THE TREATMENT PROCESSES OF SEWAGE

AT NATIONAL WATER AND SEWERAGE

CORPORATION
(NWSC)

AN INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED TO:

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY, UGANDA

SUBMITTED BY:
ANGUZU OLEGA BREVIS
REG NO: 16/U/4817/CHD/PD
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
YEAR: II

4th JUNE to 28th July 2018

 DEDICATION

I dedicate this report to my beloved parents Mrs. Draleru Francesca and Mr.Olega
Christopher, for their encouragement, unconditional love and support that has made me the
person I am today. Thank you for believing in me and may the Almighty God reward you
abundantly.

Also to my sisters, Okudinia Bridget and Belinda Ayikoru Faith, and my aunties Mrs.
Angufiru Margaret and Alenia Jane and my cousins Candiru Jacqueline, Musema
Emmanuel, Munduru Joselyn, Mungufeni Peter and Abidrabo Kizito who make up the rest
of my Family and my Friends whose love and company was very important to keep moving me
forward. I wish you the best in all your future endeavors and plans.

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 STUDENT DECLARATION

I, ANGUZU OLEGA BREVIS, humbly declare, that the work which is being presented in the
Industrial training Report entitled “THE TREATMENT PROCESSES OF SEWAGE AT
NATIONAL WATER AND SEWERAGE COPORATION”, in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering, and submitted
to the Department of Chemistry, Kyambogo University, is an authentic record of my own work
carried out during my industrial training period from 4th June 2018 to 28th July 2018 at National
water and sewerage corporation in sewerage services department at Lubigi sewage treatment
plants.

I also declare that, the matter presented in this Internship Report has not been submitted by me
for the award of any other degree elsewhere. It is only prepared for my academic requirement
and not for any other purpose. It should not be used with the interest of opposite party of the
corporation.

Signature of Student

………………………

ANGUZU OLEGA BREVIS

16/U/4817/CHD/PD

B. Science in Chemical Engineering (Yr. 2)

Department Of Chemistry

Kyambogo University, Uganda.

0778083807 / brevisanguzu@gmail.com

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 APPROVAL
The undersigned certify that this Industrial Training Report has been submitted by Anguzu
Olega Brevis Registration Number – 16/U/4817/CHD/PD, and to the department of Chemistry,
Kyambogo University, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Bachelor of
Science in Chemical Engineering. We also certify that the above statement made by the student
is correct to the best of our knowledge. The training was carried out under our special
supervision and within the time frame prescribed by the syllabus. We found the student to be
hardworking, skilled, and eager to undertake any commercial and industrial work related to his
field of study and hence we recommend the award of Bachelor of Science in Chemical
Engineering.

Approved as to the style and content by:

Signature of Training Manager

MR. GAVA JOB
QUALITY CONTROL OFFICER, LSTP
Date: ………………………………….

Signature & Stamp: …………………………………

Signature of University Inspector

DR. MARY KAGGWA
Kyambogo University (Department of Environmental Science)

Date: ………………………………….

Signature & Stamp: …………………………………

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A number of people have helped me in this internship training. First and foremost, I thank The
Almighty God, Who has enabled me produce this piece of work.

I would like to express my appreciation and acknowledgment to all the management and staff of
NWSC, the sewerage service department for granting me the opportunity of internship program.

I would like to place on record my deep sense of gratitude to Mr. Deogratius, the human
resource manager-Lubigi sewage treatment plant (LSTP),for his kindness and care he
showed to me during my training at the sewage treatment plant.
Great thanks to my supervisors Eng.Kwitonda Angelo, LSTP and Mr.Gava Job the quality
control officer and all the team in the laboratory that is; Miss. Kamaliza Elizabeth, Miss. Sylvia
and Mrs. Nanyonga Florence Also my network team supervisor Mr. Odong and all network
team members for their guidance both technical, practical touch during the training and
wellbeing at Lubigi plant.

Once more I express my sincere gratitude to Mr. Gava Job for his stimulating guidance,
continuous encouragement and full supervision throughout the course of present work, his
support and effort to compile this report.

I also wish to extend my thanks to Mr. Andrew, plant overseer LSTP, for his insightful
comments and valuable suggestions to improve the quality of this report work.

Finally, yet more importantly, I would like to express my deep appreciation to my mother, Mrs.
Draleru Francesca, my Father Olega Christopher and my sisters and the rest of my Family
for their perpetual support, advice and encouragement that has enabled me reach this level as far
as my Bachelor’s degree is concerned. May the Almighty God reward them accordingly.

iv
 ABSTRACT

NWSC is a public corporation wholly owned by the government of Uganda, having been
established in 1972 by decree No 34.The corporation‘s legal position was strengthened by
NWSC statute No 7 of 1995, which was later incorporated into NWSC act of 2000 under the
new legal framework. NWSC’s geographical coverage increased from 23 to 98 towns and started
with three major towns that is; Kampala, Jinja and Entebbe. Kampala metropolitan area
(Kampala water), were I trained has the sewerage services department (comprising of LSTP and
BSTW) and clean water department (comprising of Gaba 1, Gaba 2 and Gaba 3).

Lubigi sewage treatment plant (LSTP) is one of the newly constructed plants (2013) and is part
of the Lake Victoria Protection Project (Phase 1) intended to reduce pollution of Lake Victoria
and improve waste water treatment within the city of Kampala in addition to the already existing
Bugolobi Sewage Treatment Plant..

The Lubigi sewage Treatment Plant (LSTP)is located in the Lubigi swamp along the northern
by-pass, Hoima road in Namungoona, a Kampala city suburb (peri-urban area).and it was
designed to treat around 400m3 per day of the faecal sludge and 5000m3/day of the
wastewater.

LSTP has the networking section (both development and maintenance), the quality assurance
section (at the Lubigi lab), and plant operations section (comprising of the daily activities done at
the plant).Bugolobi sewage treatment works (BSTW) is the biggest sewage treatment plant,
located in the south-east of Kampala and was designed to handle a hydraulic flow rate of
33,000m3/day.

In both sewage treatment plants, the treatment processes involve the preliminary treatment and
biological treatment and there are three stages, called primary, secondary and tertiary treatment.
The main aim of both plants is to ensure that the final effluent from wastewater treatment meets
the National discharge standards. The difference between the two plants is that LSTP employs
waste stabilization pond system whereas BSTW employs conventional technology.

This industrial training report includes the information for both treatment plants but majorly
LSTP because it was my base, so that is the plant where I spent most of my training time.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................................... i
STUDENT DECLARATION ....................................................................................................................... ii
APPROVAL ................................................................................................................................................ iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................................................... iv
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................. v
CHAPTER ONE ......................................................................................................................................... 1
1.0 INTRODUCTORY PAGE ................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Company Profile: ................................................................................................................................ 1
1.1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION OF NATIONAL WATER AND SEWERAGE
CORPORATION: ................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1.2 GEOGRAPHICAL AND SERVICE COVERAGE ..................................................................... 1
1.1.3 HISTORY OF THE URBAN WATER AND SEWERAGE SUB-SECTOR: ............................ 2
1.1.4 VISION ........................................................................................................................................ 2
1.1.5 MISSION ..................................................................................................................................... 2
1.1.6 QUALITY POLICY .................................................................................................................... 2
1.1.7CORPORATE CORE VALUES .................................................................................................. 3
1.2 Management and Organizational Structure......................................................................................... 4
1.3 LUBIGI SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT (LSTP) ......................................................................... 5
1.3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 5
1.3.2 Background Information .............................................................................................................. 6
1.3.3 Reasons for constructing the Lubigi Sewage Treatment Plant .................................................... 6
1.3.4 Objectives of the plant ................................................................................................................. 7
CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................................ 7
2.0 THE SEWAGE TREATMENT PROCESS AT LSTP ....................................................................... 7
2.1 FLOW DIAGRAM ............................................................................................................................. 8
2.2 ON SITE FAECAL SLUDGE ............................................................................................................ 8
2.2.1 Screening and Grit removal ......................................................................................................... 9
2.2.2 The Sedimentation Tank .............................................................................................................. 9
2.3 OFFSITE WASTE WATER ............................................................................................................. 10
2.3.1 Screw Pump ............................................................................................................................... 10
2.3.2 Screening.................................................................................................................................... 11
2.3.3 Grit Removal .............................................................................................................................. 11

