Elegant Structures: Diagrids take to the Sky

Terri Meyer Boake Terri Meyer Boake teaches and

Professor of Architecture researches in the area of construction,
environment and steel design. She has
University of Waterloo published three important books with
Cambridge, ON, Canada Birkhäuser on architectural steel
tboake@uwaterloo.ca design, diagrids and AESS. She
www.tboake.com works with the Canadian Institute of
Steel Construction to develop
learning modules. She is an active
board member of the Council on Tall
Buildings and Urban Habitat.

Summary
The word “diagrid” is a blending of the words “diagonal” and “grid” and refers to a structural
system that is single thickness in nature and gains its structural integrity through triangulation.
Diagrid structural systems have enabled significant transformation in the design of tall buildings.
Diagrids are unique in their ability to assume all of the lateral and gravity loading of towers up to at
least 50 storeys in height, eliminating the need for traditional columns and cores. Even in Supertall
towers it is possible to reduce or eliminate dependence on the core in the top 15% to 30%, allowing
for unique spatial opportunities.
Diagrids have created a particular elegance and lightness through efficiency, geometry and form.
Where other contemporary structural systems such as megaframes and outriggers are typically
repressed in the detailing of the façade and dependent building elements, diagrids are chosen to
form the basis of the architectural expression of the building.
The author presents a methodology for the design of diagrid structures based upon the systematic
analysis of major buildings constructed from 2004 to the present as documented in her recent book
“Diagrid Structures: Systems, Connections, Details” published by Birkhäuser in 2014.[1] The
design of diagrid towers will be demonstrated as based upon primary choices in module size,
member type, node design, function of the core and the desired expression in the façade system.
These translate into additional concerns of constructability and customized fabrication. Fire control
systems will impact the ability to architecturally expose or conceal the steel, leading to detailing
decisions.
Keywords: diagrid; steel; skyscraper; high-rise buildings.

1. Introduction
Since the invention of the skyscraper in the late 1800s, the tendency has been towards the visual
repression of its structural system, either by virtue of the particular sensibilities of the architectural
style of the period or due to requirements to conceal the structure for reasons of fire protection. It is
only in the last 10 to 12 years that a truly unique type of structural system has emerged that has
drastically changed the role of the structural system of tall buildings to one that can become the
focus of architectural expression. This is as a direct result of the elegance of this new system, the
diagrid.
Although the invention of the system is credited to Vladimir Shukhov (1853-1939) and was used
extensively as the support system for hundreds of water towers towards the end of the 1800s, it was
really not until the offices of Foster + Partners with Arup re-interpreted the Shukhov system to
create the structural system that was suited to a building. This was done for the Swiss Re Tower in
London, UK in 2004 where the diagrid system emerged as a contemporary structural methodology.
Major structural changes were required to transform the open lattice system that Shukhov had used
for his water towers into one capable of supporting floors and cladding systems.
The developments by Foster of Swiss Re, and shortly thereafter the Hearst Magazine Tower in New
York City (2006), also acknowledge the influence of the aesthetic expression of the diagonal
bracing systems in the façades of the John Hancock Tower in Chicago, IL, USA by SOM in 1969
and in the Bank of China Tower by I.M. Pei in Hong Kong in 1989. The important difference here
is that the use of diagonal bracing in Hancock and the Bank of China was as a supplementary lateral
system that was used in addition to vertical gravity columns and a core designed to resist lateral
loading, and in a pure diagrid system the perimeter diagrid system carries all of the lateral and
gravity loads and no vertical columns are required at the perimeter of the structure. As in the case of
Swiss Re, this allows for an all steel structure and the use of columns at the service
core/elevator/washroom area that are used to support the floor beams.
In respect of the theme of the conference, “Elegance in
Structures”, diagrids have succeeded in creating a particular
elegance and lightness through efficiency, geometry and form
that had not before been a part of the language of structure for
tall buildings. Where other contemporary structural systems
such as megaframes and outriggers are typically repressed in
the detailing of the façade and dependent building elements,
diagrids are chosen to form the basis of the architectural
expression of the building.
This paper will examine a number of recently constructed
diagrid towers to identify a methodology that can be used to
approach the detailed design of this new building type. The
aesthetic expression of the structure in the architecture, its form
and façade requires a better appreciation of the impact of
decisions made when conceiving of the building. This includes
setting out the overall module, deciding on the precise type of
structural elements, designing the nodes and understanding the
implications on the façade and fire protection strategies.
The methodology is intended to be applied during the design
phase of the project, to be followed by detailed calculations to
substantiate decisions in the sizing and particular nature of the
Fig. 1: The Bank of China, members, nodes and floor systems.
Hong Kong, I.M. Pei Architect

