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Overview of Piping Stress Analysis – G.Palani

1.0 Basic Strength of Materials

1.1 Stress Strain Curve:

1.2 Fatigue Basics

Steels and other metals are made up of organized patterns of molecules, known as
crystal structures. However, these patterns are not maintained throughout the steel
producing an ideal homogenous material, but are found in microscopic isolated
island-like areas called grains. Inside each grain the pattern of molecules is
preserved. From one grain boundary to the next the molecule pattern is the same,
but the orientation is differs. As a result, grain boundaries are high energy
borders.

Plastic deformation begins within a grain that is both subject high stress and
oriented such that the stress cause a slippage between adjacent layers in the same
pattern. The incremental slippages (called dislocations) cause local cold-working.

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On the first application of the stress, dislocations will move through many of the
grains that are in the local area of high stress. As the stress is repeated, more
dislocations will move through their respective grains. Dislocation movement is
impeded by the grain boundaries, so after multiple stress applications, the
dislocations tend to accumulate at grain boundaries, and eventually becoming so
dense that the grains “lock up”, causing a loss of ductility and thus preventing
further dislocation movement.

Subsequent applications of the stress cause the grain to tear, forming cracks.
Repeated stress applications cause the crack to grow. Unless abated, the cracks
propagate with additional stress applications until sufficient cross sectional
strength is lost to cause catastrophic failure of the material. The figure below
illustrates this process.

1.3 Maximum Principal Stress Theory:

This theory states that yielding in a piping component occurs when the magnitude
of any of the three mutually perpendicular principle stresses exceeds the yield
point strength of the material. This theory forms the basis for piping systems
governed by ASME B31.3. This theory is also called as Rankine Theory.

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Overview of Piping Stress Analysis – G.Palani

2.0 Piping Design Consideration Loadings:

A piping system constitutes an irregular space frame into which strain and stress
may be introduced by due to various circumstances during operation, standby or
shutdown also exist the during initial fabrication and erection.

2.1 Static and Dynamic Loads:

Static loading include:

a) Weight effect (live loads and dead loads)

b) Thermal expansion and contraction effects
c) Effect of support, guides, stops, anchor, and terminal movements due to
equipment, foundation due to settlement and temperature changes.
d) Internal or external pressure loading

Live loads include weight of content, snow and ice loads. Dead loads consist of
weight of piping valves, flanges, insulation and other superimposed permanent
loads.

Dynamic loading include:

a) Impact forces
b) Wind
c) Earthquake / Seismic loads
d) Vibration
e) Discharge loads due to PSV

2.2 Primary Loads, Secondary Loads and Occasional Loads

From piping stress analysis point of view the following are the main loads to be
considered for the design,

A primary loads occur from Sustained loads like dead weight, live weight,
internal pressure etc and are called non-self limiting loads.
Secondary loads occur from thermal expansion loads like temperature
change, anchors and restraints etc and are called self-limiting loads.
Occasional loads occur from static wind and seismic loads and are
considered to act occasionally.

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Overview of Piping Stress Analysis – G.Palani

3.0 Piping Design Consideration Stresses:

The three basic stresses in the analysis of static piping system are,

a) Primary
b) Secondary
c) Occasional

3.1 Primary Stress:

Primary Stress are the direct, shear or bending stresses generated

by the imposed loading which are necessary to satisfy the simple
laws of equilibrium of internal and external forces and moments.
Among the primary stresses due to external effects are the direct
longitudinal and circumferential stresses due to internal pressure
and the bending and Torsional stresses due to dead load, snow and
ice, wind or earthquake.
The basic characteristic of a primary stress is that it is not self-
limiting.
If a part is loaded mechanically beyond its yield strength, the part
will continue to yield until it breaks, unless the deflection is limited
by strain hardening or stress redistribution.
In general the level of primary stress directly measures the ability
of piping system to withstand the imposed loading safely.

3.2 Secondary Stress:

Whenever the expansion or contraction that would occur normally

as a result of heating or cooling an object is prevented, thermal
stresses are developed.
The stress is always caused by some form of mechanical restraint.
Thermal stresses are never classified as primary stresses. Thermal
stresses are “secondary stresses” because they are self-limiting.
That is, yielding or deformation of the part relaxes the stress.
Thermal stresses will not cause failure by rupture in ductile
materials except by fatigue over repeated applications. They can,
however, cause failure due to excessive deformations.
Both pressure and temperature stress, if applied in a sufficient
number of repetitive applications, may result in fracture by fatigue.
The restraint is an object or component that supports a pipe in a
manner that restricts thermal movement.

