for distributing power in the ship after
determining the capacity of main generator and emergency generator through load
analysis from all electrical equipment and hotel load.
1. Power generator
The power generator produces the power and is also called alternator. In the ship,
various power sources are made and used for equipment, including AC (Alternating
Current), DC (Direct Current), and UPS (Uninterrupted Power Supply). In the case
of AC, the high voltage over 1000 V is used such as 3,300 V-60 Hz-3 Phase,
6,600 V-60 Hz-3 Phase, and 7,200 V-60 Hz-3 Phase. In addition, the low voltage
less than 1,000 V is also used such as 690 V or 480 V or 450 V-60 Hz-3 Phase,
220 V-60 Hz-3 Phase or 1 Phase, and 110 V-60 Hz-3 Phase or 1 Phase. In the case
of DC, 24 V, 110 V or more is used. In the case of UPS, AC of 220 V is generated as
output with the input of DC of 24 V. The UPS is used at a emergency.
2. Switchboard
The switchboard is a kind of power distribution system. It consists of a group of
panels which controls power generator and distributes power from the generator to
each consumer. In the ship, the panels for power generation and distribution are
centralized. However, on land, power plant controls power generator having high
capacity and transmits power after boosting. Then, substation receives the power
and distributes it after decompression. In the ship, a generator panel and a feeder
panel are allocated at both sides of a synchronizing panel by introducing the mirror
switchboard system. The generator panel controls the power generator and receives
output power from the power generator through ACB (Air Circuit Breaker). The
synchronizing panel is used to synchronize two or more power generators which are
installed and to operate in parallel. The feeder panel distributes input power from
the power generator to each consumer by the bus bar.
3. Transformer
This is a system which transforms the power generated from the power generator
into a suitable voltage of each consumer. That is, this system steps up or steps down
the input voltage to the other voltage. There are several types of transformers; step-
down transformer, step-up transformer, the transformer for motor starting, isolation
14.5 Electric Outfitting 293
transformer, and so on. For example, the high voltage transformer can be used to
transform 6,600 V into 450 V as the step-down transformer or 450 V to 6,600 V as
the step-up transformer.
14.5.2 Control System
The control system is a series of subsystems for configuring alarm and control
functions by monitoring the states of the main engine, auxiliary engine, and
auxiliary equipment, for securing the safety and improving maintainability by
automating control and monitoring, and for operating the ship with minimal crews.
1. Main engine remote control system
This system is a series of subsystems to remotely control the main engine of
the engine room in the wheel house and ECR (Engine Control Room). This
system has essential functions for start and stop of the main engine, forward and
backward motion, speed control, and check for normal and abnormal states. It is
essential to safe voyage or operation of the ship.
2. Alarm and monitoring system
This system is a series of subsystems which gives an alarm to the crew and
allows the crew to take safety measures when their setting values are exceeded
through continuous monitoring of major equipment such as main engine, auxiliary
engine, etc. on board. Main functions of this system include the followings.
(a) Monitoring function for checking the current state of equipment
(b) Alarm function for giving notification when setting value is exceeded
(c) Control function for operating equipment when needed
(d) Extension function which allows night watcher to receive and check all
information
(e) Control function for remotely operating power generator
3. Main engine bridge maneuvering system
Apart from alarm and monitoring system, this system is installed on engine
control console and wheel house and is used to control the main engine only. Main
control function can be monitored in the engine room during the day and in wheel
house during the night.
14.5.3 Navigation and Communication System
The navigation and communication system is a series of subsystems for navigation,

radio, and onboard communication. This includes several subsystems where ship-
to-ship or ship-to-shore communication is put into action with some degree of

automation. Marine communication between ships or with the shore is carried with
the help of on board systems through shore stations and even satellites. While ship-
to-ship communication was brought about by VHF (Very High Frequency) radio,
DSC (Digital Selective Calling) came up with digitally remote control commands
to transmit or receive distress alert, urgent or safety calls, or routine priority
messages. DSC controllers can now be integrated with the VHF radio. Satellite
services, as opposed to terrestrial communication systems, need the help of geo-
stationary satellites for transmitting and receiving signals, where the range of shore
stations cannot reach. These marine communication services are provided by
INMARSAT and COSPAS-SARSAT. For international operational requirements,
the GMDSS (Global Maritime Distress Safety System) has divided the world in
four sub areas. Different radio communication systems are required by the ship,
depending on the area of operation of that particular ship.
14.5.4 Lighting System
The lighting system is a series of subsystems for lighting the ship. It can be
categorized into several groups as below.
1. General lighting
The type, size, position of lighting should be determined by considering quality and
quantity of light which is suitable for the environment and work according to
the purpose of given location. It should secure suitable illumination, brightness
distribution, and spectral distribution by considering the clear visibility of objects,
minimal fatigue of crew, and special structure of the ship.
2. Navigation and signal lighting
It is needed to prevent a collision from the ship and to secure safety in advance. It
is used during the night. Even the daytime it should be used in the limited visibility
such as rain, fog, and smoke.
3. Decorative lighting
This is additional lighting for decorating the ship.
14.5.5 Fire Detection and Alarm System
The fire detection and alarm system is a series of subsystems for fire detection and
alarm on board. It detects fire and gas leakage on board, and transfer the information
to bridge in order to suppress them in an early stage.
14.6 Generation of P&ID (Piping & Instrumentation Diagram) and WD (Wiring. . . 295
14.6 Generation of P&ID (Piping & Instrumentation

Diagram) and WD (Wiring Diagram) Plans
The result of outfitting design includes 2D plans called P&ID and WD plans,
and documents or data sheets, including the specifications of equipment.
The P&ID plan is a non-scaled plan representing the relationship between
equipment. It includes the connection information between equipment, including
the number and specifications of pipes. However, it does not include any layout
like pipe routing. Such layout will be determined at the following design stage.
Fig. 14.23 shows an example of P&ID plan which corresponds to FO system
in Fig. 14.15.
Figure 14.24 shows an example of WD plan of the public address system which
is one of navigation and communication system in the ship. This plan shows the
connection information of equipment through cables.
Fig. 14.23 P&ID plan of the fuel oil system for main engine
Fig. 14.24 WD plan of the public address system
A computational guide to establish a program for outfitting design is discussed as

below.
(a) Determination, selection, or generation of outfitting (hull, machinery, accom-
modation, and electric outfitting)
(b) Calculation or evaluation of outfitting design
(c) Generation of P&ID and WD plans in Sect. 14.6
References 297
The subfunctions “a” and “c” can be implemented by using various methods for
CAGD such as NURBS, Boolean operation, and so on. More details about these
methods can be found in many references (Roh et al. 2007). In the case of the
calculation or evaluation of outfitting design, the methods based on numerical
analysis for the calculation of equipment numeral, etc. can be used for the
implementation.
In addition, many commercial programs for this purpose have also been devel-
oped such as AVEVA Outfitting (AVEVA 2017), SmartMarine 3D by Intergraph
(2017), and so on (in alphabetical order).
References

Hyundai Lifeboats. (2017). http://hdboat.com
IACS. (2015). Common structural rules for bulk carriers and oil tankers. IACS.
OCIMF. (2008). Mooring equipment guidelines (3rd ed.). Livingston: Witherby Seamanship
International.
Roh, M. I., Lee, K. Y., & Choi, W. Y. (2007). Rapid generation of the piping model having the
relationship with a hull structure in shipbuilding. Advances in Engineering Software, 38(4),
215–228.
Chapter 15
Economic Evaluation
15.1 Generals
Economic evaluation can be used for various purposes. At the conceptual design
stage for bidding, it can be used to estimate shipbuilding cost, including the margin
of a shipyard. At the initial design stage, it can be used to determine the best one
among a number of alternative designs. Various indices for the economic evalu-
ation can be introduced such as shipbuilding cost, operating cost, required freight
rate, operating profit factor, and so on. In this chapter, the estimation methods of
such indices are presented. Other explanations about the economic evaluation of
ships can be found in various references (Schneekluth and Bertram 1998; Lamb
2003).
15.2 Estimation of Shipbuilding Cost
The shipbuilding cost means the cost of building a ship. It can be decomposed into
the direct cost and the indirect cost (also called overhead cost). The direct cost is
decomposed again into the material cost and the labor cost. The direct cost is related
to the actual cost of making the corresponding ship. On the other hand, the indirect
cost is related to all ships built at the accounting period, including the
corresponding ship. However, it is proportional to the direct cost of the
corresponding ship. As of 2017, the shipbuilding cost for a VLCC amounts to
about 8090 million $ in Korean shipyards.

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-4885-2_15
300 15 Economic Evaluation
15.2.1 Material Cost
The material cost is related to the lightweight. Thus, it can be estimated by using the
lightweight of a ship. As mentioned in Sect. 4.5, the lightweight can be decomposed
into three components; structural weight, outfit weight, and machinery weight of
the ship. Thus, the material cost can be expressed as the following equation.
Cmat ¼ Cmat, s þ Cmat, o þ Cmat, m ½$ ð15:1Þ
where, Cmat,s, Cmat,o, and Cmat,m represent the material cost of structural weight,
outfit weight, and machinery weight of the ship, respectively.
The cost Cmat,s, Cmat,o, and Cmat,m can be estimated considering unit material cost
per weight ($/ton), as shown in the following equations.
Cmat, s ¼ f mat, s W s ½$ ð15:2Þ
Cmat, o ¼ f mat, o W o ½$ ð15:3Þ
Cmat, m ¼ f mat, m W m ½$ ð15:4Þ
where, the coefficients fmat,s, fmat,o, and fmat,m represent unit material cost per weight
of structural weight, outfit weight, and machinery weight of the ship, respectively.
And Ws, Wo, and Wm represent structural weight, outfit weight, and machinery
weight of the ship, respectively. These coefficients can be obtained from the data of
parent ships in the shipyard.
Meanwhile, the cost Cmat,s, Cmat,o, and Cmat,m can be also estimated from the
following empirical formulas.

Cmat, s ¼ f tp W s þ 0:95 W s 0:75 ½$ ð15:5Þ
where, ftp represents unit material cost per weight ($/ton) of thick plates.
Cmat, o ¼ f mat, o W o 0:95 ½$ ð15:6Þ

Cmat, m ¼ f nmcr NMCR0:82 ½$ ð15:7Þ
where, fnmcr represents unit cost per power ($/PS) of machinery and NMCR is
nominal MCR (Maximum Continuous Rating) in PS.
15.2.2 Labor Cost
The labor cost is related to man-hours (M/H) to build a ship. As of 2017, about
500,000800,000 M/H are required to build a VLCC in Korean shipyards for
1420 months from contract to delivery. Meanwhile, the man-hours are related
15.2 Estimation of Shipbuilding Cost 301
to the lightweight, as well. It is natural that the heavier the lightweight of a ship is,
the higher the labor cost is. Thus, the labor cost can be expressed as the following
equation, similarly to the material cost.
Clab ¼ Clab, s þ Clab, o þ Clab, m ½$ ð15:8Þ
where, Clab,s, Clab,o, and Clab,m represent labor cost of structural weight, outfit
weight, and machinery weight of the ship, respectively.
The cost Clab,s, Clab,o, and Clab,m can be estimated considering unit labor cost per
weight, as shown in the following equations.
Clab, s ¼ f lab, s W s ½$ ð15:9Þ

Clab, o ¼ f lab, o W o ½$ ð15:10Þ
Clab, m ¼ f lab, m W m ½$ ð15:11Þ
where, the coefficients flab,s, flab,o, and flab,m represent unit labor cost per weight
of structural weight, outfit weight, and machinery weight of the ship, respectively.
These coefficients can be obtained from the data of parent ships in shipyard.
Meanwhile, the cost Clab,s, Clab,o, and Clab,m can be also estimated by the
following empirical formulas.
2 L 3
1
Clab, s ¼ 200 W s þ 0:95 W s 0:75 3 ½$ ð15:12Þ

CB
2
Clab, o ¼ 1,100 W o 3 ½$ ð15:13Þ
Clab, m ¼ 120 NMCR0:82 ½$ ð15:14Þ
where, NMCR is in PS.
15.2.3 Overhead Cost
The overhead cost is closely related to the size of the shipyard such as the facility
including docks and cranes, the number of employees, and so on. Thus, it can be
different from the shipyard to the shipyard. However, in general, it accounts for
1015% of direct costs. If the portion is about 10%, the overhead cost can be
Csoh ¼ 0:1 ðCmat þ Clab Þ ½$ ð15:15Þ
15.2.4 Shipbuilding Cost
Summing up each component mentioned above, the shipbuilding cost can be

expressed as the following equation except for the margin of the shipyard.
Csc ¼ Cmat þ Clab þ Csoh
¼ 1:1
ðCmat þ Clab Þ ð15:16Þ
Cmat, s þ Cmat, o þ Cmat, m
¼ 1:1 ½$
þClab, s þ Clab, o þ Clab, m
Substituting Eqs. (15.2), (15.3) and (15.4) and (15.9), (15.10) and (15.11) into
Eq. (15.16), it gives the following equation.

ðf s, mat þ f s, lab Þ W s þ ðf o, mat þ f o, lab Þ W o
Csc ¼ 1:1 ½$ ð15:17Þ
þðf m, mat þ f m, lab Þ W m
Substituting Eqs. (15.5) (15.6) and (15.7) and (15.12) (15.3) and (15.14) into
Eq. (15.16), it gives the following equation.
8 9
>
> f tp ðW s þ 0:95 W s 0:75 Þ þ f mat, o W o 0:95 >
>
>
> >
>
> >
< þf nmcr NMCR
0:82
> >
=
1
Csc ¼ 1:1 2 L3 ½$ ð15:18Þ
>
> þ200 ðW s þ 0:95 W s 0:75 Þ3 >
>
>
> CB >
>
>
> >
>
: 2 ;
þ1,100 W o þ 120 NMCR
3 0:82
15.3 Estimation of Operating Cost
Operating cost means the expenditure over the lifetime of a ship. It can be
decomposed into the voyage cost and the time constant cost. The voyage cost
mainly consists of fuel cost. The time constant cost includes crew cost, insurance
premiums, repair and maintenance cost, overhead cost, and so on.
15.3.1 Voyage Cost
The voyage cost is related to the ship operation. That is, it is the variable cost. It
includes fuel cost, cargo handling cost, overhead cost, and so on. The voyage cost
per year can be estimated by using the following equation.
15.3 Estimation of Operating Cost 303
Cvoy ¼ Cfo þ Cch þ Cpo ½$=year ð15:19Þ
where, Cfo, Cch, and Cpo represent fuel cost, cargo handling cost, and port cost,
respectively. Each component is explained below.
15.3.1.1 Fuel Cost
The fuel cost depends on the power and the operating time of the main engine. The
fuel cost per year can be estimated by using the following equation.
Cfo ¼ f HFO W HFOy þ f DO W DOy þ f LO W LOy ½$=year ð15:20Þ
where, the coefficients fHFO, fDO, and fLO represent unit cost per weight ($/ton) of
HFO (Heavy Fuel Oil), DO (Diesel Oil), and LO (Lubrication Oil), respectively.
And WHFOy, WDOy, and WLOy represent consumption weight per year (ton/year) of
HFO, DO, and LO, respectively.
The consumption weight of HFO (WHFOy) per year can be estimated from the
following steps. First, the number of operating days per one voyage can be
estimated by using the following equation.

