Final-Paper 2a

Sapiens IAS: 2nd paper/section-a by Pradip Sarkar
SAPIENS IAS
Paper-2/a
Pradip sarkar
www.sapiensias.in pg. 1
DEMOGRAPHY: EVALUATION OF POPULATION POLICY

India today possesses about 2.4% of total land area of the world but she has to
support 17% of the world population. At the beginning of 20th century, India’s
population was 236 million. According to 2011 census the population is 1220
million. A study of growth rate of India population into 4 phases as follows
Census year increase in Population in percentage Remarks
population Million increased
1921 236 - 251 15 0.19 Stagnant
population:
stage of
demographic
transition
1951 236 – 251 110 1.22 Steady growth
2nd stage of
demographic
transition
1981 236 -251 322 2.14 Rapid high
growth or
population
explosion of 2nd
stage of
demographic
transition
2001 683 – 1027 344 2.05 High growth
rate with
definite sign of
slowing down, a
welcome trend
should be
strengthened
THEORY OF DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION: It postulates a three stage of of

birth & death rate as typically associated with economic development.
1. I- STAGE: HIGH BIRTH RATE & HIGH DEATH RATE – STAGNANT

POPULATION
Reason of high death rate: frequent famine and epidemic, primitive sanitation,
absence of medical aid
Reason of high birth rate: agrarian economy and preponderance of poverty,

high rate of illiteracy, absence of knowledge of family planning techniques,
early age of marriage. deep rooted social customs.
2. II- STAGE: LOW DEATH RATE & HIGH BIRTH RATE- POPULATION
EXPLOSION
Reason of low death rate: improved diet, eradication of famine & diseases (ex.
malaria, TB, etc.), improvement in hygiene and sanitation, availability of safe
drinking water and medical aids.
Reason of High Birth Rate: similar socio-economic conditions exist or same as

1st stage.
3. III- STAGE: LOW DEATH RATE OF LOW BIRTH RATE
Reason of low birth rate: increase in urbanization & industrialization,

maintaining reasonable standard of living, small size of family, modern
education, awareness of contraceptives, undermining social beliefs & customs
that aid in the increase in population.
CAUSES OF RAPID GROWTH OF POPULATION IN INDIA: A high birth rate

and relatively lower death rate & immigration are responsible for population
growth in a country. However, in India it is high birth rate which can be
attributed to the population explosion since India has already cheeked high
death rate.
Factors responsible for high birth rate in India: as follows
ECONOMIC FACTORS:
(i). Poverty: Poverty was predominant in India. Poor people prefer to have
large family as among poor economic cost of children are low and the economic
& other benefits from children are high. Consequently, poor people do have
more children which provide increasing number of hands for earning.
(ii). Predominance of agriculture: In India agriculture is more or less intensive

one, which requires more labor, so large family size can serve the need of
agricultural activities.
CASE STUDY: In Kerala & Goa, probably social awareness has brought down the
reproduction rate in spite of the fact that nature of the economy still remains
essentially agrarian.
(iii). Slow urbanization process & preponderance of villages – In urban areas

because of spatial constraints, increasing standard of living and higher cost or
upbringing & education of children, urban people keep population size under
control. However, India has failed to urbanize rapidly.
SOCIAL FACTORS:
It includes near university of marriage, lower age at the time of marriage,

religious & social superstitions, joints family system, lack of education & a very
limited use of contraceptives. The use of contraceptive is confined to the
educated urban people. Hence education should receive high overriding
priority.
Some demographers argue that India or for that matter any other country
cannot have a birth rate for long period, after the death rate has declined.
CONSEQQUNCES OF OVER POPULATION:
Economic: Low per capita income, inadequate increase in food production or

lack of food security, growing employment & under employment, low level of
capital formation and increasing burden of unproductive consumers.
Social: low standard of living including education nutrition medical facilities

housing etc.
Legal: increasing crime, poor law & order situation, corruption, lack of peace &
prosperity
Environmental: poor sanitation & unhygienic condition, environmental

degradation such as noise, air, water, soil pollution, global warming, ozone
depletion etc.
POPULATION POLICIES OF THE SUCCESSIVE GOVERNMENTS:
STRATEGY: controlling birth rate & sustaining reduced death rate
POLICIES OF EARLIER PHASE:
India was the first country in the world to adopt family planning program in
1952. During the first decade of family planning, family planning program was
taken on modest scale with clinical approach & emphasis was only on research
in the field of demography, physiology of reproduction, communication &
motivation.
Serious thinking of the population growth was reflected in the 3rd plan. A full -
fledged department of family planning was created in 1966 in the health
ministry & clinical approach was supplemented by extension & cafeteria
approach.
4Th PLAN:
Emphasis on group acceptance of a small family norm, personal knowledge

about family planning methods, and ready availability of supplies and services.
5Th PLAN:
Integration of family planning programme along with health, maternity and

child health care, nutritional services at all levels.
The 1976 FAMILY PLANNING APPROACH: more direct measures adopted

which are as follow:
(i) Raising the minimum age of marriage to 21 years for males and 18 years for
female.
(ii) Introducing population value in the education system and increasing the
monetary incentive for sterilization.
(iii) Planned to involve zila parishads, Panchayat samities, cooperatives,

teachers, Workers organization and a number of voluntary organizations
including women and youth organizations.
(iv) Permission to state legislatures to pass legislation for compulsory

sterilization.
The use of coercive methods discredited the entire family planning programme.
FAMILY PLANNING DURINGO 80s: Nothing significant happened.
THE NEW STRATEGY:
Decentralization of family planning programme, focus attention on younger

couples who are reproductively most active, introducing certain disincentives
to non-adopters of family planning and recognition of the role of education,
information and communication.
Research and developments methods aimed at regulation of fertility both in

