Lecture 15-16 Research Methods (Business) ISP-AHT

Table of Contents
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK..................................................................................................................................1
FUNCTIONS OF CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK:..................................................................................................1
HOW TO DEVELOP CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK:...........................................................................................2
WHAT IS VARIABLE?..................................................................................................................................................2
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A CONCEPT AND A VARIABLE:................................................................................3
CONVERTING CONCEPTS INTO VARIABLES:....................................................................................................3
HYPOTHESIS: [THE TESTABLE PROPOSITION (IDEAS)]................................................................................3
NATURE OF HYPOTHESIS:.......................................................................................................................................4
1-QUANTITATIVE HYPOTHESIS:.....................................................................................................................................4
2-QUALITATIVE HYPOTHESIS:.......................................................................................................................................4
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS:........................................................................................................................................4
TYPES OF RESEARCH HYPOTHESES....................................................................................................................5
1-DESCRIPTIVE HYPOTHESIS.........................................................................................................................................5
2-RELATIONAL HYPOTHESIS.........................................................................................................................................5
3- NULL HYPOTHESIS....................................................................................................................................................6
4- ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS.......................................................................................................................................6
Types of Reasoning WRT Theory building / Hypothesis Generation...............................................................................7

Conceptual Framework
Developing conceptual framework is an integral part of understanding and analyzing research
problem. It helps understand the problem. In many cases a clear statement of problem does not
occur until the development of conceptual framework. It is a complementary to problem
description, statement of objective and literature review. The conceptual framework is often either
neglected of hastily formulated due to its abstract reasoning, recognition and synthesize its central
point, knowledge of existing theories, motivation to understand the detail of problem and
surrounding issues.

Functions of conceptual framework:

There are following functions of conceptual framework

1. It primary function is to lead and justify meaningful hypothesis that are subjects to
verification, testing or rejection.
2. The conceptual framework may be view as an analysis or research problem using
theories.
3. If theory is not already develop then the task may involve formulating, challenging or
modifying existing theory.
How to develop conceptual framework:
1st step is to search for relevant theory. It provides logic or a research problem. Heavy command
over theories within a discipline is essential the conduct of all type of research.

2nd step is the application of theories to the specific problem LAAD (1991) describe this as
finding the linking between “ideal types” in theory and the “real type” that exist in actual life. If a
theory is well developing in its general form, it will require some adaption to “fit” to individual
research problem. Each research problem is unique and there are no easy guidelines for
conceptualizing them.

3rd step is, some time adaption of existing theories is not sufficient for analysis of research
problem in such a case one can either refine a theory or Lake Theoretical framework. But it is not
good or disciplinary perspective.

4th Theoretical refinements (improvements) are introduce they are primarily and marginally
improvement in the existing theory or adaption of concept from other subject matter areas to a
new one.

5th New theory does not develop all of a sudden but evolve through a process of individual
efforts to contribute to the body of knowledge. The theoretical “break through” in pass drew
heavily on prior theoretical framework.

What is variable?
An image perception or concepts that is capable of measurement or that capable of taking
different values is called variable. In other words, a concept that can be measured is called a
variable. According to Klinger, a variable is a symbol to which numbers or values are attached.
Black and Champion define a variable as rational units of analysis that can assume any one of a
number of designated sets of values.
Some researchers believe that scientific methods are incapable of measuring feelings, preferences,
values (rawayaat) and sentiments. For example; one says “this is beautiful”, “this is good”, this is
ought to be done”. All these expressions are nothing but feelings, tastes or individual preferences.
Such judgments cannot be said true or false except description of the personal feelings of the one
who utters (complete) them. These feelings and judgments are based upon observable behaviors
in real life. These behaviors may be varying from person to person. Some researchers suggest that
such feelings or judgments can be measured indirectly through appropriate indicators.

Difference between a concept and a variable:

Measurability is the main difference between a concept and a variable. Concepts are mental
images or perceptions and their meanings are different from person to person, whereas variables
are measurable with different degree of accuracy. For measurement concepts must be converted
into variables through a set of indicators. For example; some concepts such as “rich” can be
converted in indicator (wealth). Wealth will indicate whether a person is a rich. Assume we want
to take income and assets as indicators. Income is variable since it can be measured in
Rupee/Dollars. You need not to convert it into variable. Assets owned by an individual are
indicators of his richness but they belong to the category of concepts. Assets are included house;
car, investment etc. and we have to convert their values into Dollars / Rupee to obtain total values
of the assets owned by a person. After calculating total value of assets we will be able to decide
whether the person is rich.

