3.

0 Motion
Displacement –Is the distance covered in a specific or specified direction. It is a vector
quantity, units of metre.
Speed- is the rate of change of distance with time. It is a scalar quantity, units of m/s
distance
speed =
time
Velocity- is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time. It is a vector quantity, units of
m/s.
Acceleration- is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time. It is a vector quantity,
units if m/s2

Equations of Motion for UNIFORM (CONSTANT) Acceleration

1) v =u+at
2 2
2) v =u + 2as
1
3) s=ut + a t 2
2
u+v
4) s= ( )
2
t
1
5) s=vt− a t 2
2
where u = intial velocity (when t = 0) (m/s)
v = final velocity(at final t) (m/s)
a = the constant acceleration (m/s2)
s = the distance from the starting point at time t (not necessarily the distance
covered)
Key Points to Remember
1) In using these equations, it is necessary to bear in mind that u , v , a∧s are vector
quantities, is say the positive direction to be up, then;
a) the velocity of a body moving down is negative
b) Points below the starting point have negative values of s.
c) Downward directive accelerations are negative
2) An acceleration produced retardation whenever it acts in the opposite direction to the
velocity irrespective of whether the acceleration itself is being taken to be positive or
negative.
3) For a body moving at constant velocity, a = 0 and t =0. Equation 1 and 3 reduces to
v =u . Substituting for u in equation 4, gives s=ut at constant velocity.

Motion in a Straight Line/Vertical Projection under Gravity

Example 1

A stone is dropped from the top of a skyscraper and hits the ground 5 seconds later. Find
(i) the height of the building
(ii) the speed with which the stone hits the ground
Soln
1 2
i) s = ut + at
2
1
s = 0(5) + (9.81)(5)2
2
s = 122.5 m
ii) v = u + at
v = 0 + (9.81)(5)
v = 49 ms-1
Example 2

A stone is thrown vertically upwards from the edge of a cliff with speed 30 m/s. Find
ai) the time to greatest height
ii) the greatest height reached
iii) the times it is 10m above the point of projection
b) If the stone hits the sea 10s later,
Find (i) the height of the cliff used
(ii) the speed it hits the sea
Soln
(i) u = 30 ms-1
a = 9.81 ms-1
t=?
v = o ms-1 (max. height)

v = u + at
0 = 30 + (-9.8)(t)
t = 3.06 s
ii) smax = ?
u = 30 ms-1
a = -9.81 ms-1
v2 = u2 + 2as
02 = 302 + 2(-9.8) s
smax = 45.9 m
iii) t=?
u = 30 ms-1
a = -9.8 ms-1
s = 10 m
 1
s = ut + at2
2
1
10 = 30 (t) + (9.81)t2
2
-4.9t2 - 30t +10 = 0
t = 5.77/0.354 s
b)i) h = ?
u = 30 ms-1
a = -9.8 ms-1
t = 10s
1
s = ut + at2
2
1
= 30 (10) (9.81)(10)2
2
= -190 m
ii) t = 10 s
u = 30 ms-1
a = -9.8 ms-1
v=?
v = u + at
v = 30 + (10)(-9.8)
v = -6.8 ms-1
Motion in a Straight Line Worksheet
Projectiles – Horizontal Motion

Example – A stone is projected horizontally from the top of a cliff at a speed of 20m/s and
hits the sea 5 seconds later. Find
(i) The velocity with which it hits the sea
(ii) The height of the cliff
(iii) The distance from the base of the cliff when it hits the water
(iv) Its distance from the point of projection
i)
20ms-1
θ
R

For vertical motion u = 0 v= ? a=9.81 ms-2

Vy = u +at
Vy = 0 + (9.81)(5)
Vy = 49 ms-1
For horizontal motion Vx = Ux = 20ms-1
R = 52.92 ms-1
θ = 67.8 ◦
The velocity with which the stone hits the sea is 52.9 ms-1 at 67.8 below the horizontal

ii)For height of cliff, consider vertical motion only

t=5s
u=0
a = 9.8 ms-1
h=?
1
s = ut + at2
2
1
= 0 (5) + (9.81)(5)2
2
h = 122.5 m

iii) To find the distance, consider only horizontal motion.