males and females.
EVALUATION OF THE POPULATION POLICY:
India needs an imaginative population policy to deal with the present

population problem. Unfortunately, in this country, the government has failed
to adopt or formulate such a policy. Nowhere in the world, rate of population
growth has declined without the spread of education among the masses and
substantial improvement in these standard of living and yet in India these
aspect have been very much ignored in the government's drive to bring about a
fall in the fertility rate, greater emphasis on family planning programme to
realize this objective in a social environment which is non receptive to people,
clearly betrays the understanding of the programme. To be more specific, the
major features in the approach of the government are as follows:
1. Over emphasis on contraceptives.
2. Inappropriateness of coercive methods of 1976 hurt the dignity of people

and are counterproductive.
Persuasion supplemented by monetary compensation as well as group

incentives and disincentives remain the best policy.
In other words, the Individuals couple must be free to choose the methods of
family planning.
3. Adhocism and shifting family planning approach:
Early 50s: clinical approach, planned parenthood movement of the western

countries.
Extension approach imported from the west and assumed to be answer to the
problem.
Camp approach and coercive methods.
In India the family planning programme in spite of all its limitations has made
some impact in the urban areas. Similar success in rural areas is not easy to
realize. Therefore, to stabilize the population by 2045 and to improve quality of
life the following should be given importance:
Expansion of the industrial sector, creation of employment opportunities in

urban areas, equitable distribution of income and removal of poverty, education
in general and education for girls in particular in both urban & rural areas
should receive overriding priority for arresting the rapid growth of population.
Improving the status of women thus development is the best contraceptives
RACIAL CLASSIFICATION BY GUHA

B.S. GUHA in 1931 has classified Indian ethnic types into six division such as
Negroid, Proto-Australoid, Mongoloid, Mediterranean, Western Brachycephalic
& Nordic. This is based on the original anthropometric measurements made by
him during 1931 census operation.
1. NEGRITO ELEMENTS: They were considered to be the 1st immigrants to

India. However, in the mainland this type is not very well represented, though
cases of frizzly hair have been reported. It has been found that the KADAR of
the hills of Cochin & Travancore & IRULAS of Wayanad district of Kerala exhibit
Negrito features. At present they are much limited & seems to have been
pushed into hills of south India.
FEATURES:
 Skin color is dark brown to black.

 Eyes are black.
 Hairs are wooly or frizzly.
 Head is small which is mesocephalic or dolichocephalic.
 Flat & board nose.
 Bulbous forehead & smooth supra orbital ridges.
 Stature is very short.
(2) PROTO – AUSTRALOID:
In addition to the Negrito, the aboriginal population of peninsular India has

another variety of primitive ethnic elements with is wide spread. Most of the
tribes of central & southern India belongs to this type. They are well
represented by Oraon, Santhal & Munda of Chotanagpur region, Chenchu,
Kurumba & Badagas of south India.
FEATURES:
 Skin color varies from dark- brown to nearly black.

 Eyes black or dark brown.
 Wavy or curly hair.
 Head is dolichocephalic.
 Markedly platyrrhine nose with a slight depression at the root.
 Forehead less developed & slightly receding.
 Stature is short.
 Supra orbital ridges are often prominent.
 Limbs are delicate.
The most obvious non-metric character which distinguish proto – Australoid

from Negroid type are:
 Depressed root of the nose.

 Strong development of supra orbital ridge & a broad nose. They also
differ from the Negritos in their hair which is not frizzly or wooly.
(3) MONGOLOID:
They are believed to have entered India through north eastern gate in different
times. They are generally distinguished by their flat face, prominent cheek
bones, straight hairs which are quite scanty on body & face, eyes are obliquely
set with epicanthic fold. They can be divided in two types (i) PALEO-
MONGOLOID, they are further sub-divided into two sub-types on the basis of
head (a) long headed (b) broad headed.
Long headed group has medium nose & stature. Their eyes are obliquely
shaped but epicanthic fold is not always prominent e.g. tribes of Assam,
frontier regions of Burma, Sengma-Nagas of Assam and the limbos of Nepal.
Broad headed group has obliquely shaped eyes with prominent epicanthic fold.
This sub – division is represented by the Lepchas of Kalimpong & hill tribal
groups of Chittagong e.g. Chakma.
(ii). TIBETO MONGOLOID:
 Their head is broad & massive.

 Face is long & flat.
 Tall stature.
 Eyes obliquity shaped with prominent epicanthic fold.
 Skin color is light brown.
Examples: well represented by Tibetans of Bhutan & Sikkim.
(4). MEDITERRANEAN:
This type comprises a number of closely graded types which can be

distinguished on the basis of their moderate stature, long head, slight built and
dark complexion. They can be classified into three following types:
(i). PALEO- MEDETERRANIAN: The representatives of this types are Tamil &
Telegu brahmins & Nayars.
(ii). MEDETERRANIAN PROPER: It is closely skin to the European tribe, entered

this country later & whose remains have been found in large number in the
Chalcolithic sites of the Indus valley. Today it forms a dominant element in the
population of north India. They are
 Medium to tall stature.