2. What is a Diagrid?
2.1 Definition
The word “diagrid” is a blending of the words “diagonal” and “grid” and refers to a structural
system that is single thickness in nature and gains its structural integrity through triangulation.
Diagrid structural systems have enabled significant transformation in the design of tall buildings.
Diagrids are unique in their ability to assume all of the lateral and gravity loading of towers up to at
least 50 storeys in height, eliminating the need for traditional columns and cores. Even in Supertall
towers it is possible to reduce or eliminate dependence on the reinforced concrete core in the top
15% to 30%, allowing for unique spatial opportunities.
2.2 The Diagrid System
The work of Shukhov was important as it presented a new approach to creating a structural system
that was devoid of more normal vertical elements to carry the gravity loads, substituting instead a
parabolic system of overlapping diagonals that were restrained by a series of “hoops” at intervals
going up the tower. The nature of the diagonal members used by Shukhov – predominantly angle
sections – was very light. Their parabolic curvature was possible not through intentional pre
bending of the elements, but through the erection process, gravity and the sheer scale of the
buildings. A modularity was established based on the hoop intervals. The connections between
members was quite informal, using lapped joints and unlike trusses, forces were not required to
meet at a predetermined panel point. The alignment of the hoop was slightly above or below the
crossing points of the diagonal members. This is important to note as a major variation from
contemporary diagrid structures where the converging members meet at a very precisely designed
nodal point.
The contemporary diagrid system that is used to structure tower type buildings is comprised of a
system of linear elements that are connected at nodes that are spaced on a predetermined module.
Although this references the work of Shukhov, the invention of the node is a critical improvement
and defining characteristic of the system.
Another important difference between contemporary
diagrid structurs and Shukhov’s towers is in the
requirement to create an environmentally closed
system. The open latticework of the Shukhov towers
provided much less resistance to the wind than do tall
towers. Diagrid based façades have been shown to
assist in improving issues of vortex shedding on tall
towers directly as a result of the natural faceting that
ensues as a function of the scale of the module that is
applied.
This same system and nomenclature can be applied to
contemporary lattice systems, such as those that have
been used by Foster + Partners at the British Museum
Courtyard and Massimo Fuksas at the Milan
Convention Center. Significant differences in scale
and loading requirements between these glazed steel
lattice systems and structural diagrids require that
their discussion be separated from the topic of this
paper.
2.3 Materiality
The materiality of diagrids makes predominant use of
Fig. 2: Diagrid Tower by Vladimir steel. In some instances the members make simple
Shukhov. Image courtesy Sergei use of standard steel sections such as wide flange
Arssenev, Shukhov Foundation. [2] (Universal) or hollow structural tubes (HSS). Some
high profile projects with architecturally exposed
systems have also used completely custom fabricated members. There is a growing tendency in
parts of China and the Middle East to employ concrete filled steel tubes. The material choice is
feeding directly into the requirements of the base elements of the system, in particular the function
of the node and the connections to the node. Reinforced concrete or other site cast systems are
unsuitable.

2.4 Scale
The issue of scale is the first aspect of the design to be considered. This will feed directly into the
selection of the sizes of members and the modularity of the design. Taller or larger buildings will
allow a wider range of choices in the expression of the diagrid as the variation in the size of the
module will be greater. Larger or taller buildings will also have signficant load issues to contend
with and this will necessarily increase the sizes of the individual diagrid members as well as the
nodes. This will in turn impact decisions made in façade design.