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 2.3.4 Flow Measurement ..................................................................................................................... 12
2.3.5 Flow Distribution ....................................................................................................................... 12
2.3.6 Anaerobic Ponds ........................................................................................................................ 12
2.3.7 Facultative Ponds ....................................................................................................................... 13
2.3.8 Maturation ponds ....................................................................................................................... 15
2.3.9 Sludge drying process ................................................................................................................ 15
2.4 MONITORING SEWAGE ............................................................................................................... 16
2.4.1 Operational Manual.................................................................................................................... 16
2.4.2 Why monitoring of sewage is important .................................................................................... 17
CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................................. 18
3.0 QUALITY CONTROL ..................................................................................................................... 18
3.1 THE LUBIGI LABORATORY ........................................................................................................ 18
3.2 THE EQUIPMENT USED IN THE LABORATORY ..................................................................... 19
3.3 PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL PRACTICES IN WASTE WATER ANALYSIS ................................... 22
3.3.1 Determination of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) using azide modification of wrinkler
method (oxygen electrode method)..................................................................................................... 22
3.3.2 DETRMINATION OF TOTAL PHOSPHATE BY PERSULPHATE METHOD.................... 25
3.3.3 DETERMINATION OF TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS ....................................................... 28
3.3.4 DETERMINATION OF SETTLEABLE SOLIDS .................................................................... 29
3.3.5 DETERMINATION OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY USING A METER .................... 29
3.3.6 COLIFORM DETERMINATION BY MEMBRANE FILTRATION METHOD USING
LAUREL SULPHATE BROTH ......................................................................................................... 31
3.3.7 DETERMINATION OF pH USING THE UNIVERSAL pH TABLET ................................... 33
3.3.8 DETERMINATION OF CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD) USING CLOSED
REFLUX COLORIMETRIC METHOD. ........................................................................................... 34
3.4 Data handling and dissemination. ..................................................................................................... 36
CHAPTER FOUR..................................................................................................................................... 37
4.0 THE SEWER NETWORKAND ITSMAINTENANCE .................................................................. 37
4.1 NETWORK DEVELOPMENT ........................................................................................................ 37
4.2 MAINTENANCE WORKS DONE ON THE SEWER NETWORK ............................................... 39
4.3 PLUMBING RODS .......................................................................................................................... 41
4.4 UNBLOCKING SEWER PIPES ...................................................................................................... 42
4.5 COMMON CAUSES OF BLOCKAGE IN THE SEWER LINES .................................................. 43
4.6 Desilting ............................................................................................................................................ 44

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 4.7 Precautions taken during Desilting ................................................................................................... 44
CHAPTER FIVE ...................................................................................................................................... 45
5.0 ACTIVITIES CARRIED OUT, KNOWLEDGE &SKILLS ACQUIRED AND CHALLENGES
FACED....................................................................................................................................................... 45
5.1 CHEMICAL LABORATORY ......................................................................................................... 45
5.2 NETWORK MAINTENANCE. ....................................................................................................... 45
5.3 LUBIGI AND BUGOLOBI SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANTS ................................................... 45
5.4 Knowledge Acquired During My Training ....................................................................................... 46
5.5 Skills Acquired During My Training: ............................................................................................... 47
5.6 Challenges Faced During My Training ............................................................................................. 47
CHAPTER SIX ......................................................................................................................................... 48
6.0 CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS, REFERENCES & APPENDICES .............................. 48
6.1 General Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 48
6.2 Recommendations to NWSC ............................................................................................................ 48
6.3 Recommendations to Kyambogo University .................................................................................... 49
6.4 References ......................................................................................................................................... 50
APPENDIX A ............................................................................................................................................. 51
APPENDIX B ......................................................................................................................................... 51
NEMA STANADARDS ......................................................................................................................... 51
Table 2: The NEMA Standards for Waste Water Discharge ..................................................................... 51

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 BACKGROUND OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING
Industrial Training is a course unit with programs or courses specified by universities and other
tertiary institutions, carried out by students in the recess term or holiday time to enable them
relate theoretical work with practical work in the field. It is carried out in reputable firms,
organisations and companies or from within the university, and permits students to get a
considerable vision and awareness of their future professions as well as the working environment
in such careers.

Introduction:

I chose to do industrial training for my second year, at NWSC so as to develop a comprehensive

understanding and appreciation of Chemical Engineering concepts and principles as an
expanding discipline of a continuous learning process, in relation to sewage treatment process
and its quality control.

During my training with NWSC, I was attached to the Sewerage services department. I have
been able to study all the physical and biological processes of sewage treatment, the chemical
analysis, the design, construction and operation of all the equipment used for sewage treatment.
The ultimate goal is the conversion of the raw sewage to the useful product (manure) and that the
final effluent from sewage treatment reaches the standards as set by National environmental
management authority (NEMA)

Purpose and objectives of industrial training attachment:

 To collectively appreciate and transform the basic knowledge as acquired in the lecture
rooms, to a more productive and practical bit by physically and mentally engaging to the best
of my ability in the real world.
 To execute more information judgment at work place and accept the responsibility for it.
 To recognize that financial and economic factors play important role in all science and
technology activities.
 To develop own personality and communication skills for future roles as managers and
leaders in the scientific and technological world.
 To develop a sense of responsibility towards society and the community at large.

ix
 To understand the formal and informal relationship in an organization, promoting favorable
human inter-relations and team work.
 To appreciate that science and technology are expanding disciplines and that learning is a
continuous process

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 CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTORY PAGE

1.1 Company Profile:

1.1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION OF NATIONAL WATER AND SEWERAGE

CORPORATION:

NWSC is a public corporation wholly owned by the government of Uganda, having been
established in 1972 by decree No 34.The corporation‘s legal position was strengthened by
NWSC statute No 7 of 1995, which was later incorporated into NWSC act of 2000 under the
new legal framework. The powers and structure of NWSC where revised to enable the
corporation to operate on a sound commercial and financially viable basis.

The principal business of the corporation as defined in theNWSC Act is to operate and provide
water and sewerage services in areas entrusted to it on sound commercial and financially viable
basis. The NWSC operations have expanded from 3 towns that is ; Kampala, Jinja and Entebbe
in 1972 to 98 major urban centres across the country in 2015.

In 1988, four additional town of Mbale, Tororo, Masaka and Mbarara were handed over to
NWSC by then water development department now known as Directorate of Water Development
DWD. This was after completion of the International Development Agency IDA financed
rehabilitation program.

In November 1995, the corporation was handed over to NWSC statute. In 1997, the town of
Kasese and Fort Portal were handed over to NWSC following a successful rehabilitation
financed by the German Government.

1.1.2 GEOGRAPHICAL AND SERVICE COVERAGE

NWSC’s geographical coverage increased from 23 to 98 towns, increasing the target population
from 3.8 million people to over 6 million people. The water service coverage in all the towns
including the new towns stands at 76%. In addition, connectivity in the old 23 areas significantly

1
increased during the corporate plan period 2012-2015, which in turn increased service coverage
from 77% to over 81%

The total number of towns currently served by the NWSC is 98 with 28 old towns and 70 newly
added towns which makes a total of 98 towns

1.1.3 HISTORY OF THE URBAN WATER AND SEWERAGE SUB-SECTOR:

The growth of the Urban Water Sub-sector can be summarized as follows: In the 60's, the water
systems were supply driven with plans agreed upon with the municipal councils.

At this time, the investment funds were available and there was relative efficiency with an
optimum population to serve.

The 70's and early 80's were characterized by rundown water and sewerage systems with very
little maintenance. From the mid 80's, there was a drive towards the rehabilitation of the water
supply and sewerage systems.

The 90's have been characterized by rehabilitation and expansion of both water and sewerage
systems. In the later part of the 90's, there was a drive towards efficiency and performance
enhancement of the sector

1.1.4 VISION
The vision of NWSC is “To be the leading customer centred water utility in the world”

1.1.5 MISSION
The mission of NWSC is “To sustainably and equitably provide cost effective, quality water
and sewerage services to the delight of all stakeholders, while conserving the environment”.

1.1.6 QUALITY POLICY

NWSC Kampala water shall contribute to national development by provision of quality water
and sewerage services to satisfy her esteemed customers and stakeholders through efficient
service delivery, continual improvement and expansion of infrastructure in an environmentally
friendly manner.

2
1.1.7CORPORATE CORE VALUES

i) Professionalism. Exude skills and ability in the work environment.

ii) Reliability. The NWSC is committed to ensuring reliability and adequacy of water supply to
all its customers.

iii) Integrity. NWSC embraces honestly in everything they do and are determined to adhere to
ethical Business principles and good corporate governance at all times.

iv) Innovation. Continuously develop and apply creative solutions towards improved service
delivery.

v) Team work. The NWSC consists of people with many different skills, knowledge and
experience. They value each individual’s contribution to their collective effort as they strive to
work together for the good of the corporation and the country at large.

vi) Excellency. NWSC looks for and promotes proficiency and leadership in all aspects of water
and sewerage services delivery.

vii) Result oriented. They strongly believe in effectiveness in service delivery.

3
1.2 Management and Organizational Structure
NATIONAL WATER AND SEWERAGE CORPORATION STRUCTURE

Figure 1: Showing the organization structure of NWSC

4
KEY:

MD: Managing Director

Sen: Senior

Mgt: Management

KW: Kampala water

1.3 LUBIGI SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT (LSTP)

1.3.1 Introduction

What is sewage?
Sewage, defined correctly is a type of wastewater that is contaminated with urine & faeces.
Residential sewage is a mixture of 2 fractions of wastewater, household or grey water and
sanitary or black water. .sewage treatment is the process of converting sewage into an effluent
that can be returned to the water cycle with minimal environmental issues. It includes physical,
chemical and biological processes to remove the contaminants and produce environmentally
safer treated wastewater (or treated effluent). The by-product of sewage treatment is usually a
semi-solid waste or slurry, called sludge that has to undergo further treatment before being
suitable for land application as manure.
NWSC has the mandate to collect and treat sewage in areas where it operates and the treated
sewage must meet the National Effluent Discharge standards.
It’s the mandate of the Quality control person to advice, optimise and ensure that the effluent
conforms to standards.Therefore; the quality personnel must collect data and maintain a quality
database for reference.