 Light skin color varies from dark to light olive brown in different
regions.
Examples: They are represented by Namboodiri brahmins of Cochin, brahmins

of Allahabad & Maratha women of Indore.
(iii). ORIENTAL TYPAE: This is the latest of the Mediterranean strain to enter
India. It is very similar to the Mediterranean type but differs in the nose which
is long & convex. Skin color is of lighter shade. Their typical representatives are
found in Punjab, Rajasthan & UP.
5. WESTERN BRACHYCEPHAL:
It is believed that more than one type of board headed ethnic type entered into
the composite of Indian population. They belonged to Western brachycephal
which can be distinguished into three types:
(i). ALPINOID:
 Broad headed.
 Prominent nose.
 Complexion is lighter than found among Mediterranean.
(ii). DINARIC:
 Tall stature
 Dark skin, hair & eyes colors
 Nose is very long
Its typical representatives include Bengali brahmins & brahmins of Mysore
It is claimed that Alpino-Dinaric people entered India through Baluchistan,

Sindh, Gujrat, Karnataka, Maharashtra & then to Ceylon. This type is well
represented in Indus valley civilization.
(iii). ARMENOID:
They snow strong similarity with Dinaric. However, their nose is more
prominent than the Dinaric & have depressed root. Parsis of Bombay & Bengali
Baidyas are their typical representatives.
6. NORDIC:
They are believed to have come from central-Asia, Turkistan & they are said to
have entered India through north western India & settled in Punjab around
2000 B.C. They have long head & long face with strong jaws. Nose is fine,
narrow & straight. They have robust body & fair complexion. Their eyes have
bluish or greyish tinge.
This ethnic type is periodically found in Northern India ex. Punjab & Rajasthan.
Their typical representatives include Red Kaffirs, Kho of central & Khatast of
Rampur and the pathans of Bijapur.
CRITICISMS:
Though the above classification is being widely used, it is not accepted by some
of the scholars mainly because of following grounds;
(i). Guha’s findings regarding Negrito elements have been vehemently opposed.
(ii). Guha considered that India must have been the paradise for the
evolutionary diversification of different racial tribes who came from outside. It
was strongly opposed.
(iii). Extent of brachycephalisation as envisaged by Guha has been denied

particularly by S.S. Sarkar.
(iv). The co- efficient of racial likelihood which forms the basis of Guha’s
classification has not been accepted universally.
NEGRITO ELEMENTS IN INDIA

The main proponents of Negrito element in India were Hutton & Guha. Hutton
on the basis of his study of ANGAMI NAGA & Guha on the basis of studies of
tribes of south India, put forth the idea of presence of Negrito elements in
Indian population. However, they have been criticized by Sarkar & D.N.
Mazumdar.
FEATURES OF NEGRIOID ELEMENTS: are given below
 Skin color is dark brown to black.

 Eyes are black.
 Hairs are wooly or frizzly.
 The head is small which is monocephalic or dolichocephalic.
 Bulbous foreheads & smooth supra orbital ridges.
 The stature is very short.
ARGUMENTS IN FAVOUR OF NEGRITO ELEMENTS IN INDIA:
HUTTON studied Anāgāmi Nagas & observed sporadic occurrence of Negrito

hair among them. He also put several cultural evidences to show that Angami
Nagas are related to Negritos.
Hutton was supported by B.S. Guha. Guha found the presence of wooly & frizzly
hair among 16 Kadar individuals. Guha collected cranial materials from Naga
hills & claimed some of them resemble the Negrito skull & having low forehead
& deep nasal root.
Guha’s view has been criticized by many several grounds. Through form
texture of hairs is one of the social criteria. It seems that Guha over played the
evidence by putting too much emphasis on a single criterion.
CRITICIMS BY SARKAR & D.N. MAZUMDAR:
Sarkar made extensive study of Kadar of South India, that included

Anthropometry, somatotyping, blood group etc. He came to the conclusion that
in no way the Negrito trait is demonstrated. He concluded that Kadar of south
India are very much similar to proto-Australoid of south India in terms of skull
& other features.
2) D.N. Mazumdar studied skeletal remains from different sites of India, ranging
from Neolithic to iron age, there is no evidence to indicate presence of Negrito
elements in India during those times. According to Mazumdar, ‘’Had there been
an assimilation of Negrito race by Indian population, the characteristic Negrito
traits such as wooly hair & small stature associated with flat nose & dark
complexion would have been met frequently in Northern India as well.
Admittedly, there have been some Negroid settlements in the coastal region of
India, particularly in Gujrat coast & participation Negrito elements in the Indian
population. But such things occurred comparatively in later times, that in no
way influenced the ethnic makeup of Indian population.
Hence it can be said that these were local phenomena & as such these Negroid
did not get chance to contribute their share in a considerable manner to the
ethnic makeup of Indian population.
TRADITIONAL BASIS OF INDIAN SOCIETY

PURUSARTHA:
Purusartha is a psycho-moral bases of Indian society which gives meaning to

man and his existence. It includes Dharma, Artha, Karma, & Moksha. Purushstha
in its 4-fold schemes follows the reward and punishment model. Purusartha
gets expressed through varna-ashrama & associated with other social bases. It
served many purposes in the past as well as today with certain modifications.
COMPONENTS OF PRUSARTHA:
(1) DHARMA:
Dharma has been derived from a Sanskrit word Dhri meaning what to adopt. In
general terms it refers to ethics or ethical order and duties or obligation. It is
the basis of Indian ethical system. It prophesizes a sobering effect on the
member of a society to stick to certain ethical norms which are not desirable.
Dharma is not religion, it is righteousness.
(2). ARTHA:
It refers to material or worldly things. All the members of animal kingdom

follow artha, but man should follow it differently. It is also related with
acquisition of power including political power.
(3). KARMA:
It refers to pleasure or satisfaction of senses. In common parlance, it is the