0:5 Distance 0:5 Distance 1
ndv ¼ þ ð15:21Þ
VS VB 24
where, Distance, VS, and VB are the cruising range in nautical miles (N/M), the
service speed at the full loaded condition in knots, and the service speed at
the ballast condition in knots of the ship, respectively.
Thus, the consumption weight of HFO per year can be estimated by using the
following equation.
W HFOy ¼ nvy ndv DFOC ½ton=year ð15:22Þ
where, nvy is the number of voyages per year. And DFOC is daily consumption of
heavy fuel oil in ton/day can be estimated by using the following equation.
In this equation, NCR is in kW and SFOC is specific consumption of heavy fuel

oil in g/kWh.
Similarly, the consumption weight of DO (WDOy) and LO (WLOy) per year can be
estimated by using the following equations.
W DOy ¼ nvy ndv DFOCDO ½ton=year ð15:24Þ

W LOy ¼ nvy ndv DFOCLO ½ton=year ð15:25Þ
where, DFOCDO and DFOCLO are daily consumption of diesel oil and lubrication
oil in ton/day, respectively.
15.3.1.2 Cargo Handling Cost
This cost means the cost of cargo handling, such as loading and unloading of cargo.
It is affected by ship type and the cargo handling equipment both on board and on
land. It is variation-independent for constant ship size. This cost per year can be
assumed as about 3.0% of the operating cost. Then, this cost can be expressed as the
following equation.
Cch ¼ 0:03 Cocy ½$=year ð15:26Þ
where, Cocy is the annual operating cost, that is, the operating cost per year ($/year).
15.3.1.3 Port Cost
The port cost includes port duties, lock duties, pilot charges, towage cost, haulage
fees, and so on. This cost is variation-independent for constant ship size. This cost
per year can be assumed as about 2.0% of the operating cost. Then, this cost can be
Cpo ¼ 0:02 Cocy ½$=year ð15:27Þ
15.3.2 Time Constant Cost
The time constant cost means the cost that is not almost changed according to the
time. That is, it is variation-independent, fixed cost. It can be expressed as the
following equation.
Ctcc ¼ Ccr þ Cip þ Crm þ Cooh ½$=year ð15:28Þ
where, Ccr, Cip, Crm, and Cooh represent crew cost, insurance premiums, repair and
maintenance cost, and overhead cost, respectively. Each component is explained
below.
15.3 Estimation of Operating Cost 305
15.3.2.1 Crew Cost
The crew cost consists of salaries including overtime, catering costs, and social
contributions. The number of complement depends on the type, size, engine power,
level of automation, etc. of a ship. It is about 25~45 persons. Thus, crew cost is
usually variation-independent. The crew cost can be expressed as the following
equation.
Ccr ¼ ccr ncr ½$=year ð15:29Þ
where, ccr is the annual crew cost per one person and ncr is the number of
complement.
15.3.2.2 Insurance Premiums
The insurance premiums are kinds of risk cost of a ship. This cost includes the cost
for insurance on the hull and associated equipment, insurance against loss or
damage by the sea, indemnity insurance, and so on. This cost per year is typically
0.5~1.5% of the shipbuilding cost. Here, it is assumed that the cost is about 1.0% of
the shipbuilding cost. Then, this cost can be expressed as the following equation.
Cip ¼ 0:01 Csc ½$=year ð15:30Þ
15.3.2.3 Repair and Maintenance Cost
Repair and maintenance cost means the cost of repair and maintenance of a ship. It
can be determined using the statistics of operating cost from parent ships, usually
available in shipping companies. This cost per year can be assumed as about 2.0%
of the shipbuilding cost. Then, this cost can be expressed as the following equation.
Crm ¼ 0:02 Csc ½$=year ð15:31Þ
15.3.2.4 Overhead Cost
Overhead cost includes overheads for shipping company and broker, and so on,
which is variation-independent for constant ship size. Overhead cost per year can be
assumed as about 5.0% of the operating cost as below.
Cooh ¼ 0:05 Cocy ½$=year ð15:32Þ

15.3.3 Operating Cost
Summing up each component mentioned above, the operating cost can be expressed
Coc ¼ Cocy nlif e ¼ ðCvoy þ Ctcc Þ nlif e

Cf o þ Cch þ Cpo
¼ nlif e
þCcr þ Cip þ Crm þ Cooh

Cf o þ 0:03 Cocy þ 0:02 Cocy
¼ nlif e ð15:33Þ
þCcr þ 0:01 Csc þ 0:02 Csc þ 0:05 Cocy
¼ ðCf o þ 0:1 Cocy þ Ccr þ 0:03 Csc Þ nlif e
¼ ðCf o þ Ccr þ 0:03 Csc Þ nlif e þ 0:1 Cocy nlif e
¼ ðCf o þ Ccr þ 0:03 Csc Þ nlif e þ 0:1 Coc
where, nlife is ship life in years, in general, 25 years.

Equation (15.33) can be stated as the following equation.
10
Coc ¼ ðCf o þ Ccr þ 0:03 Csc Þ nlif e
9
ð15:34Þ
f HFO W HFOy þ f DO W DOy þ f LO W LOy 10
¼ nlif e
þccr ncr þ 0:03 Csc 9
15.4 Estimation of RFR (Required Freight Rate)
A ship is an investment to be operated in such a manner that ship owners’

expectations concerning returns are met. A freight rate must be obtained so that
all expenses are covered, with a remainder sufficient for the returns on investment.
A freight rate is a price at which a certain cargo is delivered from one port to
another. The price depends on the form of the cargo, the weight of the cargo, and
the distance to the delivery destination. In the aspect of the economic evaluation,
this rate is often referred to as RFR (Required Freight Rate). Of course, actual
freight rates are set by market conditions and inevitably fluctuate during the life of a
ship. RFR can be interpreted as the transportation cost per unit cargo in $/ton. The
less RFR is, the more the income of ship owner is. Thus, RFR should be minimized
in the aspect of economics. The RFR formula can be expressed as the following
equation.
15.5 Estimation of OPF (Operational Profit Factor) 307
Capital Cost þ Annual Operating Cost

RFR ¼
Annual Transported Cargo Quantity ð15:35Þ
Csc f CRF þ Cocy
¼ ½$=ton
DWT c
where, fCRF means capital recovery factor and DWTc is the cargo weight among the
deadweight of a ship in tons.
fCRF is defined by the following equation.
ið1 þ iÞnlife
f CRF ¼ ð15:36Þ
ð1 þ iÞnlife 1
In this equation, i is the interest rate.

DWTc can be calculated by the following equation.

W HFO þ W DO þ W LO
DWT c ¼ DWT ½ton ð15:37Þ
þW FW þ W BW þ DWT const
where, WHFO, WDO, WLO, WFW, and WBW represent the weight of HFO, DO, LO,
FW (Fresh Water), and BW (Ballst Water) of a ship, respectively. And DWTconst
means the constant weight that is always loaded on board and includes operational
liquid in the machinery and pipes, provisions for crew, and so on.
15.5 Estimation of OPF (Operational Profit Factor)
OPF (Operational Profit Factor) can be defined as a factor that represents the
ratio the cost to the profit. The less OPF is, the more the income of ship owner
is. Thus, OPF should be minimized in the aspect of economics. The OPF formula
can be expressed as the following equation.
Rated Shipbuilding Cost þ Annual Operating Cost

OPF ¼
Annual Operating Prof it
f sc Csc þ Cocy ð15:38Þ
¼
Poy
where, fsc is a factor to transform shipbuilding cost into annual cost, that is, annual
shipbuilding cost. Simply, the factor can be obtained from the shipbuilding cost
divided by the ship life, that is, fsc ¼ Csc/nlife. Poy means the annual operating profit
and can be obtained from the following equation.
Poy ¼ f fr DWT c nvy ½$=year ð15:39Þ
where, ffr is the unit freight rate per weight in $/ton, DWTc is the cargo weight of a
ship in tons, and nvy is the number of voyages per year.
In this section, a computational guide for the economic evaluation is briefly

described.
15.6.1 Estimation of Shipbuilding Cost
15.6.1.1 Problem Definition
The problem for the estimation of shipbuilding cost can be defined as below.
(a) Given: length (L ), block coefficient (CB), unit material cost per weight of thick
plates ( ftp), unit material cost per weight of outfit weight ( fmat,o), unit cost per
power of machinery ( fnmcr), structural weight (Ws), outfit weight (Wo), and
NMCR of the design ship
(b) Find: shipbuilding cost (Csc) of the design ship
15.6.1.2 Mathematical Formulation
8 9
>
> f tp ðW s þ 0:95 W s 0:75 Þ þ f mat, o W o 0:95 >
>
>
> þf >
>
>
> NMCR 0:82 >
>
< nmcr
1
=
Csc ¼ 1:1 2 L 3 ½$ ð15:40Þ
> >
> þ200 ðW s þ 0:95 W s Þ CB
0:75 3
> >
>
>
> >
>
>
: 2 >
;
þ1,100 W o 3 þ 120 NMCR0:82
15.6.1.3 Selection of Algorithms
This problem of one equation has one unknown (Csc). Thus, this problem is a kind
of a determinate problem and it can be easily solved.
15.6.2 Estimation of Operating Cost
The problem for the estimation of operating cost can be defined as below.
(a) Given: unit cost per weight of HFO, DO, and LO ( fHFO, fDO, and fLO),
consumption weight per year of HFO, DO, and LO (WHFOy, WDOy, and
WLOy), annual crew cost per one person (ccr), number of complement (ncr),
shipbuilding cost (Csc), and ship life (nlife) of the design ship
(b) Find: operating cost (Coc) of the design ship
The mathematical formulation for this problem is one equation as below.

f HFO W HFOy þ f DO W DOy þ f LO W LOy 10
Coc ¼ nlif e ð15:41Þ
þccr ncr þ 0:03 Csc 9
This problem of one equation has one unknown (Coc). Thus, this problem is a kind
of a determinate problem and it can be easily solved.
15.6.3 Estimation of RFR
The problem for the estimation of RFR can be defined as below.

(a) Given: shipbuilding cost (Csc), capital recovery factor ( fCRF), annual operating
cost (Cocy), and cargo weight among the deadweight of a ship (DWTc) of the
design ship
(b) Find: RFR of the design ship
Csc f CRF þ Cocy

RFR ¼ ½$=ton ð15:42Þ
DWT c
This problem of one equation has one unknown (RFR) and can be easily solved.
15.6.4 Estimation of OPF
The problem for the estimation of OPF can be defined as below.

(a) Given: fsc, shipbuilding cost (Csc), annual operating cost (Cocy), and annual
operating profit (Poy) of the design ship
(b) Find: OPF of the design ship
f sc Csc þ Cocy
OPF ¼ ð15:43Þ
Poy
This problem of one equation has one unknown (OPF) and can be easily solved.
References
Marine Engineers.
Schneekluth, H., & Bertram, V. (1998). Ship design for efficiency and economy (2nd ed.). Oxford:
Chapter 16
Example of Determination of Principal
Dimensions
16.1 Generals
In this chapter, an example of determination of the principal dimensions of a design

ship is described. Design ship as a target is a deadweight 320,000 ton VLCC with
the parent ship of a deadweight 301,000 ton VLCC. The principal dimensions of
design ship will be determined considering the estimation of lightweight, the
prediction of resistance and power, the selection of the main engine, the design of
propeller, the estimation of capacity of cargo hold, and the calculation of freeboard.
The overall procedure will follow that for deadweight carrier in Sect. 10.6.1.
16.2 Ship Owner’s Requirements
The ship owner’s requirements of the design ship are shown in Table 16.1 with the
data of parent ship. The hull lines plan, the general arrangement plan, and the midship
section plan of the parent ship are shown in Figs. 16.1, 16.2, and 16.3, respectively.
And Fig. 16.4 shows several values for freeboard calculation of the parent ship.
16.3 Determination of Principal Dimensions of Ship
A VLCC is a kind of a deadweight carrier. As described in Sect. 10.6.1, the procedure

for deadweight carriers will be used. That is, in the first step, length (L), breadth (B),
draft (T), and block coefficient (CB) are determined by using the weight equation. In
the second step, depth (D) is determined considering the required cargo hold capacity
according to the volume equation. Finally, it will be checked whether the depth and the
draft satisfy the freeboard regulation.

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-4885-2_16
312 16 Example of Determination of Principal Dimensions
Table 16.1 Data of parent ship and ship owner’s requirements of design ship
Item Unit Parent ship Design ship
Principal particulars
LOA m 330.30 –
LBP m 314.00 –
Bmolded m 58.00 –
Dmolded m 31.00 –
Td m 20.90 21.50
Ts m 22.20 22.84
CB (at Td) – 0.8213 –
Deadweight (at Td) ton 279,500 297,000
Deadweight (at Ts) ton 301,000 320,000
Capacity of cargo hold (VCH) m3 345,500 360,000
Main engine and speed
M/E type – B&W 7S80MC-C7 –
NMCR bhp rpm 36,429 76.0
MCR bhp rpm 32,000 74.0 –
NCR bhp rpm 28,800 71.4 –
SFOC g/bhph 124.51 –
Service speed at NCR (15% knot 15.00 16.00
sea margin)
Engine margin – 0.90 0.90
Miscellaneous
Cruising range N/M 26,000 26,500
Midship structure – Double hull Double hull
Lightweight
Structural weight (Ws) ton 36,400 –
Outfit weight (Wo) ton 2,700 –
Machinery weight (Wm) ton 1,900 –
Lightweight ton 41,000 –
Freeboard
Deck type – Sunken deck Sunken deck
Dmolded at freeboard deck m 27.92 –
(DFD)
L1 m 310.19 –
L2 m 312.22 –
tdeck m 0.0022 0.0022
Superstructure – Extends over ship’s Extends over ship’s
whole length whole length
Forecastle – None None
Poop – None None
Length of superstructures m 287.38 –
(LS)
Height of superstructures m 3.36 –
(HS)
(continued)
16.3 Determination of Principal Dimensions of Ship 313

Sheer at AP mm 342.80 342.80
Sheer at FP mm 937.00 937.00
Height of forecastle (HF) m 0.00 0.00
Waterplane area forward of m2 8,265 –
Lf/2 (AWF)
Resistance and power
LWL m 320.20 –
CM – 0.9979 0.9979
CWP – 0.8850 0.8850
CP – 0.8230 0.8230
Bulb area (ABT) m2 184.80 –
Stern shape – U-shaped U-shaped
Lcb %L, %LWL 3.11, 3.05 (forward) 3.11, 3.05 (forward)
Rudder area (Srudder) m2 147.32 147.32
Bilge keel area (Sbilgekeel) m2 180.00 180.00
Vertical centroid of bulb (hB) m2 11.70 –
Transom area (ABT) m2 926.00 –
Correction factor (CHM) – 0.89 0.89
Transmission efficiency (ηT) – 0.9900 0.9900
Propeller efficiency (ηO) – 0.6028 –
Relative rotative efficiency 1.0300 1.0300
(ηR)
Wake fraction coefficient (w) – 0.3054 0.3054
Thrust deduction coefficient – 0.2010 0.2010
(t)
Propeller dimensions
Propeller diameter (DP) m 9.93 –
Pitch ratio (Pi/DP) – 0.7451 –
Number of blades (z) – 4 4
Expanded area ratio (AE/AO) – 0.4870 –
Shaft center height (h) m 5.30 –
16.3.1 Weight Equation
The weight equation can be written as the following equation.