2.5 Fire Protection and Exposed Systems

Issues of protection for reasons of fire control must be ascertained at the outset of the project as this
will either allow or disallow the actual exposure of the members. This varies greatly by jurisdiction
so cannot be taken for granted. Significant advances in the degree of protection by intumescent
coating systems as well as the benefits of concrete filled steel tubes have allowed a number of
diagrid buildings to expose their steel systems.
As will later be discussed in façade treatment, the exposure or covering of the steel diagrid
members will impact the design of the façade and the nature of the expression or translation of the
placement of the diagrid through to the exterior of the building.
The decision to architecturally expose the diagrid will radically alter the decision making matrix for
the project. An architecturally exposed diagrid is more likely to require fully welded connections –
both within the node and for the connections between the nodes and the diagonals. This puts added
pressure on the fabrication tolerances in order to ensure that the butt welds are closely aligned to
ensure a seamless transition. Site welding may also require pre-heating of the material, so
scaffolding and weather protection might also be required.

3. Modules and Modularity

3.1 Optimization of the Module
A diagrid tower is modeled as a vertical cantilever. The size of the diagonal grid is determined by
dividing the height of the tower into a series of modules. Numerous studies have been conducted
towards the optimization of the module size as a function of the building height and angles of the
inclined members.[3] Normally the height of the base module of the diamond grid will extend over
several stories. In this way the beams that define the edge of the floors can frame into the diagonal
members providing both connection to the core, support for the floor edge beams, and stiffness to
the unsupported length of the diagonal member.
As a significant portion of the expense of the
structure lies in the fabrication of the nodes
versus the steel that comprises the diagonal
element, efforts are towards minimizing their
frequency and simplifying the connection
between the node and the diagonal to speed up
erection.
Much engineering research is underway to
establish the optimal module size, which
directly impacts the “shape” of the diagrid,
window size and placement as well as the
Fig. 3: Current exploration into the best amount of resources used in the project. The
impact of “shape” is viewed differently by
geometry for diagrids is based on this Figure Architects and Engineers – structural concerns
as established by Kyoung Sun Moon in his also being impacted by wind and vortex
research. [4] shedding issues.
The work of Moon established for a 60 storey tall building, based on a 1:6 ratio, measuring 36m x
36m with an 18m x 18m gravity core at the center with floor to floor heights of 3.9m that 69o is the
most effective angle for a uniform diagrid.[5] This value changes as a function of the building
height as well as its width to height ratio.
As a tall building functions as a vertical cantilever, the taller and more slender the building, the
greater will be the differentiation between the function of the diagrid elements at the base to those
towards the top. This has suggested that a variation in the inclination angle of the diagonals can be
used to reduce the amount of steel and provide needed resistance in the structure. The members and
connections at the base of the building must be designed to resist moment while those at the top to
resist shear.
Research into module optimization by SOM in the design of the (unbuilt) Lotte Super Tower in
Seoul, Korea extended the earlier research by Moon and suggested a differentiation in the height
and width of the module along the height of the tower. This means that the diagonal members
towards the base of the tower will be steeper as their function requires an increase of gravity load
resistance as well as moment, given the action of a tower as a vertical cantilever. The diagonal
members towards the top of the tower should be more inclined and the module smaller as these
members have less gravity loading associated with their function and must resist more wind loading.
The decrease in the size of the module towards the top of the tower has the added benefit of creating
more finely faceted surface and corner conditions, which is helpful in vortex shedding. In some
cases the diagrid structure will be expressed and exposed at the top of the tower to assist even more
with wind issues. This has the added benefit of creating a more interesting completion to the
architectural top of the tower.
The research by SOM into the impact of module design on Supertall towers is significant if diagrids
are ever to be used on towers of this height. The tallest diagrid tower constructed to date is the
Guangzhou IFC by Wilkinson Eyre Architects in Guangzhou, China. It is 439m tall. The proposal
for the Lotte Super Tower was to 555m.
The current tendency, which is valid for
towers that are well below 400m in height,
is to keep a consistent module dimension
over the height of the building. This
results in the greatest economy in the
prefabrication of the nodes and members
as it keeps consistent geometry and
relationships to the façade. Regularity in
the façade is of great economic benefit in
the design of the façade systems as the
glazing unit sizes can be kept more
uniform.

