Lesson 8.

1 The Cells and Its Energy

 Every task of the body requires the use
of energy.
 Energy is needed to keep the organism
alive.
 Energy is required to
› produce and breakdown of
molecules
› transport products in and out of
the cell
› remove pathogenic microbes
› export wastes out of the cell

Bioenergetics – a subfield of biochemistry that

studies the concept of energy flow within living
systems.

Energetics – deals with the intake, processing,

and expenditure of energy within the body.
 Energy is provided by the nutrients in the
food received via the digestive system.
 Food containing complex carbohydrates
are broken down into simple sugars such
as glucose and fructose.
 The synthesis and breakdown of
complex molecules occur through
chemical reactions that release energy or
require energy to occur.
 Food must be consumed so that the cells
are replenished and supplied with
nutrients.
Metabolism – the chemical reactions taking
place inside the cells.
No cells in the body can make energy, but
instead it must get energy from outside sources
in the environment.
Fig. 8.1 The flow of energy and nutrient cycling are processes that
are important for life on Earth to survive.
The Exchange of Matter (Nutrient Cycle)
1. The producers in a food chain are the
plants (autotrophs) which take water and
minerals from the soil and carbon dioxide
from the air.
2. In photosynthesis, solar energy is
captured by plant leaves to convert water
and carbon dioxide to glucose and
oxygen.
3. The consumers (heterotrophs) eat
plants and other organisms.
4. To produce energy from sugar (glucose)
through cellular respiration, they must
take in oxygen, resulting in carbon
dioxide release, while animal wastes
(undigested materials) return to the
environment.
5. Fungi and bacteria decompose wastes
and remains of dead organisms.These
decomposers act as recyclers of soil
nutrients that plants can use up again.
 a. Photoautotrophs – use light energy or
sunlight. (e.g. plants, algae, some
bacteria)
b. Chemoautotrophs – use chemical
energy. (e.g. sulfur-oxidizing bacteria,
nitrogen-fixing bacteria and iron-oxidizing
bacteria)

Algae found from the ocean are the top oxygen-

producer on Earth.

Heterotrophs – organisms not capable of

photosynthesis. They require energy from food
by consuming other organisms directly or
Fig. 8.2 Major types of processes that transofrm energy essential indirectly. (e.g. humans and animals)
to life.

The Flow of Energy (Energy Cycle)

Energy flows in one direction and transforms Inside the cells of animals, humans, or plants
from one form to another. are specialized organelles that function for
1. Photosynthesis. Solar energy is harvesting energy.
captured by the plant’s leaves to convert
carbon dioxide and water into sugar and
oxygen.
2. Cellular Respiration. When animals eat
plants, the chemical energy will now be
passed on to the bodies of consumers.
3. Biological Work. Chemical energy from
food is converted to mechanical energy
for muscle contraction.
4. Heat. In the process of energy
conversion, some energy is converted to
heat.

Lesson 8.2 Specialized Cell Organelles for

Energy Transformation
Fig. 8.3 Mitochondria structural features
A plant cell, an animal cell and a microbial cell
all run on the chemical energy found in food in
Mitochondria
the form of carbohydrate molecules, which can
› small, specialized cellular organelles that
all be traced form photosynthesis.
produce energy from food by breaking
down carbon-containing molecules and
Autotrophs – organisms that can make their
releasing energy packets in the form of
own food.
ATP.
› “powerhouse of the cell”
› spherical or bean-shaped
 › provide the chemical fuel that powers the
cell to do certain processes such as
moving cells and its parts, and copying
DNA.
› capable of synthesizing proteins and
dividing in half, independent of the cell’s
normal division cycle.
Lesson 8.3 Cellular Respiration
 There are two pathways by which energy
is harvested from food, with or without
oxygen.
 The muscle cells are so special that they
can switch pathways in obtaining energy,
depending on the availability of oxygen.
Fig. 8.4 Humans harvest energy to power up life processes by
breaking down organic molecules from food.
Aerobic Pathway
- Also known as Cellular Respiration
- Consists of three stages: (1) Glycolysis,
(2) Krebs cycle, and (3) Electron
transport chain.
- Inside the cells, these chemical reactions
occur in specific locations and in a
particular order.
Glycolysis (First Stage)
› From glyco meaning “sugar” and lysis
meaning “to split”
› It is a series of enzyme-controlled
reactions that occur inside the cytoplasm.
› This particular stage does not require
oxygen.
Fig. 8.5 Glycolysis is the harvesting of energyby breaking down
glucoseinto pyruvate. The net output is 2 NADH, 2 ATP, and 2
pyruvate.
1. The break down of glucose from food
produces a small amount of energy in the
form of ATP molecules.
2. After a series of reactions, the 6-carbon
glucose molecule is broken down into
two 3-carbon molecules.(Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate.)
3. The process continues until the formation
of Pyruvate (ionized pyruvic acid)
molecules, which results in the release of
two ATP molecules.
Pyruvate that contains some stored
chemical energy acts as an intermediate
or a reactant for the next part in the
metabolic pathway.
4. Some bonds holding the hydrogen atoms
to the glucose molecules are also broken
down and picked up by electron carrier
molecules called nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide (NAD+) to form NADH.
5. Enough hydrogen ions are used during
this process, forming two molecules of
NADH.
6. The three-carbon pyruvate leaves the
cytoplasm and enters the mitochondria.