5
1.3.2 Background Information
The Lubigi plant is part of the Lake Victoria Protection Project (Phase 1) intended to reduce
pollution of Lake Victoria and improve waste water treatment within the city of Kampala in
addition to the already existing Bugolobi Sewage Treatment Plant.

This plant was funded by the World Bank in conjunction with the Government of Uganda. It is
under the Ministry of Water and Environment and it started operating in 2013.

The Lubigi sewage Treatment Plant is located in the Lubigi swamp along the northern by-
pass, Hoima road in Namungoona, a Kampala city suburb (peri-urban area). It is a reclaimed
part of the swamp about eight (8) hectares in size. This plant was designed to treat around 400m3
per day of the faecal sludge and 5000m3/day of the wastewater but sometimes the faecal sludge
is exceeded. The current flows are as follows; 3000m3/day of Waste water,400m3/day of faecal
sludge, the faecal sludge average COD being 10500mg/l, and the faecal sludge average BOD
being 3200mg/l This plant treats wastewater from the following areas; Makerere, Mulago
hospital, Namungoona, kamwokya, Nansana, wandegeya, Kawempe, and Bwaise. The plant
receives two kinds of sewage. The wastewater mainly from homes connected to the sewer lines
and the faecal sludge from toilets, septic tanks, ventilated improved pit latrines (VIPS). The
faecal sludge is brought by cesspool trucks whereas the sewage flows by gravity up to the inlet.
However surface run-offs sometimes enter in the open manholes.

The treatment processes at Lubigi Sewage Treatment Plant (LSTP) are natural since they involve
use of stabilization ponds and no chemicals are added, everything occurs naturally, mainly
influenced by the environmental conditions like weather.

1.3.3 Reasons for constructing the Lubigi Sewage Treatment Plant

 It was constructed to ease the work at Bugolobi Sewage Treatment Plant (BSTP) since it
would be overloaded due to increase in the amount of waste treated.
 Some places such as Makerere (Mulago hospital) were far from BSTP meaning pumps
would be needed to enable the wastewater reach Bugolobi hence the need for a nearer
treatment plant.
 The site also favored the construction of the plant. It is located on a low altitude; this
enables the wastewater to move by gravitational force through the sewer systems instead
of being pumped.

6
  Since the area itself is a swamp, the effluent is automatically let into the swamp for
further treatment (tertiary treatment).

1.3.4 Objectives of the plant

 To ensure continuous disposal services of faecal sludge and wastewater
 To treat wastewater instead of disposing it to the environment which could pose great
health risks in terms of diseases such cholera caused by bacteria called vibrio cholerae,
diarrhea, typhoid caused by bacteria called salmoneratyphae and others. The waste is
also a nuisance to the environment since it smells, and it can cause eutrophication in the
lakes if not properly handled.
 The wastewater is also treated to meet the standards set by the National Environmental
Management Authority (NEMA) for waste disposal.

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 THE SEWAGE TREATMENT PROCESS AT LSTP

Raw sewerage enters LSTP in two ways that is to say; at the intake work by gravity and through
the cesspool trucks. The gravity intake is from Mulago Hospital, some part of Makerere
University, Bwaise and sometimes storm water from streets that enter the open sewers. Lubigi
Sewage Treatment Plant uses both the physical and biological methods of waste water treatment
beginning with the physical then the biological ones.

7
2.1 FLOW DIAGRAM

Figure 2: Showing the flow diagram of the sewage treatment process at LSTP

2.2 ON SITE FAECAL SLUDGE

This onsite faecal sludge is brought by cesspool emptier trucks from different points around the
city. These include latrines, full septic tanks, and other points that have waste water that needs to
be treated. These trucks (cesspool trucks) vary in sizes. Their sizes include the small with a
capacity of about 3m3, the medium size with a carrying capacity of about 5m3, and the big size
which carries a capacity of about 10m3. These trucks are monitored and recorded before they
enter to dump, this helps to ensure that what is received from these trucks does not exceed the
plant’s capacity. The short-coming here is that some of the trucks may not be recorded, this at
the end of the day leads to poor quality of the effluent and break downs due to overload. To solve

8
this problem, the plant has secured a Closed-Circuit Television (CCTV) camera to keep track of
every truck that dumps at the plant. Once these trucks are well monitored and it is found out that
what is received is enough for a day, the remaining trucks are directed to Bugolobi sewage
treatment works.

Figure3: Disposing off of the faecal sludge by the cesspool trucks

2.2.1 Screening and Grit removal

Here, screens of 10mm bar spacing are installed to remove bigger rags that come with the faecal
sludge. Faecal sludge comes with a lot of big solids since some people use their toilets as the
dumping sites. All these have to be removed to ease the following treatment stages through
preventing damage of mechanical equipment such as pumps and valves and also preventing
blockages in the piping systems. This is followed by grit removal (sand that comes with sewage).
Waste water flows to the sedimentation tank.

2.2.2 The Sedimentation Tank

Sedimentation tank gives the waste water enough retention time for the suspended particles to
settle to the bottom as sludge which is pumped out into the drying beds.

LSTP has two Sedimentation tanks which are operated one after the other. Loading is the first
process. The sewage is left to settle for a month, settlement forms three layers that is to say;
sludge at the bottom, liquid in the middle and scum at the top. The sludge is pumped to the

9
drying beds, water is allowed to flow to the sump, and the scum is removed manually by trucks
to the drying beds.

Figure 4: The sedimentation tank

2.3 OFFSITE WASTE WATER

Offsite waste water comes in through the sewer connections to the treatment plant, which is
made up of laid underground pipes from different points like Kawempe, Mulago, kamwokya,
Naalya, Bwaise and many other areas of Kampala which are connected to the sewer line. This
waste water is collected at the sump.

2.3.1 Screw Pump

The screw pump is made up of two long screws that lift the waste water into the treatment plant
from the lower level (sump).These screw pumps can work in auto and manual system depending
on the operator’s set. In auto system, when the amount of the waste water rises to a certain level,
the pump starts its self and goes off when the waste water levels reduce to a certain level.

The screw pump has Allen screws which are tightened using the Allen keys.

10
Figure 5: The screw pump

2.3.2 Screening
The 10mm bar spaced screens are installed to remove the floating materials such as sanitary
pads, condoms, human body parts(sometimes),some plant materials, wood rugs, plastics and
faecal material , which have to be removed both from the offsite waste water and the onsite
faecal sludge. The screened materials are manually removed using rakes. They are later taken to
the dumping site.

Figure 6 the screening process

2.3.3 Grit Removal

The velocity of the incoming sewage is adjusted to allow the settlement of sand, grit, stones, and
broken glass. These particles are removed because they may damage pumps and other
equipment. Grit which is usually the sand particles that settled at the bottom of the waste water
are removed as the waste water moves through a water channel constructed to give the waste

11
water enough retention time so that the grit can settle. Grit is removed manually with the spades
to the wheelbarrow, when it accumulates; it is sold to the community because it is good for the
compound grass and for beaches

2.3.4 Flow Measurement

Flow measurement is carried out to know the amount of waste water to be treated and this
measurement is carried out using two methods either ruler measurement or automatically using a
machine directly connected to a computer. This instrument is known as the venturi meter.

Figure 7: The instrument used to measure flow of sewage

2.3.5 Flow Distribution

Flow distribution involves receiving of the waste water from one point and distributing it under
gravity into different sections especially at the anaerobic ponds and facultative ponds.

2.3.6 Anaerobic Ponds

Anaerobic ponds are used for the treatment of high strength organic wastewater that also
contains a high-suspended solids concentration, for example. Industrial wastewater. They are
three in number at LSTP and placed first in a series of waste stabilization ponds before the
facultative ponds. In anaerobic ponds, organic matter is removed by sedimentation and biological
digestion by anaerobic bacteria. These ponds are deeper (3m) compared to the facultative
because the activities in them are anaerobic. This implies that these processes within the ponds
12
are oxygen independent. They are characterized by gases like Hydrogensulphide, Carbon
dioxide, Ammonia, methane and soluble nutrients during organic break down. Anaerobic ponds
do not support life due to their conditions like high temperatures and no oxygen.

Other functions of anaerobic ponds

 Separate out solid from dissolved material as solids settle as bottom sludge.
 Dissolve further organic material.
 Break down biodegradable organic material.
 Store undigested material and non-degradable solids as bottom sludge.
 Allow partially treated effluent to pass out.