ρ L B T CB ð1 þ αÞ
ð16:1Þ
¼ Cs L1:6 ðB þ DÞ þ Co L B þ Cm NMCR þ DWT
Fig. 16.1 Hull lines plan of a 301,000 ton VLCC

16.3
Determination of Principal Dimensions of Ship
315
Fig. 16.2 General arrangement plan of a 301,000 ton VLCC

Fig. 16.3 Midship section plan of a 301,000 ton VLCC

Fig. 16.4 Several values for freeboard calculation of a 301,000 ton VLCC
where, α is a fraction of the shell appendage allowance and can be obtained from the
data of parent ship as below.

LWTþDWT 320,500
1 þ α ¼ Displacement ¼ ¼ 1:0002 ð16:2Þ
P 320,427
∴α ¼ 0:0002
Cs, Co, and Cm are coefficients for the structural weight, the structural weight,
and the machinery weight, respectively and they can be calculated as below.

Ws 36,400
Cs ¼ 1:6 ¼ ¼ 0:0414 ð16:3Þ
L ðB þ DÞP 3141:6 ð58 þ 31Þ

W o 2,700
Co ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:1483 ð16:4Þ
L BP 314 58

W m 1,900
Cm ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:0514 ð16:5Þ
NMCR P 36,952
NMCR can be represented with NCR as below.

1 1
NMCR ¼ NCR ¼ 1:265 NCR ð16:6Þ
Engine Margin Derating Ratio
where, we assume that Engine Margin is 0.9 and Derating Ratio is 0.8784
(¼ MCR/NMCR ¼ 32,000/36,429), as well.
Furthermore, we can use the admiralty formula to estimate NCR of design ship.
Originally, the admiralty formula is the relation between DHP and Δ2/3VS. Admi-
ralty formula also can be used to as the relation with NCR as below.
Δ2=3 V S 3
NCR ¼ ð16:7Þ
C0ad
where, C0 ad of parent ship can be calculated as below.


Δ2=3 V S 3 320,5002=3 153
C0ad ¼ ¼ ¼ 548:82 ð16:8Þ
NCR P 28,800
where, NCR in ps and VS in knots were used for the calculation.

Finally, NMCR of design ship can be estimated by using the admiralty formula
as below.
Δ2=3 V S 3
NMCR ¼ 1:265 ¼ 0:0023 Δ2=3 V S 3 ð16:9Þ
548:82
Then, the weight equation can be stated as Eq. (16.10).

ρ L B T d CB, d ð1 þ αÞ
¼ Cs L1:6 ðB þ DÞ þ Co L B þ Cm NMCR þ DWT d
ð16:10Þ
ρ L B T d CB, d ð1 þ αÞ ¼ Cs L1:6 ðB þ DÞ þ Co L B
2=3
þ Cm 0:0023 ρ L B T d CB, d ð1 þ αÞ V S þ DWT d
where, CB,d and DWTd are the block coefficient and the deadweight of design ship at
design draft, respectively.
Substituting the given data of design in Table 16.1, Eq. (16.11) is derived.
1:025 L B 21:5 CB, d 1:0002
¼ 0:0414 L 1:6 ðB þ DÞ þ 0:1483 L B þ 0:0514 0:0023 ð16:11Þ
ðL B 21:5 CB, d 1:025 1:0002Þ2=3 163 þ 297, 000
This equation can be arranged as below.
L B CB, d 22:04 ¼ 0:0414 L 1:6 ðB þ DÞ þ 0:1483 L B

ð16:12Þ
þ 0:0001 ðL B CB, d 22:04Þ2=3 163 þ 297, 000
This equation is an indeterminate equation since the number of unknowns

(¼ 4; L, B, D, and CB,d) four is greater than the number of equations (¼ 1). To
solve this equation, the values of any of three unknowns (¼ the number of
unknowns – the number of equations) should be assumed. Here, the values of
L/B, B/D, and CB,d of the design ship are assumed as same as those of parent ship,
as shown below.
L=B ¼ LP =BP ¼ 314=58 ¼ 5:414 ð16:13Þ
B=D ¼ BP =DP ¼ 58=31 ¼ 1:871 ð16:14Þ
CB, d ¼ CB, d, P ¼ 0:8213 ð16:15Þ
Then, Eq. (16.12) can be arranged as Eq. (16.1).


L ðL=ðL=BÞ CB, d 22:04 ¼ 0:0414 L 1:6

ðL=ðL=BÞ þ L=ðL=BÞ=ðB=DÞ þ 0:1483 L ðL=ðL=BÞ ð16:16Þ
2=3
þ 0:0001 L ðL=ðL=BÞ CB, d 22:04 163 þ 297, 000
Substituting Eqs. (16.13), (16.14), (16.15) into Eq. (16.1), it gives the following
equation.
L ðL=5:414Þ 0:8213 22:04 ¼ 0:0414 L 1:6

ðL=5:414Þ þ ðL=5:414=1:871Þ þ 0:1483 L ðL=5:414Þ
2=3
þ 0:0001 L ðL=5:414Þ 0:8213 22:04 163 þ 297, 000 ð16:17Þ
L2 3:349 ¼ 0:0414 L 1:6 ð0:185 L þ 0:099 LÞ

þ 0:0274 L2 þ 0:00012 ðL2 3:349Þ2=3 16:003 þ 297, 000
From this equation, the value of L can be determined as below.

L ¼ 318:68 ½m ð16:18Þ
From the ratios of L/B and B/D, the values of B and D are determined.
B ¼ L=ðL=BÞ ¼ 318:68=5:413 ¼ 58:87 ½m ð16:19Þ
D ¼ B=ðB=DÞ ¼ 58:87=1:871 ¼ 31:46 ½m ð16:20Þ
Finally, the solution of weight equation is as below.

L ¼ 318:68 ½m, B ¼ 58:87 ½m, D ¼ 31:46 ½m, CB, d ¼ 0:8213 ð16:21Þ
Here, the value of D will be revised by using the volume equation.
The following method for estimating the volume of cargo hold can be used as the
volume equation.
V CH ¼ CCH L B D½m3 ð16:22Þ
where, CCH can be obtained from the data of parent ship as below.

V CH 345, 500
CCH ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:612 ð16:23Þ
L B D P 314 58 31
Then, D of design ship can be obtained by using Eq. (16.22) with the solution of
the weight equation (L and B) and the value of CCH as below.
V CH ¼ CCH L B D
360, 000 ¼ 0:612 318:68 58:87 D ð16:24Þ
∴ D ¼ 31:35 ½m
From the weight equation and the volume equation, the solution of these
equations (L, B, D, and CB) was determined as below.
L ¼ 318:68 ½m, B ¼ 58:87 ½m, D ¼ 31:35 ½m, CB, d ¼ 0:8213 ð16:25Þ
However, this solution does not satisfy the weight equation. Thus, CB,d is slightly
revised to satisfy all equations by using Eq. (16.12) as below.
L B CB, d 22:04 ¼ 0:0414 L 1:6 ðB þ DÞ

þ 0:1483 L B þ 0:0001 ðL B CB, d 22:04Þ2=3 163
þ 297, 000 318:68 58:87 CB, d 22:04
¼ 0:0414 318:68 1:6 ð58:87 þ 31:35Þ
þ 0:1483 318:68 58:87
þ 0:0001 ð318:68 58:87 CB, d 22:04Þ2=3 163
þ 297, 000
∴CB, d ¼ 0:82129 0:8213
ð16:26Þ
Finally, the principal dimensions of design ship from the weight equation and the
volume equation are as follows.
L ¼ 318:68 ½m, B ¼ 58:87 ½m, D ¼ 31:35 ½m, CB, d ¼ 0:8213 ð16:27Þ
In this section, the solution from two equations is checked whether it satisfies the
required freeboard by ICLL regulation (IMO 1966).
1. Determination of freeboard length
L1 is 96% of the total length, including the thickness of stem and stern, on the
waterline at 85% of the molded depth at freeboard deck measured from the top
of the keel. And L2 is the length on the waterline at 85% of the molded depth at
freeboard deck from the foreside of the stem to the center line of the rudder stock.
From the data of parent ship and L of design ship, L1 and L2 are calculated by using
the proportional method (e.g., LP: L ¼ L1,P: L1 and LP: L ¼ L2,P: L2) as below.
L1 ¼ 314:81 ½m, L2 ¼ 316:87 ½m ð16:28Þ
Thus, freeboard length (Lf) of the design ship is as below.
Lf ¼ maxðL1 ; L2 Þ ¼ 316:87 ½m ð16:29Þ

2. Calculation of tabular freeboard
A VLCC is a tanker, and thus the design ship is Type A ship. Using Table 9.1 for
Type A ships, the tabular freeboard of design ship can be obtained. Lf of the design
ship is 316.87 m and it is between 316 m and 317 m in the table. Thus, the tabular
freeboard (Ft) can be obtained by linear interpolation as below.
3,318 ð317 316:87Þ þ 3,322 ð316:87 316Þ

Ft ¼
ð316:87 316Þ þ ð317 316:87Þ ð16:30Þ
¼ 3,321½mm
3. Addition for block coefficient
The block coefficient for freeboard (CBf) can be calculated by using the follow-
ing equation.
∇f
CBf ¼ ð16:31Þ
Lf B T f
where, Tf is the draft at 85% of the molded depth at freeboard deck and ∇f is the
displacement volume at Tf.
To determine the block coefficient for freeboard (CBf), we have to know Tf and
∇f. From the definition of Tf ¼ 0.85Df, Tf can be determined, if Df is known.
Suppose that the ratio of molded depth (DP) to molded depth at freeboard (DFD,P) of
the parent ship is same as that of the design ship.
DP : DFD, P ¼ D : DFD
D 31:35 ð16:32Þ
DFD ¼ DFD, P ¼ 27:92 ¼ 28:24½m
DP 31:00
where, DFD is the molded depth at freeboard deck of design ship. Then, Tf can be
calculated as below.
T f ¼ 0:85 DFD ¼ 24:00 ½mm ð16:33Þ
In the same manner, ∇f can be determined as below.

The displacement volume of design ship is calculated by the following equation.
∇ ¼ L B T d CB, d ð1 þ αÞ
ð16:34Þ
¼ 318:68 58:87 21:50 0:8214 ð1 þ 0:0002Þ ¼ 331, 382½m3
Suppose that the displacement volume is proportional to LBT, ∇f can be

∇ : ∇f ¼ L B T d : L B T f
Tf
∇f ¼ ∇ ð16:35Þ
Td
24:00
∇f ¼ 331, 382 ¼ 369, 915 ½m3
21:50
Thus, CBf is calculated as below.

369, 915
CBf ¼ ¼ 0:8263 ð16:36Þ
316:87 58:87 24:00
Since CBf is greater than 0.68, the addition for block coefficient (cCB) should be
considered as below.
cCB ¼ Ft fðCBf þ 0:68Þ=1:36 1g
ð16:37Þ
¼ 3,321 fð0:8263 þ 0:68Þ=1:36 1g ¼ 357½mm
4. Correction for depth

The freeboard depth (Df) of design ship can be estimated by assuming that the
thickness of deck plate (tdeck) is same as that of parent ship as below.
Df ¼ DFD þ tdeck ¼ 28:24 þ 0:022 ¼ 28:26 ½m ð16:38Þ
Since Lf/15 ¼ 316.87/15 ¼ 21.125 m and Lf > 120 m, R is 250 mm. Thus, the
correction for depth is calculated as below.

Lf 316:87
cD ¼ Df R ¼ 28:26 250 ¼ 1, 784 ½mm ð16:39Þ
15 15
5. Correction for position of deck line

Assuming that the upper edge of the deck line is same as the freeboard depth, the
correction for position of deck line (cDL) is zero.
cDL ¼ 0 ½mm ð16:40Þ
6. Deduction for superstructures and trunks

The length of superstructures (LS) and the height of superstructures (HS) of the
design ship can be estimated with the data of parent ship by the following
assumption.
LP : LS, P ¼ L : LS
L 318:68 ð16:41Þ
LS ¼ LS, P ¼ 287:38 ¼ 291:66½m
LP 314:00
D P : H S, P ¼ D : H S
D 31:35 ð16:42Þ
HS ¼ H S, P ¼ 3:36 ¼ 3:40½m
DP 31:00
Since the design ship has a sunken deck (not a raised quarter deck) like parent
ship and Lf is greater than 125 m, the standard height of super structures (HS,S) is
2.30 m. Thus, the effective length of superstructures (LSE) can be calculated as
below.
LS ½minðH S, S ; H S Þ
LSE ¼
H S, S
ð16:43Þ
291:66 ½minð2:30; 3:40Þ
¼ ¼ 291:66 ½m
2:30
The design ship does not have any trunk like parent ship.
Considering the ratio of Lf to LE (¼ LSE), the percentage of deduction (x) can be
calculated using Table 9.4 as below.
291:66
LE =Lf ¼ ¼ 0:9204 ð16:44Þ
316:87
ð1:0 0:9Þ : ð100 87:7Þ ¼ ð1:0 0:9204Þ : ð100 xÞ
ð16:45Þ
∴x ¼ 90:2092½%
Considering that Lf is greater than 122 m, the deduction for superstructures and
trunks can be calculated as below.
cST ¼ 1, 070 x=100 ¼ 985½mm ð16:46Þ
7. Correction for sheer

Since the superstructure of design ship extends over the whole length of the ship
and the height of the enclosed superstructure (HS ¼ 3.40 m) is greater than the
standard height (HS,S ¼ 2.30 m), the ordinates of actual sheer should be measured at
the superstructure deck, as shown in Fig. 9.13b and each ordinate should be
modified considering the least difference (z ¼ 1.10 m) between the actual and
standard heights. The calculation of profiles of standard and actual sheers including
such modification is shown in Table 16.2.
From this table, Safter, Sforward, Aafter, and Aforward can be calculated by the
Table 16.2 Calculation of profiles of standard and actual sheers

After body
Standard sheer Actual sheer
Station Ordinate (Si) Factor Product Ordinate (Ai) Factor Product
AP 25.0(Lf/3 þ 10) 1 2,891 342.80 1 343
¼ 2,891
Lf/6 from 11.1(Lf/3 þ 10) 3 3,816 0 3 0
AP ¼ 1,272
Lf/3 from 2.8(Lf/3 þ 10) ¼ 324 3 971 0 3 0
AP
Amidships 0 1 0 0 1 0
– Modification of actual sheer
AP – z ¼ 1100 1 1,100
Lf/6 from – 0.444 z ¼ 488 3 1,465
AP
Lf/3 from – 0.111 z ¼ 122 3 366
AP
Amidships – 0 1 0
SumS,after 7,677 SumA,after 3,274
Forward body
Standard sheer Actual sheer
Amidshps 0 1 0 0 1 0
Lf/3 from 5.6(Lf/3 þ 10) ¼ 647 3 1,942 0 3 0
FP
Lf/6 from 22.2(Lf/ 3 7,701 0 3 0
FP 3 þ 10) ¼ 2,567
FP 50.0(Lf/ 1 5,781 937.00 1 937
3 þ 10) ¼ 5,781
– Modification of actual sheer
Amidshps – – – 0 1 0
Lf/3 from – – – 0.111 z ¼ 122 3 366
FP
Lf/6 from – – – 0.444 z ¼ 488 3 1,465
FP
FP – – – z ¼ 1,100 1 1,100
SumS,forward 15,424 SumA,forward 3,869
SumS, af ter 7, 677

Saf ter ¼ ¼ ¼ 960 ½mm
8 8
SumS, f orward 15, 424
Sf orward ¼ ¼ ¼ 1, 928 ½mm
8 8 ð16:47Þ
SumA, af ter 3, 274
Aaf ter ¼ ¼ ¼ 409 ½mm
8 8
SumA, f orward 3, 869
Af orward ¼ ¼ ¼ 484 ½mm
8 8
From this result, the mean ordinate of standard sheer (SO) can be determined as
below.
Saf ter þ Sf orward 960 þ 1, 928
SO ¼ ¼ ¼ 1, 444 ½mm ð16:48Þ
2 2
And it can be seen that Safter > Aafter and Sforward > Aforward. Thus, the mean
ordinate of actual sheer (AO) can be determined as below.
Aafter þ Aforward 409 þ 484
AO ¼ ¼ ¼ 447 ½mm ð16:49Þ
2 2
Thus, the deficiency or excess of sheer (St) can be calculated as below. Actually,
SO is greater than AO, this case is the deficiency of sheer.
St ¼ SO AO ¼ 1, 444 447 ¼ 997 ½mm ð16:50Þ
The design ship does not have an enclosed poop and forecastle like parent ship in
Table 16.1 and Fig. 16.2, and thus sheer credit is not considered here. That is, the
sheer credit for a poop (sa) and forecastle (sf) are all zero.
Now, the correction for sheer (cS) can be calculated by using the following
equation and the value is added to the tabular freeboard.