Converting concepts into variables:

Concepts Indicators Variables Working Definition
Rich 1. Income 1. Income per year 1. If >Rs. 5 Million
2. Assets 2. Total value of assets 2. If >Rs. 10 Million
High Academic 1. Average marks 1.Percentage of marks 1. If > 75%
Achievement obtained in exam
2. Average marks 2.Percentage of marks 2. If > 80%
obtained in practical
3. Aggregates 3.Percentage of marks 3. If > 85%
Effectiveness of 1. Number of patients 1.Number patients 1. Whether difference
Health Program treated in a year before and after levels is
statistically significant
2. Changes in 2.Illness emphasis in 2. Increase or decrease
nutritional status 2nd year 3. Increase or decrease

Hypothesis: [The Testable Proposition (ideas)]

The primary function of conceptual framework is to lead to hypotheses which are the result of
reasoning process embodied in this framework. They need to be formulated in such a way that
they are testable. Hypotheses are in the form of a simple proposition of an expected outcome and
assertion of some relationship among some forces or variables. A hypothesis is a testable
proposition while fact is verifiable observation. A theory consists of logical relationship among
facts.
A hypothesis may be defined as a logically conjectured relationship between two or more
variables, expressed in the form of a testable statement. Relationship is proposed by using a strong
logical argumentation. This logical relationship may be part of theoretical framework of the study.
A hypothesis is a result or outcome that is not yet to be evaluated or tested. It is a tentative
assertion of relationship between factors or events that is subject to verification or rejection. A
hypothesis must be capable of being accepted or rejected on the basis of evidence available.
Testing of hypothesis is made on two levels.
(1). Testing the statistical significance of individual parameters in the model
(2). Testing statistical “fitness of good” of entire model
It is based on relationship specified partially or fully by theoretical consideration. Statistical
hypothesis and hypothesis testing is known as quantitative hypotheses

Nature of Hypothesis:

1-Quantitative Hypothesis:
Quantitative hypothesis is possess three characteristics
a) They must have quantitative concepts in its bases
b) They must be either accepted or rejected on the basis of data
c) There must be data and technique available

2-Qualitative Hypothesis:
They are also called conceptual type Hypothesis. They are not formally evaluated. These
hypotheses are categorized as under:
a) Maintain Hypothesis
These are the things assumed to be true for purpose of study being conducted. The assumption
that research objective can be achieved is maintain hypothesis.
b) Diagnostic Hypothesis:
These are proposition about the cause of a problem for example cheap food policy of developing
countries to low agricultural productivity constitute diagnostic hypothesis. Wage control creates
labor market inefficiently in a particular case is diagnostic hypothesis.
c) Remedial Hypothesis:
These hypotheses proposed solutions to the problem. They are often related to diagnostic
hypothesis. Diagnostic hypothesis identify the caused and a remedial hypothesis propose or
prescribe solution. Remedial hypothesis in research appear in the conclusion or implication. These
hypothesis are not empirically tested but they are either accepted or rejected by reason (by logic)

Research Hypothesis:
Research hypothesis is the actual hypothesis formulated by the researcher which may also suggest
the nature of relationship i.e. the direction of relationship. In our example it could be:
Level of job commitment of the officers is positively associated with their level of efficiency.

Types of Research Hypotheses

Let first us look at some of the hypotheses:

1. Officers in my organization have higher than average level of commitment (variable).
2. Level of job commitment of the officers is associated with their level of efficiency.
3. Level of job commitment of the officers is positively associated with their level of efficiency.
4. The higher the level of job commitment of the officers the lower their level of absenteeism.

These are testable propositions. First hypothesis contains only one variable. The second one has
two variables which have been shown to be associated with each other but the nature of
association has not been specified (non-directional relationship). In the third hypothesis we have
gone a step further where in addition to the relationship between the two variables, the direction
of relationship (positive) has also been given. In the fourth hypothesis level of efficiency has been
replaced with level of absenteeism, the direction of relationship between the two variables has
been specified (which is negative). In the following discussion you will find these hypotheses
being quoted as part of the examples.

