LECTURE 4, 5: CHEMICAL REACTIONS

ACIDS, BASES & SALTS

I. Ion Formation: ionization/dissociation
Examples: NaCl Na+ + Cl-

HCl H+ + Cl-

II. Electrolytes – Compounds which form ions when dissolved in water(can be

strong or weak)

1. Acids – Release H+ (Hydrogen Ion) and lowers the pH of water

 When H+ increases, OH- decreases (and vice versa)

2. Bases – Releases OH- (Hydroxide Ions), reduces the number of H+ and raise the
pH

3. Salts – Result from a reaction called neutralization

 i.e. HCl+NaOH NaCl +H2O
 Salts ionize in wáter, but do not affect pH because they do not form H+ or
OH-
 4. Buffers – Stabilize the pH
 Can act as acids or bases depending on how conditions are changed
❖ Water is a weak electrolyte H2O H++OH-

 pH – Is a measurement of the number of H+

 pH Scale:
o pH number below 7 is acid
▪ The lower the pH number below 7, the stronger the acid
o pH number above 7 is alkaline or basic
▪ The higher the pH number above 7, the more alkaline or basic
o *Each unit in the pH scale represents a factor of 10x
(a solution with a pH of 3 is one thousand times more acidic than a solution
pH of 6)

III. Chemical reaction – Is a process in which bonds are formed or broken and new sub-
stances are formed.
IV. Classification of chemical reactions:

1. Synthesis – Smaller substances combine to form larger

molecules. Symbolically A+B AB Ex.
2Na+Cl2 2 NaCl
 2. Decomposition – Larger molecules break down to
form smaller molecules.
AB A+B
i.e. Digestion of
starch into thousands of glucose molecules

3. Exchange – molecules exchange atoms or groups of atoms

AB+CD AC+BD Ex. NaCl + AgNo3 NaNo3+AgCl (test for
NaCl)
 4. Reversible – One direction is favored over the other depending
on the tendencies of the reactants and products and changing condi-
tions. See LAW of MASS ACTION

VI. Energy Reactions

1. Endergonic – Are reactions that require an energy input. (i.e. synthesis of protein
or fat)
2. Exergonic – Are energy-releasing reactions used to break covalent bonds and pro-
duce smaller molecules from larger ones (catabolism)

VII. Law of Solubility:

 Solvent versus solutes
 Like (solvent) dissolves like (solutes)
 i.e. (Polar solvent dissolves Ionic & Polar solutes ; Nonpolar dissolves Nonpolar)

*Charge Spectrum of Compounds:

Nonpolar (neutral) polar (fractions of charges) Ionic (full charges)

 LECTURE 6: ORGANIC & BIOCHEMISTRY (59-71)

VIII. Organic Chemistry – Study of Carbon-containing compounds (except for CO2-

carbon dioxide & CO-carbon monoxide)

IX. Carbon Compounds & Functional Groups

1. Carbon Properties
o Has four valence electrons
Can make four covalent bonds
o Can form chains of varying lengths, rings, branched molecules

2. Hydrocarbons – Have carbon atoms & hydrogen atoms

Functional Groups:
X. Definitions of terms: Monomers & Polymers
1. Monomer – Is a series of identical or similar subunits (i.e. glucose)
2. Polymers – Are molecules of monomers
 The monomers in some polymers are identical (i.e. glucose monomers in
starch), whereas in other polymers they have a basic structural similarity but
differ in detail (i.e. DNA is made of 4 different kinds of monomers (nucleo-
tides))

XI. CARBOHYDRATES–hydrophilic organic molecules with the general formula

(CH2O)n, where n represents the number of carbon atoms. i.e. for Glucose n=6 and
the formula is C6H12O6. Carbohydrates have a 2:1 ratio of Hydrogen to Oxygen. Car-
bohydrate is a primary source of energy.

1. Monosaccharides – The simplest carbohydrates

❖Used as building materials (make more complex ones) – act as monomers
❖Used for immediate sources of energy
❖Types of Monosaccharides
 5C – Pentose (found in DNA & RNA)
 6C –Hexoses – C6H12O6
o Glucose – Blood Sugar. Most important source of energy
 Compounds that have the same
molecular formula, but different
structural formula are called
ISOMERS
Iso=Same & Mers=Units

o Fructose – Fruit Sugar. Converted to glucose & metabolized

o Galactose – Converted to glucose & metabolized

2. Disacccharides
 Maltose – Is a product of starch digestion and is present in a few foods such
as germinating wheat and malt beverages. It is made of Glucose + Glucose
covalently bonded
o Find the molecular formula for maltose given:
o
C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 _______________ +H2O

