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The symmetry of the equal temperament scale

Conference Paper · January 1998

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 MATHEMATICS & DESIGN 98

THE SYMMETRY OF THE EQUAL TEMPERAMENT

SCALE
Athanassios Economou
College of Architecture, Georgia Institute of Technology, USA

Abstract: The structure of the dodecagon is postulated as a model for the structure and the
symmetry properties of the equal temperament scale. The cycle index of the permutation
group of the vertices of the dodecagon is used in Polya's theory of counting configurations
non-equivalent with respect to a given permutation group; the numbers of structurally
differentiated scales with n = 0,1,2,...,12 notes are specified. The symmetry properties of
the regular n-gons for n≤6 are used in the decomposition of the scalar patterns. A complete
enumeration of all scales, illustrated by a mapping of the scalar patterns on the plane, is
presented in the end.

1. Introduction

"One point will attract our attention at the outset: the charm of impossibilities…
This charm, at once voluptuous and contemplative, resides particularly in certain
mathematical impossibilities of the modal and rhythmic domains. Modes which
cannot be transposed beyond a certain number of transposition, because one falls
again into the same notes; rhythms which cannot be used in retrograde, because
in such a case one finds the same order of values again" (Messiaen, 1956, p.56)

Symmetry structures emerge within the equal temperament scale. Olivier Messiaen,
the twentieth century French composer, identified 7 scales for which he claimed that "it is
mathematically impossible to find other modes that follow the structural laws inherent in
these" (Messiaen, 1956, p.58). These scalar patterns, the so-called modes of limited
transposition, are essentially 7 highly structured scales that retain a modal form because of
their stepwise motion. The 3 first modes are derived correspondingly from the division of
the octave in 6, 4 and 3 equal parts, and the last 4 modes are derived from the imposition of
4 different patterns of steps on the division of the octave in 2 equal parts. The symmetrical
configurations of Messiaen's system show the richness of the subsymmetries that is
permitted within the equal temperament scale and its division in 12 equal parts.
This paper pinpoints all the symmetry patterns that emerge within this structure and
provides a uniform spatial way of representing these symmetry subgroups upon the
isomorphic structure of the regular dodecagon; all scales with n notes, for n≤ 12, form
symmetry groups which are successively nested within the full symmetry group of the equal
temperament scale. The 7 modes are shown in traditional music notation and in a two-
dimensional spatial representation using the structure of the dodecagon in Figure 1.

557
 MATHEMATICS & DESIGN 98

B C C#
A# D
A D#
G# E
G
F# F
B C C#
A# D
A D#
G# E
G
F# F
B C C#
A# D
A D#
G# E
G
F
F#
B C C#
A# D
A D#
G# E
G
F# F
B C C#
A# D
A D#
G# E
G
F# F
B C C#
A# D
A D#
G# E
G F
F#
B C C#
A# D
A D#
G# E
G
F# F

Figure 1. Olivier Messiaen's 7 modes of limited transposition. All modes are depicted in
their first transposition.

558
 MATHEMATICS & DESIGN 98

2. The equal temperament scale

The division of the musical scale has been one of the most exciting problems in music
theory and several models have been introduced since the first surviving fragments of
writings on the subject by Archytas of Tarentum (c. 4th century BC). A recent
reconstruction of the principles of the proportional divisions in ancient Greek music in
relation to Pythagoreanism, architectural theory and spatial systems in general has been
given in March (1998). From the earliest treatises on the division of the tetrachord with
respect to arithmetic, geometric and harmonic means, to the just intonation scale, to the
equal temperament scale and to the twentieth century divisional experimentation, an array
of different scalar divisions have been proposed (see, for example, Lloyd and Boyle, 1963).
Among the various ways that have been proposed on the division of the octave, the
most accepted one in recent music theory is the equal tempered system which provides a
division of the octave in 12 equal parts, namely in intervals of 21/12 of the octave. This
system, by making all semitones equal, sacrifices exact tuning but confers equal status in all
keys and in all pitches of the octave.
Equal temperament permits intervals to form a group under combination; combination
of intervals in the equal tempered scale is isomorphic to the multiplication of integral
powers of 21/12, which is isomorphic to the addition of the set of integers; alternatively,
combination of intervals in the equal tempered scale is homomorphic to combination of
equivalent classes of intervals within an octave which is isomorphic to addition in the finite
arithmetic modulo-twelve (Budden, 1972, p.436-439).
The basic operations in the group are two: transposition Tn and inversion I. For any
pitch class x and any pitch class interval n, the pitch class transposition Tn of x by n
semitones equals x+n(mod 12). For any pitch class x inversion I equals -x. Inversion is
applied within the context of the compound operation transposed inversion (Rahn, 1980,
p.45); for any pitch class x and any pitch class interval n, the pitch class transposed
inversion TnI(x) of x by n semitones equals -x+n (mod12). The algebraic notations of the
transposition and the transposed inversion are shown in (1) and (2).