Figure 8: anaerobic pond

2.3.7 Facultative Ponds

These Facultative ponds are used for BOD (Biological oxygen demand) and pathogen removal.
They can be the first ponds in a series of treatment ponds or they can be preceded by anaerobic
ponds. They are two in number and are placed second after anaerobic ponds. They receive
effluent from anaerobic ponds and this is where secondary treatment takes place. Organic
overload is lower and thus allows for the growth of algae which accounts for the dark green
color. In the facultative ponds, there is further break-down of organic matter to CO2, nitrogen

13
and phosphorous by using oxygen produced by algae in the ponds. Algae and aerobic bacteria
generate oxygen which breaks down BOD5. Good wind velocity generate mixing of wastewater
in ponds thus leading to uniform mixing of BOD5, O2,bacteria and algae which better stabilizes
waste. These ponds also support life evidenced by insects’ proliferation, birds and mosquito’s
larvae but these are eaten by fish from the swamp.

Figure9: Figure showing facultative ponds

Functions of facultative ponds

 Further treat the effluent anaerobically through separation, dissolving and digestion of
organic material.
 Aerobically break down most remaining organic solids near the pond surface.
 Reduce the amount of disease-causing microorganisms.
 Allow the loss of 20% to 30% of the ammonia, contained within the effluent, into the air.
 Store residues from digestion, as well as non-degradable solids, as bottom sludge.
 Allow treated effluent to pass out into a waterway or additional treatment system

The disadvantage of these ponds is that they require large areas to perform efficiently, like LSTP
covers 8 hectares. Rain causes short circuit through filling the ponds causing heavy flows
meaning the wastewater is not efficiently treated.

The ponds also have floating scum which is occasionally removed by plant operators. These use
rakes and boats to clean the middle.

14
Figure 10: Showing the processes that take place at facultative ponds

2.3.8 Maturation ponds

These ponds are found in Naalya and are also part of NWSC.They are 1m deep and are well
oxygenated. They are characterized by mosquito bleeding and can support fish farming.
Emergent plants and algae can develop. They help in removal of pathogens, nutrients and
possibly algae. They also act as a buffer for facultative pond failure.

2.3.9 Sludge drying process

The sludge is dried from either the covered beds or the open drying beds. Sludge is monitored
daily from the time of its application. A tape measure is used to perform this task. It is dipped
into the applied sludge and the reading is taken. Only one spot is used until the manure is sold or
completely dry to avoid inaccuracy. The beds are comprised of 3 layers; the top layer containing
fine aggregates of sand, the middle layer containing medium aggregates and the third layer
comprising bigger particles. The beds are slanting (a degree of deviation from a horizontal plane)
towards the middle to allow the filtered water drain back for treatment since pipes are laid under
these beds. On average 2 beds are pumped on a daily basis. While on the beds, the sludge dries
by evaporation and filtration. I noticed that when the dry sludge takes some time before being
disludged, some green plants start growing on its surface due to high level of nutrients. Such
15
plants include; tomatoes, water melon passion fruits and other vegetables whose seeds come
along with the sewage into the plant.

Figure 11.Showing the covered drying beds

2.4 MONITORING SEWAGE

All the above activities are done at low costs through monitoring of the flows of both the
wastewater and the faecal sludge. Weather is also monitored; this is because they are ponds
hence they are greatly affected by weather. Effluent is also monitored especially how much is
received (influent) and the quality of the effluent.

2.4.1 Operational Manual

Monitoring is done using the operation manual: this is a data form containing the daily readings
of the plant. These readings include weather condition (temperature, sunshine, and precipitation),
power supply, faecal sludge dumping, waste water flow, pond conditions, disposal or resource
recovery, sludge drying rate. These reading are taken on a daily basis, but at specific time of the
day like precipitation, temperature, wind condition, sunshine are usually taken at midday since
their maximum are attained at this time.

All the above parameters are monitored because they greatly affect the plant performance like
wind strength and sunshine affect the sludge drying rate, faecal sludge dumping and wastewater
flow affect the quality and quantity of the effluent.

i) Wind strength

This is recorded twice a day, at noon and five o’clock in the evening. It is either moderate,
high (strong). Wind strength affects the sludge drying process mainly at the plant. Strong

16
 winds usually substitutes the drying process especially during wet seasons compared to
moderate wind.

ii) Precipitation

This is in form of rain, the plant has a rain gauge that helps to measure this and it is measured
in milliliters. Generally, precipitation causes widely varying flows reducing sewage treatment
plant efficiency. As rain water travels over roofs and the ground, it may pick up various
contaminants including soil particles and other sediment, heavy metals, organic compounds,
animal waste, oil and grease. This greatly affects the treatment plant in the following ways;

 Through increase in the wastewater inlet since storm water enters the open manholes, and
also from residential homes to the sewer lines and also those storm water channels that
are connected to the sewer lines.
 Rainy conditions also affect the rate at which the sludge dries. It usually slows its drying
process since enough sunshine is not received. It usually takes 3-4 weeks for sludge to
dry during dry seasons compared to 6-8 weeks during rainy conditions.
 Rain also causes overflows in the ponds; this means wastewater leaves one pond to
another without thorough treatment, hence reduction in the quality of the effluent.

2.4.2 Why monitoring of sewage is important

 Facilitates plant optimization.
 Helps to gain early warnings of the plant.
 Helps to assess the effectiveness of the treatment plant.
 To ensure compliance with local authority requirements.
 Helps to demonstrate compliance with applicable standards.

Through monitoring especially of the wastewater flow, the main generation points can be noted/
identified. This helps to know where to put future plants.

Monitoring is also done by data collection; this is done on a daily basis. The daily collections are
done on weather conditions (rain, wind, sunshine), wastewater inflow, ponds (smell, color, gas
present, floating elements, insect proliferation), amount of waste got at the screening stage,
power supply, sludge drying rates, water supply and any form of interruptions like power.

17
 CHAPTER THREE
3.0 QUALITY CONTROL
The quality and sewerage services department consists of a quality control sectionwhich ensures
that all sewerage effluent is satisfactory and meets the required standards. According to the
section, after the various sewage treatment processes have been completed (preliminary, primary
and secondary) the final sewerage effluent has a BOD range of 20-90mg/l and a TSS range of
30-60mg/l, values not far off the National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA)
standards of BOD and TSS of 50mg/l and 100mg/l respectively considering the high dilution
factor of the receiving water in the Nakivubo Channel and later to Lake Victoria.

3.1 THE LUBIGI LABORATORY

For the period I was at LSTP, I worked in the quality assurance section which was headed by Mr.
Job Gava as my supervisor. The section at LSTP is under water quality management department
that has an obligation of monitoring all the effluent of NWSC waste water treatment plants and
stabilization ponds to ensure they comply with National discharge standards hence ensuring
environmental protection.

Under the quality assurance laboratory at LSTP, we used to regularly monitor the satellite ponds
of Ntinda, Bugolobi, and Naalya and plant ponds with also BSTW. The inner Murchison bay of
lake Victoria was also monitored with some industries for example Mukwano, Sadoline paints,
House of Edenand Fresh Diary that discharge in NWSC-Kampala water sewer lines. The mode
of monitoring would be regular sampling and analysis of the samples both on site and in the lab
to check on the quality of treated sewage before discharging into the environment, ensuring that
it met the required standards. Collection of samples was done every Tuesday and sampling of
Lake Victoria was done once every month and during the analysis, the following parameters
were tested; electrical conductivity (EC), Total suspended solids(TSS), Alkalinity, PH,
Chemical oxygen demand (COD), Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Temperature, Dissolved
Oxygen(DO), Color, Turbidity, Ammonia, Phosphates.

Parameters that were tasted immediately onsite are; DO, Temperature, TSS, and the rest of the
parameters were tasted in the lab.

18
3.2 THE EQUIPMENT USED IN THE LABORATORY
Jenway 530 Spectrophotometer:
This works at a wavelength of 630nm
by using the light absorption to give the
light intensity amount for different
chemical parameters. Especially
ammonia, COD, phosphates (both ortho
and total), and TSS.

This works by dipping the probe in a

given sample after the saturation point
and then switching it on to take the
readings. It is used to measure the
electrical conductivity of the samples.
EC Meter and probe

Oven For drying different samples

19
COD reactor used at LSTP Before the absorbance and
concentration are determined using the
spectrophotometer, the samples are first
reacted for 2-3hours in the reactor and
then analyzed.

Turbid meter For measuring turbidity

Water still For distilling water

20
DO meter This meter uses electricity to determine
the amount of dissolved oxygen in a
given sample. This meter is used in the
measurement of BOD by determining
DO1 and DO5.

Autoclave For sterilization of TP (Total

phosphates).

BOD INCUBATOR For keeping BOD samples at a

particular temperature.

Table1: Table of laboratory equipment

21
3.3 PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL PRACTICES IN WASTE WATER ANALYSIS
The following are some of the tests done in the quality control laboratory with their procedures.

3.3.1 Determination of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) using azide modification of

wrinkler method (oxygen electrode method)
Introduction
Biochemical oxygen demand BOD is a measure of the amount of oxygen consumed through
biochemical degradation of organic carbon, inorganic materials and nitrogenous compounds
present in waste water over a specified incubation period usually 5 or 7 days. Its need is to
determine the pollution load of waste water.