LST
cS ¼ ðSt þ sÞ 0:75
2Lf ð16:51Þ
291:66
¼ ð997 þ 0Þ 0:75 ¼ 289 ½mm
2 316:87
where, it is assumed that LST is same as LS.

8. Addition for minimum Bow height and reserve buoyancy
The actual bow height (BH) of design ship can be calculated as below.
BH ¼ Df þ H S þ H F T S
¼ 28:26 þ 3:40 þ 0 22:84 ð16:52Þ
¼ 8:82 ½m ¼ 8, 820 ½mm
where, HF is the height of forecastle at FP and its value is zero since the design ship
does not have forecastle like parent ship.
First, the waterplane area forward of Lf/2 (AWF) of the design ship can be
estimated by using the data of parent ship as below.
AWF, P : LP BP ¼ AWF : L B
LB 318:68 58:87 ð16:53Þ
AWF ¼ AWF, P ¼ 8, 265 ¼ 8, 514 ½m2
LP BP 314:00 58:00
Then, the waterplane area coefficient forward of Lf/2 (CWF) of the design ship is
AWF 8, 514
CWF ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:9128 ð16:54Þ
0:5Lf B 0:5 316:87 58:87
Now, the minimum bow height (BHmin) can be obtained as below.

2 3
Lf L L
BH min ¼ 6, 075 1875 100f þ 200 100f
100

Lf
2:08 þ 0:609CBf 1:603CWF 0:0129
Tf
( 2 )
316:87 316:87 316:87 3
¼ 6, 075 1, 875 þ 200
100 100 100

316:87
2:08 þ 0:609 0:8263 1:603 0:9128 0:0129
24:00
¼ 7, 519 ½mm
ð16:55Þ
Since BH is greater than BHmin, the addition for bow height (cBH) is not needed.
cBH ¼ 0 ½mm ð16:56Þ
The design ship is Type A ship and thus the correction for reserve buoyancy
(cRB) is not needed.
cRB ¼ 0 ½mm ð16:57Þ
9. Calculation of minimum freeboards

Finally, the minimum freeboard in summer (FbS) can be obtained as below.
FbS ¼ Ft þ cCB cD cDL cST cS þ cBH þ cRB
¼ 3, 321 þ 357 þ 1, 784 þ 0 985 þ 289 þ 0 þ 0 ð16:58Þ
¼ 4, 766½mm ¼ 4:77½m
16.4 Prediction of Resistance and Power 327
10. Check for the freeboard requirement

Now, the maximum summer draft (TS,max) can be determined as below.
T S, max ¼ Df FbS ¼ 28:26 4:77 ¼ 23:49 ½m ð16:59Þ
Now, we can check the freeboard requirement with the scantling draft (Ts) of
design ship as below.
Df T s ¼ 28:26 22:84 ¼ 5:42 FbS ð¼ 4:77 ½mÞ ð16:60Þ
Thus, we can see that the depth and the scantling draft of the design ship
satisfy the required freeboard by ICLL regulation with a margin of 65 mm
(¼ 5.42–4.77 m).
16.4 Prediction of Resistance and Power
In this section, the power required for the service speed from the prediction of
total resistance is estimated for the principal dimensions which were determined
above.
16.4.1 Prediction of Resistance by Holtrop and Mennen’s

Method
The lightweight in the weight equation includes NMCR of the main engine. To
determine NMCR, the resistance and power of design ship should be predicted. The
total resistance can be estimated by using Holtrop and Mennen’s method as below.
where, RF(1 þ k) is viscous resistance considering a form factor of the hull, RAPP is
appendage resistance, RW is wave resistance, RB is additional pressure resistance of
bulbous bow near the water surface, RTR is additional pressure resistance of
immersed transom stern, and RA is model-ship correlation resistance. Each term
will be predicted as below.
1. Frictional resistance
The length at waterline (LWL) can be estimated by using the data of parent ship.
LP : LWL, P ¼ L : LWL
L 318:68 ð16:62Þ
LWL ¼ LWL, P ¼ 320:20 ¼ 324:97 ½m
LP 314:00
V S LWL 16:00 0:5144 324:97

Rn ¼ ¼ ¼ 2:3482 109 ð16:63Þ
ν 1:13902 106
where, 1 knot is 0.5144 m/s and the fresh water kinematic viscosity (ν) according
to the table in ITTC Procedure 7.5-02-01-03 (ITTC 1999) for 15.0 C is 1.13902
106 m2/s.
The frictional resistance coefficient (CF) by the formula of ITTC 1957 can be
0:075 0:075 3
CF ¼ 2
¼ 2 ¼ 1:3805 10 ð16:64Þ
ðlogRn 2Þ logð2:3482 10 Þ 2
9
The transverse sectional area of the bulb (ABT) can be estimated by using the data
of parent ship.
ABT , P : BP DP ¼ ABT : B D
BD 58:87 31:35 ð16:65Þ
ABT ¼ ABT , P ¼ 184:80 ¼ 189:69 ½m2
BP D P 58:00 31:00
The wetted surface area of bare hull (SBH) can be obtained as below.
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
SBH ¼ LWL ð2T þ BÞ CM ð0:4530 þ 0:4425CB 0:2862CM
0:003467B=T þ 0:3696CWP Þ þ 2:38ABT =CB
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
¼ 324:97ð2 21:50 þ 58:87Þ 0:9979ð0:4530 þ 0:4425 0:8213
ð16:66Þ
0:2862 0:9979 0:003467 58:87=21:50 þ 0:3696 0:8850Þ
þ 2:38 189:69=0:8213
¼ 28, 607:17 ½m2
where, it is assumed that the waterplane coefficient (CWP) of design ship is same as
that of parent ship.
Now, the frictional resistance can be obtained from the following equation.
1
RF ¼ ρCF SBH V 2
2
1 ð16:67Þ
¼ 1, 025 1:3805 103 28, 607:17 ð16:00 0:5144Þ2
2
¼ 1, 371, 041:52 ½N ¼ 1, 371:04 ½kN
where, density of sea water (ρ) is 1025 kg/m3.

It is assumed that the design ship has a U-shaped section stern like parent ship.
Thus, Cstern is 10.
C14 ¼ 1 þ 0:011Cstern ¼ 1 þ 0:011 10 ¼ 1:11 ð16:68Þ
And LR can be obtained by using the following equation.

LR =LWL ¼ 1 CP þ 0:06CP lcb=ð4CP 1Þ
¼ 1 0:8230 þ 0:06 0:8230 3:05=ð4 0:8230 1Þ ð16:69Þ
¼ 0:2427
LR ¼ 0:2427 LWL ¼ 0:24 324:97 ¼ 78:87 ½m ð16:70Þ
where, it is assumed that lcb of design ship is same as that of parent ship.
The form factor (1 þ k1) can be obtained by using the following equation.
1 þ k1 ¼ 0:93 þ 0:487118 C14 ðB=LWL Þ1:06806 ðT=LWL Þ0:46106 ðLWL =LR Þ0:121563
ðLWL 3 =∇Þ0:36486 ð1 CP Þ0:60247
¼ 0:93 þ 0:487118 1:11ð58:87=324:97Þ1:06806 ð21:50=324:97Þ0:46106
ð324:97=78:87Þ0:121563 ð324:973 =331, 382Þ0:36486 ð1 0:8230Þ0:60247
¼ 1:3883
ð16:71Þ
2. Appendage resistance
Since the design ship has rudder and bilge keel, the equivalent value of the
appendage resistance factor is calculated as below.
P
SAPP, i ð1 þ k2 Þi
ð1 þ k2 Þeq ¼ P
SAPP, i
Srudder ð1 þ k2 Þrudder þ Sbilge keel ð1 þ k2 Þbilge keel
¼ ð16:72Þ
Srudder þ Sbilge keel
147:32 1:4 þ 180:00 1:4
¼ ¼ 1:40
147:32 þ 180:90
SAPP ¼ Srudder þ Sbilge keel ¼ 147:32 þ 180:00 ¼ 327:32 ½m2 ð16:73Þ
where, it is assumed that appendage resistance factors of the rudder and the bilge
keel are all 1.4.
Now, the appendage resistance can be obtained by the following equation.
1
RAPP ¼ ρCF SAPP V 2 ð1 þ k2 Þeq
2
1 ð16:74Þ
¼ 1, 025 1:3805 103 327:32 ð16:00 0:5144Þ2 1:40
2
¼ 21, 965:85 ½N ¼ 21:97 ½kN
3. Wave resistance
The Froude number (Fn) of design ship is calculated as below.
V 16:00 0:5144
Fn ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 0:1458 ð16:75Þ
gLWL 9:81 324:97
Fn is less than 0.4, and thus design ship is in the low-speed range.
Since the value of B/LWL is 0.1812 (¼ 58.87/324.97) and thus the value of C7
is same as B/LWL.
The value of iE in can be obtained by using the following equation.
( )
ðLWL =BÞ0:80856 ð1 CWP Þ0:30484 ð1 CP 0:0225lcbÞ0:6367
0:16302
ðLR =BÞ0:34574 100∇=LWL 3
iE ¼ 01 þ 89e
( )
ð324:97=58:87Þ0:80856 ð1 0:8850Þ0:30484 ð1 0:8230 0:0225 3:05Þ0:6367
0:16302
ð78:87=58:87Þ0:34574 100 331, 382=324:973
¼ 1 þ 89e
¼ 52:34 ½∘
ð16:76Þ
The value of C1 can be calculated as below.
C1 ¼ 2, 223, 105C7 3:78613 ðT=BÞ1:07961 ð90 iE Þ1:37565

¼ 2, 223, 105 0:18123:78613 ð21:50=58:87Þ1:07961 ð90 52:34Þ1:37565
¼ 7:9002
ð16:77Þ
The vertical position of the centroid of ABT above the baseline (hB) can be
obtained by using the data of parent ship as below.
hB, P : DP ¼ hB : D
D 31:35 ð16:78Þ
hB ¼ hB , P ¼ 11:70 ¼ 11:83 ½m2
DP 31:00
The vale of C3 is calculated as below.

C3 ¼ 0:56ABT 1:5 =fB Tð0:31 ABT þ T F hB Þg
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
¼ 0:56 189:691:5 =f58:87 21:50 ð0:31 189:69 þ 21:50 11:83Þg
¼ 0:0829
ð16:79Þ
where, it is assumed that TF is same as the design draft (Td) of design ship.
The vale of C2 is calculated as below.
pffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
C2 ¼ e1:89 C3
¼ e1:890:0829
¼ 0:5803 ð16:80Þ
The immersed part of the transverse sectional area of the transom (AT) can be
estimated by using the data of parent ship.
AT , P : BP T P ¼ AT : B T
BT 58:87 21:50 ð16:81Þ
AT ¼ AT , P ¼ 926:00 ¼ 966:87 ½m2
BP T P 58:00 20:90
The value of C5 is calculated as below.

C5 ¼ 1 0:8AT =ðB T CM Þ
ð16:82Þ
¼ 1 0:8 966:87=ð58:87 21:50 0:9979Þ ¼ 0:3876
Since the value of CP is greater than 0.8, the value of C16 is determined as
below.
C16 ¼ 1:73014 0:7067CP
ð16:83Þ
¼ 1:73014 0:7067 0:8230 ¼ 1:1485
The value of m1 for the low-speed range can be calculated as below.
m1 ¼ 0:0140407LWL =T 1:75254∇1=3 =LWL 4:79323B=LWL C16

324:97 331, 3821=3 58:87
¼ 0:0140407 1:75254 4:79323 C16
21:50 324:97 324:97
¼ 2:1778
ð16:84Þ
Since LWL3/∇ is 103.56 (¼ 324.973/331,382) and it is less than 512, the value of
C15 is 1.69385.
The value of m4 can be calculated as below.
3:29 3:29
m4 ¼ C15 0:4e0:034Fn ¼ 1:69385 0:4e0:0340:1458 ð16:85Þ
¼ 3:1466 109
Since the value of LWL/B is 5.5201 (¼ 324.97/58.87) and it is less than 12, the
value of λ is determined as below.
λ ¼ 1:446CP 0:03LWL =B
ð16:86Þ
¼ 1:446 0:8230 0:03 324:97=58:87 ¼ 1:0245
Now, the wave resistance can be obtained from the following equation.