Tn(x) = x+ n(mod 12) (1)

TnI(x) = -x+ n(mod 12) (2)

The structure of the dodecaphonic scale and all the subsets of the scale have been
given by Forte (1977, p.179-181). The same structure is explored here in an alternative
way; the isomorphism of the group of the tempered musical intervals under transpositions
and transposed inversions with the group of rotations and reflections of the regular
dodecagon, that is, the group D12, is explored to show pictorially all the non-equivalent
decompositions of the regular dodecagon. This approach has two advantages in relation to
those by Forte (1977) or Rahn (1988). Firstly, inversion is treated as a straightforward
reflection of the group and not as a transposed inversion. Transposition and inversion, like
rotation and reflection, do not commute but produce under reverse order complementary
transpositions; this is the reason that a standard of these two orders has to be applied
systematically, namely that the transposition has to always follow inversion. Secondly, this
approach provides a visual representation of the different subsets of the equal temperament-
tone scale in opposition to the awkward symbolic presentation of the degrees of symmetries
of the subsets of pitches; the symmetries of the sets are represented here in terms of shapes
and corresponding axes of symmetry in the twelve-tone music circle. This second mode of
representation is familiar to composers and educators and is widely used in two variations;

559
 MATHEMATICS & DESIGN 98

in the first version the pitches are arranged in a clockwise fashion around the vertices of the
dodecagon at intervals of a semitone, and in the second the pitches are arranged according
to their functional relationships at intervals of perfect fifths. In both versions the inherent
rotational and reflectional symmetries of the music structures are nicely illustrated and the
choice between two is only a matter of preference.

4. The cycle index of the equal temperament scale

The exploration of the symmetry properties of the equal temperament scale is advanced
through the use of permutations and the representation of symmetry groups with
isomorphic permutation groups. Any symmetry transformation can be considered as a
specific permutation of a set that leaves the structure under consideration invariant (Yale,
1968). The sum of all products of cycles of permutations induced by the elements of an
isomorphic symmetry group divided to the total number of the elements in the group, is the
cycle index of a permutation group. The cycle index can be used in a straightforward way to
compute all distinct configurations based upon a given structure. The appropriate method
for this inquiry has been given by Polya in his theory on counting non-equivalent
configurations with respect to a given permutation group (Polya et al, 1983). The
applications of this theorem in a design context and in contemporary research in
architecture and music are numerous (March, 1998, Economou, 1998). Essentially, Polya's
theory of counting specifies the structurally different ways that m entities or properties can
be distributed to n vertices of an n-cornered figure without considering any two
arrangements as different if they can be transformed one to another by a symmetry
operation. The thrust of Polya's theorem is that the enumeration of distinct configurations
can be done by a simple substitution of a figure inventory, that specifies the m distributed
entities, into the cycle index of the permutation group of the structure under consideration.
The coefficients of the expansion of the resulting symbolic sentence encode all the non
equivalent subsets of the given structure.
The elements of the symmetry group D12 of the equal temperament scale can be
written down straightforwardly in the form of cycles of permutations of a set consisting of
the vertices of the regular dodecagon. The same elements could be written down in the
forms of cycles of permutations of other sets of shapes associated with the structure of the
dodecagon, such as the set of its 6 internal diagonals. The set of 12 vertices is chosen here
because it captures the number of pitches permutated within the structure of the equal
temperament scale. The cycle index of the permutation group of the equal temperament
scale is taken by computing all the products of cycles of permutations induced by the
proper and improper isometries of the D12 and dividing them to 24, the order of D12, that is,
the number of permutations that leave the structure of the dodecagon invariant.
The computation of the cycle index of the permutation group of the vertices of the
regular dodecagon is summarized in Figure 2. Any permutation that involves a number l of
cycles of order k is denoted in Polya's notation as flk. For example, a permutation induced
by a rotation about the center in an angle of 2π/4 has 3 cycles of order 4 and is denoted as
f43; since there are 2 permutations of this type, one induced by a clockwise rotation and one
induced by a counterclockwise rotation, the final product of cycles is 2f43. The cycle index
of the permutation group of the vertices of the regular dodecagon can be taken in a
straightforward way by the division of the sum of all the k-cycles of order k and their
products with the number of the elements of the rotational or the complete symmetry group
of the dodecagon.