Biological oxidation of nitrogenous compounds may be halted by addition of a chemical

inhibitor which reduces or stops the activity of the nitrifying organisms. The BOD measured then
is known as carbonaceous biological oxygen demand, CBOD .However, raw water measured
usually does not have any reduced forms of nitrogen and addition of an inhibitor does not change
the result but only in well aerated effluents. Oxidisable inorganic compounds in wastewater are
present as sulphides and iron [ii] but it is common to consider their oxygen demand with that of
organic matter because of their relatively reduced concentrations. BOD5 or BOD7 for 5 or 7 day
incubation period respectively.

Principle
The method applied involves filling an airtight bottle of a precise specified volume to over
flowing with a sample and incubating at a specified temperature usually, 20oc for 5 or 7 days.
Dissolved oxygen [DO] is measured before and after incubation and the BOD is measured as
difference of the initial and final DO.
Interference
1. Interference with the degradation process:
 To provide optimum conditions for the bacteria community , the pH of sample
should be adjusted by adding NaOH or HCL to fit the range 6.5 to 8.5

22
  Some samples may be sterile, and will need seeding. The purpose of seeding is to
introduce a microbiological community capable of oxidizing the organic matter
.Where such microorganism are already present as in surface waters. For domestic
sewage or chlorinated effluents, seeding is not required .For seeding, whenever
necessary use settled domestic sewage which has stored at 20oc for 24 hours or
use fresh raw sewage . For seeding use 1 to 2mls of settled seed to each liter of
dilution
 The microorganisms doing the materials may experience a lack of the diluted
sample, which may slow the process of degradation down.
 The presence of heavy metals or other toxic material such as residual chlorine is
other sources of interference in this tests.

2. Interference with the measurement of dissolved oxygen :

 The compounds which are interfering in the BOD test are the same as those interfering in
the determination of dissolved oxygen

Reagents

Phosphate buffer solution

To prepare this, 0.85 g KH2P04, 2.18gK2HPO4, 3.34g NaHPO4.7H2O and 0.17g NH4CL
were dissolved in 50mlof distilled water and diluted to 100ml. The pH of this solution
was kept at 7.2.
Magnesium Sulphate solution
3.64 g of MgSO4.7H20 was dissolved in 50ml of distilled water and made to 100 ml.
Calcium Chloride solution
3.64 g of CaCl2 .H20 was dissolved in distilled water and diluted to 100ml
Ferric Chloride solution
0.025g of FeCl3.H20 was dissolved in distilled water and diluted to100ml

Acid and alkali solutions

23
 This solution was required for neutralization of acidic or caustic waste water sample prior to any
analysis.

[i] Acid
28 ml of conc. sulpuric acid was slowly and carefully added while stirring to 500ml of
distilled water. It was then diluted to 1000ml.
[ii] Alkali
40 g of sodium hydroxide was dissolved in distilled water.
and diluted to 1000ml
Others
 2-chloro – 6-[trichloromethyl] pyridine [TCMP] (Nitrification inhibitor).
 Sodium sulphite solution[ used to destroy chlorine in chlorinated samples]
 Ammonium chloride solution.
 Glucose – glutamic acid solution.

Procedure
1. Preparation of the dilution water. 500ml of distilled water was transferred in a container. The
water wassaturated with dissolved oxygen (DO) by aerating with organic free filtered air.

1 ml of each of, phosphate buffer, MgSO4, CaCL2 and FeCL3 solutions /l of saturated water was
added. The solution was mixed thoroughly before starting to use.

2. Preparation and measurement of initial DO. 5ml of the sample was addedto the individual
BOD bottles whose volume was 300ml.The bottles were filled up to the brim with enough
dilution water so that when a stopper was inserted, air could be displaced leaving no bubble.
3. Preparation of blank sample. The blank was made by filling the BOD bottle with un-seeded
dilution water. The samples were then incubated at 200c for 5days

Determination of final BOD

After a 5 day incubation the residual DO was determined in the samples.

Calculation
BOD = (DO1-DO5)X(300/sample volume)

24
Where; DO1 is Dissolved Oxygen immediately after preparation

DO5 is Dissolved Oxygen after 5 days

(300/sample volume) is the dilution factor.

3.3.2 DETRMINATION OF TOTAL PHOSPHATE BY PERSULPHATE METHOD

Principle
Organically combined phosphorus and all phosphates are first converted to orthophosphate. To
release the phosphorus as ortho – phosphate from organic matter , a digestion or wet oxidation
technique is applied .The least tedious method , based on wet oxidation with potassium per-
sulphate,is adopted .The same procedure for orthophosphate determination is followed .

Interference
This method is relatively free from interference. Arsenates produce a blue color similar to that
formed with phosphate. They interfere in concentration as low as 0.1mg/L. In most waters,
however, arsenates are present. If necessary, their concentration can be subtracted from the
result. Interference of sulfide can be removed by adding several milligrams of potassium
permanganate and shaking of 1 to 2 minutes; after that, 1ml of ascorbic solution is added and the
standard procedure continued. Hexavalent chromium interferes to give lower results; to remove
this influence 1ml of ascorbic solution is added before the standard procedure. Changes in
temperature of ±10 ºC do not affect the results.

Sampling and Preservation

Sample should be collected in plastic polythene narrow mouth containers at 0.4 m below the
surface in the main water body. Preserve with 2ml of concentrated H2SO4 to pH<2 cool it at
4ºC. Maximum allowable holding limit until analysis of sample is 24 hours. Ammonia in water
sample if not chemically preserved, will slowly be degraded by microbiological activity to
Nitrate. The rate of conversion is variable. It is important to inhibit bacterial activity by
acidifying the water sample with conc. H2SO4.

25
Reagents
1) 4M Sulpuric acid,H2SO4,
100 ml conc. H2SO4was carefully diluted with distilled water up to 500ml (for preservation).

2) 0.04M Sulphuric acid ,H2SO4,

10ml H2SO4, 4M was diluted up to 1000 ml (for blank) and digestion bottles were cleaned.

3) Sulphuric acid,H2SO4.5N.
70 ml of conc. H2SO4was diluted to 500ml using distilled water

4) Potassium persulphate; K2S2O8, 50g/L

5 g potassium persulphate were dissolved in distilled water and diluted to 100ml.

5) Potassium antimonyl tartrate solution

1.37 g potassium antimonyl tartrate, K (SbO)C4H4Owhere dissolved in 400ml of distilled water.

6) Ammonium Molybdate solution

20 g (NH4)6MO7O24.4H2O were dissolved in 500ml of distilled water.
Others
Ascorbic acid
Standard phosphate solution

Equipment and Apparatus

 Autoclave
 Spectrophotometer, JENWAY 530 reading at 630nm
 Acid –washed glassware

26
Procedure
1. 25.0ml of sample was diluted and acidified with 1ml H2SO4, 0.04M, and then to it,5ml
digestion reagent was added and mixed well.
2. 25 ml distilled waterwas taken to prepare the blank and phosphate standard by taking 25ml of
known standard concentration. Both blank and phosphate standard were treated in the same way
as the sample.
3. Heating for 30 minutes was done in an autoclave at 120ºC and cooled at room temperature.
4. For the colour reaction made in the destruction bottles, 3ml of combined reagent which
comprised (50 ml of 5N H2SO4 +5ml potassium antimonyl tartrate +15ml ammonium Molybdate
only) was added and, mixed well.
5. Finally, 1ml of ascorbic acid was added to each sample, Swirled to mix.
6. It was left to stand for 20 minutes for blue colour development
7. The concentration in mg/L at 630 nm wavelength was measured using the spectrophotometer
Jenway 530 and the reading was multiplied by the dilution factor.
8. Results were recorded straight in the workbook.

Calculations.

To derive the concentration in mg/L of TP in the sample, the following formula was applied

Sample TP conc. mg/L = mg /TP x 1000 .

Sample Vol. (ml)

Phosphorus concentration determines the level of eutrophication (increased plant and algal
growth due to an excess of nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrates),
High levels of phosphates result in; eutrophication, increased biochemical oxygen demand due
to increased algal growth and also, decreased dissolved oxygen.
Low levels of phosphate limit plant and algal growth.

27
3.3.3 DETERMINATION OF TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS
Principle

Total Suspended solids refer to solid matter suspended in water and wastewater.
Total suspended matter has two methods namely; photometric method and gravimetric method.

Photometric method of determining suspended solids is a simple direct measurement which does
not require the filtration or ignition and weighing steps that gravimetric procedures do.

Interference
Dirty or scratched sample cell can cause high reading.
Gas bubbles in the water may affect the results removed by swirling or tapping the bottom of the
cell on a table.

Sampling and Preservation

Samples were collected from different points as listed earlier, in clean plastic bottles and samples
were analyzed as soon as possible after collection.

Reagent
Distilled water.
Apparatus / Equipment
 DR 3900 at 630 nm
 Sample Cell
 Beaker
 Measuring cylinder

28
Procedure
1. Each sample was shaken vigorously so as to attain a complete mixture.

2. The machine reading was directly recorded in the workbook for each sample after placing
the TSS meter in each of the samples.

Since the total suspended solids (TSS) was measured directly from undiluted samples, no
calculations were needed.