RW ¼ ρg∇C1 C2 C5 exp m1 Fnd þ m4 cos λF2
n
¼ 1, 025 9:81 331, 382 7:9002 0:5802 0:3876

exp 2:1778 0:14580:9 þ 3:1466 109 ð16:87Þ

cos 1:0245 0:14582
¼ 26, 332:17 ½N ¼ 26:33 ½kN
4. Additional pressure resistance of bulbous bow near the water surface

The value of PB and Fni can be calculated as below.
PB ¼ 0:56 ABT =ðT F 1:5hB Þ
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð16:88Þ
¼ 0:56 189:69=ð21:50 1:5 11:83Þ ¼ 2:0540
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Fni ¼ V= gðT F hB 0:25 ABT Þ þ 0:15V 2
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ffi
9:81 ð21:50 11:83 0:25 189:69Þ ð16:89Þ
¼ ð16:00 0:5144Þ=
þ0:15 ð16:00 0:5144Þ2
¼ 0:9751
Now, the additional pressure resistance of the bulbous bow can be obtained from
2
RB ¼ 0:11eð3PB Þ
Fni 3 ABT 1:5 ρg=ð1 þ Fni 2 Þ
2
¼ 0:11eð32:0540 Þ
0:97513 189:691:5 1, 025 9:81=ð1 þ 0:97512 Þ
¼ 674, 445:27 ½N ¼ 674:45 ½kN
ð16:90Þ
This resistane is quite large as compared to the frictional resistance. It can be

seen that the formula for this resistance does not fit design ship. Considering the
recent research, this resistance is assumed to be zero here.
RB ¼ 0 ½kN ð16:91Þ
5. Additional pressure resistance of immersed transom
FnT is calculated from the following equation.
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
FnT ¼ V= 2gAT =ðB þ B pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
CWP Þ
¼ ð16:00 0:5144Þ= 2 9:81 966:87=ð58:87 þ 58:87 0:8850Þ ð16:92Þ
¼ 0:6295
Since the value of FnT is less than 5, the value of C6 is calculated as below.
C6 ¼ 0:2ð1 0:2FnT Þ ¼ 0:2 ð1 0:2 0:6295Þ ¼ 0:1748 ð16:93Þ
Now, the additional pressure resistance of the immersed transom can be obtained
from the following equation.
1 1
RTR ¼ ρC6 AT V 2 ¼ 1, 025 0:1748 966:87 ð16:00 0:5144Þ2
2 2 ð16:94Þ
¼ 5, 868, 076:52 ½N ¼ 5, 868:08 ½kN
This resistance is quite large as compared to the frictional resistance, as well. It

can be seen that the formula for this resistance does not fit design ship. Thus, this
resistance is assumed to be zero here.
RTR ¼ 0 ½kN ð16:95Þ
6. Model-ship correlation resistance

Since the value of TF/LWL is 0.0662 (¼ 21.50/324.97) and it is greater than 0.04,
the value of C4 is 0.04.
The value of CA is calculated as below.
CA ¼ 0:006ðLWL þ 100Þ0:16 0:00205

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
þ 0:003 LWL =7:5CB 4 C2 ð0:04 C4 Þ
¼ 0:006ð324:97 þ 100Þ0:16 0:00205 ð16:96Þ
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
þ 0:003 324:97=7:5 0:82134 0:5803 ð0:04 0:04Þ
¼ 2:2832 104
Now, the model-ship correlation resistance can be obtained from the following
equation.
1
RA ¼ CA ρSBH V 2
2
1 ð16:97Þ
¼ 2:2832 104 1, 025 28, 607:17 ð16:00 0:5144Þ2
2
¼ 226, 749:69½N ¼ 226:75 ½kN
7. Total resistance
Now, total resistance of the ship can be predicted by calculating each compo-
nent, as the following equation.
RT ¼ RF ð1 þ k1 Þ þ RAPP þ RW þ RB þ RTR þ RA
¼ 1, 371:04 1:3883 þ 21:97 þ 26:33 þ 0 þ 0 þ 226:75 ð16:98Þ
¼ 2, 178:48 ½kN
Then, the total resistance of design ship (RT,design) can be estimated by using the
following assumption.
RT , parent, model tests
RT , design ¼ RT , design, Holtrop & Mennen
RT , parent, Holtrop & Mennen ð16:99Þ
¼ RT , design, Holtrop & Mennen cHM
¼ 2, 178:48 0:89 ¼ 1, 938:85 ½kN
16.4.2 Prediction of Propulsion Factors
At this time, it is assumed that propulsion factors (ηO, ηR, w, and t) of the design
ship are same as those of the parent ship.
ηO ¼ ηO, P ¼ 0:6028 ð16:100Þ
ηR ¼ ηR, P ¼ 1:0300 ð16:101Þ
The hull efficiency can be calculated as below.

1 tP 1 0:2010
ηH ¼ ηH, P ¼ ¼ ¼ 1:1503 ð16:102Þ
1 wP 1 0:3054
Then, the propulsive efficiency (ηD) can be calculated as below.

ηD ¼ ηO ηH ηR ¼ 0:6028 1:1503 1:0300 ¼ 0:7142 ð16:103Þ
16.4.3 Prediction of Power
EHP can be calculated, as the following equation.

EHP ¼ RT , design V S
ð16:104Þ
¼ 1, 938:85 ð16:00 0:5144Þ ¼ 15, 958 ½kW
DHP can be calculated, as the following equation.

DHP ¼ EHP=ηD ¼ 15, 958=0:7142 ¼ 22, 344 ½kW ð16:105Þ
BHP can be calculated, as the following equation.

BHP ¼ DHP=ηT ¼ 22, 344=0:9900 ¼ 22, 570 ½kW ð16:106Þ
NCR can be calculated by considering the sea margin of 15%, as the following
equation.
Sea Margin
NCR ¼ BHP 1 þ
100
ð16:107Þ
15
¼ 22, 570 1 þ ¼ 25, 955 ½kW ¼ 34, 806 ½bhp
100
MCR can be calculated by considering the engine margin of 0.90, as the

following equation.
NCR
MCR ¼
Engine Margin
ð16:108Þ
25, 955
¼ ¼ 28, 839 ½kW ¼ 38, 674 ½bhp
0:90
NMCR of the main engine (B&W 7S80MC-C7) of parent ship is 36,429 bhp.
The derating ratio of parent ship is 0.8784 (¼ MCR/NMCR ¼ 32,000/36,429). If
this ratio is applied to the design ship, NMCR of the design ship can be calculated as
below.
MCR
NMCR ¼
Derating Ratio
ð16:109Þ
28, 839
¼ ¼ 32, 831 ½kW ¼ 44, 027 ½bhp
0:8784
Thus, the design ship can not use the main engine of parent ship and a new
engine should be selected.
16.5 Selection of Main Engine
In this section, the main engine for the design ship which can produce the required
power is selected.
16.5.1 Selection of Main Engine Model
MCR of the design ship is 28,839 kW (¼ 38,674 bhp). Considering MCR and the
derating ratio, NMCR of the design ship is 32,831 kW (¼ 44,027 bhp). There are several
engines which can produce MCR of the design ship, as shown in Table 16.3. Here, it is
assumed that a similar but higher-powered engine than that of parent ship is used for the
design ship. As described in Sect. 6.5, several aspects should be considered in the
selection of main engine. Among engines in this table, “B&W 8S80ME-C9” engine is
selected here by considering NMCR (over 32,831 kW), Lmin, dry weight, and SFOC, as
compared with the main engine of parent ship. That is, although the power should be
increased, the size of the engine room, the increase of lightweight, and the increase of
operating cost should be minimized. In this table, Lmin represents the minimum length
which is from the aft end of the crankshaft to the fore end of the engine.
The main engine to be selected is different from and has havier weight than that of
parent ship. Thus, the lightweight, especially machinery weight (Wm), reestimated.
That is, the right side of the weight equation in Eq. (16.1) should be updated and the
equation should be resolved. This causes the change of the principal dimensions of
design ship. Thus, the above procedure from the volume equation to the selection of
Table 16.3 Power, speed, and dimensions of B&W engines

Engine No of L1 (NMCR, Speed Lmin Dry weight SFOC (g/kwh)
type cylinders kW) (rpm/min) (mm) (ton) at MCR
S80MC-C7 7 (parent 27,160 76 12,653 981 167
ship)
8 31,040 76 14,077 1,088 167
S80MC-C8 7 29,260 78 12,653 981 171
8 33,440 78 14,077 1,088 171
S80ME-C9 7 31,570 78 12,034 910 168
8 36,080 78 13,368 1,020 168
(design ship)
S90MC-C7 6 29,340 76 12,802 1,074 167
7 34,230 76 14,404 1,209 167
S90MC-C8 6 31,620 78 12,802 1,074 171
7 36,890 78 14,404 1,209 171
S90ME-C9 6 34,860 84 11,902 1,100 166
7 40,670 84 13,492 1,250 166
the main engine should be repeated. In this section, the description about that will be
skipped.
16.5.2 Estimation of Engine Speed
If the ratio of engine speeds at NMCR and MCR of the design ship is assumed to be
same as that of the parent ship, the engine speed at MCR (nMCR) of the design ship
can be calculated as below.

nMCR 74:0
nMCR ¼ nNMCR ¼ 78:0 ¼ 76:0 ½1=rpm ð16:110Þ
nNMCR P 76:0
Now, the coefficient c3 of design ship can be calculated as below.

MCR 38, 674
c3 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:088 ð16:111Þ
nMCR 3 76:03
where, MCR is in bhp.

Then, the engine speed at NCR (nNCR) of the design ship can be calculated as
below.
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
3 NCR 3 34,806
nNCR ¼ ¼ ¼ 73:4 ð16:112Þ
c3 0:088
where, NCR is in bhp.
16.5.3 Estimation of DFOC
The DFOC (Daily Fuel Oil Consumption) in ton/day can be estimated by using the
following equation.
DFOC ¼ NCR SFOC 24 106

ð16:113Þ
¼ 25, 955 168 24 106 ¼ 104:65 ½ton=day
where, NCR is in kW and it is assumed that SFOC at NCR is same as that at NMCR.
The weight of fuel oil (WHFO) in tons is now estimated from the following
equation.
Distance 1
W HFO ¼ DFOC þ MarginHFO
VS 24
26, 500 1 ð16:114Þ
¼ 104:65 þ 0:05 W HFO
16:00 24
W HFO ¼ 7, 602½ton
where, it is assumed that MarginHFO is 5%.

Finally, the total volume of fuel oil tank (VHFO) in m3 can be calculated as below.
WHFO 7, 602
V HFO ¼ ¼ ¼ 7, 679 ½m3 ð16:115Þ
ρHFO 0:99
where, it is assumed that ρHFO is 0.99 in ton/m3.
16.6 Determination of Principal Dimensions of Propeller
In this section, an example of Stage 3 for the determination of optimal principal

dimensions of the propeller will be described.
16.6.1 Problem Definition for Stage 3
First, the design point of the propeller is assumed as the point G1 (NCR,
nMCR) ¼ (25,955 kW, 76.0 rpm). A problem of Stage 3 can be summarized in
Table 16.4.
Table 16.4 Problem definition in Stage 3

Given PE kW Delivered power to propeller from main engine (¼ NCR)
z – Number of blades (¼ 4 for design ship)
Find DP m Propeller diameter
16.6.2 Use of Torque Equation
The coefficient c4 for the torque coefficient (KQ) is calculated as below.
PE n P 2
c4 ¼
2π ρ V A 5
ð16:116Þ
25, 955 103 ð76:0=60Þ2
¼ ¼ 1:0589
2π 1, 025 f16:00 0:5144 ð1 0:3054Þg5
Then, the torque coefficient is represented as below.
K Q ¼ c4 J 5 ¼ 1:0589J 5 ð16:117Þ
The POW diagram of the Wageningen B-series propellers for given values of
AE/AO (¼0.4870) and z (¼ 4) is shown with the quintic curves of KQ in Fig. 16.5.
Fig. 16.5 Determination of advance ratio for the maximum propeller efficiency
From two curves of KQ, the intersection point can be obtained. For the intersec-
tion points of KQ, the advance ratio (J ), the KT coefficient (KT), and the propeller
efficiency (ηO) at J can also be found. Among them, the intersection point which
corresponds to the maximization of the propeller efficiency is Jx ¼ 0.4488. At Jx,
ηO,max ¼ 0.5577, KQ,x ¼ 0.0193, KT,x ¼ 0.1506, and (Pi/DP)x ¼ 0.71.
Now, the propeller diameter can be obtained as below.
VA 16:00 0:5144 ð1 0:3054Þ
DP, x ¼ ¼ ¼ 10:06 ½m ð16:118Þ
J x nE 0:4488 ð76:0=60Þ
From the value of (Pi/DP)x, the pitch can be calculated as below.

Pi, x ¼ ðPi =DP Þx DP, x ¼ 0:71 10:06 ¼ 7:14 ½m ð16:119Þ
16.6.3 Check for Thrust Force Equation
Now, we check whether the thrust force equation in Eq. (7.19) is satisfied or not.
The left side of this equation (TS), that is, the thrust force required by the ship, is as
below.
RT , design, model tests 1, 938:85
TS ¼ ¼ ¼ 2, 426:60 ½kN ð16:120Þ
1t 1 0:2010
The left side of this equation (TP), that is, thrust force produced from the
propeller, is as below.
T P ¼ ρ nP 2 D P , x 4 K T , x
¼ 1, 025 103 ð76:0=60Þ2 10:064 0:1506 ð16:121Þ
¼ 2, 536:68 ½kN
If we compare two thrust forces, TP is greater than TS. It means that ship speed
can be increased. If we repeat the above procedure by varing the ship speed until
two forces are same each other, we can get the following solution; Jx ¼ 0.4583,
ηO,max ¼ 0.5631, KQ,x ¼ 0.0196, KT,x ¼ 0.1515, (Pi/DP)x ¼ 0.72, DP,x ¼ 10.02,
Vmax ¼ 16.28 knots, and T ¼ TS ¼ TP ¼ 2512 kN.
16.6.4 Check for Non-cavitation Criterion
In the last step, the non-cavitation criterion of the propeller should be checked. If
Keller’s formula in Eq. (7.31) is used here, the following equation should be
checked.
ð1:3 þ 0:3zÞ T x
AE =AO K þ
DP, x 2 ðp0 þ ρgh∗ pv Þ
ð1:3 þ 0:3 4Þ 2, 512 ð16:122Þ
¼ 0:2 þ
10:02 ð0:9947 þ 1:025 9:81 ð21:50 5:30ÞÞ
2
¼ 0:5817
where, the shaft immersion depth (h*) was calculated from the draft minus the shaft
center height (h).
However, the value of EAR (AE/AO) is 0.4870 and less than the minimum value
from this inequality. Thus, this inequality is not satisfied, and we have to repeat the
above procedure by varying the EAR until this inequality is satisfied.
16.6.5 Principal Dimensions of Propeller
The final solution of Stage 3 is shown in Table 16.5.
Table 16.5 Optimal Item Unit Value

principal dimensions of the
Find DP m 10.03
propeller from Stage 3
Pi m 7.22
AE/AO – 0.5800
Vmax knot 16.24
Miscellaneous J – 0.4567
ηO – 0.5589
KQ – 0.0195
KT – 0.1502
Pi/DP – 0.72
TS kN 2,500
TP kN 2,500
AE/AO,Keller – 0.5791
From this table, it can be seen that the propeller efficiency was changed due to
the change of principal dimensions of the propeller. As a result, the propulsive
efficiency (ηD) in Eq. (16.103) will be changed. Thus, the power prediction should
be repeated. In this section, the description about that will be skipped.
16.7 Calculation of Equipment Numeral
The equipment of anchors and anchor chains should be determined based on the EN
(Equipment Numeral). The EN for design ship can be calculated by the following
equation.
2
EN ¼ Δ3 þ 2:0 B h þ 0:1 A
¼ ð331, 382 1:025Þ3 þ 2:0 ð58:87Þ ð34:30Þ þ 0:1 ð3, 144:80Þ ð16:123Þ
2
¼ 9, 221
where, h and A of the design ship can be obtained from the general
arrangement plan.
From the anchoring equipment table in Table 14.1, the specifications of anchor
and anchor chain can be found, as shown in Table 16.6.
From this table, the design ship should have two anchors having the mass per
anchor of 27,500 kg and the anchor chain having the total length of 770 m.
Table 16.6 Anchoring equipment table

Stockless bower
Total Mild Special
... ... ... ... ... ... ...
8,400
8,900 2 (1) 26,000 770.0 * 142 127
8,900
9,400 2 (1) 27,500 770.0 * 147 132
9,400
10,000 2 (1) 29,000 770.0 * 152 132
... ... ... ... ... ... ...
In this table, ‘*’ chain grade is not to be used at this diameter.
16.9 Summary of Principal Dimensions of Ship 343
Fig. 16.6 Non-visibility length of the design ship in the full load and ballast conditions
16.8 Check for Non-visibility Length
All ships 45 m or more in length built on or after 1 July 1998 should satisfy
visibility requirements by SOLAS regulation. One of the requirements is
non-visibility length, as shown in the following criterion.
LNV minð2 LOA ; 500Þ ð16:124Þ
where, LNV is the non-visibility length of a ship.