sexual satisfaction or needs of the flesh. In intellectual view, it includes
aesthetic satisfaction i.e. music, painting, dancing. Although ‘sex’ is the central
theme.
(4). MOKSHA:
In general view, it means emancipation from the endless cycle of life & death.
On higher intellectual plain, it is a stage of self-realization i.e. we are the part of
that ultimate reality, we are the part of Brahma. Upanishad says that salvation
means merging of souls with super soul i.e. Paramatma. As per Hindu social
order moksha is the highest reward & rebirth is punishment. The repeated
death is a curse & emancipation of endless cycle of death and birth is the
ultimate goal and thus merging of soul with super-soul. It is a book view i.e. the
idea of ideal society which never existed. Salvation is reward which motivates
man to follow Artha & Karma according to Dharma.
PURUSHARTHA & ITS INTREGRATION WITH ANOTHER BASIS:
Purushartha is an abstract idea. It cannot get expressed on its own. It is only

expressed through the practice of varna - ashrama scheme. It is also associated
with Rina & Rebirth & Karma in the following way:
Fig. RELATION OF PURUSHARTHA WITH OTHER BASES
PAST RELEVANCE OF PURUSARTHA:
It gives meaning to the existence of man with respect to Kama & Artha man is
like other animal however other animals do not have too many alternatives
options, but man does have. So, he is in a dilemma most of the time in his life
e.g. Most other animals have a mating season but man can make love
throughout the year. So, he should follow certain norms & values. If he defies,
then he is punished. Man has to follow the guide line of Dharma, while enjoying
Artha & Kama. In this way man is different. from other animals.
Besides, man can conceptualize death & life, the only animal which can do so. It
suggests that man has not only a biological existence, but it has some existence
beyond biology as well i.e. if your life is not guided by Dharma you cannot be a
true human being. Thus, Purushartha helps one become a graceful person.
Ancient societies, particularly Vedic society did not have mechanism for law
and order control like law investigating and enforcement agencies, judiciary,
police, jail etc. as found in many societies. As a result, the society had to design a
way of life which was based upon morality or dharma & thereby ensuring self-
control. By controlling individual behavior, ancient society thus sought to
ensure social control. was ensured.
FACTORS & FORCES RESPONSIBLE FOR CHANGES IN PURUSHARTHA:
 Emergence of modern state. It is entrusted to look after the welfare of

people & maintenance of social order.
 Abject poverty, rampant unemployment and underemployment.

 Introduction of monetized economy which can be stored for future
purpose without any burden.
 Expanding means of transport & communication.
 Industrialization & urbanization.
 Modern education and scientific temperament.
 Growing individualism & consumerism.
PRESENT RELEVANCE:
Purshartha, the psycho moral basis of Indian society is still working. This
ideology of Hindu Indian society has been contributing to maintain law & order
in India. India is a country of 1.3 billion population characterized by highe level
of illiteracy, inadequate enforcement of law and order machineries etc. still
India shows lower crime graph in comparison to western or developed
countries. This achievement can be attributed to self-control although not
denying the fact of contributions of formal agencies.
Although purusartha has diluted because of modern forces & factors yet it is
present and relevant in present day India
VARNASHRAM
Varna-ashrama refers to four stages of life & they are value obligations
including Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha & Sanyasi. It is a way to
achieve Purushartha. Varna-asrama played important role in ancient time &
also playing due role today under the pressure of modern factors and forces.
VARIOUS STAGES OF VARNASHRAM:
(1) BRAHAMCHARYA:
It is a life of learners or student, complete celibacy is maintained, strict

discipline should be followed and one should dedicate oneself to the
acquisition of knowledge through single minded devotion. The Upanayana or
the sacred thread ceremony was to initiate this stage of life. Initially only
Brahmins were allowed later kshatriyas & Vaishyas allowed & the shudras
were never allowed. Even timing varied i.e. for Brahmin 8 to 9 years.
Kshatriyas 11 and Vaishyas 13 years. Formal education was imparted in
Gurukul. Pupils followed a strict & rigorous life. A Brahmacharya should follow
only Dharma & no Artha or Kama. These are Guru dharma, Guru mata dharma
and Sakha dharma.
(2) GRISHATHA:
After completion of Brahmacharya, a man came back home and entered into
Grihastha Ashram. At Grihastha one had to earn Artha & indulge in Karma
under the guidance of Dharma in order to achieve moksha. Sociologically &
anthropologically this phase of life is the most important because in this stage
one has to repay certain debts & also indulges in ‘Kama’, consequently new
generation comes which ensures social continuity.
(3) VANAPRASTHA:
It is a transitory Ashram, which is a logical outcome. It does not mean total

detachment. It means to relation with the world gets weakened. Man is
supposed to meditate, observe rituals and take minimal interest in social
activities. If possible, resides in nearby forest & learn to live with minimum
amenities i.e. withdrawal of comforts. It was preparation for full detachment or
renunciation of worldly life. Wife could accompany him to jungle, but they
should abstain from sexual life during Vanaprastha, it is to lead a simple &
austere life which is away from humdrum of worldly life. But he is not
completely free. If he is required to help society, he has to oblige & again come
back.
The importance of vanaprastha is to avoid conflict between generations. It was

a brilliant mechanism in ancient India to avoid clash between generation as
every generation is product of time, thereby purpose of Vanaprastha was to
avoid tension.
(4) SANYASI:
It is the stage of total renunciation. In this stage, person is nameless & faceless.
He has to preach truth, teach the people & to be absolutely detached. He should
not accumulate. Many scriptures say that symbolic cremation was done by
family members in his life time implying the social death. Certain variation is
there in this Ashram. Some say that Sanyasi means going out of vihar. The
Geeta says that a Karma yogi is a sanyasi and it is not necessary to live in jungle
for this purpose. By pursuing path of knowledge, selflessness and detachment
one could live in society within four walls of households and also attain
moksha.
If one skips off any one ashram & goes directly from Brahmacharya to Sanyasi,
then he may be punished & treated as violators and thereby not attaining
salvation and receive rebirth and status at rebirth is determined by his karma.
STATUS OF WOMEN IN SANYASI ASHRAM:
Existence of female Sanyasi was there e.g. Gargi, Lopamudra, Ritambara etc.
since wife is treated as ardhangini or better half. She can earn ‘moksha’ if her
husband attains moksha. Hence, she was not asked to go to ‘vana’ or jungle &
become Sanyasi. Hence, she lived at home with family.
CRITICISM OF SANYAS ASHRAM:
Western critics found it as an unproductive approach. When a person has