560
 MATHEMATICS & DESIGN 98

1 1 1
12 2 12 2 12 2

11 3 11 3 11 3

4 10 4 10 4
10

9 5 9 5 9 5

8 6 8 6 8 6
7 7 7
a. f112 b. 2f12 c. 2f62

1 1 1
12 2 12 2 12 2

11 3 11 3 11 3

4 10 4 10 4
10

9 5 9 5 9 5

8 6 8 6 8 6
7 7 7
d. 2f43 e. 2f34 f. 2f12

1 1 1
12 2 12 2 12 2

11 3 11 3 11 3

10 4 10 4 10 4

9 5 9 5 9 5

8 6 8 6 8 6
7 7 7
g. h. 6f12f25 i. 6f26
f26

Figure 2. The 24 permutations of the set of vertices of the dodecagon.

The cycle index C12-gon induced by rotations is given by the symbolic expression (3)
and the complete cycle index C12-gon induced by rotations and reflections is given by the
symbolic expression (4).

C12-gon = (f112+ f26+2f34+2f43+2f62+4f12) / 12 (3)

C12-gon = (f112+7f26+2f34+2f43+2f62+4f12+6f12f25) / 24 (4)

5. Enumeration of scalar and chordal patterns

The cycle index of the permutation group of the vertices of the regular dodecagon can be
used in a straightforward way in the enumeration of all distinct configurations of subsets of
the isomorphic equal temperament scale. In general, according to Polya's theorem, for a
figure inventory m = x+y+…+ w, whereas x, y,…, w, denote properties or entities that are to
be arranged on a given structure with n vertices, its substitution into the cycle index of the

561
 MATHEMATICS & DESIGN 98

permutation group of the n-vertex figure in the unsual format fk = xk+yk+…+wk produces
terms of the form xrys…wt, for r+s+…+t = n, whose coefficients are the numbers of the
distinct ways that r x-entities, s y-entities, and t w-entities that can be arranged on the
structure! Polya's formalism provides the answer even if m>n; that is, in principle, it is
possible to know the different number of ways any number of entities m are permutated in
an n-vertex figure without considering any two arrangements as different if they can be
mapped one to another by a symmetry operation.
Let x the number of pitches that comprise a scale. Then the figure inventory will be
x+y, whereas x denotes the number of pitches selected from the equal temperament scale
and y the number of pitches unselected. If this figure inventory is substituted into the two
expressions (3) and (4) by replacing fk = xk+yk, the cycle indices of the rotational and
complete permutation groups of the vertices of the dodecagon are expanded in the
expressions (5) and (6) .

C =((x+y)12+ (x2+y2)6+2(x3+y3)4+2(x4+y4)3+2(x6+y6)2+4(x12+y12)/12 (5)

C =((x+y)12+ 7(x2+y2)6+2(x3+y3)4+2(x4+y4)3+2(x6+y6)2+4(x12+y12)+6(x+y)2(x2+y2)5)/24 (6)

The coefficients of the terms x12y0, x11y1, x10y2, x9y3, x8y4, x7y5, x6y6, x5y7, x4y8, x3y9,
x y , x1y11, x0y12 after the expansion of (5) or (6) will give the numbers of the structurally
2 10

different scales with 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0 notes under proper or complete
isometries respectively. Obviously there is no need for the computation of all coefficients in
the expansion because the expression is symmetric in respects to x and y; for example the
term x9y3, has the same coefficient with the term x3y9. Plainly, this means that the number of
enneatonic scales is the same with the number of distinct trichords. The coefficients of the
first 7 terms are computed here. The coefficients in any expansion of the form (x+y)n,
whereas n any natural number, can be taken from Pascal's triangle or from the binomial
theorem. The binomial theorem is given in (7) , its expansion is given in (8) and the
formula for each coefficient in (9).