1-Descriptive Hypothesis
Descriptive hypothesis contains only one variable thereby it is also called as univariate
hypothesis. Descriptive hypotheses typically state the existence, size, form, or distribution of
some variable.
The first hypothesis { Officers in my organization have higher than average level of commitment
(variable)} contains only one variable. It only shows the distribution of the level of commitment
among the officers of the organization which is higher than average. Such a hypothesis is an
example of a Descriptive Hypothesis.
Researchers usually use research questions rather than descriptive hypothesis. For example a
question can be: What is the level of commitment of the officers in your organization?

2-Relational Hypothesis
These are the propositions that describe a relationship between two variables. The relationship
could be
 Directional (Positive Or Negative)
 Non-Directional
 Simply Correlational
 Causal (Explanatory)
Directional hypothesis is the one in which the direction of the relationship has been specified.
While stating the relationship between the two variables, if the terms of positive, negative, more
than, or less than are used then such hypotheses are directional because the direction of the
relationship between the variables (positive/negative) has been indicated (see hypotheses 3 and 4,
3. Level of job commitment of the officers is positively associated with their level of efficiency. 4.
The higher the level of job commitment of the officers the lower their level of absenteeism. ).
These hypotheses are relational as well as directional.
Non-directional hypothesis is the one in which the direction of the association has not been
specified. The relationship may be very strong but whether it is positive or negative has not been
postulated {see hypothesis 2: Level of job commitment of the officers is associated with their level
of efficiency.}.
Co-relational hypotheses, State merely that the variables occur together in some specified
manner without implying that one causes the other. Such weak claims are often made when we
believe that there are more basic causal forces that affect both variables. For example: Level of
job commitment of the officers is positively associated with their level of efficiency. Here we do
not make any claim that one variable causes the other to change. That will be possible only if we
have control on all other factors that could influence our dependent variable.
Causal (Explanatory) hypotheses, simply the existence of, or a change in, one variable causes
or leads to a change in the other variable. This brings in the notions of independent and the
dependent variables. Cause means to “help make happen.” So the independent variable may not
be the sole reason for the existence of, or change in the dependent variable. The researcher may
have to identify the other possible causes, and control their effect in case the causal effect of
independent variable has to be determined on the dependent variable. This may be possible in an
experimental design of research.
Different ways to state hypotheses
• Hi motivation causes hi efficiency.
• Hi motivation leads to hi efficiency.
• Hi motivation is related to hi efficiency.
• Hi motivation influences hi efficiency.
• Hi motivation is associated with hi efficiency.
• Hi motivation produces hi efficiency.
• Hi motivation results in hi efficiency.
• If hi motivation then hi efficiency.
• The higher the motivation, the higher the efficiency

3- Null Hypothesis
It is used for testing the hypothesis formulated by the researcher. Researchers treat evidence that
supports a hypothesis differently from the evidence that opposes it. They give negative evidence
more importance than to the positive one. It is because the negative evidence dulls the hypothesis.
It shows that the predictions made by the hypothesis are wrong. The null hypothesis simply states
that there is no relationship between the variables or the relationship between the variables is
“zero.” That is how symbolically null hypothesis is denoted as “H0”. For example:
H0 = There is no relationship between the level of job commitment and the level of efficiency. Or
H0 = The relationship between level of job commitment and the level of efficiency is zero.

It does not take into consideration the direction of association (i.e. H0 is non directional), which
may be a second step in testing the hypothesis. First we look whether or not there is an association
then we go for the direction of association and the strength of association. Experts recommend
that we test our hypothesis indirectly by testing the null hypothesis. In case we have any
credibility in our hypothesis then the research data should reject the null hypothesis. Rejection of
the null hypothesis leads to the acceptance of the alternative hypothesis.

4- Alternative Hypothesis
The alternative (to the null) hypothesis simply states that there is a relationship between the
variables under study. In our example it could be: there is a relationship between the level of job
commitment and the level of efficiency. Not only there is an association between the two variables
under study but also the relationship is perfect which is indicated by the number “1”. Thereby the
alternative hypothesis is symbolically denoted as “H1”. It can be written like this:
H1: There is a relationship between the level of job commitment of the officers and their level of
efficiency.
Types of Reasoning WRT Theory building / Hypothesis Generation
Inductive Reasoning: The logical process of establishing a general proposition on the basis of
observation of prearticular fact
-All managers that have ever been seen are human beings
-Therefore all managers are human beings

Deeductive Reasoning: The logical process of deriving a conclusion from a known premise or
something known to be true.
-We know that all managers are human beings
-If we also know that Zafar is a manger
-Then we can deduce that Zafar is a human being.