knowledge, he should share it, why was he asked to live the social life. But
interpretation of the Gita is above all these. According to the Gita, one can
spend sanyasi stage within four walls of worldly life.
RELATIONSHIP OF ASHRAMA WITH OTHER BASES:
Varna-ashrama give expression to purushartha along with other bases of

traditional society in the following way:
Fig. RELATION OF VARNA-ASHRAMA WITH OTHER BASES
FACTORS & FORCES RESPONSIBLE FOR CHANGE IN VARNASHRAMAS: as

follow:
 Abject poverty and Lack of employment opportunities

 Modern education
 Emergence of modern state
 Introduction of monetized economy
 Expanding means of transport & communication
 Industrialization & Urbanization
 Growing individualism & consumerism
 Scientific temperament
RELEVANCE OF VARNASHRAM:
Though Ashram scheme got diluted to a great extent in present day Indian
society in comparison to ancient India however, this scheme is still present in
one or another from. People do not learn at Gurukul but they attend school
system; individual enter the Grihastha stage after Brhamachrya stage although
this stage is lengthened , yet they fulfill their right & obligation of this stage;
vanaprastha & sannyasa stage do not require to live in jungle today, after an
active working life, retirement can be equated with vanaprastha. People do not
pursue Sanyasi stage in letter but do in spirit.
Thus, Vanaprastha is a very important base, which is the bearer of purushartha

& Rina. Thus, it has transformed under the modern forces & factors yet people
pursue it in spirit.
RINA AND REBIRTH

‘Rina’ refers to ‘social debt’, which is all pervading in our value system. Every
individual comes to the world with certain social debts & he has to repay this in
his life time. There are four different types of Rina including Deva Rina, Rishi
Rina, Pitri Rina & Atithi Rina. If a person fails to repay his debt, he cannot attain
Moksha & consequently he has to take rebirth. It served society in the past as
well as at present with certain modifications.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF RINA AND THEIR MODE OF REPAYMENT:
1. Deva Rina: refers to Rina to gods & goddess. The social mechanism to repay
this debt is by performing different rituals & by reciting religious text in daily
life etc.
2. Rishi Rina: It is Rina to teachers or Gurudeva for eliminating darkness from

the minds of people & thereby to illuminate one’s mind. The mechanism to
repay this Rina is to pay tribute to teachers or Gurudakshina & by sharing
knowledge with others.
3. Pitri Rin: It is a debt to parents and ancestors. It can be repaid in the life time
of parents they shall be served & after death one must offer Pinda dan through
‘Gaya Shradh’. Besides one must procreate & children should be taken care of
according to one’s capacity.
4. Atithi Rina: It means anyone who comes to one’s household. One does not
live in isolation. Atithi Rina is very important obligation in order to strengthen
the social ties or social solidarity or kinship solidarity as they treated their
guest as god.
Every Hindu supposed to repay all Rina in his life time & should be done so
while in Grihastha Ashram. So sociologically & anthropologically, Grihastha
Ashram is the most important stage in one’s life.
REBIRTH:
If anyone fails to repay these debts according to Dharma, then one cannot attain
moksha & consequently ha has to take rebirth. It is based upon atma or soul and
its immortality. It says that soul is immortal or a part of creator or Brahma. It is
not perishable & ultimate destination of Atma is to merge with Brahma or
Paramatta. The body is like a cloth or outer covering which can be shed off.
Although a wish for long life has been there. However, the idea of rebirth as a
nightmare has also been there. According to popular implications of this
concept, if soul does not merge with paramatta or creator it has to enter a new
body & the cycle continues.
When one relates rebirth with Karma & Dharma, one can note that if actions are
pursued according to Dharma than one is not required to take a new birth and
thus one attains salvation. That’s why it is referred to as a means of social
control & it has deterring effect on the behavior of people from going astray. So
that all their action can be controlled by the laid down norms. Thus, the moksha
is reward & ‘Rebirth’ is punishment.
RELATIONSHIP OF RINA & REBIRTH TO OTHER BASES:
Fig.: same circular diagram as in another base
RELEVANCE OF RINA & REBIRTH IN THE PAST:
It makes individuals responsible and ensures the service of parents by children,

establishing a social network & also establish link between living & dead. The
inclusion of super natural entity in the concept of Rina makes the entire
humanity as a complete entity. Thereby the concept of Rina & Rebirth checks &
regulate individuals, which in turn helps in proper functioning of the society.
FORCES & FACTORS: include abject poverty and Lack of employment

opportunities, modern education, emergence of modern state, introduction of
monetized economy, expanding means of transport &communication,
Industrialization & Urbanization, growing individualism & consumerism,
scientific temperament.
PRESENT RELEVANCE: Although the concept of Rina has been greatly