3.3 Occasional Stress:

The stresses acting on the piping due to wind and seismic are
classified as Occasional Stresses.

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Overview of Piping Stress Analysis – G.Palani

4.0 ASME B 31.3 Code allowable stresses:

4.1 Internal Pressure Stresses:

Stresses due to internal pressure are considered safe when the pipe wall
thickness and reinforcement are adequate.

4.2 Longitudinal Stresses (SL):

The sum of the longitudinal stresses resulting from pressure, weight, and
other sustained loadings shall not exceed the basic allowable stress for
material at maximum metal temperature Sh. The thickness of pipe used in
calculating SL shall be the nominal thickness, T, minus mechanical,
corrosion, and erosion allowance, c, for the location under consideration.

4.3 Allowable Stress Range for Displacement Stresses:

The allowable stress range SA is given by:

SA = f (1.25Sc + 0.25 Sh)

Where

Sc= basic allowable stress for the material at minimum (cold) metal
temperature, psi
Sh= basic allowable stress for the material at maximum (hot) metal
temperature, psi
F= stress reduction factor for cyclic conditions for the total number of
full temperature cycles over expected life.

When Sh is greater than the calculated values of SL, the difference

between them may be added to the term 0.25 Sh in above equation. In this
case the allowable stress range becomes:

SA = f (1.25(Sc + Sh) - S L)

4.4 Occasional Stresses (302.3.6 B31.3 Code):

The sum of longitudinal stresses SL due to sustained loads, such as

pressure and weight, and of the stresses produced by occasional loads,
such as wind and earthquake, may be as much as 1.33 times the basic
allowable stress given in Appendix-A of B 31.3 code.

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Overview of Piping Stress Analysis – G.Palani

5.0 Flexibility:

Piping system should have sufficient flexibility so that thermal expansion or

contraction or movements of supports and terminal points will not cause:

a) Failure of piping or support from overstress or fatigue

b) Leakage at joints
c) Overstress or loads in connected equipment such as rotating and stationary
equipments.

5.1 Methods for calculating flexibility:

5.1.1 Guided Cantilever Method (Non-Code method)

= 144 L2 SA
3ED0

= permissible deflection, inches

SA = allowable stress range, psi
L = length of leg needed to absorb the expansion, feet
D0 = outside diameter of pipe, inches
E = Young’s Modulus, psi

For detailed calculation of Guided Cantilever Method, refer Design of

Piping System, by M.W. Kellogg Company, Chapter-4 – Simplified
Method for Flexibility Analysis.

5.2 Code Flexibility Analysis (B 31.3, 319.4):

Formal Analysis not required (319.4.1): No formal analysis of adequate

flexibility is required for a piping system which

a) duplicates, or replaces without significant changes, a system operating

with a successful service record
b) can readily be judged adequate by comparison with previously analyzed
systems
c) is of uniform size, has no more than two points of fixation, no
intermediate restraints, and falls within the limitations of empirical
equation – 16 below,

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Overview of Piping Stress Analysis – G.Palani

d) No general proof can be offered that the equation 16 will yield accurate or
consistently conservative results. It is not applicable to systems used under
severe cyclic conditions. There is no assurance that terminal reactions will
be acceptable low, even if a piping system falls within the limitations of
equation-16.
e) To provide a simple criterion for the recognition of those systems required
detailed analysis, efforts have been made to establish a rule of thumb
capable of giving a rough idea of relative flexibility. This is the basis of
the formula in the 1955 edition of Piping Code (ASA B31.1), which
contains requirements for mandatory examination of the flexibility of
piping systems to avoid requiring complete analysis of all piping if the
equation-16 is not satisfied.
f) The equation-16 does not directly evaluate stresses; thus, the actual
maximum stress range SE contained in equation-16 can be found from
below equation-4.3

Where, R = L/U, ratio of developed pipe length to anchor distance.

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SE = 16,800 psi

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Overview of Piping Stress Analysis – G.Palani

5.3 Formal Analysis Requirement:

Any piping system which does not meet the criteria in paragraph 319.4.1
above shall be analyzed by a simplified, approximate, or comprehensive
method of analysis.

The formula to determine the actual displacement stress range SE, which
shall not exceed the allowable stress range SA in equation above.

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Overview of Piping Stress Analysis – G.Palani

For branch connections, the resultant bending stress requires attention

because the section modulus value Z used for header and branch is slightly
different.