Fig. 4: The design for the SOM version of the Lotte

Super Tower examined the relationship between
height and loading, coming to the conclusion that
the modules should vary. [6]

3.2 Regular Modules

Although the expression of the diagrid is translated
most directly through the diagonal members, the
horizontal elements are extremely important in
maintaining the stability of the system. Ring beams
that connect the nodes constrain the shape and act in a Fig. 5: Citic Bank HQ by Foster +
very similar manner to the hoops in the Shukhov Partners works with varied modularity
towers. In smaller modules, those with heights tip to to create the extreme form of this
tip of the diamond in the range of 2 to 4 floors, the diagrid building. Image courtesy
beams are designed in conjunction with the edges of
the floors. For taller modules there may need to be Foster+Partners.
some interaction between the floor edge beams and the long diagonals, in addition to the dedicated
function of the horizontal members that frame directly into the node. The longer the diagonals the
more likely they are to require additional lateral bracing if the desire is for slenderness. Alternately,
if unbraced, the member size must be substantially increased to provide self-support. This is
common if the diagrid is used in conjunction with a large atrium space where there are no floors to
assist with this function. The interaction between the floor edge beams and the diagonals can be
seen in the construction photo of the Citic HQ. The horizontal members at the nodal levels are more
substantial than the floor edge beams.
The relationship between the overall height and number of floors of a tower is more critical in the
case of a diagrid tower as the façade expression needs to terminate at a full module. Therefore the
number of storeys will directly influence the decision on the primary module height. These can
range from 2 floors ‘tip to tip’ on the lower end and up to 16 storeys ‘tip to tip’ on the higher end.
As it is desired to avoid splicing diagonal members, leaving the issue of connection to occur only at
the node, transportation and shipping issues will need to feed into this discussion. A 16 storey
module will result in a long diagonal member of approximately 8 storeys in height. For this reason
module choices seem to fall in the mid-range of around 8 to 10 storeys as these present less
challenge in shipping and erection.

3.3 Irregular Modules and Non Optimal Angles

That the driver behind the choice of the diagrid as a structural system is architectural seems to be
supported by some current designs that are choosing modules and angles that are against any of the
established “rules of optimization”. Such would be the case for Citic Bank HQ by Foster + Partners
in Hangzhou, China and the Poly Diamond Lantern by SOM in Beijing China. Both buildings use
non optimal angles for the diagrid based on aesthetic choices in the expression of the structure as a
key component of the architecture. The Citic Bank employs an extremely low slope to the diagrid
members at the base of the tower, which results in an increase in the size of these supporting
members that is clearly evidenced in the photo.
The faceted nature of the Poly Diamond Lantern, in
the creation of a “lantern like” expression, also
employs a slope to the diagonals that is well below the
optimal 69o suggested in Moon’s research. This results
in an increase in the size of the concrete filled steel
tubes and the structure of the node.
The Poly Diamond Lantern has also modified the
more standard diagrid structure as a result of the
double façade envelope. This has resulted in the need
to hang alternate floors to create the cavity behind the
outer façade layer. This has also added significantly to
the loading of the tubular system.
Where there is a desire for a variation in the floor to
floor height of a building due to a change in the
functional requirements of the use, this can be
accommodated. In the case of the Guangzhou IFC the
tower is used as a commercial office for the lower 2/3
of the tower and as a hotel for the upper 1/3. These
necessarily have different floor to floor height
requirements. The length of the primary diagonals was
kept uniform for the height of the tower after having
been carefully calculated to accommodate 12 floors of
office and 16 floors of residential within the same
overall dimension. Again modularity feeds strongly
into the aesthetic decisions as this also had an impact
on the subdivision of the glazing and curtain wall
Fig. 6: The Poly Diamond Lantern system for the façade.
employs a shallow angle to the diagrid.