n! r s
(x+y)n = ∑ r!s!
xy (7)
r + s= n

 n  n 0  n n-1 1  n n-2 2  n  1 n-1  n 0 n

(x+y)n =   x y +   x y +   x y + ...+   x y +  x y , (8)
 n − 1  1  2  n − 1  n

 n n!
whereas  = , for n, k non negative integers and k<n. (9)
 k  k !( n − k )!

The complete computation of the expansion of the cycle index of the permutation
group of the equal temperament scale for the figure inventory x+y is given in Table 1. The
penultimate row (S) gives the non-equivalent scalar formations under proper isometries and
the last row (S/R) gives the non-equivalent scalar formations under the complete isometries
of the dodecagon.

562
 MATHEMATICS & DESIGN 98

x 12 x 11 y 1 x 10 y 2 x 9y 3 x 8y4 x 7y5 x 6y 6
f 1 12 : (x+ y) 12 : 1 12 66 220 495 792 924
f2 6 : (x 2 +y 2 ) 6 : 1 - 6 - 15 - 20
2f 3 4 : 2(x 3 +y 3 ) 4 : 2 - - 8 - - 12
2f 4 3 : 2(x 4 +y 4 ) 3 : 2 - - - 6 - -
2f 6 2 : 2(x 6 +y 6 ) 2 : 2 - - - - - 4
4f 12 : 4(x 12 +y 12 ) : 4 - - - - - -
6f 1 2 f 2 5 : 6(x+ y) 2 (x 2 +y 2 ) 5 : 6 12 36 60 90 120 120
6f 2 6 : (x 2 +y 2 ) 6 : 6 - 36 - 90 - 120
Σ (1−6) /12 S 1 1 6 19 43 66 80
Σ (1−8) /24 S/R 1 1 6 12 29 38 50
Table 1. Complete computation of all coefficients in the expansion of the cycle index of the
permutation group of the dodecagon.

Thus, according to Polya's theorem, there are 19 trichords which are further reduced
to 12, under reflections, 43 tetrachords reduced to 29, 66 pentachords reduced to 38, and 80
hexachords reduced to 50 under reflections. That means that there are 7 trichords, 14
tetrachords, 28 pentachords, and 30 hexachords that are enantiomorphic or chiral versions
of some other chordal patterns in each category respectively. The same numbers as above
give the complementary structures of the enneachords, octachords, and heptachords. The
reduction of the patterns in these categories signifies as well the existence of
enantiomorphic versions in each category.
This inquiry on the abstract structures of the equal temperament scale shows the
absolute minimum tonal pallette of pitch relations that are generated within the group of the
scale. These structures when are rotated or transposed produce a great variety of scales with
different values. One of the reasons why the pattern 1-1-1/2-1-1-1-1/2 of tones and
semitones in various transpositions and cyclic configurations have been used so widely in
music cultures is that it provides the greatest number of perceptually diverse scales and
modes (Forte, 1977, Helmholtz, [1895], 1997). The numbers of the distinct scales and
chords under rotations and reflections are specified and tabulated in Table 2; the starred
names are most common.

N o te s T y p e s (S ) T y p e s (R ) S c a le s C h o rd s
0 1 1 N u ll N u ll
1 1 1 M onad M o nad
2 6 6 D yad D ya d *
3 19 12 T rito n ic T ria d *
4 43 29 T e tra to n ic T e tra c h o rd *
5 66 38 P e n ta to n ic * P e n ta c h o rd *
6 80 50 H e x a to n ic * H e x a c h o rd *
7 66 38 H e p ta to n ic * H e p ta c h o rd
8 43 29 O c ta to n ic * O c ta c h o rd
9 19 12 N o n a to n ic N o n a c h o rd
10 6 6 D e c a to n ic D e c a c h o rd
11 1 1 U n d e c a to n ic U n d e c a c h o rd
12 1 1 D o d e c a to n ic * A g g re g a te *
Table 2. Enumeration of all distinct scalar and chordal patterns.