3.3.4 DETERMINATION OF SETTLEABLE SOLIDS

Procedures

Samples were collected from the sedimentation tank at the inlet and outlet.

5 samples were picked from each of the tanks making a total of 10 samples.

The five samples from each point were mixed and a litre was used for the test in a Hoff cone

The samples were then left for one hour.

After 45 minutes, the samples in the Hoff cone were stirred only at the surface and after 15 more
minutes the reading s were taken.

3.3.5 DETERMINATION OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY USING A METER

Principle

Conductivity is measure of water’s capacity to convey electrical current and is directly related to
the concentration of ionized substance in the water.

29
Interference

Atmospheric gases such as dissolved carbon dioxide or ammonia increases conductivity without
increasing the mineral content.

To minimize these effects, the sample can be boiled and then placed in a covered container for
cooling.

If the sample is to contain significant amounts of hydroxide it can be neutralized to avoid

erroneously high reading. Adding four drops of phenolphthalein indicator solution to 50 ml of
sample and then adding Gallic solution drop-wise until the pink color completely disappears
does this.

Sampling and Preservation

Samples were collected in clean plastic bottles. The samples were analyzed as soon as possible
after collection.

Reagents

 Distilled Water
Equipment /Apparatus
 Conductivity meter (probe / sensor)
 Soft tissue
 Beaker, (50 ml)

Water sample containing oil greases or fats will coat the electrodes and affect the accuracy of the
readings. Should this occur, the probe should be cleaned with a strong detergent solution and
then thoroughly rinsed with demineralized water. Mineral build up on the probe can be removed
with 1:1 hydrochloric acid solution.

30
Procedure
1. The probe was immersed in a beaker containing the sample solution. The probe was
agitated on the beaker to free any bubbles from the electrode area..

2. Reading on the conductivity of the sample in S/cm was made

3. Since several samples of different conductivities were to be measured, carry over from
one sample to the next was minimized by rinsing the probe thoroughly with distilled
water, followed by the sample to be measured before immersing in the sample.

The sensor was read directly and the results were expressed in micro-Siemens per centimeter
(S/cm) at an exact temperature of 25 C

3.3.6 COLIFORM DETERMINATION BY MEMBRANE FILTRATION METHOD

USING LAUREL SULPHATE BROTH
Principle

A measured volume of 100ml or its equivalent is filtered through a membrane filter composed of
cellulose esters which retains all the bacteria on the surface of the membrane, which is then
incubated with the girded side upon a selective medium.

Caution

Sample with high level of suspended solids have interference with colony growth enumeration
hence have to be diluted using dilution water.

Sampling and preservation

Samples were collected in clear, clean, plastic bottles each with a stopper. Aseptic method of
sample collection was used to avoid sample contamination. It was ensured that the sampling
point or sample was such that it was representative of the batch or area it represented. Samples

31
were analyzed after distant travel and before analysis was done, were preserved in a fridge for
not more than 36 hours to avoid alteration of the bacteriological status of the sampled water.

Reagents and nutrients

Laurel Sulphate broth

38.1g of anhydrous broth powder was weighed and dissolved in 500ml of water

It was dispensed in 100ml volumes in screw capped bottles.

It was then Sterilized in an autoclave for 15min at 121oC 15bars.

It was then stored in dry pace.

Equipment and apparatus

Filtering unit, Membrane filter pads, autoclave, Incubator, Petri dishes, forceps, pipettes
(graduated ), transfer pipette, digital counter, water still, measuring cylinders, sterilizing burner,
hot plate, disinfectant (ethanol 70%), weighing balance, thermometer.

Procedure

1. The membrane filter was picked and placed using a sterile forceps ascetically.
2. 2.5 ml of laurel Sulphate broth was transferred on to the absorbent pad in the Petri dish so
that it was socked just to leave a film of broth round the absorbent pad.
3. Filter membrane was placed with the gridded face up and the filter jar was replaced.
4. 100ml of the diluted sample was poured and filtered into the filtration jar and all of it was
filtered through the filter paper. For raw sewage samples, a dilution factor of 105 was
used whereas for final effluent samples, a dilution factor of 103 was used.
5. Then filtering membrane was removed and placed on to the absorbent pad that was
earlier socked with the broth (The gridded side of the filter membrane had to face up).

32
 6. The petridish was covered with the lid upper most and placed on to the petridish carrier
then placed in the incubator. The incubator was set at 44oC for faecal coliform test (while
for total coliform it should be set at 35oC for 30min before the sample was incubated).
7. After incubation, the carrier plus the petri dish were removed and allowed to cool for
10min, to allow false yellow colour to lose colour and ensure that the yellow was only for
the typical colonies.
8. A magnifying glass and a counting pen were used to count the colonies. The number of
colonies was then multiplied by the respective dilution factor.

3.3.7 DETERMINATION OF pH USING THE UNIVERSAL pH TABLET

Principle
The pH is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen-ion concentration in moles per litre.
In water samples it is determined by the measurement of a voltage produced between an
electrode responsive to hydrogen ions (glass electrode) and a reference electrode (usually a
calomel electrode) when both are immersed in the sample. A difference of 1 pH unit produces a
potential charge of 58.16 mV at 25 C.

The pH of natural water is controlled by the carbon dioxide / bicarbonate equilibrium and usually
ranges from 4.0 to 9.0. The majority of waters are slightly basic (pH > 7) due to the presence of
bicarbonates and carbonates.

Acidity affects chemical and biological processes taking place in water in the following ways;

 Dissociation of organic and inorganic molecules, thereby changing toxicity.

 Changing the water solubility of compounds, also influencing toxicity.
 A lower pH may induce enhanced corrosion.
 Different biological species show optimum performance at different degrees of acidity,
leading to shifts in species consumption.

A widely used and simple electrometric method is available for the measurement of pH.

33
Reagents

Universal pH tablet
Distilled water

Procedure
1. Samples were placed in clean test tubes rinsed with distilled water
2. To each of the samples was added the universal pH tablet one after a time(in order to
gain a color according to the solution)
3. The sample colour was then compared to that of a diskette (which is rotated while the
sample is placed in contact with it),and each colour had a pH value corresponding to it
4. The pH of each sample was then read and recorded

3.3.8 DETERMINATION OF CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD) USING CLOSED

REFLUX COLORIMETRIC METHOD.
1. General

The chemical oxygen demand determines the amount of oxygen required for oxidation of
organic matter using a strong chemical oxidant such as potassium dichromate under reflux
conditions. The test is widely used to determine the same types of pollution as the BOD
The limitation of the test lies in its inability to differentiate between the biologically Oxidisable
and biologically inert material.
COD determination has an advantage over BOD test in that the result can be obtained in less
than 5 hours whereas BOD determination requires 5 days. Further the test is relatively easy and
precise. Also there are not much interference as in case BOD.
Volatile organic compounds are more completely oxidized in the closed system because of
longer contact with the oxidant

Principle
Most types of organic matter are oxidized by boiling mixture of chromic Sulphuric acids . A
sample is refluxed in strongly acid solution with a known excess of potassium dichromate

34
( K2Cr2O7) . The amount of dichromate consumed is proportional (1:7) to the oxygen required to
oxidize the Oxidisable organic matter. Usually a sample of 50 mls volume is used; however
when other volume are used, keep ratios of reagent weights, volumes and strength constant. The
standard 2 hours reflux time may be reduced if it has been shown that a shorter period yields the
same results.

Sampling and preservation

Samples were collected in clear plastic bottles and the samples were well mixed before taking
aliquots for reflux.
Reagents
Digestion solution
To 500 ml distilled water, was added 10.216 g K2Cr2O7 and primary
standard grade, previously dried at 103oC for 2 hours, 167 ml conc. H2SO4
and then 33.3 g HgSO4. It was then dissolved and cooled to room
temperature and diluted to1000mL.
H2SO4/ Ag2SO4
10 g Ag2SO4 was added to 1 L conc.H2SO4, and left to stand overnight to
dissolve. It was then mixed carefully after dissolving.

Stock KHP

Equipment and apparatus

a. Digestion vessels

b. Heating block, cast aluminum, 45 to 50 mm deep. with holes sized for close fit of culture
or samples

c. Oven , to operate at 150oC

d. Ampule sealer

e. Jenway 530 Spectrophotomer

35
Procedures
1. The digestion tube and caps were washed with 4M H2SO4 before first used to
prevent contamination.
2. 2 mls of the sample was transferred to the digestion tube and 2.0 mls of
digestion solution were added
3. 2.0 mls H2SO4 / Ag2SO4 were carefully rundown inside of tube, so an acid layer
was formed under the sample – digestion solution layer. Tubes were tightly
capped and swirled several times to mix completely.
4. The tubes were placed in a preheated oven of 150oc during 2 hours
5. They were allowed to settle, the content were left to settle.
6. The following day, the content was gently transferred and without mixing, the
concentration at 620nm was measured against blank.
7. The concentration of the samples were read and recorded in the work form.