4. Member Design
4.1 Member Type Selection
Understanding that the size of the module will feed directly into the structural requirements and
sizing of the diagrid system, including members and nodes, there are additional factors that will also
bear on this decision. The type of member chosen will depend on additional interdependent factors:
 What is the fire protection required for the structure?
 Is/can the structure to be architecturally exposed?
 Will standard structural members suffice (wide flange or HSS most typically chosen)?
 Are custom fabricated sections desired for aesthetic reasons?
 Is there a desire or requirement to cover the structure, noting this can be program directed as
a function of interior décor and not fireproofing.
 Are there preferences or differences in expertise based on the skills and practices in the
region that will inform or limit the member selection? This feeds into abilities in welding or
safety preferences for bolting.
The form of the building – round versus rectangular – will create nodal geometries that will be
better served by circular versus rectangular members. This was the case in the design of Swiss Re
that used round tubes to work with its cylindrical form.
Concealed systems have tended to make
use of standard wide flange (Universal)
sections as these are cost effective. Such
systems have also made use of bolted
connections as they are quicker to erect
and feed into worker safety concerns.
Concrete filled tubes have also been used
in a concealed fashion in China where this
composite structural system is a common
choice for many tall buildings.
Architecturally exposed systems have
tended to choose amongst hollow
structural steel (HSS), concrete filled steel
tubes and custom fabricated sections. HSS
would sit at the lower end as for cost and
custom sections at the high end. The
concrete filled steel tubes used in
Fig. 7: Round tubes were used on Swiss Re to work Guangzhou IFC had an additional fire
with the gherkin shaped geometry of the tower. The protective coating applied to permit their
shape allowed for a very tight fitting, diamond exposure.
shaped column cover, keeping to a slim finished
profile to the members. The ring/hoop elements are 4.2 Hoops
different as they are acting here purely in tension, The member selection for the horizontal
where the diagrid members must resist compressive bracing rings or hoops is quite different
forces. Image courtesy Arup. from that of the diagonal members.
Generally speaking these rings are acting
in tension in contrast to the diagonals which are normally acting in compression. These members
can therefore be more slender and assume a different structural profile. There will be differing
requirements for the beams that frame the edges of the floor system as a function of whether or not
these will additionally be used to brace the diagonals.

5. Node Design
5.1 Function
The design of the node is of significant importance to the integrity and function of the diagrid
system. The node will be required to provide the load path through the members, using geometries
that are angular and therefore not within more normative structural steel design. In the most basic
design the node will need to receive four incoming diagonal members as well as the hoop elements
at each side – for a total of 6 connections. The nodes tend to assume a large X shape to create a
distance from the central point of the load transfer in
order to facilitate easier site connections. The
extensions of the node also thereby slightly diminish
the length requirements of the diagonal members.
This is useful in the design of very large modules in
excess of 8 storeys.
The connections between the node and diagonal
members will normally be designed to be quite tight
in order ensure that cladding is trim looking or in the
case of exposed connections, to work with the
aesthetics of the exposure. Connections will vary
from bolting to welding as a function of the
incoming members. Concrete filled tubes require
fully welded and sealed connections as a function of
the structural type. Concealed systems using wide
flange members will normally bolt and exposed
systems will use a combination of bolting and
welding as suits the design.
5.2 Constructability
As with any deviation from standard framing
techniques, constructability is an important issue in
diagrid structures. Both the engineering and Fig. 8: The nodes of The Leadenhall
fabrication of the joints are more complex than for
an orthogonal structure, and this incurs additional Building were created from custom plate
costs. The precision of the geometry of the and accommodated ‘active alignment’
connection nodes is critical, so it is advantageous to during fabrication brought on by the
maximize shop fabrication to reduce difficulties asymmetrical loading of the tapered
associated with erection and site work. Some nodes tower.
are many tonnes and it is desirable to be able to lift
and turn the elements with a crane to provide access
for fabrication, welding and finishing.
Although in theory a node performs a similar function to the panel point in a truss, transferring only
horizontal and vertical shear forces and is not intended to be moment resisting, a certain level of
rigidity is essential in the design of the node to assist in the construction of the building frame.
Diagrid towers are erected without temporary shoring, and so the node is required to hold the
diagonals stiff during the erection process. In the case of smaller modules, two diagonals will be
attached to a node in the staging area and the assembly lifted as an inverted V. Very large systems
will erect the diagonals and nodes separately, so the diagonals must be adequately held stiff by the
nodes as they will extend in an angled cantilever awaiting the next node.