6. Decompositions of scalar and chordal patterns

The application of Polya's theorem can be extended in the decomposition and enumeration
of all distinct scalar patterns. All n-scales, for n≤12, form symmetry groups nested within
the symmetry group of the equal temperament scale. These symmetry subgroups are

563
 MATHEMATICS & DESIGN 98

isomorphic to the symmetry groups of the regular n-gons, for n≤12, nested within the group
of the regular dodecagon. The various decompositions of the scalar patterns are isomorphic
to the perfect colorings of the regular polygons (for a concise presentation of the notion of
perfect colorings, see Schattschneider, 1986). The cycle indices of the permutation groups
of the sound and visual structures can be used within Polya's theorem to provide the
answers in the enumeration of all possibilities. The cycle indices of the permutation groups
of the equilateral triangle, square, regular pentagon and regular hexagon induced by proper
and improper isometries are given in Table 3. The complete computation of these cycle
indices is given elsewhere (Economou, 1998).

C 3 -g o n = (f 1 3 + 2 f 3 ) / 3 (3 )
C 3 -g o n = (f 1 3 + 2 f 3 + 3 f 1 f 2 ) / 6 (4 )
C 4 -g o n = (f 1 4 + f 2 2 + 2 f 4 ) / 4 (5 )
C 4 -g o n = (f 1 4 + 3 f 2 2 + 2 f 4 + 2 f 1 2 f 2 ) / 8 (6 )
C 5 -g o n = (f 1 5 + 4 f 5 ) / 5 (7 )
C 5 -g o n = (f 1 5 + 4 f 5 + 5 f 1 f 2 2 ) / 1 0 (8 )
C 6 -g o n = (f 1 6 + f 2 3 + 2 f 3 2 + 2 f 6 ) /6 (9 )
C 6 -g o n = (f 1 6 + 4 f 2 3 + 2 f 3 2 + 2 f 6 + 3 f 1 2 f 2 2 ) /1 2 (1 0 )
Table 3. Cycle indices of the permutation groups of the vertices of the equilateral triangle,
square, regular pentagon and regular hexagon

The distinct configurations of colors in every category for the equilateral triangle,
square, regular pentagon and regular hexagon are given in Figure 3. The specific
assignment of different pitch-values that correspond to the color configurations of the
regular polygons is left to the interested reader. A catalogue with all the n-scalar or n-
chordal formations, for n≤6, is given in Table 4. The scales are catalogued here using the
standard way of representation of sets of notes in normal forms in atonal music theory
(Rahn, 1980, p.41-58). The rest of the chordal and scalar patterns can be taken out from this
catalogue in a straightforward way. A complete catalogue with the representation of the n-
scales upon the regular dodecagon and their music notation is given in the website in the
following address.

http://www.arch.gatech.edu/economou/papers/scales

Epilogue

Scalar constructions have been always associated with Pythagorean ideas, numbers and
ratios, and with arithmetical, harmonic, geometric and other kinds of means employed in
their constructions. The sheer multitude of diverse scale formations with 24, 43, 48, 53, 72,
96 or other kinds of divisions, based alternatively in equal or unequal intervals, all
contribute to the excitement of the subject and point to similarities of this inquiry with
analogous inquiries in proportional schemes in architecture. The musical scale has been
proposed as a model for architectural systems of proportion from Alberti to Le Corbusier;
the construction of a musical scale according to rules that divide the sound continuum in
discrete parts, stands very close to analogous problems of divisions of lines, areas and
volumes in architecture. Here, an investigation of the symmetry properties of the equal
temperament scale has been undertaken as a first step in the inquiry of similar structures
underlying the domains of formal composition in architecture and music.

564
 MATHEMATICS & DESIGN 98

a.

b.

c.

d.

Figure 3. Catalogue of non-equivalent coloring schemes for the regular n-gons, for n≤6.
The distinct colorings of the regular shapes correspond to distinct intervalic
decompositions of the chordal structures. (a) equilateral triangle and trichord (b) square
and tetrachord (c) regular pentagon and pentachord (d) regular hexagon and hexachord.