Vx = 20 ms-1
a= 0
t=5s
d=?
 1
s = ut + at2
2
1
= 20(5) + (0)(5)2
2
=100 m
iv) h = 122.5m d = 100m
distance projected2 = h2 + d2
= 122.52 + 1002
= 158.1 m
Projectiles-Horizontal Motion Worksheet

Projectiles
A body that is projected at an angle to the vertical moves along a curved (parabolic) path. In
order to solve problems involving motion of this type, we consider the horizontal and
vertical component of the motion separately. This is justified because the horizontal
motion has no effect on the vertical motion and vice-versa.
Parabolic Motion

Vertical Motion
U y =¿ Initial velocity = v sinθ

a=−g
Time taken = t
Displacement = y
1 2
Using s=ut + a t
2
1 2
y=( v sinθ ) + (−g ) t … .(1)
2
Horizontal Motion
 U x =¿ Initial velocity = v cosθ

a=0
Time taken = t
Displacement = x
1 2
Using s=ut + a t
2
x=( v cosθ ) +t … .(2)

This is the equation of a parabola and it follows therefore, that a body moving under the
influence of gravity travels along a parabolic path. The path of a charged particle in a uniform
electric field is also a parabola.
**Key Points in Doing Questions
1) To find time of flight: Consider Vertical motion
t=? , a=−g , v , θ , s=0,u=v sinθ
1 2
Using s=ut + a t
2
1
>¿
2
0=( v sin θ ) t−¿
2 vsinθ
t=
g
2) To find time to maximum height: Consider Vertical motion
t=? , a=−g , v , θ , s=0,u=v sinθ
At the highest point, the vertical component of the velocity = 0.
Using v =u+at
0=vsin θ−¿
vsinθ
t=
g
3) To find maximum height: Consider Vertical motion
Using v 2=u 2+ 2as
2 2
0 = ( vsinθ ) −2 gh

v 2 sin2 θ
h=
2g
4) To find range: Consider Horizontal motion
 2 vsinθ
using time of flight, t=
g
1 2
Then s=ut + a t → a=0
2

2 vsinθ 2 v 2 cosθsinθ v 2 sin 2θ

x=( vcosθ ) × = =
g g g
5) To find direction of motion
At time t;
→: v cosθ
↑: v sinθ−¿
v sinθ−¿
tanθ=
v cosθ

Example: A body is projected with a velocity of 200m/s at an angle of 30O above the
horizontal. Calculate;
(i) Time taken to reach max height
(ii) Its velocity after 16 seconds
(iii) Its range(g = 9.81), ignore air resistance
Solution
(i)

Considering vertical motion:

t=?
v=0
u = 200 ms-1
a = - 9.8 ms-1

v = u +at
0 = 200 sin30 + 9.81 t
200 sin 30
t= = 10.2 s
9.81
ii) To find the vertical component of velocity after 16 s.
 t = 16 s
Uy = 200 sin 30
Vy = ?
a = - 9.8 ms-1
v = u +at
Vy = 200 sin 30 +(-9.81)(16)
= -56.8 ms-1

200 cos θ ms-1

56.8 ms-1
R

θ = 18.2 ◦

(ii) To find the range, first find time of flight:

Uy = 200 sin 30
1 2
Using s=ut + a t
2
1
0 = (200 sin30 )t + (9.81) t 2
2
t = 20.4 s
Projectiles Worksheet
s-t and v-t Graphs
ds
v=
dt
2
dv d s
a= =
dt d t 2