6. Core Design
6.1 The Role of the Core in a Diagrid
As was previously stated, a ‘true’ perimeter diagrid does not need a reinforced concrete core to
assist in handling lateral loading. This is based on Shukhov'’ original designs that made exclusive
use of the steel system to resist all gravity and lateral loads. The decision to create an all steel
building, including the structuring of the central elevator/stair/washroom zone is quite significant
these days as the majority of construction is proceeding as either composite or as traditional
reinforced concrete throughout. For this reason the majority of diagrids that are employed in towers
are used in buildings that have elected to use a traditional reinforced concrete core.

6.2 Steel Framed Cores

The Swiss Re Tower remains one of the purest applications of a true diagrid as its central zone was
designed only with steel columns to assume gravity loads and break up the span of the floor beams.

Fig. 9: The Leadenhall Building,
shown under construction in 2013, has
its yellow core located completely
outside of the office floor. Additional
inverted K braces provide more lateral
support, establishing this as a hybrid
application of a diagrid.
What is of interest in the design of Guangzhou IFC is the ability to terminate the large central
concrete core that services the office floors at the point of the change in floor to floor height that
establishes the hotel use. Here, at the 72nd floor the core splits into three smaller cores which are
located in the corners of the triangular plan and allows for the creation of a central atrium space.
The diameter of the exterior concrete filled steel tubes has been substantially reduced by this point.
Fig. 10: The atrium at the upper hotel
levels of Guangzhou IFC uses a smaller
diagrid of concrete filled steel tubes to
structure the 30 storey tall opening.
Even Foster’s Hearst Magazine Tower in New York
City required additional steel bracing be added to the
steel framed core as a result of the need to offset the
core within the plan thereby creating more difficult
conditions of asymmetrical loading. New York City has
long been a stronghold of steel construction, but here
too current towers are deferring to use reinforced
concrete in their cores as a new safety precaution
following the outcomes of the 9/11 World Trade
Towers collapse.
Although The Leadenhall Building in London, England
makes hybrid use of a diagrid frame for its front façade
and a megaframe with vertical supports for its side and
rear walls, it also avoids the use of a reinforced
concrete core. Leadenhall is quite unusual in its
placement of the core services outside of the main
office floor plan, locating these at the back of the tower.
What has yet to be established is the maximum height
or width to height ratio for a pure perimeter diagrid
system. That is, at what height is assistance required to
resist lateral loading that is best answered by a
reinforced concrete core. The storey heights of Swiss
Re (180m/40 floors), Hearst (182m/46 floors) and
Leadenhall (224m/50 floors) provide us with tested
built limits of this system.
6.3 Reinforced Concrete Cores
Diagrid towers of varying heights have made
widespread use of reinforced concrete cores. In the cast
of Supertall towers such as Guangzhou IFC or the
Canton Tower in Guangzhou, China, this has been
required to address additional lateral loading criteria
resulting from wind and seismic issues.
An additional interior diagrid tube is employed to
complete the structuring of the floor beams, creating a
donut like shape around the central atrium. This would
not be readily possible using a more traditional high
rise framing system. A similar arrangement was
proposed for the upper floors of the SOM version of
the Lotte Super Tower.
Capital Gate in Abu Dhabi, UAE designed by RMJM
Architects has also used a reinforced concrete core, in
this instance prestressed to counterbalance the 18o lean
of the tower. Like Guangzhou IFC the lower portion of
the tower is designated commercial office and the
upper portion as hotel. Capital Gate also uses the
strategy of an exterior perimeter diagrid in conjunction
with an interior diagrid to allow for the creation of a
multi-storey atrium for the upper half of the tower.
Similar to Guangzhou IFC the member size for the
interior atrium diagrid is smaller as a result of lighter loading. The additional interior diagrid assists
in resisting lateral loads.