modified due to above mentioned factors & forces, still it is an important social
base in Indian society. This value system has got diluted to a great extent in city
& metropolitan areas of the country. However, it is prevalent way of life in rural
India. In Indian society parents are mainly served by their children in their old
age. However, in some states, because of the decline of the value system people
do not take care of their parents in their old age. As a results states like H.P. &
Kerala and recently Assam have enacted parents bill, which forces children to
take care of their parents. However, Rina & Rebirth are guiding principles in
India at large.
KARMA
‘KARMA’ means action & consequences of action. It is very important social
base in Indian society. According to Karma, good action i.e.; performing duties
according to Dharma, leads to salvation. Failure of it, leading to rebirth so in
common parlance bad action is responsible for one’s birth and rebirth in lower
castes explained by the Karma theory & they are treated badly. But the
explanation of modern thinkers has made this concept a human one. Besides
Indian states have played an important role in the detection of this concept.
CONCEPT OF KARMA:
Karma is one of the central ideas of the Hindu social order. It is related to all the
Purushartha. Karma in its simplest from is the action & consequences of action
& it is understood through causal efficacy, good action leads to good
consequences & bad action leads to bad consequences. Every individual must
be aware of his action & its consequences. Although various interpretations are
there, beginning with the Upanishad, but the most popular ones are related to
the Bhagwat Gita which says that Karma is central & one keeps performing
Karma all the time. It is ubiquities in order to understand socio-anthropological
implications of Karma. There are four aspects of Karma:
i) Adhisthana means center of action
ii) Karta means doer
iii) Chesta means efforts
iV) Deva means faith
An element of fatalism is involved when we refer to Deva. We are certain to link

it to rebirth, ‘may be the result of your past deeds’. It leads to antisocial
implications. Dr. S. Radha Krishna came out with assertion that since
Purushartha provided us with ethical or moral order none of its ingredients
leads to antisocial implications consequently he says, ‘’Deva is not fatalism,
rather it provides a deterring effect for the society to create social constraints
over individuals. It is more important in the present-day implication of Karma

in society.
KARMA IN RELATION TO OTHER BASES:
Fig.: circular diagram as in other bases
KARMA & CASTE: The characteristic way of life of Hindu society of India is the
presence of caste system. There are different castes in the society such as
Brahmins, Kshatriya, Vaishyas & Shudras. Beyond this 4-fold, other group is
known as untouchables. Conditions of untouchable and lower caste are
explainable in terms of karma. They are born to these untouchable and lower
castes, due to his deeds in the previous birth according to the interpretations of
various scriptures done and they suffer at present birth. If they perform their
duties i.e. menial job in this present birth, they can attain salvation or free
themselves from the endless cycle of birth & death. Thus, this concept
reinforces the condition of lower caste and untouchables. This is also accepted
by untouchables. Thus, untouchability gets perpetuated in Indian society.
Under the impacts of modern forces and factors, karma has been reinterpreted
and exploitation of untouchables or lower castes by higher castes has been
unjustified by modern and educated persons. Moreover, many lower castes or
untouchables have also rejected karma because of scientific temperament.
Hence, today karma is no longer practiced in cities but still found in rural
among the masses.
CASTE SYSTEM IN INDIA

VARNA & CASTE:
Caste system has two models – Jati & Varna model. Traditionally, India was a
religious & inequal society. A comparative view of varna & caste is given below:
Varna jati
Refers to loose & board classification Jati refers to an empirical category
of Indian society. It is a classificatory and ethnographic reality. One can see
or referral scheme a jati in real field situation through
direct observation, that may not be a
case in varna.
Jati is more relevant because in the vast segment of rural & urban areas, one’s
identity is his jati. Off curse in metros like Delhi, which is a mini India, where
hundreds of jati live together here jati reference cannot make one understand
about the division of the society. Varna is used as a reference category.
Area of operation:
Varna works at national level Jati works at local level
Varna is four in number. According to anthropological survey of India around

5000 jatis have been described as communities, out of them it has placed 4500
jati in alphabetic order & described through Ethnographic note.
There is no room for untouchables in varna. However, in jati system there are
untouchables which are integral part of it.
Varna system is based on achievement it means one can change one’s varna in
lifetime, while jati system is based on ascription or birth, it means one is born in
a jati and die with that jati.
THEORY OF ORIGIN OF CASTE SYSTEM

There are many theories which explain the origin of caste which revolve around
the varna model as under:
1. MYTHOLOGICAL OR DIVINE THEORY:
This theory is derived from the popular theory of Purushashukta in the Rigveda
& this theory is symbolically important. According to his theory, Brahmins have
originated from head of Brahma which contains brain & symbolizes knowledge
& honor. Kshatriyas has originated from arms which symbolizes strength.
Similarly, Vaishyas from stomach which symbolizes mundane or worldly
activity & Shudras have originated from feet which bear the burden of the
society as lower caste serves entire society.
2. RACIAL THEORY:
Throughout the world, there are three major races including Caucasoid,
Negroid & Mongoloid. Fossil evidence of these races are not found, because soil
of Indian subcontinent is highly acidic, unlike in Europe racial theory does not
go so far. However, this theory is associated with varna which means skin color.
Skin color is one of the important criteria for racial classification in the world.
Aryans have fair complexion whereas Indian aborigines were of darker

complexion. Moreover, Aryans conquered Indian aborigines as a result they got
higher social status and formed higher varna such as Brahmans, kshatriyas &
Vaishyas whereas aborigines were given lower status i.e. Shudras.
3. GUNA OR SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY:
It is based upon important qualities & charismatic endowments. According to

this theory, every person contains three types of guna or qualities, these are
sattvic, rajasic & tamasic guna. In our ancient religious texts, various
ingredients are associated with them which are as follows:
Sattvic guna is characterized by righteousness, simplicity, austerity, lack of

interest in worldly life, dedication through knowledge, Self-denial, self-sacrifice,
self-depravity.
Rajasic guna is characterized by bravery, commitment to truth, capacity to rule