Velocity-Time Graphs
 1
s=ut + a t 2
2
ds
=u+at
dt

d2 s
=a
d t2

Newton’s Laws of Motion

Newton’s 1st Law
Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform (unaccelerated) motion in a
straight line unless acted on by some (external) resultant force.
This law expresses the concept of inertia. The inertia of a body can be described as being its
reluctance so start moving/stop moving once it has started.
Events seem to contradict the first law, for it is our natural experience that there are many
familiar examples of motion in which moving objects come to rest when (apparently) left to
their devices. Closer examination of the circumstances however, reveals that that in every
case there is some sort of retarding force reacting. Such forces are often due to friction
between solid surfaces or to air resistance, S body of large mass requires a large force to
change its speed or direction by a noticeable amount, i.e. the body has a large inertia. Thus,
the mass of the body is a measure of its inertia.

Newton’s 2nd Law

The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the resultant
force acting on the body and takes place in the direction of force.
Momentum=mass × velocity
If a force, F, acts on a body for time, t and changes its velocity from u to v , then
change∈momentum=mv−mu

mv−mu m ( v−u )
∴rate of change of momentum= = =ma
t t
∴ F α ma
or F =K ma, where K is a constant
Since one newton is defined as the force which gives a mass of 1kilogram, an acceleration of
1m/s2, then if m = 1kg and a = 1ms-2, then F = 1N and K=1. Thus with these units, K =1 and F
= ma
Note (i) F is the resultant (or unbalanced) force causing acceleration in a certain direction.
(ii) F must be in Newtons, m in kilograms and acceleration in ms-2

Newton’s 3rd Law

If body A exerts a force on body B, then B exerts an equal but opposite force on body A.
This does not mean that the 2 forces cancel each other out because they are off equal strength
and act in opposite direction. There is, in fact, no possibility of this, because the 2 forces each
act on different bodies. Thus if a man pushes on a large crate, the crate pushes back on the
man with a force of exactly the same size. Whether or not the crate starts to move has nothing
to do with the force that it exerts on the man.
In accordance to Newton’s 2nd law, the rate will start to move if the force exerted by the man
(on the crate) is greater than any forces which are acting on the crate in such a way as to resist
its motion (e.g. friction between crate and ground).
The 3rd law implies that forces always occur in pairs. Example
1) the Earth exerts a gravitational force on the Moon; the Moon exerts a force of the
same size on the Earth
2) A rocket moves forward as a result of the push exerted out by the exhaust gases which
the rocket has pushed out.
3) When a man jumps off the ground, it is because he has pushed off the Earth, and the
Earth in accordance with Newton’s 3rd law, has pushed up on him. It should not be
overlooked that the other results of this is that the Earth moves downwards.

Mass and Weight

The mass of a body is a measure of its inertia, I.e. its resistance to acceleration. A large
mass requires a large force to produce a certain acceleration. The weight of a body is the
force acting on its mass due to the gravitational attraction of the Earth.
W =mg
If two bodies of masses, m1 and m2 have weights W1 and W2 at the same place, then W1 =
m1g and W2 = m2g
W 1 m1
∴ =
W 2 m2

I.e. the weight if a body is proportional to its mass

Name Physical Quantity Unit Measure of Measured by Variation
s
Mass Mass (scalar) Kg Inertia Comparison with Does not
standard mass
Weight Force (vector) N Gravitational acceleration Calibrated spring Variable
of the Earth balance

Linear Momentum
Newton’s 1st and 2nd Laws can be used to explain Momentum. Linear momentum of a
body can be calculated by
momentum = mass × velocity
p = mv
units of momentum = kgm/s
Note: Momentum is a vector quantity.
The Conservation of Linear Momentum
When two or more objects interact, the total momentum remains constant, provided
that no external force acts on them.
total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision
We use this law when dealing with collisions. There are two types of collisions: elastic or
inelastic collision. (N.B. Momentum is a vector quantity, and direction must be always
taken into account, when doing calculations)
Collisions
A collisions is a process in which the time interval during which the bodies interact is
small relative to the time in which we can observe them; we can then make a clear
distinction between before and after, and we can use the law of conservation of
momentum.
Classification of Collisions
a) Elastic Collisions - An elastic collision is when two or more objects collide, and
move apart, having lost little or none of their motion energy. The total momentum and
the total kinetic energy are conserved. Truly elastic collisions can only occur in
practice on an atomic scale
 b) Inelastic Collisions - A complete inelastic collision is when two or more objects
collide, stick together, and move off in one direction after the collision. In an inelastic
collision the total momentum is conserved but the total kinetic energy is not
conserved.