7. Façade Design
7.1 Expressing the Diagrid in the Façade
Diagrid buildings tend to set themselves apart from the balance of tall or Supertall buildings by
virtue of their unique appearance. The current tendency in design is to express the use of the diagrid
on the building.
The treatment of the expression of the diagrid frame varies between projects as a function of the
desired aesthetic for expression of the frame (or not). The size of the diagrid is often expressed in
the cladding of the building. The modularity of the curtain wall normally will scale down the
dimensions of the diamonds or triangulated shapes to suit the height of the floors and requirements
for both fixed and operable windows. The decision to use a triangulated versus rectilinear curtain
wall system is not consistent and seems to be a function both of the overall size of the diagrid
structure as well as the form of the building itself. Buildings with more curvilinear forms tend to
use triangulated windows as these easily adapt to the form. Larger module diagrids are easier to
“fit” on the façade and can more easily accommodate standard rectilinear based curtain wall
systems as infill. The expression (or not) of the diagrid in the curtain wall also varies from project
to project. Again this is a function of the desired architectural expression.
7.2 Triangular Patterns
Many diagrid buildings, in particular those with a
curvilinear form, tend to subdivide the diagrid into
triangulated glazing. The use of triangular geometry
works like a “mesh” to allow for the approximation
of the curved form through the use of non-curved
elements. This is far more economical than using
true curves, even if the glazing system itself is more
expensive.
Aldar HQ in Abu Dhabi, although covering the steel
diagrid on the interior of the building with gypsum
board, chooses to express the location of the grids
on the exterior façade. Physically this was not
required as the envelope is outboard of the steel. It
was an aesthetic choice. This creates a prominent
diamond pattern on the façade that clearly presents
the diagrid module as an element of design. Capital
Gate in Abu Dhabi also uses triangulated glazing but
makes a more unobtrusive gesture on the façade
regarding the location of the diagrid situated behind
the glass. The very small 2 storey module size for
Capital Gate, to support the 18o lean, has resulted in
one of the smallest modules to date. The member Fig. 11: The large caps on the exterior of
sizes are large and to translate this to the façade
would have been quite overbearing. Instead a slight Aldar HQ indicate the position of the
color change at the grid is used to acknowledge the diagrid that sits behind the façade. The
pattern. These sorts of twisted forms tend to subdue glazing units have been triangulated
the reading of the module through to the façade.[7] within this system.
Glazing choices will need to also consider the inclusion of operable windows as sustainability
concerns increase. Operable windows have been incorporated into a number of the diagrid buildings
using triangular windows. Awning types with the point down seem to be the choice.

Fig. 12: Guangzhou IFC has placed
the diagrid behind the curtain wall,
using a rectilinear pattern that
positions horizontal mullions at each
floor level. Smaller units are required
at the curved corners.
equipment. In the case of Capital Gate, the interaction between the BIM modelling system for the
diagrid structure and the façade design software was essential to addressing the design of a structure
that boasts having no two of the 822 nodes or
8,250 members alike.
7.3 Orthogonal Patterns
Rectilinear curtain wall is often chosen for projects
whose forms are more planar. It is typically less
expensive than the customized triangulated option. For
commercial office functions these windows are a
practical solution for the provision of blinds and shades
and also partitions if subdivision of the interior needs to
extend to the perimeter of the building. Many of the
façade solutions for tall diagrid buildings will employ
windows that are the same height as the floor to floor
distance. Larger glazing units are more economical than
systems comprised of smaller units. The designer can
begin to play with the visual scale of the building in the
choice of window proportion.
The frequency and nature of operable units is also
important when selecting or designing the curtain wall
system. Natural ventilation is seeing an increase, even
in some high rise types. If operators are desired the size
of the unit, nature of opening, and protection from fall
hazard must be considered. Combined uses, such as
office and hotel, might also infer differentiated glazing,
both in terms of transparency as well as inclusion of
operable windows.
The bottom line with respect to the selection and the
design of the curtain wall is that it is greatly impacted
by the dimensions of the base module for the diagrid.
Larger modules allow more flexibility in the choice of
curtain wall. Smaller modules are more restrictive and
invariably lead to more complex glazing systems that
tend to be triangulated. This impacts labor costs as these
tend to be more time consuming to install and maintain
as they cannot be fitted with standard window washing