In the case of design ship, LNV in the full load condition and the ballast condition
that can be obtained from the general arrangement plan is 260.86 m and 486.83 m,
respectively, as shown in Fig. 16.6. From the value of LOA (¼ 335.22 m) of design
ship, the value of the right side of Eq. (16.124) is 500 m. As shown in Fig. 16.6,
since LNV for two loading conditions are less than of 500 m, we can see that design
ship satisfies the requirement for the non-visibility length.
16.9 Summary of Principal Dimensions of Ship
From the above procedure, the principal particulars of design ship, including the
principal dimensions, can be summarized in Table 16.7.
Table 16.7 Principal particulars of design ship

Principal particulars
LOA m 330.30 335.22
LBP m 314.00 318.68
Bmolded m 58.00 58.87
Dmolded m 31.00 31.35
Td m 20.90 21.50
Ts m 22.20 22.84
CB (at Td) – 0.8213 0.8213
Deadweight (at Td) ton 279,500 297,000
Deadweight (at Ts) ton 301,000 320,000
Capacity of cargo hold m3 345,500 360,000
(VCH)
Main engine and speed
M/E type – B&W 7S80MC-C7 B&W 8S80ME-C9
NMCR bhp rpm 36,429 76.0 48,384 78.0
MCR bhp rpm 32,000 74.0 38,674 76.0
NCR bhp rpm 28,800 71.4 34,806 73.4
SFOC g/bhph 124.51 125.28
Service speed knot 15.00 16.00
at NCR (15% sea margin)
Engine margin – 0.90 0.90
Miscellaneous
Cruising range N/M 26,000 26,500
Midship structure – Double hull Double hull
Lightweight
Structural weight (Ws) ton 36,400 37,816
Outfit weight (Wo) ton 2,700 2,782
Machinery weight (Wm) ton 1,900 2,357
Lightweight ton 41,000 42,955
Freeboard
Deck type – Sunken deck Sunken deck
Dmolded at freeboard deck m 27.92 28.24
(DFD)
L1 m 310.29 314.81
L2 m 312.32 316.87
tdeck m 0.0022 0.0022
Superstructure – Extends over ship’s Extends over ship’s
whole length whole length
Forecastle – None None
Poop – None None
Length of superstructures m 287.38 291.66
(LS)
(continued)
References 345

Height of superstructures m 3.36 3.40
(HS)
Sheer at AP mm 342.80 342.80
Sheer at FP mm 937.00 937.00
Height of forecastle (HF) m 0.00 0
Waterplane area forward of m2 8,265 8,514
Lf/2 (AWF)
Resistance and power
LWL m 320.20 324.97
CM – 0.9979 0.9979
CWP – 0.8850 0.8850
CP – 0.8230 0.8230
Bulb area (ABT) m2 184.80 189.69
Stern shape – U-shaped U-shaped
lcb %L, %LWL 3.11, 3.05 (forward) 3.11, 3.05 (forward)
Rudder area (Srudder) m2 147.32 147.32
Bilge keel area (Sbilgekeel) m2 180.00 180.00
Vertical centroid of bulb m2 11.70 11.83
(hB)
Transom area (AT) m2 926.00 966.87
Correction factor (CHM) – 0.89 0.89
Transmission efficiency (ηT) – 0.9900 0.9900
Propeller efficiency (ηO) – 0.6028 0.5589
Relative rotative efficiency 1.0300 1.0300
(ηR)
Wake fraction coefficient – 0.3054 0.3054
(w)
Thrust deduction coefficient – 0.2010 0.2010
(t)
Propeller design
Propeller diameter (DP) m 9.93 10.03
Pitch ratio (Pi/DP) – 0.7451 0.7200
Number of blades (z) – 4 4
Expanded area ratio (AE/AO) – 0.4870 0.5800
Shaft center height (h) m 5.30 5.30
References
IMO. (1966). ICLL (International Convention on Load Lines) 1966, as Amended by the protocol of
1988. IMO.
ITTC. (1999). ITTC – Recommended procedures and guidelines: Testing and extrapolation
methods, general density and viscosity of water, 7.5- 02-01-03. ITTC.
Chapter 17
Examples of Ship Design Model
17.1 Generals
In this chapter, some examples of ship design model, including hull form model,
compartment model, and hull structural model are presented. For the model-
ing, EzHULL by EzGRAPH (2017) was used.
17.2 Examples of Hull Form Model
Table 17.1 and Fig. 17.1 show an example of the hull form model of a 182,000 ton
bulk carrier.
Table 17.2 and Fig. 17.2 show an example of the hull form model of a 9,000
TEU container ship.
Table 17.3 and Fig. 17.3 show an example of the hull form model of a 145,000 m3
LNG carrier.
17.3 Example of Compartment Model
Figure 17.4 shows an example of the compartment model of a 182,000 ton bulk
carrier.
Figure 17.5 shows an example of the compartment model of a 9,000 TEU
container ship.
Figure 17.6 shows an example of the compartment model of a 145,000 m3 LNG
carrier.

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-4885-2_17
348 17 Examples of Ship Design Model
Table 17.1 Principal Item Unit Value

particulars of a 182,000 ton
LOA m 292.85
bulk carrier
LBP m 282.70
Bmolded m 46.70
Dmolded m 25.80
Td m 17.90
Deadweight (at Td) ton 182,000
Capacity of cargo hold (VCH) m3 –
Service speed at NCR (15% sea margin) knot 14.50
Fig. 17.1 Example of the hull form model of a 182,000 ton bulk carrier
17.4 Example of Hull Structural Model 349

particulars of a 9,000 TEU
LOA m 356.18
container ship
LBP m 341.18
Bmolded m 45.30
Dmolded m 27.00
Td m 14.00
Capacity of cargo hold (VCH) TEU 9,012
Fig. 17.2 Example of the hull form model of a 9,000 TEU container ship
17.4 Example of Hull Structural Model
Figure 17.7 shows an example of the hull structural model of a 182,000 ton bulk
carrier.
Figure 17.8 shows an example of the hull structural model of a 5,000 TEU
container ship.
Figure 17.9 shows an example of the hull structural model of a 145,000 m3 LNG
carrier.

particulars of a 145,000 m3
LOA m 282.60
LNG carrier
LBP m 271.60
Bmolded m 43.40
Dmolded m 26.50
Td m 11.30
Ts m 12.00
Capacity of cargo hold (VCH) m3 145,216
Fig. 17.3 Example of the hull form model of a 145,000 m3 LNG carrier
17.4 Example of Hull Structural Model 351
Fig. 17.4 Example of the compartment model of a 182,000 ton bulk carrier
Fig. 17.5 Example of the compartment model of a 9,000 TEU container ship
Fig. 17.6 Example of the compartment model of a 145,000 m3 LNG carrier
Fig. 17.7 Example of the hull structural model of a 182,000 ton bulk carrier
Reference 353
Fig. 17.8 Example of the hull structural model of a 5,000 TEU container ship
Fig. 17.9 Example of the hull structural model of a 145,000 m3 LNG carrier
Reference
EzGRAPH (2017). http://www.ezgraph.net

Appendices
A.1. Introduction to Optimum Design
In the field of engineering including naval architecture and ocean engineering,

many problems can be regarded as optimization problems. In this chapter, an
introduction to optimum design is introduced in order to effectively solve such
problems.
A.1.1. Formulation of Optimization Problems
Optimization is one of the methods to solve an indeterminate problem. An optimi-

zation problem can be mathematically formulated as below.
Minimize or Maximize
f ðxÞ ðA1:1Þ
Subject to
gi ðxÞ 0, i ¼ 1, . . . , m ðA1:2Þ
hi ðxÞ ¼ 0, i ¼ 1, . . . , p ðA1:3Þ
where,
x ¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; . . . ; xn Þ ðA1:4Þ

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-4885-2
356 Appendices
An optimization problem consists of three components; design variables, con-

straints, and objective functions. Equation (A1.1) is the objective function. Equa-
tions (A1.2) and (A1.3) are the constraints. Equation (A1.5) is the design variables.
1. Design variables
Design variables are a set of variables that describe a system such as size and
position, and so on. They are also called free variables or independent variables.
That is, these variables are to find in the optimization problem.
2. Constraints
Constraints are a certain set of specified requirements and restrictions placed on
design. They are functions of the design variables. There are two types of con-
straints; inequality constraints (“” or “”) and equality constraints (“¼”). A
certain problem does not have any constraint.
3. Objective functions
Objective functions are criteria to compare the different design and determine
the proper design such as cost, profit, weight, and so on. They are functions of the
design variables, as well. There are two types of objective functions; to minimize
and to maximize. A certain problem has two or more objective functions.
A.1.2. Classification of Optimization Problems
Optimization problems can be classified into several types according to specific

criteria.
1. Existence of constraints
According to the existence of constraints, the optimization problems can be
classified into unconstrained and constrained optimization problems. The first
does not have any constraint and thus they optimize the objective function without
any constraint on the design variables. On the other hand, the latter has one or more
constraints and thus they consider the constraints during the optimization.
2. Number of objective functions
According to the number of objective functions, the optimization problems can
be classified into single-objective and multi-objective optimization problems. The
first has one objective function and generally have one solution that optimizes the
objective function. However, the latter has two or more objective functions and can
have many solutions according to relative priorities among the objective functions.
Appendices 357
3. Linearity of objective function and constraints

According to the linearity of objective function and constraints, the optimization
problems can be classified into linear and nonlinear optimization problems. In the
first, all objective functions and constraints are linear functions of the design
variables. On the other hand, in the latter, some of objective functions and con-
straints are nonlinear functions.
4. Types of design variables
According to the types of design variables, the optimization problems can be
classified into continuous and discrete optimization problems. In the first, the
design variables are continuous in the optimization problems. However, in the
latter, the design variables are discrete in the optimization problems. Such problems
are called combinatorial optimization problems.
A.1.3. Classification of Optimization Methods
Optimization methods are kinds of numerical algorithms for solving optimization

problems. They can be also classified into several types according to specific
criteria.
1. Constraints types of optima
According to the types of optima, the optimization methods can be classified into
global and local optimization methods.
(a) Global optimization methods
These methods are useful for finding a global optimum in the global optimiza-
tion problems that have many local optima. However, they need much time and
many iterations to obtain the optimum. GA (Genetic Algorithms) (Goldberg 1989;
Davis 1991), hybrid optimization method (Lee and Roh 2000, 2001; Lee et al.
2002b), simulated annealing, and so on are included in this category.
(b) Local optimization methods
These methods require relatively less time and few iterations to find the opti-
mum. However, they are only able to find the local optimum which is near to the
starting point. SQP (Sequential Quadratic Programming) (Arora 2016), MFD
(Method of Feasible Directions) (Vanderplaats 1984), multi-start optimization
method (Um and Roh 2015), and so on are included in this category.
2. Search techniques
According to the search techniques to be used for finding the optimum, the
optimization methods can be classified into numerical search methods, random
search methods, and enumerative search methods.
358 Appendices
(a) Numerical search methods

These methods are also called classical or calculus based search methods. They
use deterministic approach to find the optimum. That is, they use a set of necessary
and sufficient conditions to be satisfied by the solutions of an optimization problem.
They require knowledge of gradients or higher order derivatives of objective
functions and constraints. They can be classified into two group again; indirect
and direct methods. The indirect methods search for local extremes by solving the
usually nonlinear set of equations resulting from setting the gradient of the objec-
tive function to zero. The search for possible solutions starts by restricting itself to
points with zero slopes in all directions. The optimization methods using optimal-
ity conditions (e.g., Kuhn-Tucker necessary condition) are included in this
category. The direct methods seek local extremes by hopping around the search
space and assessing the gradient of the new point, which guides the search. They are
simply the notion of hill climbing, which finds the best local optimum by climbing
the steepest permissible gradient. These methods can be used only on a restricted set
of well-behaved functions. Gradient methods, penalty function methods, LP (Lin-
ear Programming), SQP, and so on are included in this category.
(b) Random search methods
These methods are also called stochastic search methods. They are based on
enumerative, stochastic techniques but use additional information to guide the
search. Two major subclasses are evolutionary algorithms and simulated annealing
that both can be seen as evolutionary processes. The first use natural selection
principles. This form of search evolves throughout generations, improving the
features of potential solutions by means of biologically inspired operations. GA,
ES (Evolutionary Strategies) and so on are included in this category. The latter use a
thermodynamic evolution process to search minimum energy states.
(c) Enumerative search methods
These methods search every point in the search space of the optimization
problem, one point at a time. At each point, all possible solutions are generated
and tested to find an optimum. They are very simple to implement but usually
require significant computation. These methods are not suitable for applications
with large search space. Dynamic programming, Hooke and Jeeves method, Nelder
and Mead method, golden section method, and so on are included in this category.
A.2. Selective Optimization Methods
In this section, several optimization methods are very briefly explained.

Appendices 359
A.2.1. SQP (Sequential Quadratic Programming)
SQP is one of local optimization methods. This method finds the optimum by
solving the quadratic programming problem sequentially. First, the objective func-
tion of the original problem of Eqs. (A1.1) to (A1.4) can be augmented using
Lagrange multipliers so that the constrained optimization problem can be
transformed to an unconstrained optimization problem as follows.
Minimize
Xm h n oi
ϕ xðkþ1Þ ¼ f xðkþ1Þ þ ui max 0; gi xðkþ1Þ
i¼1
X
p

þ vi hi xðkþ1Þ ðA1:5Þ
i¼1
where, ui and vi are the Lagrange multipliers for the inequality constraints of
Eq. (A1.2) and equality constraints of Eq. (A1.3), respectively. Here, the Lagrange
function L(x, u, v) can be stated as follows.
X
l X
p
Lðx; u; vÞ ¼ f ðxÞ þ ui g i ð xÞ þ v i hi ð xÞ ðA1:6Þ
i¼1 i¼1
In Eq. (A1.4), a new design point can be defined as follows.
xðkþ1Þ ¼ xðkÞ þ αdðkþ1Þ ðA1:7Þ
where, α represents a step size.

The important parts of the optimization task of SQP consist of the followings;
the determination of the search direction, the determination of the step size, and the
test for convergence criteria.
1. Determination of the search direction
We begin the optimization process by determining the desired search direction.
This is done by creating a quadratic approximation to the objective function of
Eq. (A1.1) and a linear approximation to the constraints so that the subproblem in
order to find the search direction d(kþ1) becomes as below.
Minimize
T 1
∇f xðkÞ dðkþ1Þ þ dðkþ1ÞT Hdðkþ1Þ ðA1:8Þ
2
360 Appendices
Subject to
∇gi ðxðkÞ Þ dðkþ1Þ þ gi ðxðkÞ Þ 0, i ¼ 1, . . . , l ðA1:9Þ

ðkÞ ðkþ1Þ ðkÞ
∇hi ðx Þ d þ hi ðx Þ ¼ 0, i ¼ 1, . . . , p ðA1:10Þ
where, the matrix H is a positive-definite matrix which is initially the identity

matrix, and is updated through subsequent iterations to approach the Hessian matrix
of the Lagrange function of Eq. (A1.5). This problem of Eqs. (A1.8) to (A1.10) can
be written in matrix form, can be converted to the linear programming problem, and
can be solved using the Simplex method (Arora 2016).
2. Determination of the step size
Having determined the search direction d(k+1), we update a current design point
by using Eq. (A1.7) as a one-dimensional search problem in the usual manner.
Usually, the golden section method or the polynomial interpolation method is
adequate for obtaining the optimal step size α*. At this point, we have determined
the search direction and performed the one-dimensional search to update the current
design point.
3. Test for convergence criteria
To test for convergence to the optimum, the following criteria can be used; the
limit of maximum iteration number, the variation of the objective function value,
and the satisfaction of Kuhn-Tucker necessary conditions.
If the convergence criteria is met, the current design point becomes the optimum
of the problem. If convergence to the optimum is not achieved, it will be necessary
to update matrix H of Eq. (A1.8) at this point, in order to provide an improved
quadratic approximation for the objective function. To accomplish this, the BFGS
(Broydon-Fletcher-Shanno-Goldfarb) update formula can be used (Arora 2016).