Note:
1) Momentum is always conserved but
2) Kinetic energy is not always converted, as it is usually converted to ome other form of
energy.
Using the Law of Conservation of Momentum
1) Select the system to which it is to be applied
2) Draw before and after diagrams of the situation, marking the masses and velocities of
the bodies that comprise the system
3) Making a line along which the law is applicable, choose one direction as positive, and
equate the total momentum before the interaction to that after.
Impulse of a Force
The impulse of a constant force (F) is the product of the force and the time, over which the
force acts.
𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠� = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐� ×𝑡𝑖𝑚�
The impulse can also be defined as the change in momentum provided by that force.
We can represent the impulse of a force by a F-t graph. The impulse can be calculated
by finding the area underneath the curve.

Graph (a) represents a ball that remains in contact with a wall for a short time. (example: a
ping pong ball)
Graph (b) represents a ball that remains in contact with a wall for a long time (example: a
lawn tennis ball)

Example 1
A body of mass 4 kg moves with a velocity of 2ms-1 and collides head on with another
body, B, of mass 3kg moving in the opposite direction at 5ms-1. After the collision, the
body moves off with a velocity of v. Calculate v.
Example 2
A bullet of mass 6.0 ×10−3 kg is fired from a gun of mass 0.50kg. If the muzzle
velocity of the bullet is 300m/s, calculate the recoil velocity of the gun.

Terminal Velocity
When a fallen object has gained a velocity, a friction force (FR) opposes its weight (W),
the resultant downward force (F) can be calculated by
Example: A marble falling through a viscous fluid
Inclined Plane
Consider an object on an incline plane, its weight acts vertically downwards. There is a
normal reaction to the weight and its value is R. Assuming that the object is motionless on
the slope, the fore that keeps it in contact with the surface is Wcos θ and the force that
will cause it to move down the slope is Wsin θ .
Circular Motion
Angular displacement – This is the angle through which am object has moved from
some fixed reference point (on a clock face, this point is the 12 at the top). θ , thetha, is
the symbol used to represent this angle. The precise position of an object moving in a
circle is knowm if two quantities are specified: its angular displacement, θ , and radius
of the circle, r. As the object moves, θ changes while r remain constant.

Angles are conventionally measured anticlockwise aa shown above.

Radians
One revolution is equivalent to 3600 which is also equivalent to 2� radians. Therefore we
can say that 360° = 2� 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎 , 180° = � 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠, 90° = �/2 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎ns.

Defining an angle
If an object moves a distance, s, around a circular path of radius r, its angular
displacement, θ , is given by;
length of arc s
θ= =
radius r
Since s and r are distances measured in metres, it follows that the angle θ is simply a
ratio. It is a dimensionless quantity, we give it units of radians.
Angular Velocity
When an object moves around a circular path at a steady speed, v, its angular
displacement θ increases at a steady rate. We say that it has a constant angular
velocity, ω .
Angular velocity is the rate at which the object’s angular displacement changes with
time. If the object moves through an angle θ in time t, then its angular velocity
ω is given by;

Period (T)
The period is the time taken for the object to complete one revolution (through 2�
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠). We can calculate the period by using the equation:
2π
T=
ω
Instantaneous Angular Velocity
If the angular velocity is not constant, we can work it out by using the formula below:
v
ω=
r
We can derive this formula by first calculating the linear velocity which is the rate of
change of distance along the circumference (s) with time (t).