565
 MATHEMATICS & DESIGN 98

1-scales
C
2-scales
C,C# C,D C,D# C,E C,F C,F#
3-scales
C,C#,D C,C#,D# C,C#,E C,C#,F C,C#,F# C,D,E
C,D,F C,D,F# C,D,G C,D#,F# C,D#,G C,E,G#
4-scales
C,C#,D,D# C,C#,D,E C,C#,D,F C,C#,D,F# C,C#,D,G C,C#,D#,E
C,C#,D#,F C,C#,D#,F# C,C#,D#,G C,C#,E,F C,C#,E,F# C,C#,E,G
C,C#,E,G# C,C#,F,F# C,C#,F,G C,C#,F,G# C,C#,F#,G C,D,D#,F
C,D,D#,F# C,D,D#,G C,D,E,F# C,D,E,G C,D,E,G# C,D,F,G
C,D,F,G# C,D,F#,G# C,D#,E,G C,D#,F,G# C,D#,F#,A
5-scales
C,C#,D,D#,E C,C#,D,D#,F C,C#,D,D#,F# C,C#,D,D#,G C,C#,D,E,F C,C#,D,E,F#
C,C#,D,E,G C,C#,D,E,G# C,C#,D,F,F# C,C#,D,F,G C,C#,D,F,G# C,C#,D,F#,G
C,C#,D,F#,G# C,C#,D#,E,F# C,C#,D#,E,G C,C#,D#,E,G# C,C#,D#,F,F# C,C#,D#,F,G
C,C#,D#,F,G# C,C#,D#,F#,G C,C#,D#,F#,G# C,C#,D#,F#,A C,C#,E,F,G C,C#,E,F,G#
C,C#,E,F#,G# C,C#,E,F#,A C,C#,E,G,G# C,C#,F,F#,G# C,D,D#,E,F# C,D,D#,E,G
C,D,D#,F,G C,D,D#,F,G# C,D,D#,F#,G# C,D,E,F,G# C,D,E,F#,G# C,D,E,F#,A
C,D,E,G,A C,D#,E,F,G#
6-scales
C,C#,D,D#,E,F C,C#,D,D#,E,F# C,C#,D,D#,E,G C,C#,D,D#,F,F# C,C#,D,D#,E,G# C,C#,D,E,F,F#
C,C#,D,D#,F,G C,C#,D,D#,F,G# C,C#,D,E,F,G C,C#,D,D#,F#,G C,C#,D,D#,F#,G# C,C#,D,E,F#,G
C,C#,D,D#,F#,A C,C#,D#,E,F#,G C,C#,D,D#,G,G# C,C#,D,F,F#,G C,C#,D,E,F,G# C,C#,D,E,F#,G#
C,C#,D,E,F#,A C,C#,D#,E,F#,G# C,C#,D,E,G,G# C,C#,D,F,F#,G# C,C#,D,E,G,A C,C#,D#,F,F#,G#
C,C#,D,F,F#,A C,C#,D#,E,G,G# C,C#,D,F,G,G# C,C#,D,F,G,A C,C#,D#,F,G,G# C,C#,D,F#,G,G#
C,C#,D#,E,F,G C,D,D#,E,F,G# C,C#,D#,E,F,G# C,C#,D#,E,F#,A C,C#,D#,E,G,A C,C#,D#,F,F#,A
C,C#,D#, F,G,A C,C#,E,F,G,A C,C#,D#,F#,G,A C,D,D#,F#,G,A C,C#,E, F#,G,A C,C#,E,F,F#,G#
C,C#,E,F,G#,A C,D,D#,E,F,G C,D,D#,E,F#,G# C,D,D#,E,F#,A C,D,D#,F,F#,G# C,D,D#,F,G,A
C,D,E,F,G,A C,D,E,F#,G#,A#
Table 4. Complete enumeration of all scalar and chordal patterns. All scales are in first
transposition. The 7-, 8-, 9-, 10, 11, and 12-note scales complement the ones in the table.

Acknowledgments
I am most indebted to Professor Lionel March who introduced me to the wonderful world
in-between architecture, music and mathematics. His inspiring lectures on Formal
Architectonics at the School of Architecture and Arts, Department of Architecture, UCLA,
has provided the foundations upon which this research is based. I wish to thank as well,
Professor Ian Krouse, Department of Music, UCLA, for his advice on the labeling of the
scalar patterns.

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