8. Exterior Diagrids
Although the majority of diagrid tower types that
have been constructed to date have placed the
diagrid on the inside of the curtain wall to protect
it from the environment, keeping the steel
structure in a temperature controlled environment
to minimize issues of thermal expansion, some
diagrids have been completed that place the
structure on the exterior. These are either located
in more temperate environments where thermal
expansion is less of an issue, or in situations, such Fig. 13: The exterior diagrid of Shelley
as sightseeing towers, where the exposed Street also employs a very shallow angle.
structure is quite critical to the aesthetic Given the limited height of the project, this
expression of the building. did not result in extreme issues with
A serious issue when placing a diagrid, or any increased member size. The more flattened
steel structure, outside in the elements is the use diamond worked well with the geometry of
of a high quality coating system and a method of the building.
detailing that is durable and that will not collect

Fig. 14: The Canton Tower has a
reinforced concrete core and
several sections of enclosed space
along the height of the
predominantly open tower.
water or run-off. The Shelley Street building in Sydney,
Australia, designed by Fitzpatrick and Partners with Arup,
first galvanized the steel diagrid structure prior to installing
a sealed metal covering system. As the climate of Sydney is
coastal, corrosion is a serious issue – enough to warrant this
double protection of the system.
The Canton Tower in Guangzhou, China and the Tokyo
Skytree Tower in Tokyo, Japan are useful to compare as
they would both appear to employ exterior diagrids
comprised of concrete filled steel tube systems. The
overlapping structure of the Canton Tower seems to more
closely reflect the earlier work of Shukhov in the avoidance
of the creation of nodes that complete the load transfer
through a point and in one plane. The open nature of the
Canton Tower structure has allowed for the overlap of the
extremely large tubes, something that would not be possible
within the constraints of a sealed envelope system.[8]
The Tokyo Skytree Tower uses a variation of a diagonal
grid type system. As it also extensively uses vertical
elements in the creation of the structure it cannot be classed
as a typical diagrid. In great contrast to the design of
Canton Tower, Tokyo Skytree relies on a dense network of
tubular steel framing to complete the structural system –
again deviating from the central idea that a diagrid for a
tower is normally a perimeter system.

9. New Potential Going Forward

At the time of the writing of this paper, contemporary
diagrid towers have been in existence for little more than
10 years. As a structural system that can not only provide
structure for tall towers, it is showing its capabilities at
adapting to a wide range of building shapes and
geometries, from curves to faceted crystalline shapes. The
applications are indeed quite elegant and this can be quite
directly attributed to the aesthetic potential of the diagrid
in its form giving qualities that can also be translated
through to the design of the façade.
Through the approach outlined in this paper, which is a
summary of a much larger body of work presented in
“Diagrid Structures: Systems, Connections, Details” it is
relatively easy to approach the design of a diagrid
building. The understanding of the relationships between
the height/form of the building and module must first be
understood prior to making the selection of the structural
materials and their shapes. One of the major challenges
for the design team will be in the design of the nodes, as
these multi tonne elements must be designed with some
efficiencies in order to facilitate quick and safe erection Fig. 15: The design of the Tokyo
and work within the constraints of the design of the Skytree employs some of the ideas of
interior finishes, fire protection and façade. a diagrid structure, but relies
heavily on vertical elements for its
strength.
10. References
Unless otherwise noted, images taken by author.
[1] BOAKE, T., Diagrid Structures: Systems, Connections, Details, Birkhäuser, 2012.
[2] Shukhov Tower Foundation. http://shukhov.org/
[3] MOON, K.S., “Optimal Grid Geometry of Diagrid Structures for Tall Buildings”,
Architectural Science Review, 2008.
[4] MOON, K.S., “Optimal Grid Geometry of Diagrid Structures for Tall Buildings”,
Architectural Science Review, 2008.
[5] MOON, K.S., Sustainable Selection of Structural Systems for Tall Buildings”, 5th Civil
Engineering Conference in the Asian Region and Australasian Structural Engineering
Conference, 2010.
[6] BAKER, W., BESJAK, C.M., MCELHATTEN, B.J., BISWAS, P., “555m Tall Lotte Super
Tower, Seoul, South Korea.” Structures Congress, 2009.
[7] SCHOFIELD, J., “Capital Gate, Abu Dhabi.” CTBUH Journal, issue II, 2012.
[8] MAN, K., CHOI, T., LAM, V., YAU, J., WONG, W., LAM, K., “Engineering the World’s
Tallest Freestanding Structure.”
http://www.hkengineer.org.hk/program/home/article.php?aid=6418&volid=141