Therefore we can rewrite eq (i) as � = 𝜔𝑟 and hence

v
ω=
r
Note when discussing circular motion, v represents the speed of the moving object- a
scalar quantity, the direction of which is always changing. In linear motion, we use v
to mean velocity – a vector quantity.

Centripetal Force
If a body is moving in a circular path, a force must be acting on it or it will move off in a
straight line (according to Newton’s First Law).
If the body is also moving at a steady speed, this force cannot have a component which is
the direction of motion of the body (else the body will increase and decrease in speed).
The force therefore acts perpendicularly to the direction of the motion of the body and is
directed towards the centre of the circular path. This force is known as the centripetal
force.
Example: If a brick is spun in a circle on the end of a piece of rope, the tension in the rope
provides the centripetal force. If the rope breaks, the brick will fly off at a tangent.

Centripetal Acceleration
An object moving in a circular path with a constant speed has a changing velocity. This
occurs because the direction of the velocity changes even though its magnitude remains
the same. Such an object must have an acceleration, which is acting in the same direction
as the force, towards the centre of the circle. This acceleration is known as the centripetal
acceleration(a).
We can use the formula below to calculate the centripetal acceleration of an object
2
a=ω r
If we are given the linear speed of the object we can also the following equation

v2
a=
r
If we use Newton’s Second Law which calculates the resultant force by using the formula
(F = ma), we will get the following equations.

F=mω 2 r
 2
v
F=m
r
Examples of Centripetal Forces
An object moving along a circular path is not in equilibrium, and the resultant force on it
is the centripetal force.
1) A car cornering on a level road.

Car moving away and turning to the left: friction provides the centripetal force. N and F
are the total normal reaction and friction forces (respectively) provided by the contact of
all four wheels on the ground. Here, the road provides two forces. The normal reaction N
is a contact force which balances the weight, mg, of the car. The second force is the force
of friction, F, between the tyres and the road surface. This is the unbalanced, centripetal
force. If the road or tyres do not provide enough friction, the car will not go around the
bend along the desired path.

2) A car cornering on a banked road.

↑: N cos θ=mg … ( 1 )
m v2
→: N sinθ= …(2)
r
2 v2
:tanθ= …(3)
1 rg

N can provide the centripetal force needed for cornering. For a slow car, friction acts
up the slope to stop it from sliding down. In the diagram, N has a horizontal
component which can provide the centripetal force. The vertical component of N
balances the car’s weight.
 This equation (3) is sued by road designers to decide on a suitable angle at which to
bank a road surface. They know the radius of curvature of the road and the typical
feed of traffic using the road. Then they can calculate the banking angle θ .

3) An aircraft banking to change direction

For an aircraft to bank to change direction, the pilot tips the aircrafts wings. The vertical
component of the lift force, L, on the wings balances the weight. The horizontal
component of L provides the centripetal force.

↑: L cos θ=mg … ( 1 )
2
mv
→: L sinθ = …(2)
r
2 v2
:tanθ= …(3)
1 rg
More speed = more lift
4) A stone being whirled in a horizontal circle on the end of a string.

The vertical and horizontal components of the tension, T balance the weight and provide
the centripetal force respectively.
↑: T cos θ=mg … ( 1 )
2
mv
→:T sinθ= … (2)
r
 2
2 v
:tanθ= …(3)
1 rg
Motion in a Vertical Circle
If we use a small mass which is threaded on wire of length (r) and moving in a circle in the
vertical plane, we can calculate the tension in the wire by using the following equation.