Fig. 8.6 Equation of the cheical reaction of glycolysis
Krebs Cycle (Second Stage)
› Also known as the Citrus Acid Cycle.
Fig. 8.7 The Krebs cycle produces two molecules of ATP.
1. Pyruvate enters the mitochondrion.
2. Pyruvate is oxidized into acetyl CoA.
3. Acetyl CoA enters the Krebs Cycle as a
raw material/reactant.
4. Further oxidation of Acetyl CoA occurs.
5. ATP is produced as a main product, and
CO2 is a waste product.
Generalized Equation of Krebs Cycle:
Pyruvic acid + 4NAD+ + FAD+ + 2H2O+ + ADP +
Pi  3CO2 + 4NADH2 + 2 ATP molecules
Fig. 8.8 Summary of the Krebs Cycle.
Electron Transport Chain (Third Stage)
› Involves a series of enzyme-controlled
reacions that transfers the chemical
energy present in hydrogen electrons to
ATP.
› Uses atmospheric oxygen.
Fig. 8.9 Electron transport chain allows harvesting more energy.
1. The energy carried by NADH and FADH2
from glycolysis and Krebs cycle is used
to generate ATP.
2. The energy-rich electrons are
transported from one cytchrome (iron-
containing enzymes) to the next, while
energy is used to pump hydrogen ions
from one side of the membrane to
another.
3. Results in a higher concentration of
hydrogen ions; thus, a proton gradient
builds up.
4. Due to this concentration gradient, a
membrane channel is opened.
5. As hydrogen ions pass through the
channels, the enzyme ATP synthase
speeds up formation of molecules.
6. A total of 32 ATP molecules are formed
from the electrons, and hydrogen atoms
are removed from the glucose molecule.
7. The hydrogen ions then bond to oxygen
to form water.
Products of Cellular Respiration
 Carbon dioxide produced from the
breakdown of pyruvare from Krebs cycle
 Water from the electron transport chain
 A net gain of 38 ATP molecules every
glucose molecule (2 from glycolysis, 2
from Krebs cycle, and 34 from electron
transport chain)
Table 8.1
 Cellular Respiration and  In certain high-impact activities (e.g.
its ATP Yield running) the body cannot bring in enough
Phase NADH FADH2 ATP Yield oxygen in cells even if you breathe faster.
Glycolysis 2 - 2
Krebs 6 2 2 Glycolysis (First Part)
Cycle › The end product is the three-carbon
Electron 10 30 pyruvate.
Transport
Chain Fermentation (Second Part)
2 4 › Recycles materials needed for glycolysis
Total 38 (max) to continue, but does not release any
useful energy.
› Enzymes also speed up the process in
the absence of oxygen.
› Needs a molecule of NAD+ to pick up
electrons.
› Provides glycolysis with a steady supply
of NAD+, in fact, does not produce ATP.

1. Pyruvate and NADH from glycolysis

enter the fermentation process.
2. Two molecules of NADH energize the
process to convert pyruvate to form lactic
acid.
3. Two molecules of NAD+ are recycled
back to glycolysis for it to continue.

Fig. 8.10 Summary of Aerobic Pathway

Anaerobic Pathway Fig. 8.11 Depending on the type of organism, fermentation

› Is followed at some point to supply
immediate energy source.
› The process involves glycolysis and
fermentation, which allow glycolysis to
continue in the absence of oxygen.
 Cells in the body cannot store large
amounts of oxygen for cellular
respiration.
 The amount of oxygen from inhaling in air
is just enough for the cell’s normal
activities.
converts pyruvate to either ethanol and carbon dioxide or lactic acid.
(1) Lactic Acid Fermentation
o The end product is lactic acid.
o It is carried out by some bacteria and also
by animals (muscle cells and some cells
of vertibrates and some microorganisms)
o This causes muscles to feel “burn” or hurt
during extreme exercise.
(2) Alcoholic Fermentation
o The end product is ethyl alcohol.
 o Humans, animals, bacteria, and yeasts in
low oxygen environment obtian energy
through anaerobic pathway at some point
or all the time.
o Yeast cells produce the alcohol present
in wine and beer, and they produce
ethanol which is now useful in the rising
of bread during baking.
Fig. 8.12 Fermentation yields essential products useful to man
such as the production of beer, fermented milk,and bread.
 Thus, photosynthesis will not occur and
neither humans nor animals will survive.
Chapter Recap
 The overall process of cellular respiration
converts sugar into ATP with the
precense of oxygen.
 Cellular respiration produces ATP by
breaking down glucose.
 Glucose enters glycolysis and breaks
down to pyruvate.
 In Krebs ycle, pyruvate molecules are
further broke down and their names are
released as carbon dioxide.
 The electrons and hydrogen ions
released from glycolysis and Krebs cycle
are transferred by NADH and FADH2 to
the electron transport chain, where
electrons are eventually transferred to
the oxygen available from the
atmosphere.
 Water is formed when two hydrogen ions
combine with an oxygen ion.
 ATP is produced form three stages of
aerobic cellular respiration, but most ATP
are formed in the electron transport
chain.
 Fermentation yields a small amount of
energy without the presence of oxygen.

Table 8.2
Comparison of the Two Pathways
Fig. 8.13 Comparison of aerobic and anaerobic pathway. Aerobic Anaerobic
Respiration tields 36 ATPs, while fermentation yields only two ATPs. Uses Oxygen Doesn’t use oxygen
CO2 + H2O are Lactic acid and
produced alcohol are produced
 Fermentation is important in the global 38 ATP produced 2 ATP produced
recycling of carbon in the environment. Controlled by Controlled by
 Without the presence of anaerobic enzymes enzymes
microorganisms, Earth will become CO2 always produced CO2 produced only in
oxygen-poor, be filled with alcoholic
undecomposed organic matter, and there fermentation
will only be little nutrients in the soil
available for plants.
Glycolysis, Krebs Glycolysis,
cycle, Electron Fermentation
transport chain
Seen in most Seen only in some
organisms bacteria, fungi, and
human body