5.4 Severe Cyclic Conditions / Required for weld quality assurance

(319.4.5):

The conditions applying to specific piping components or joints in which

SE computed in accordance with paragraph 319.4.4 exceeds 0.8 SA, and
the equivalent number of cycles exceeds 7000.

6.0 Stress Intensification Factor (SIF):

The ratio of the maximum stress in the curved pipe bend to that which would exist
in straight pipe subject to the same moment is termed as SIF.

In-plane bending refers to the case in which the pipe is subjected to bending by
forces or moments applied in the plane of the bend.

Out-of-plane bending designates the case in which the forces and moments act
perpendicularly to the plane of the bend. Obviously, these two cases can be
combined to give a solution for forces or moments acting in any arbitrary plane.

As per ASME B31.3, the figure for bending moments, in-plane and out-plane SIF
for bends and branch connections are show below,

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6.1 Piping handbook, Nayar:

It is the ratio of the maximum stress intensity to the nominal stress,

calculated by the ordinary formulas of mechanics. It is used as a safety
factor to account for the effect of localized stresses on piping under a
repetitive loading.

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In piping design, this factor is applied to welds, fittings, branch

connections and other piping components, where stress concentrations and
possible fatigue failure might occur. Usually, experimental methods are
used to determine these factors.

6.2 Coade Seminar Notes:

A.R.C. Markl investigated the phenomenon of fatigue failure of piping

during 1940’s and 1950’s and published his result in papers such as
“Piping Flexibility Analysis” in 1955. He tested a number of
configurations (Straight pipe, and various fittings, such as elbow, miter
bend, Unreinforced and reinforced fabricated tee, welding tee, etc.) mostly
4” nominal diameter.

Markl noticed that the fatigue failure occurred not in the middle of his test
spans, but primarily in the vicinity of the fittings, and in those cases, they
also occurred at lower stress/cycle combinations than for the straight pipe
alone.

It had been shown that elbows tend to ovalize during bending, bringing the
outer fiber closer to the neutral axis of the pipe, thus reducing the moment
of inertia (increasing flexibility) and the section modulus (increasing
developed stress).

6.3 Paulin Research Group (PRG) Notes:

SIFs are obtained from tests and equations written to extend the usefulness
of the tests. The Markl machine is the standard machine used to develop
SIFs.

First mount the water-filled specimen to be tested in a Markl machine as

shown below at PRG in Houston.

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Cycle the specimen back and forth until water leaks from a crack as shown
in the figure below.

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Overview of Piping Stress Analysis – G.Palani

6.4 SIF (Practical Guide for ASME B31.3)

The below figures are example of the fixtures for SIF testing. This testing
program first established an equation to represent the fatigue life of a butt
weld in a straight length of pipe when cycled at a constant displacement.
This equation, for ASTM A 106 Grade B piping material, is:

This testing program then tested tees at the same displacement as the butt
welded pipe samples and found that the tees failed after fewer
displacement cycles. The stress was calculated and compared to that of the
butt welded pipe.

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The ratio of these stresses in the SIF of the tee, and the fatigue equation
was modified for the tee and all other piping component as:

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Overview of Piping Stress Analysis – G.Palani

7.0 Fatigue example for Static Analysis

Piping and vessels have been known to suffer from sudden failure following years
of successful service. A plot of the cyclic stress capacity of a material is called a
fatigue (or endurance) curve. These curves are generated through multiple cyclic
tests at different stress levels.

The number of cycles to failure usually increases as the applied cyclic stress
decreases, often until a threshold stress (known as endurance limit) is reached
below which no fatigue failure occurs, regardless of the number of applied cycles.
An endurance curve for carbon and low alloy steels, taken from the ASME
Section VIII Division 2 Pressure Vessel Code is shown in the following figure.

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Overview of Piping Stress Analysis – G.Palani

8.0 References

1. Design of Piping Systems – The M.W. Kellogg Company

2. Introduction to Pipe Stress Analysis – Sam Kannappan. P.E.
3. ASME B31.3 – 2004 – ASME Process Piping Code
4. Practical Guide to ASME B31.3 – Glynn E. Woods, P.E. and Roy B.
Baguley, P.E.
5. Piping Handbook - Mohinder L. Nayyar
6. Coade Pipe Stress Analysis Seminar Notes
7. Caesar-II – Technical Reference Manual
8. Paulin Research Group

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