capability to protect the weaker.
Tamasic guna is identified with obsessed material & worldly life & these
mundane things are rich food, luxurious life, comforts, jealous. Traditionally
tamasic guna is associated with darkness & whereas, sattvic and rajasic guna
are associated with lightness.
As per this theory, on the basis of predominance of any of these guna one get
entitlement of a varna e.g. Sattvic guna for Brahmins, Rajasic guna for
Kshatriyas and Tamasic guna for Vaishya & Shudra.
In principle nothing is wrong in this theory. But the very theory is silent about
how these guna can be achieved. Precisely the objective behind such a division
is to utilize the power of human into proper & productive usage & also to
achieve decentralization of power. It is very interesting way to achieve division
of labor & also a channel to put his labor for the greatest interest of the society.
Significantly, historical tales suggest that varna system is not based on ascribed
status but today jati system is based on ascription i.e. it is not transmitted from
one generation to another. Many texts tell that different members of same
family had different attributes. It also tells that inter varna mobility was
possible. e.g. Raja Janaka in spite being Kshatriyas, enjoyed the status of
Brahmin, because of knowledge & Dronacharya though a Brahmin enjoyed the
status of Kshatriyas because of his vast knowledge of war fare. Nanda dynasty
belonged to Shudra but they become Kshatriyas after being ruler.
The Gita said that everyone is born as Shudra. It is ones Dharma which make
them Brahmin, Kshatriyas, Vaishya & Shudra. Thus, it laid emphasis on
achievement & not ascription. It gave some idea that varna status was not
ascribed & even Shudra were not untouchables which was an assemblance of
carpentry, artisan etc. or whole range of occupational conglomeration.
Exactly why, where & when this type of varna system degenerated, declined &
jati system emerged is not known precisely. Historically jati system was
consolidated and fairly established in Gupta period & this trend had replaced
the varna system & a new order of jati emerged. Today we use varna as a
reference group which is a loose and board classification of society but now jati
is more important for social classification.
NEW TRENDS IN THE CASTE SYSTEM

According to Bougle, the caste system comprises a series of hereditary groups
characterized by
(i). Hierarchy or gradation according to ritual status.
(ii). Mutual repulsion implying the rules governing contact & ensuring their
separation.
(iii). Division of labor & consequents inter-dependence. It means all jatis

becomes occupationally specialized. So, inter dependence should be there
which is popularly known as Jajmani system.
(iv). Binary opposition between purity & pollution.
(v). Pure & impure are separated socially to ensure physical purity.
Untouchables receive dehumanizing treatments.
CASE STUDY:
In Travancore, untouchables could not come into the road at any time because
they pollute higher caste. Even their mere shadow if falls on higher castes or
their houses, higher castes and their houses will be polluted. Hence, they could
come into public road or places only in noon since by that time shadow become
the shortest one.
Lower castes entered into the Puri temple. Afterwards entire temple was
washed away with holy water. In south India serving tea in a cup, according to
one caste status at local level.
According to F.G. Bailey, the British anthropologist described all aspect of jati
system in a following way. i.e. Jati is a closed, stratified & organic system
Closed means members take membership by birth only i.e. ascribed status.
Endogamy also ensure this closeness. One is born in a ‘jati’ & die in it. So,
movement or mobility is not possible in the jati system.
Stratified refers to hierarchical orders according to which various jatis are

arranged into the following vertical order:
Organic: It refers to mutual interdependence because of occupational

specialization. This mutual interdependence is known as jajmani system.
FEATURES OF CASTE SYSTEM IN THE PAST: as follow
(i). Water tight compartmentalization of the society due to ascribed status and
endogamy & hence, there was no inter-caste mobility.
(ii) social gradation is more important than economic gradations.
(iii) Humiliation of lower social groups along with those who are outside the
domain of caste system or dehumanization of lower castes or untouchables.
(iv) Dignity of labor seized to be a sign of self-respect
(v) Erosion of cultural autonomy of women including to choose life partner, to

inherit parental property, no decision making, no right to see ability etc.
(vi) Specialized occupation for every caste which rules out the freedom to
choose occupation, it is supposed to be heredity in nature. Because of this there
is mutual interdependence i.e. jajmani system.
(vii) Strict rules of commensality & connubiality: Commensalisms refers to

sharing of food & water i.e. dining & connubiality refers to sharing of smoking.
There are very elaborate rules prescribing with whom one should share food &
smoking. Categorization of food i.e. Kaccha & Pakka foods include Dal Chawal
without ghee. It is vulnerable to ritual pollution therefore higher caste are not
supposed to eat Kaccha food from lower caste but they do so for pakka food.
(viii)Predominant position of Brahman & social disability of lower caste

especially untouchable castes.
MERITS OF CASTE SYSTEM: as follow
1. Protection: Every caste is responsible for social, cultural, economic,

psychological & political protection to its fellow members & there by ensuring
wellbeing of caste members. All these are possible by the overwhelming
support of the members of the caste.
2. Professional perfection & carrier certainty: Caste system is based upon

occupational specialization. It is hereditary as a result professional perfection is
achieved. It also removes uncertainty about future carrier settlement in life.
3. Harmonious division of society: All possible functions within the society

are distributed among the castes. Social discord is almost absent even the
norms for interaction between the members of different caste are well laid
reducing the chances of conflict.
4. We feeling: Members of each caste think in terms of equality among

themselves. It gives a sense of oneness and belongingness.
5. Less competition: because of ascribed status. endogamy and occupational

specialization there are less social competition among the members of different
castes.
DEMERITS OF CASTE SYSTEM: as follow
1. Untouchability: Untouchability has given the bad name to the caste system.
Untouchables are denied human rights and they face a number of socio-
economic disabilities.
2. Social disorganization: Everyone in the society thinks in terms of caste &

not in terms of society as a whole. Caste interest dominates social interest
resulting in hatred and mutual disrespect among different caste groups.
3. Waste of talent: Lack of occupational mobility results in wastage of talent.