Calculation

COD as mg O2/l = mg O2 in final volume x 1000mL

ML sample

Result expressed in mg/L COD as O2

3.4 Data handling and dissemination.

All analytical work done at the Lubigi laboratory accumulates data that is assembled to construct
useful information that describes the specifications in any given sample. All data is recorded in
laboratory work books from where is entered in the network data base to be availed to the senior
analysts, principal analysts and quality assurance managers and any clients to the corporation. A
copy of the results remains in the laboratory as confirmatory and objective evidence of the
analysis.

36
 CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 THE SEWER NETWORKAND ITSMAINTENANCE
Introduction
The Kampala sewer networking is comprised of a pipe network of about 135km long with
pipe sizes ranging from 110mm up to 675mm diameter. Pipe materials include; clay, asbestos,
concrete and most recently PVC pipes. 56% of the sewer lines were built in the 1940s with
altogether 86% built within 1940 and 1969 and only 14% installed after 1969.

What is a sewer network?

A sewer network is defined as the aggregate of underground pipelines receiving and draining
wastewater away from the population centers and industrial enterprises towards the
appropriate treatment plant. A sewer network is the principal element of a sewerage system.
A sewerage system is the network of pipes, pumps and force mains for collection of
wastewater or sewage from the community. The sewer network has two sections namely;
Network development and network maintenance.

4.1 NETWORK DEVELOPMENT

This involves new network connections which includes designing or developing new sewer
lines. The following are considerations for sewer line development.
 There must be a water connection.
 The forms of consumptions (is it commercial, domestic or institutional?) but sewer
lines are mostly developed in commercial areas.
 Element of topography. This is the general layout of the area. Since sewage flows by
gravity, this element should be considered before construction of sewer line.
The network development team is responsible for carrying out a new sewer
connection as well as all network upgrades.

37
The factors which affect a sewer design are;

 Population growth of the area, hence estimating how much sewage will be generated
 Peak factor due to the estimated water generation.
 Return factor (used water ending up in sewer lines).80% is what is estimated as the
amount of water that ends up in the sewer. Some water after being used ends up in open
ground and not in sewers.
 Infiltration. This could be rainwater infiltration or surface infiltration. Infiltration can be
maintained depending on the area one is working on for example in Kisenyi, one should
expect ground water hence use of high filtration rate is recommended.
 Self-cleansing velocity. This is adjusted by adjusting slope and pipe diameter. Different
pipe materials have different self-cleansing velocity.

Pipe materials for sewer lines.

The pipe materials include; Asbestos pipes, cast iron pipes, ductile pipes and clay pipes

One of the factors that determine which material to use for construction of sewer line is the
ability to withstand the load (Endurance). The deeper the pipe the less the load it can withstand.

For road crossing, concrete pipes are used because concrete has high resistance to compression.
Network development also involves construction of manholes which join the sewer line.
What is a manhole?
Manholes are masonry or chambers constructed at suitable intervals along the sewer lines for
providing access into them. Manholes are used to carryout inspection, cleaning and removing
obstruction in the sewer line. They allow joining of sewers or changing of the direction or
alignment of the sewer. They also allow escape of considerable gases through perforated cover
and thus help in ventilation of sewage. These gases include; methane, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, sulphurdioxide, hydrogen sulphide and ammonia. Manholes also facilitate the laying
of sewer line in convenient lengths.
There are three types of manholes namely; shallow manhole (75-90cm), normal manhole
(150cm) and deep manhole (>150cm)

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Important to note in the sewer network set up are the following; the recommended slope for
sewerage pipe lay out depends on the pipe material that is to say; plastic, concrete etc. In
addition for the manholes off the roads in areas where aesthetics is not a big concern it is
recommend that manholes protrude about 1ft above the ground level to prevent storm water
runoff from entering the manhole. However, manhole covers are water tight and air tight so, this
is not a big concern. As regards cover depth, for pipes on the road the minimum cover depth is
1.5m. In addition, sewers are always placed deeper than the water lines to avoid water
contamination in case of sewer leak. There is also no maximum depth of manhole given for
construction so, precautions should be taken to ensure that the different entrance
guidelines/procedures given for different manhole depths are adhered to by maintenance teams.
In fact, the deepest manhole present in Kampala sewer network is about 17m deep.

4.2 MAINTENANCE WORKS DONE ON THE SEWER NETWORK

Maintenance is done to ensure that the sewerage system operates the way it is supposed to.
There are `three kinds of maintenance namely;
 Preventive maintenance
 Planned preventive maintenance
 Flashing(with a jetting system)
During my training my group was operating in Wandegeya, kamwokya, Naalya, Makerere and
Kikoni. We had to report to certain points that had problems of sewage over flow due blockages
and solve them.

Figure 12: Sewer blockages

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These are some of the methods we used to unblock sewer lines.

i) Roding method: This method involves use of rodding wires to unblock the sewer. In
case the blockage is nearer to the manhole where rodding starts, the rodding wire is
rotated by the person himself holding the rodding wire but when the blockage is far
and is hard, then the wires are connected to the rodding machine which has a motor
which rotates the wires/rod causing them to move further into the piping system to
collect any cloth or rags causing the blockage.

Figure 13: Unblocking a manhole using rods & a rodding machine

ii) The jetting /flashing method. This involves flashing of the sewers with water at high
pressure in order to force the blockages to move further down into the network. It is
usually done when unblocking using the Roding method has failed and plays a key
role in the de silting of sewers.

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Figure 14: Jetting of water into a blocked sewer pipe

iii) Other maintenance works include replacement of manhole covers as well as replenishment of
the concert manhole benching.

iv) Inspection of different manholes or people with overflows call the management.

4.3 PLUMBING RODS

Plumbing rods are pieces of equipment used to remove most blockages from sewer pipes.
However, when sewer pipes are broken, plumbing rods are not effective and the damaged pipe
must be replaced.
The rods screw together so that they can be made as long as needed. They have different kinds of
endings to help remove the blocking objects

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.

Figure 25: Plumbing rods

To unblock the sewer pipe, it is important to find an inspection opening (IO) below the blockage
and push the rods up the pipe to the blockage.
It is important to remember which way the rods and endings have been screwed together and
always twist the rods in the same direction.
If this is not done, the rods are likely to become unscrewed and be left in the sewer pipe. This
will create a worse problem because the rods will also block the pipe. If this happens it will
probably be necessary to dig up the sewer pipe and break it to unblock the pipe and get the rods
back. This would have to be done by a licensed plumber.

4.4 UNBLOCKING SEWER PIPES

The larger sewer pipes have manholes set in them allowing access to the pipe. They are often
about a meter underground and are large boxes which usually have walls made of concrete. The
pipe opens into the box on one side and starts again on another side.
The lids, which are made of metal, can be lifted to allow someone to look down into the sewer to
see if there is evidence of a blockage, for example, wastewater build-up in the manhole.

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Figure 36: Manhole and a blockage

A blockage in the sewer pipe can cause the wastewater to build-up in the manhole.

4.5 COMMON CAUSES OF BLOCKAGE IN THE SEWER LINES

Toilets and toilet pipes get blocked when people put things that cannot be broken down or
dissolved for example food scraps, paper, rags, cans, bottles, grease and fat.

Accumulation of sand and silt in the sewer.

Wastewater pipes from sinks, basins and laundry tubes can get blocked if people put food waste,
especially tea leaves, fat and other rubbish down them. If hot fat is poured down an outlet pipe, it
will set in the pipe when it cools and cause a blockage.

In addition to blockages caused by these materials, main sewer pipes can get blocked in other
ways, for example, tree roots growing into the pipe joints and cause holes and blockages or they
may wrap around the sewer line and crush it

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4.6 De silting
This involves removal of mainly sand, small aggregates of stones (silt) from manholes. These
usually accumulate as the wastewater flows in those pipes and in the process carry the silt. The
silt usually fails to move due to the reduced gradient (flow) of the wastewater. These if not
removed cause blockages in sewer lines causing overflows which are dangerous to the
environment. The process of removing this silt is called de silting. A well-dressed operator or a
de silter enters the manhole and scoops out the silt using a spade and a bucket.

Figure 17: De silting

4.7 Precautions taken during De silting

Extreme care was always taken when opening the lids of sewer pipes as poisonous and explosive
gases could build up in these pipes.
Before attempting to unblock a sewer pipe the following were done

 Before making an inspection, always, they had to wait several minutes to allow any
poisonous or explosive gases to escape.
 Smoking was always prohibited while doing this work
 Workers used to work in pairs such that in case of any problem to the one inside the
manhole, he could be easily helped out by the other worker.
 Two manholes connecting the blocked sewer were always opened for proper aeration.

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  Wearing of protective gears was always emphasized. These included gas masks among
others
 Use of gas meters before entering the manhole

. Sometimes the manholes are below the ground and are not easy to find. To solve this problem,
a metal detector could be used and when it indicated 99.9% then the covered manhole had very
many chances of being found in that place. So it was necessary to dig that particular place to find
them. Before doing all this, a map showing the location of the various manholes in a particular
area was first referred to and the information was transferred from the map to the ground.

CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 ACTIVITIES CARRIED OUT, KNOWLEDGE &SKILLS
ACQUIRED AND CHALLENGES FACED
5.1 CHEMICAL LABORATORY
While in the Laboratory at Lubigi, I got involved in collection of samples (sampling) at all the
different places as listed before. This was usually done every Tuesday. I also got involved in
measurement of the parameters that where always dealt with immediately after sampling as listed
earlier. I actively participated in the sample preparation and laboratory analysis of the various
samples and determination of other parameters.

Data entrance was also one of the activities I engaged in while in the lab.

5.2 NETWORK MAINTENANCE.

While in this section, I got involved in carrying of the equipment to and from the pickup such as
rodding wires, spade, rake, digging up the covered manholes, holding of the rodding wires
during unblocking of the sewer. Connecting and disconnecting of the rodding wires using a
spanner.

5.3 LUBIGI AND BUGOLOBI SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANTS.

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At LSTP I got involved in some plant operations like recording of the daily reading done on the
plant. At BSTW most of the work done was observation and studying of the way the plant
operates from the inlet until the final discharge points.

5.4 Knowledge Acquired During My Training:

 I have learnt the essence of safety and the precautions to be taken, in any engineering work
environment. Overcoats, a helmet and safety shoes or gumboots must strictly be worn at all
times before setting a foot into the plant. For lab work, gloves and lab coat are essential
 I have also learnt the importance of building a collaborative relationship and friendship with
different and various categories of people (staff and workers) in the field, for future
employment opportunities.
 I have also learnt the benefits associated with team work by practically being part of it, at the
best of my ability, through partaking safety practices of the plant and laboratory standards.
 I have also learnt the essence of building confidence and develop a personality, based on
effective communication skills through collective and interactive avenues for future roles.
 I have also been able to understand that some problems encountered in the industry rarely
have unique solutions, and there is no need to gain experience necessary for selecting the
optimal solutions from the many options.
 I have learnt that the design of a land disposal system necessarily involves considerations of
climate, topography, hydrology, geology, soil structure and chemistry, and wastewater
characteristics and flow. Moreover, important questions concerning land costs, system
operation and maintenance, public health, ground water impacts and nuisance conditions, can
hardly be ignored.
 Lastly but not the least, I have been able to learn all the chemical and physical processes of
sewage treatment, the design, construction and operation of all the equipment used in the
treatment process and I have appreciated all the knowledge acquired during my studies in a
more practical bit.

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5.5 Skills Acquired During My Training:
 Safety skills: My Overall, lab coat for lab work and safety shoes have strictly been worn at
all times.
 Time Management: I have kept a good profile on attendance and punctuality without any
unscheduled absences and I have always completed my work before leaving for the day.
 Confidence: I have also developed an outstanding ability and confidence to explain all the
details learnt about sewage treatment technologies.
 Work product: The quality of my research work from various assignments given to me and
experiments carried out in the laboratory has been excellent according to my supervisor. I
have always completed my work on time with minimal errors and without constant
supervision.
 Laboratory skills: How to calibrate an electronic weighing balance, A Conductivity meter,
and how to prepare solutions in the laboratory (analytical skills).
 Operational skills: How to start and operate a rodding machine.
 Communication skills: The organization’s employees comprise of people from different
parts of the country. I was challenged at times to speak using Luganda with some of the
operators which has also improved my communication skills to a certain level.
 Cooperativeness: I have displayed an excessive positivity when working with my fellow
colleagues. I have always been cordial and willing to assist and help them.

5.6 Challenges Faced During My Training:

 Cost of Living: No form of allowances or accommodation was given to trainees. The current
cost of living in Kampala has been higher than what I expected. All transport, food, research,
and safety working equipment costs, were catered for by my pocket.
 The bad odour and stench from sewage was a very big problem especially during the time
of dumping of the faecal matter and at inlet. This was not so much at Lubigi because the
place has some good aeration but it was worse at Bugolobi sewage treatment plant. Moreover
no milk was provided to the trainees yet it was essential for the neutralization of toxic gases
inhaled. So I had to provide it for myself hence more costs.
 Bad weather conditions during the network maintenance. This included the too much
sunshine and rain (sometimes), while at the pickup.

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 Moving of long distances to get to the place where restaurants were to get something to eat
was yet another problem since there was no provision of lunch at the plant.

CHAPTER SIX
6.0 CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS, REFERENCES & APPENDICES

6.1 General Conclusion

Amidst some challenges, my industrial training at NWSC has been a big success. National
water and sewerage Corporation has hardworking, cooperative and trained staff, as well as a very
friendly environment. It has been a big experience in my life, to interact with staff and workers
that are co-operative, social, approachable, caring and competent enough to provide me with all
the necessary information I needed to have obtained. Their efforts provided me a valuable
environment, in which my practical growth occurred.

I am extremely grateful, having trained with NWSC, a large organization I believe that anyone
would wish to train from. I therefore recommend students and other professional personnel to
undergo training at this organization. I also recommend NWSC to continue providing industrial
training placements to students as well as professional personnel from various institutes and
firms.

6.2 Recommendations to NWSC

 The management of NWSC should put into consideration, the importance of their trainees to
the organization. Despite trainees benefiting from the knowledge acquired, their research can
also benefit the organization as well or would be motivated to come back and work as
permanent employees. Therefore, I advise the organization to consider some little allowances
for trainees as they strive to survive during their internship training and for motivation. On
the same note, the management should provide protective gears to the trainees.
 The organization should consider the trainees in sewage department by providing for them
milk since they are also subjected to the harmful gases.

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 There should be improvement in the design of the pickups used in the network maintenance.
The behind part of the pickup where the workers sit should be covered by a suitable roof to
cater for workers during bad weather.
 Sensitization of the customers to improve on their ways of using the latrines, toilets and other
waste water disposal systems which end up in sewers to reduce on the many blockages. The
workers in the maintenance section should ensure that the unblocked sewer is totally
investigated to ensure total flow because at times the sewers become blocked after a few days
of maintenance and this brings quarrels to customers.
 The biogas produced from anaerobic digestion should be trapped effectively since it can
produce enough energy to meet most of the energy needs of the sewage treatment plant itself.
 Adoption of adsorption, air-stripping, and the membrane processes, reverse osmosis and
ultrafiltration may permit attainment of high levels of treatment of waste waters containing
poorly biodegradable substances; potential manipulations of microbes and microbial
communities may broaden the target area and effectiveness of biological treatment processes.

6.3 Recommendations to Kyambogo University

 The university should also play a role of connecting students to organisations for a placement
of internship training. Students do struggle on their own to get placements of which some are
lucky and some just fail to get and yet all do pay a fixed ITCSP fee for industrial training. It
could only take a recommendation for one to easily get a place.
 The university should at-least organize one or two sessions with students to brief them on
what is expected to be done during training and guidance on how to make industrial training
reports. Providing a log book and written guidelines is not quite enough to fully provide the
guidance needed.
 Internship allowances should be provided to students in time, preferably two weeks prior to
training so that students can easily plan for their accommodation especially in urban areas
where costs of living are high.
 Organization of study trips to such organisations especially for those doing engineering, and
other sciences, should be put into consideration as this will benefit many students who

49
 wouldn’t have gotten a chance to train from such a valuable organization for their practical
growth.
 Likewise, organization of public meetings and exhibitions at the University should be put
into consideration, inviting experienced personnel form NWSC, to share with students more
about waste water treatment and water production technology.

6.4 References
1. NWSC Magazines.

2. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. 19th Edition. 1995
3. UNEP /WHO /UNESCO / WMO PROJECT ON Global Water Quality Monitoring
GEMS / WATER OPERATIONAL GUIDE. Chapter III: Analytical Methods.
Copenhagen, Denmark.

4. De Zwart, D. and Trivedi, R.C., 1992. Draft manual on Water Quality Evaluation. The
Netherlands.

5. Conductivity Instrumental Manual.

6. NWSC Reports.

7. Bernard.B.Berger (1982).Water and wastewater quality control and the public

health.Anual reviews Inc.

8. Gomez, A, Leschber, R. and L’hermite, (1986). Sampling problems for the chemical
analysis of sludge, soils and plants. Great Britain: Elsevier Applied science Publishers.

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APPENDIX A

APPENDIX B
NEMA STANADARDS

NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR WASTEWATER DISCHARGE – NEMA STANDARDS

National Standards
Parameters Units 4 effluents discharge.
(Maximum Permissible)
O
Temperature C 20-35
Ph -- 6.0 – 8.0
Electrical Conductivity S/cm 1500
Colour PtCo 500
Turbidity NTU 300
Total Dissolved Solids mg/L 1200
Total Suspended Solids mg/L 100
Alkalinity: total as CaCO3 mg/L 800
Orthophosphate mg/L 5.0
Sulphide mg/L 1.0
Total Phosphorus mg/L 10.0
Sulphate mg/L 500
Ammonia-N mg/L 10.0
Total Nitrogen mg/L 20.0
Nitrate: NO3- mg/L 10.0
BOD5 mg/L 50
COD mg/L 100
Faecal Coliforms CFU/100mL 5,000
Total Coliforms CFU/100mL 10,000

Table 2: The NEMA Standards for Waste Water Discharge

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