2
mv
When mass at Bottom ↑:T 3−mg=
r

m v2
When mass at Top ↓:T 1 +mg=
r

m v2
←:T 2=
r
Circular Motion Worksheet

Gravitation
We can describe the gravitational effect of an object in terms of the gravitational field around
it. The strength of the field at a point id the force exerted on unit mass placed in the field at
that point.
F=mg
F
g=
m
Newton’s Gravitational Law
Gravity exists because bodies have masses. Newton’s Gravitational Law states that the force
of attraction between two point masses is directly proportional to the product of the mass and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the masses. This leads to the
relationship
m1 m2
F∝
r2
By inserting the universal Gravitational constant, G, we get that the equation of Newton’s
Gravitational Law:
m1 m2
F=G
r2
where G = 6.67 ×10−11 N m2 k g−2
Conditions
 If the two bodies have spherical symmetry (eg. the Sun and the Earth)
 If one body has a spherical symmetry and the other is small compared with the
separation of their centers (eg. the Earth and a brick)
 Both the bodies are not spherically symmetrical but both are small compared with
the separation of their centers (eg. two bricks that are a few centimeters apart)

Gravitational Field Strength Due to a Point Mass

The force on a point mass (m) at a distance (r) from the point mass (M) is given by:
mM
F=G 2
r
Since � = �/ , therefore � = 𝑚�, we get that:

 On or near the surface of the Earth, the field is uniform. g is approximately constant:
its value is equal to the acceleration of free fall.
 A satellite in orbit around a mass is acted on by a gravitational force, which gives it’s
a centripetal acceleration
  The period of a satellite orbit can be found by equating the gravitational force,
GMm mv 2
to the centripetal force,
r2 r
Orbiting Under Gravity
For an object orbiting a planet, such as a satellite orbiting the Earth, gravity produces the
centripetal force which keeps it in orbit. In this case, we have a simple situation in that there
is only one force acting- the gravitational attraction of the Earth on the satellite- and this must
be the force which makes the satellite follow a circular path.
Since the gravitational force of the Earth on the satellite provides the centripetal force acting
on the satellite (mass,m), we can write:
2
GMm mv
2
=
r r

2 GM
∴v = … (1)
r
This equation allows us to calculate for eg, the speed at which the satellite must travel to stay
in a circular orbit. Note that the mass,m, of the satellite has cancelled out. The implication of
this is that all satellites, whatever their masses, will travel at the same speed in a particular
orbit.
You would find this very reassuring if you were an astronaut, on a spacewalk outside the
space craft. You would travel at the same speed as your craft, despite the fact that you rams is
a lot less than the mass of the spacecraft.

The Orbital Speed

It is often more useful to consider the time taken for a complete orbit, the orbital period.
Since the distance around an orbit is 2 πr , it follows that
2 πr
v=
T

GMm mv 2
=
r2 r

GMm 2π 2
r2
=m
T
r ( )
2 2
GM 4 π r
2
= 2
r T

4 π2 r3
∴T 2=
GM
From this equation we can observe that indeed �2 ∝ 𝑟3
This is Kepler’s 3rd Law, which is derived using Newton’s Gravitational Law. Therefore
the two laws are consistent.
Earth Orbit
The Earth has 1 natural satellite- the Moon, and thousands of actual satellites. Each of these
satellites uses the Earth’s gravitational field to provide the centripetal force that keeps it in
orbit. In order for a satellite to maintain a particular orbit, it must travel at the correct speed.
2 GM
This speed is given by v = . It follows from this equation that the lower that the
r
satellite is to Earth, the faster it must travel. If it travels too slowly, it will fall down the
Earth’s surface. If it travels too quickly, it will travel outwards to a higher level.

Geostationary Orbits
A special type of orbit is one in which a satellite is positioned so that, as it orbits, the Earth
rotates below it at the same rate. The satellite remains about a fixed point on the Earth’s
surface. This kind of orbit is called a geostationary orbit.
For a satellite to stay above a fixed point on the equator, it must take exactly 24 hours to 1
complete orbit. We can find the radius of this orbit using the following;

GM T 2
r 3=
4 π2
Where
G = 6.67 ×10−11 N m2 k g−2
T = 24 hours =86400 s
M = 6.0 ×1024 kg
3 22
∴r =7.57 ×10

r=4.24 ×10 7 m
Gravitation Worksheet