 Sucrose – Is a product of sugarcane and sugar beets and used as common ta-
ble sugar. It is made of Glucose + Fructose covalently bonded
 Lactose – Is milk sugar. It is made of Glucose + Galactose covalently
bonded together

3. Polysaccharides – polymers of glucose (i.e. A pearl = Monomer & a Pearl neck-
lace = Polymer). Made of long chains of monosaccharides
 Cellulose – Gives strength to the cell walls of plants.
o Although humans have no enzymes to digest it, it is a common compo-
nent of our diet since it is important as dietary fiber. It swells with water
in the digestive track and helps move other materials through the intes-
tine.
 Starch – Is the plant storage form of glucose. It is the only significant digest-
ible polysaccharide in the human diet.
 Glycogen (Gly=sugar; gen=producing) – Is an energy storage polysaccha-
ride made by cells of the liver (to maintain glucose levels when there is no
food), Muscles (for its own energy needs), Brain, Uterus (to nourish the em-
bryo during pregnancy) and the vagina.

XII. Chemical Reactions involved:
1. Dehydration synthesis – A hydroxyl (OH-) group is removed from one monomer
& a hydrogen (H+) atom is removed from producing water as a by-product.
 Ex. Glucose + Glucose Maltose + Water

2. Hydrolysis – A water molecule ionizes (breaks down) into OH- and H+. A cova-
lent bond linking one monomer to another is broken, the H+ is added to one mono-
mer, and the OH- is added to the other one.
 Ex. H2O H+ + OH-
 Digestion occurs by means of hydrolysis reactions
XIII. LIPIDS –hydrophobic organic molecules, composed of Carbon (C), Hydrogen
(H>>2), & Oxygen (O1). It has a high ratio of Hydrogen to Oxygen
 All lipids are Nonpolar, so they do not dissolve in water (hydrophobic)
1. Fatty Acids – important source of energy. Precursor of triglycerides
 Structure: may be saturated or unsaturated, short or long chain

2. Triglycerides – Is a molecule consisting of 3 fatty acids covalently bonded to a

glycerol molecule (a three-carbon alcohol)
 Oil – A triglycerides that is liquid at room temperature
 Fats – A triglycerides that is solid at room temperature
 IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS OF TRIGLYCERIDES
o Major storage form of energy
o Thermal insulation
o Cushioning organs (protection against trauma)
o Lubrication (skin and hair)

o
3. Phospholipids – Have a phosphate group which is linked to other functional
groups.
 Phospholipids have a dual nature
o Major component of cell membranes; aid in fat digestion
o The two fatty acid “tails” of the molecule are hydrophobic
(Hydro=water; phobic=fearing, avoiding)
o The “head” of the molecule is hydrophilic
(Hydro=water; philic=loving, attracted to)

Phospholipids arranged in a bilayer

4. Steroids – Is a lipid with 7 of its carbon atoms arranged in four rings. It serves as
a chemical messenger between cells
 Cholesterol – Is the “parent” steroid
o Stabilizes cell membranes
o Precursor of steroid hormones (i.e. Cortisol, Progesterone, Testosterone,
Estrogens)
LECTURE 7:

IX: PROTEINS – Is a polymer of amino acids. It contains Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H),
Oxygen (O), and Nitrogen (N). There are 20 different amino acids.

1. Structure of Amino Acids

Amino Acid Structure

B) The joining of 2 amino acids by

peptide bond, forming a dipeptide.

2. Structure of Proteins
 Primary Structure – Sequence (order) of amino acids joined by peptide
bonds
 Secondary Structure – Alpha Helix (A) or Beta (B) Sheet formed by hydro-
gen bonding

A B

 Tertiary Structure – Folding and coiling due to interactions among R groups

and between R groups and surrounding water

 Quaternary Structure – association of two or more polypeptide chains with

each other
3. Functions of Proteins:
1. Antibodies – Attack and neutralize microorganisms that invade the body
2. Transporters or Carriers (i.e. hemoglobin) – They briefly bind to solute par-
ticles and transport them in the blood and across the membranes of cells
3. Muscular contraction proteins (actin and myosin)
4. Cell Adhesion molecules – they bind cells to each other.
o This enables sperm to fertilize eggs, immune cells to bind to enemy
cancer cells, and keep tissues from falling apart
5. Most hormones (i.e. insulin, growth hormone)
6. *Enzymes: act as biological catalysts
7. Receptors
8. Sources of energy
9. Structural proteins (collagen)

XIV. ENZYMES: Characteristics of Enzymes

1. All enzymes are globular proteins that function as biological catalysts

2. They speed up chemical reactions by lowering the energy of activation
3. They regulate metabolism
4. They are specific
5. Substrates fit into active site