The new matrix H now replaces H in Eq. (A1.8) and the optimization process is
repeated until the convergence criteria is met.
More details about SQP can be found in some references (Arora 2016;
Vanderplaats 1984).
A.2.2. GA (Genetic Algorithms)
GA is one of global optimization methods. This method provides solutions to global

optimization problems in the similar evolutionary process proposed by Darwin’s
theory. In this method, accumulated information is exploited by selection mecha-
nism, while a new generation of the search space is explored by means of operators
in a reasonable amount of computing time. At first, the fitness of each individual in
the population is evaluated and then two individuals with good quality are selected
as parents to produce new individuals. A new generation is strengthened through
Appendices 361
Fig. A1.1 Cycle of genetic

algorithms for optimization
crossover and mutation at the same time to replace the individuals which carrying
bad quality. In brief, the optimum is found by repeating the evaluation, reproduc-
tion (selection, crossover, and mutation), and replacement. Figure A1.1 shows a
cycle of GA.
1. Selection
In this operation, two parents are selected at random with selection chances biased
in relation to chromosome evaluations. The selected parents are subjected to be
used for generating new child by crossover and mutation operators such as cross-
over and mutation. For this operation, there are several selection operators; fitness
proportionate selection (or roulette wheel selection), tournament selection, stochas-
tic universal sampling, reward-based selection, and so on.
2. Crossover
This operation is a critical feature of GA. It greatly accelerates search early in
the evolution of a population and leads to an effective combination of schemata
(subsolutions on different chromosomes). For this operation, there are several
crossover operators; order 1 crossover, order multiple crossover, cycle crossover,
edge recombination, PMX (Partially Mapped Crossover), and so on.
362 Appendices
3. Mutation
This operation causes local or global movement in the search space. It restores
lost information to the population. For this operation, there are several mutation
operators; inversion mutation, insertion mutation, single swap, random swap,
scramble mutation, random slide mutation, displaced inversion mutation, and so on.
More details about GA can be found in some references (Goldberg 1989;
Davis 1991).
A.3. Example of Optimal Dimension Design
Optimization examples in the field of ship design can be classified into optimal
dimension design and optimal arrangement design. In this section, several examples
of optimal dimension design are presented. More examples of optimal dimension
design can be found in several references (Lee and Roh 2000, 2001; Um and
Roh 2015).
A.3.1. Optimal Principal Dimensions of a Bulk Carrier
The first example is about the determination of principal dimensions of a bulk

carrier.
1. Formulation of an optimization problem
As described in Sect. 10.7, a problem for determining principal dimensions of a ship
can be regarded as an optimization problem. In this example, it is assumed that the
principal dimensions (L, B, D, CB, DP, Pi, and AE/AO) of the ship need to be
determined for the given deadweight (DWT), the required volume of cargo hold
(VCH), ship speed (V ), design draft (T), and propeller speed (nP). The shipbuilding
cost is to be minimized with satisfying the weight equation, the volume equation,
the required freeboard, the speed and power requirement (including propeller
design), and so on of the ship. The optimization problem for this problem can be
stated as below.
Find (design variables) L, B, D, CB, DP, Pi, and AE/AO
which
Minimize (objective function) Shipbuilding cost
Appendices 363
Table A1.1 Comparison of the best optimization results for 100 runs
HYBRID
Item Unit MFD MS GA w/o refinement w/ refinement
Shipbuilding $ 59,889,135 59,888,510 59,863,587 59,837,336 59,831,834
cost
L m 265.54 265.18 264.71 264.01 263.69
B m 45.00 45.00 45.00 45.00 45.00
D m 24.39 24.54 24.68 24.71 24.84
CB – 0.8476 0.8469 0.8463 0.8427 0.8420
DP m 8.3260 8.3928 8.4305 8.4075 8.3999
Pi m 5.8129 5.8221 5.7448 5.7491 5.7365
AE/AO – 0.3890 0.3724 0.3606 0.3618 0.3690
Iteration no – 10 483 96 63 67
CPU time s 4.3920 209.5840 198.6020 184.0830 187.2200
ρ L B T CB ð1 þ αÞ ¼ Cs L1:6 ðB þ DÞ : weight equation
þCo L B þ Cm NMCR þ DWT
VCH ¼ CCH L B D : volume equation
Df Ts FbICLL(L, B, D, CB) : required freeboard
2πnP ¼ ρ nP DP K Q
PE 2 5 : torque equation
RT
1t ¼ ρ nP 2 D P 4 K T : thrust force equation
ð1:3þ0:3zÞT
AE =AO K þ DP 2 ðp0 þρgh∗ pv Þ
: non-cavitation criterion
0.04B GM 4π (0.4B) /(g T2)
2 2
: required initial stability
CB/(L/B) 0.15 : required obesity
CB 0.70 þ 0.125tan1((23 100Fn)/4) : recommended CB
In this formulation, the last one is the CB recommendation proposed by Watson
and Gilfillan (1976).
2. Optimization results
This formulation was applied to an example of a deadweight 160,000 ton bulk
carrier. For this, a deadweight 150,000 ton bulk carrier (L ¼ 264.0 m, B ¼ 45.0 m,
D ¼ 23.2 m, T ¼ 16.9 m, CB ¼ 0.8214) was used as parent ship. Table A1.1 shows
the best optimization results for 100 runs of each optimization method. MFD means
a method of feasible directions which is one of local optimization methods, MS
means a multi-start optimization method, GA means genetic algorithms, and
HYBRID means a hybrid optimization method. MS selected the best one of the
minima obtained from 50 starting points as the global minimum. The hybrid
optimization method is a method which the global and the local optimization are
more efficiently hybridized. In the hybrid optimization method, the local optimi-
zation is used not only to improve the solution obtained from the final global
364 Appendices
optimization by GA but also to perform an efficient crossover in every global

iteration by GA. As shown in the table, the hybrid optimization method yielded a
global optimum, which was compared with the MFD result, and provided better
results with less iteration than the conventional GA.
A.3.2. Optimal Principal Dimensions of a Propeller
This example is about the determination of principal dimensions of a propeller.

As described in Sect. 7.4, a problem for determining principal dimensions of a
propeller (especially, Stage 3) can be regarded as an optimization problem. In this
example, it is assumed that the principal dimensions (DP, Pi, AE/AO, and Vmax) of
the propeller need to be determined for the given engine power (PE), engine speed
(nE ¼ nMCR), number of blades (z), and total resistance according to ship speed (RT).
The propeller efficiency (ηO) is to be maximized without violating design con-
straints of the propeller. The optimization problem for this problem can be stated as
below.
Find (design variables) DP, Pi, AE/AO, and V
which
2πnP ¼ ρ nP DP K Q
PE 2 5 : torque equation
RT
1t ¼ ρ nP D P K T
2 4 : thrust force equation
ð1:3þ0:3zÞT
AE =AO K þ DP 2 ðp0 þρgh∗ pv Þ
: non-cavitation criterion
This formulation was applied to an example of a propeller of a deadweight 7,400
ton multi-purpose cargo vessel (L ¼ 111.7 m, B ¼ 19.2 m, D ¼ 8.6 m, T ¼ 6.45 m,
CB ¼ 0.734). Table A1.2 shows the best optimization results for 100 runs of each
optimization method. As shown in this table, the hybrid optimization method
yielded a global optimum, which was compared with the MFD result, and provided
better results in terms of the propeller efficiency with less iteration than the
conventional GA. The hybrid optimization method yielded a better result than
MS with less CPU time.
Appendices 365
Table A1.2 Comparison of optimization results

HYBRID
Item Unit MFD MS GA w/o refinement w/refinement
ηO – 0.4528 0.4535 0.4533 0.4582 0.4616
DP m 3.4989 3.5029 3.5008 3.3972 3.3426
Pi m 2.3245 2.3151 2.3182 2.3244 2.3036
AE/AO – 0.6602 0.6587 0.6597 0.6604 0.6816
Vmax knot 13.49 13.49 13.49 13.49 13.50
Iteration no – 6 287 47 29 32
CPU Time s 0.2380 12.7980 12.1470 11.4330 11.6060
A.4. Example of Optimal Arrangement Design
In this section, several examples of optimal arrangement design are presented.

More examples of optimal arrangement design can be found in several references
(Lee et al. 2002c, 2003, 2005, 2009a, b).
A.4.1. Optimal Bulkhead Design of a Naval Surface Ship
The first example is about the determination of bulkhead positions in a naval

surface ship.
Compartments of a ship are divided by several bulkheads. The purpose of this
problem is to determine optimal positions of bulkheads of a naval surface ship.
Thus, the positions of bulkheads are selected as design variables. The maximization
of space for weapons and equipment (i.e., minimization of space for liquid tanks)
and the maximization of structural strength at the intact state are selected as
objective functions. And the requirements for space for liquid tanks (e.g., fuel oil,
fresh water, ballast water, and lubrication oil), the requirements for damage stabil-
ity by regulations, and the requirements for the ship positions (draft, trim, and heel)
at the damaged state are selected constraints. From this, we can see that this
problem is a multi-objective, constrained optimization problem. The optimization
problem for this problem can be stated as below.
Find (design variables) xn (n ¼ 1, . . ., 18) : position of each bulkhead
which
Minimize (objective function)
F1 ¼ VFOT + VFWT + VWBT + VLOT : space for liquid tanks
366 Appendices
and
Maximize (objective function)
F2 ¼ BM1 + BM2 : structural strength at the intact state
min
V FOT V FOT V FOT
max : required space for fuel oil tank
min
V FWT V FWT V FWT
max : required space for fresh water tank
V WBT V WBT V WBT

min max : required space for water ballast tank
min
V LOT V LOT V LOT
max : required space for lubrication oil tank
SFj SFj max

: required shear force at the intact state
BMj BMjmax : required bending moment at the intact state

ϕ0 , i 15 : required criteria for damage stability
1.4 A2 , i/A1 , i : required criteria for damage stability
T i T imax : required draft at the damaged state
ti timax : required trim at the damaged state
ϕi ϕimax : required heel at the damaged state
Figure A1.2 shows the design variables of this problem. As shown in this figure,
the number of design variables for bulkheads in the x-direction is thirteen (from x1
to x13), the number of design variables for bulkheads in the y-direction is one (x14),
and the number of design variables for bulkheads in the z-direction is four (from x15
to x18).
This formulation was applied to an example of a 9,000 ton missile destroyer.
Figure A1.3 shows the overall procedure for determining optimal positions of
bulkheads. As an optimization method, the multi-start optimization method was
used. And a commercial program called EzCOMPART by EzGRAPH (2017) was
used to calculate naval architectural calculation for the given values of design
variables.
Fig. A1.2 Design variables for optimal bulkhead design of the naval surface ship
Appendices 367
Fig. A1.3 Overall procedure for the determination of optimal bulkhead design
Table A1.3 Optimization results

Item Unit Manual design Optimization result Constraints
VFOT m3 24,466 2,435 OK
VFWT m3 87 72 OK
VWBT m3 896 909 OK
VLOT m3 100 108 OK
Sum m3 3,549 3,523 –
SF1 SF2 kN 1,444 1,291 1,412 1,250 OK
BM1 BM2 kNm 67,185 41,803 63,690 40,609 OK

ϕ0,1 ϕ0,2 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.03 OK
A2,1/A1,1 A2,2/A1,2 – 40.50 40.49 40.62 40.80 OK
T1 T2 m 6.85 6.81 6.87 6.82 OK
t1 t2 m 1.35 1.51 1.33 1.44 OK
ϕ1 ϕ2 m 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.05 OK
Table A1.3 shows the optimization result. As shown in this table, we can see that
the total volume for liquid tanks was decreased (i.e., the total volume for weapons
and equipment) and the bending moment at the intact state (i.e., the structural
strength was increased) was also decreased while all constraints were satisfied.
368 Appendices
Fig. A1.4 Comparison of manual design and optimization result
Figure A1.4 shows the comparison of manual design and optimization result. As
shown in this figure, we can see that the positions of some bulkheads were moved
slightly to optimize the objective functions. More details about this example can be
found in the study of Lee et al. (2009a).
A.4.2. Optimal Compartment Design of a Naval Surface Ship
This example is about the determination of compartment positions in a naval

surface ship.
There are many compartments in a naval surface ship. The purpose of this problem
is to determine optimal positions of compartments of the naval surface ship. This
problem is concerned with finding the best multi-deck compartment layout. The
design objective is to minimize total cost of transporting materials and to maximize
adjacency requirement between compartments while at the same time satisfying the
constraints of areas, aspect ratios of the compartments, and watertight transverse
bulkheads and passages. Finding the best multi-deck compartment layout means
determining sequence and areas of the compartments to be allocated to each deck,
and the location of passages in each deck. Input data given by a designer is as
follows.
Appendices 369
(a) Number of decks

(b) Number of compartments to be allocated to all available areas
(c) Available area and its boundary shape of each deck
(d) Upper and lower bounds of the required area for each compartment
(e) Upper and lower bounds of the required aspect ratio for each compartment
(f) Material flows between compartments
(g) Adjacency values between compartments
(h) Number and positions of watertight transverse bulkheads
(i) Number, positions, and sizes of lifts
(j) Number and widths of each vertical and horizontal passage of each deck
(k) Upper and lower bounds of the position of each vertical and horizontal passage
of each deck
This problem can be mathematically formulated as an optimization problem, as
below.
Find (design variables) sequence (xil and xir ) and area (ai) of each compartment
which
Minimize (objective function)
P P
M1 M : total cost of transporting materials
F1 ¼ f i, j d i, j
i¼1 j¼iþ1
and
Maximize (objective function)
P
M1 M
P : adjacency requirement
F2 ¼ bi, j ci, j
i¼1 j¼iþ1
αkmin αk αkmax : requirements for aspect ratio of each compartment
akmin ak akmax : requirements for area of each compartment
PM : requirements for total area of compartments
ak Aavailable
k¼1r i:s:w
xk xi:s:w
s xs xkl 0 : requirements for non-interference of
compartments
where, k ¼ 1, . . ., M (number of the compartments) and s ¼ 1, . . ., P (number of the
watertight transverse bulkheads). fi,j is the material flow between the compartments
i and j. di,j is the distance between centroids of the compartments i and j. bi,j is the
adjacency factor between the compartments i and j. ci,j is the adjacency value (0 to
5) between the compartments i and j. αi is the aspect ratio of the compartment i.
αimin and αimax are the lower and upper bounds of the aspect ratio αi, respectively. ai
is the assigned area of the facility i. aimin and aimax are the lower and upper bounds of
the assigned area ai, respectively. Aavailable is the total sum of available areas. xi:s:w
s is
370 Appendices
Fig. A1.5 Comparison of manual design and optimization result
the position (x-coordinate) of the watertight transverse bulkhead s:xil and xir are the
x-coordinates of the left and right boundaries of the compartment i, respectively. In
this formulation, the last one means the non-interference requirements between
compartments and watertight transverse bulkheads. From this formulation, we can
see that this problem is a multi-objective, constrained optimization problem.
This formulation was applied to an example of a FF-21 multi-mission frigate
(Afanasieff and Mabry 1994). The optimization target is 35 and 39 compartments in
the main deck and the second deck of this ship, respectively. That is, total 74 com-
partments are allocated to the main and second decks with 7 fixed compartments
(compartments 14, 15, 16, 17, 21, 53, and 54). And, five watertight transverse
Appendices 371
bulkheads, two horizontal passages, two vertical passages, and four lifts exist in
each deck. As an optimization method, GA was used.
Figure A1.5 shows the comparison of manual design and optimization result. As
shown in this figure, we can see that the positions of some compartments were
moved slightly to optimize the objective functions. More details about this example
can be found in the references (Lee et al. 2002c, 2003, 2005).
References
Afanasieff, L., & Mabry, J. P. (1994). The design of the FF-21 multi-mission frigate. Naval
Engineers Journal, 106(3), 150–162.
Arora, J. S. (2016). Introduction to optimum design. Academic.
Davis, L. (1991). Handbook of genetic algorithms. London: Van Nostrand-Reinhold.
Goldberg, D. E. (1989). Genetic algorithms in search, optimization, and machine learning.
Boston: Addison-Wesley.
Lee, K. Y., & Roh, M. I. (2000). A hybrid optimization method for multidisciplinary ship design.
Journal of Ship Technology Research, 47(4), 181–185.
Lee, K. Y., & Roh, M. I. (2001). An efficient genetic algorithm using gradient information for ship
structural design optimization. Journal of Ship Technology Research, 48(4), 161–170.
Lee, K. Y., Cho, S. H., & Roh, M. I. (2002b). An efficient global-local hybrid optimization method
using design sensitivity analysis. International Journal of Vehicle Design, 28(4), 300–317.
Lee, K. Y., Han, S. N., & Roh, M. I. (2002c). Optimal compartment layout design for a naval ship
using an improved genetic algorithm. Marine Technology and SNAME News, 39(3), 159–169.
Lee, K. Y., Han, S. N., & Roh, M. I. (2003). An improved genetic algorithm for facility layout
problems having inner structure walls and passages. Computers & Operations Research, 30(1),
117–138.
Lee, K. Y., Roh, M. I., & Jeong, H. S. (2005). An improved genetic algorithm for multi-floor
facility layout problems having inner structure walls and passages. Computers & Operations
Research, 32(4), 879–899.
Lee, K. Y., Lee, S. U., & Roh, M. I. (2009a). Development of an optimal compartment design
system of naval ships using compartment modeling and ship calculation modules. Journal of
the Society of Naval Architects of Korea, 46(4), 424–434.
Um, T. S., & Roh, M. I. (2015). Optimal dimension design of a hatch cover for lightening a bulk
carrier. International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, 7(2), 270–287.
Vanderplaats, G. (1984). Numerical optimization techniques for engineering design. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Index
A Breadth
Actual sheer, 126 extreme breadth, 3
Administrations, 18 molded breadth, 3
Advance ratio, 74 Buckling capacity, 250–252
Advance speed, 74 Buckling strength, 248–253
After peak tank, 201 Buckling utilization factor, 248–249
Air resistance, 38 Bulkhead, 188
Air vent system, 285 Bulwark, 192
Alarm and monitoring system, 293 Buoyance curve, 205
Anchor, 179, 266 Buoyant force, 1
Anchor chain, 266 Burrill’s formula, 87
Anchoring, 265 Buttock line, 146
Anchor pocket, 179
Anchor windlass, 266
Appendage resistance, 41–42 C
Archimedes’ principle, 1, 2 Capacity table, 202
Auxiliary boiler, 280 Cargo hold structural analysis, 258
Auxiliary engine, 280 Cargo manifolds, 191, 268
Chain compressor, 266
Classification societies, 17–18
B Cofferdam, 189–190
Bending moment curve, 205 Common structural rules, 215
Bilge holding tank, 198 Compartment, 4
Bilge system, 285 Compartment design, 4
Bilge well tank, 198, 285 Compartment modeling, 4
Bill of Material (BOM), 11 Compressed air system, 283
Blind sector, 290 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), 169
Block coefficient, 149 Conceptual design, 10
Body plan, 176 Constraints, 356
Bolster, 179 Contract, 9
Bosun store, 193 Cooling fresh water drain tank, 198
Bottom tangent line, 143 Cooling water system, 282
Bow height, 128 Cooling water tanks, 201
Brake horse power (BHP), 9, 53 Corrosion addition, 218

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-4885-2
374 Index
Cost Equivalent design wave, 219

labor cost, 300–301 Exaust gas boiler, 281
material cost, 300
OPF, 307–308
overhead cost, 301 F
RFR, 306–307 Fatigue assessment, 216
shipbuilding cost, 299–302 Fatigue strength, 253–257
time constant cost, 304–305 Fatigue strength analysis, 259–260
voyage cost, 302–304 Fire-extinguishing systems, 270
CP curve, 154 Flag Of Convenience (FOC), 18
CP variation method, 157–164 Fore peak tank, 193
Frame space, 188–189
Freeboard, 105–107
D deck, 107
Daily Fuel Oil Consumption (DFOC), 21, 64 depth, 105
Damage stability, 209–212 fresh water freeboard, 130
Deadweight, 7 summer freeboard, 129
Deadweight carrier, 137 tropical freeboard, 130
Deck cranes, 269 winter freeboard, 130
Deck house, 287–288 winter North Atlantic freeboard, 130
Deck side line, 145 Fresh water system, 284
Delivered Horse Power (DHP), 9, 52, 53 Fresh water tanks, 201
Delivery, 9 Frictional resistance, 38, 40, 41
Depth Froude number, 39
extreme depth, 4 Fuel oil system, 281
molded depth, 4 Fuel oil tanks, 186, 197
Design loads, 219–236 Funnel, 288
Design load scenarios, 235–236
Design variables, 97, 98, 140
Detail design, 11 G
Diesel engine, 59 General arrangement plan, 5
Diesel oil tanks, 197 Genetic algorithms, 133
Dimensional variation method, 156–157 Global structural analysis, 260–261
Displacement, 1, 7 Gravitational force, 1
Double bottom height, 189 GZ curve, 206
Double hull structure, 182
Draft
air draft, 4 H
design draft, 4 Hatch covers, 269
scantling draft, 4 High tensile steel, 217
Dynamic load cases, 222–223 Higher strength steel factor, 218
Dynamic loads, 221 Hopper, 190
Hot spot stress, 254
Hull efficiency, 48
E Hull form, 4, 141
Eddy resistance, 38 Hull form fairing, 166–167
Effective Horse Power (EHP), 9, 52 Hull form variation, 154–164
Emergency escape trunk, 199 Hull girder strength, 237–240
Engine control room, 199 Hull lines plan, 141, 146, 163, 175–178
Engine room store, 200 Hull local scantling, 240–248
Engine room workshop, 200 Hull structural design, 5
Index 375
Hull structural plans, 5, 261 Main engine remote control system, 293
Hull structure, 5 Maneuverability
Hydrostatic values, 167 course changing and yaw checking
ability, 172
initial turning ability, 172
I stopping ability, 172
Initial design, 10 straight line stability and course keeping
Initial stability, 22 ability, 173
Intact stability, 203–209 turning ability, 172
International Association of Classification MARPOL, 17
Societies (IACS), 17 Material grades, 218
International Convention on Load Lines Maximum Continuous Rating (MCR), 9, 54
(ICLL), 105 Mean oil outflow parameter, 184
International Maritime Organizations Metacentric height, 224
(IMO), 16 Midship section coefficient, 152
Midship section plan, 5
Mild steel, 217
K Model tests, 170
Keel laying, 9 cavitation test, 171
Keller’s formula, 86 flow visualization test, 171
POW test, 171
resistance test, 170
L self-propulsion test, 170
Lackenby variation method, 161 Model-ship correlation resistance, 45–46
Lashing bridge, 269 Mooring, 267
Lashing equipment, 269 Mooring rope, 267
Launching, 9 Mooring winch, 268
Layout diagram, 60
Length
freeboard length, 3, 108 N
length at waterline, 3 Naval architectural calculation, 4
length between perpendiculars, 2 Nominal MCR (NMCR), 9, 54
length of cargo hold, 102 Non-visibility length, 290
length over all, 2 Normal Continuous Rating (NCR), 9, 53, 54
rule length, 3, 217
Lifeboats, 270
Lightship weight, 8 O
Lightweight, 8 Obesity coefficient, 150
Lines plan, 141, 146, 163, 175, 176, 179, 314 Objective functions, 97, 136, 140
Load curve, 205 Offsets table, 176
Load diagram, 85 Operating cost, 302–306
Loading conditions, 204 Outfitting, 6
Loading manual, 202 Outfitting design, 6
Load line mark, 131 Outfit weight, 30
Local structural analysis, 258–259
Longitudinal Center of Buoyancy (LCB), 8
Longitudinal Center of Gravity (LCG), 8 P
Lubricating oil system, 282 Parent ships, 16
Lubrication oil tanks, 197 P&ID plan, 6
Pilot transfer equipment, 271–272
Pipe routing, 285
M Pitch angle, 224
Machinery weight, 30 Pitch period, 224
Main engine, 280 Power generator, 292
Main engine bridge maneuvering system, 293 Primary curves, 143–145
376 Index
Principal particulars, 19 Static loads, 221

Prismatic coefficient, 150 Steam system, 284
Production design, 11 Steel cutting, 9
Profile line, 143 Steering gear room, 202
Propeller Stern tube LO drain tank, 198
diameter, 70 Still water bending moment, 206
efficiency, 47, 48, 75, 76 Still water shear force, 206
expanded area ratio, 70–72 Strength assessment, 216
number of blades, 72 Structural weight, 29
pitch, 70 Superstructure, 119
speed, 72–73 Surface model, 176
Propulsion curves, 94 Swing station method, 163
Propulsive efficiency, 47 Switchboard, 292
Pump room, 199
Purifier room, 200
T
Tabular freeboard, 110
R Thickness
Raised quarterdeck, 121 gross offered thickness, 219
Ramps, 269 gross required thickness, 219
Relative rotative efficiency, 48–49 net offered thickness, 219
Reserve buoyancy, 105, 128 net required thickness, 218
Residual resistance, 38 net thickness, 218
Reynolds number, 38 Thrust coefficient, 75
Roll angle, 224 Thrust deduction coefficient, 51
Roll period, 223 Thrust force equation, 81
Roll radius of gyration, 224 Thrust horse power (THP), 52
Rudder, 179 Tonnage
CGT, 8
GT, 8
S NT, 8
Sea margin, 9, 54 Torque coefficient, 75
Secondary curves, 145–147 Torque equation, 79
Section line, 145 Total resistance, 38, 46
Section modulus, 237 Transformer, 292
Sectional area curve, 153–154 Trim, 8, 204
Segregated ballast tanks, 186 Trim and stability booklet, 202
Service speed, 9 Trunk, 121
Sequential Qua-dratic Programming (SQP), 97 Type A ships, 110
Shaft center height, 196 Type B ships, 110
Shaft horse power (SHP), 53
Shear force curve, 205
Sheer, 107, 122 V
Sheer credit, 127 Vertical prisiatic coefficient, 131
Sheer plan, 176 Very large crude oil carrier (VLCC), 4
Ship owner’s requirements, 5 Volume carrier, 137
Side tangent line, 144 Volume equation, 21, 136
Side tank width, 189
Slop tanks, 185–186
Sounding system, 285 W
Space line, 146 Wake, 74
Specific fuel oil consumption (SFOC), 64 Wake fraction coefficient, 49–51
Speed-power curves, 94 Water plan, 176
Standard sheer, 124 Water plane coefficient, 152
Static equilibrium, 1 Waterline, 146
Index 377
Watertight bulkhead, 188 Weight curve, 205

Wave coefficient, 227 Weight equation, 21, 135, 136
Wave resistance, 38, 42–44 Wing tank, 189
Weather criteria, 207 Wireframe model, 176

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Myung Il Roh Kyu Yeul Lee Computational Ship Design Springer Singapore 2018

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Myung-Il Roh

Computational Ship Design

ISBN 978-981-10-4884-5 ISBN 978-981-10-4885-2 (eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017945806

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

Seoul, Korea Myung-Il Roh

3.5 Computational Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

5.6 Power Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

7.4.3 Stage 3: Determination of Optimal Principal

9.7 Computational Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

12.3.2 Limitation of the Size of Cargo Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

13.2.3 Ship Motions and Accelerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

14.4 Accommodation Outfitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

16.5 Selection of Main Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336

1.2 Basic Requirements and Functions of a Ship

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018 1

Fig. 1.1 Buoyant force and

j Displacement ðΔÞ j¼j Buoyant force j¼j Weight ðWÞ j

1.3 Ship Terminologies

We introduce some terminologies of the ship first.

1.3.1 Principal Dimensions

Fig. 1.2 Lengths of the ship

Fig. 1.3 Breadths, depths,

(c) LWL (Length at WaterLine): Basis of calculation of resistance

1.3.2 Ship Components

Fig. 1.4 Hull form of a VLCC

Fig. 1.5 Example of hull lines plan of a VLCC

Fig. 1.6 Compartment of a VLCC

Fig. 1.7 Example of general arrangement plan of a VLCC

Fig. 1.8 Hull structure of a VLCC

An outfitting is a series of equipment and instrument to be required for operating

Fig. 1.9 Example of midship section plan of a VLCC

Fig. 1.10 Outfitting

1.3.3 Weight and Volume

Fig. 1.11 Example of P&ID plan of a VLCC

(c) Lightship weight (simply, lightweight, LWT): Total of structural weight,

1.3.4 Speed and Power

Terminologies about speed and power are defined as below.

1.4 Design Stages

A ship is constructed according to a certain procedure, as shown in Fig. 1.12. In this

Fig. 1.13 Procedure of ship design

Fig. 1.14 Work flow for

Fig. 1.15 Work flow for the initial design

2.2 Ship Owner’s Requirements

A ship should be designed according to a ship owner’s requirements which are

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018 15

• Large amount of penalty per delayed day according to the contract

2.3 Survey of Parent Ships

Ship design is rather improvements than creation. A ship is designed based on

2.4 Review of Rules and Regulations

2.4.1 IMO (International Maritime Organization)

As a specialized agency of the United Nations, IMO is the global standard-setting

2.4.2 Classification Societies

(d) CRS (Croatian Register of Shipping), Croatia

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018 19

3.2 Physical Constraint

jWj ¼ ðLWT þ DWT Þ jgj ð3:2Þ

jFB j ¼ jΔj ¼ ρ ∇ jgj ð3:3Þ

where, ∇ is underwater volume (also called displacement volume) of ship, ρ∇ is

jFB j ¼ ρ ∇total jgj ¼ ρ L B T CB ð1 þ αÞ jgj ð3:6Þ

ρ L B T CB ð1 þ αÞ jgj ¼ ðLWT þ DWT Þ jgj ð3:7Þ

In shipping and shipbuilding world, “ton” is used instead of “Mg” (megagram)