This waste of talent has proved costly for the development of the country.
4. Causes of poverty: Each caste has rules regarding mobility of its members
during economic hardships. Members do not go out for the fear of casteism,
even at the cost of standard of living.
FACTORS & FORCES OF CHANGE IN CASTE SYSTEM: As follows
1. Industrialization & Urbanization – Factory works & increasing cost of

living in urban areas have forced caste people to violate many caste norms e.g.
Notion of purity & conditions of women, dilution of practices of untouchability
etc.
2. Westernization: Western ideas such as sense of equality, fraternity,

scientific temperament etc. have removed many disabilities of lower caste.
Emancipation of women e.g. widow remarriage abolition of child marriage,
education of women etc. Thus, modernization or westernization have affected
caste system to a great extent.
3. Socio – religious reform movements: They have contributed a lot in

loosening the caste system. e.g. Sufism & Bhakti movement attacked on
discriminatory practices of caste system. Besides, socio religious reforms
movements like Brahma Samaj, Arya Samaj, Satya Shadhak Samaj, all have
adversely affected caste system e.g. call of Arya samaj i.e. go back to the Vedas,
tried to denigrate caste system & promoted the Varna system which was not
discriminatory in nature.
4. Democratic process & role of state: Various provision of the constitution

relating to the caste system such as universal adult franchise, abolition of
untouchability, special care of Dalits, all are intended to eliminate the disability
of the untouchable castes & this is mainly because of democratic process of our
country & constitution of India. Thus, the Indian constitution is the most radical
& revolutionary constitution in the world. The constitution of India says that no
citizen on the ground of caste is subject to restriction regarding access to or use
of shops, restaurants public well & tank etc. The practice of untouchability is
prohibited in any form.
5. Market forces: including cash crops, promulgation of minimum wage act etc.
have contributed to change in jajmani system.
6. Political mobilization: it is the lower castes and class which has changed
the caste calculation & class system in village as well as in urban areas e.g.
Political mobilization of OBC in UP & Bihar, untouchables castes in UP.
Apart from these innovative technologies, green revolution, land reforms all
have adversely affected caste system in India.
NEW TRENDS IN CASTE SYSTEM:
(i) CHANGES IN URBAN AREAS: If we look at urban scenario, except

endogamy all features of caste system have either altered or
undergone changes. Occupational specialization is diluted to a great
extent e.g. mushrooming growth of beauty parlors, catering
business etc. these occupations are largely performed by
untouchable caste but today there is no social taboos or social
sanction when other castes are involved in this business. Thus,
caste system has tried to adopt new response in urban areas.
Hardly any restriction regarding commensality & connubiality is
also observed. Now a days everyone accept food from
untouchables, change in traditional settlement pattern in urban
areas e.g. government flat, private constructions etc. Thereby, it
demolishes almost all caste prejudices & segregation.
(ii) INCERASING CASTE CONCIOUSNEES IN URBAN AREAS: These
trends have belied the prediction made by a number of western
social scientists & Indian scholars i.e. growing industrialization and
concomitant urbanization, increasing literacy, advanced means of
transport and communication over a period of time will lead to
banishment of caste conscious in urban areas. This is due to
uncertainties of life, growing frustration in the walk of decreasing
employment opportunities, reservation of job & service etc.
consequently a number of caste-based group have come out e.g.
Akhil Bhartiya Brahman Mahasabha, Akhil Bhartiya Kshatriya
Mahasabha, All India Mathur Sangh, all India Bhargava organization
and so on.
(iii) INCREASING ROLE OF CASTE IN POLITICS: –As result of weakening

of ideology politics and to have access to countries resources,
politicization of caste has become a growing phenomenon in many
parts of India e.g. UP, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka. Rajni Kothari in
his book, ‘’Caste in Indian Politics’’ in early 70’s described this
phenomenon in a very decisive manner.
(iv). INTER-CASTE VIOLENCE: Although violence was there in caste system but
is was not of that magnitude e.g. In Bihar, inter-caste violence is routinely
observed, especially in Jahanabad area. This is not mainly due to class ideology.
It is largely economic inequalities camouflaged by caste.
(v). INTRA-CASTE CONFLICT OR COMPETITION: Growing conflict or

competition is found in same caste unlike inter-caste conflict. Now there is lack
of unity among members of same caste. It is due to uneven distribution of fruits
of development among weaker sections. As a results bitterness is emerging
among weaker sections unfortunately few privileged men of lower castes
develop vested interest perpetuate inequality in caste. It is this elite among
lower castes grabbing all the developmental benefits leading to intra- caste
conflicts.
(vi) Creeping of class consciousness into the caste system, dilution of jajamani
system and emergence of new dominant caste are also part of new trends in the
caste system.
JAJMANI SYSTEM
Jajmani system is an inter-dependence among castes, results from occupational
specialization in the caste system. It is one of the important features of the caste
system. However, it has undergone changes because of pressure of modern
forces.
CASTE & JAJMANI SYSTEM: F.G. Bailey, British anthropologist is a keen

observer of caste system in India & presented a new insight. His statements
cover all aspect of caste or jati system ‘’ caste or jati is a closed, stratified &
organic system’’ as far as jajmani system is concerned, it is found in organic
aspect of caste system. Caste system shows organic solidarity or mutual
interdependence because of occupational specialization.
Jatis are not independent. They live organically, exchange goods & services with
each other. Their mutual inter-dependence is jajmani system. Thus, jajmani
system refers to socio – economic and ritual aspect of caste system. Jajman
means service receiver & projan refers to service provider. Projan is also
known as Kamin. Jajman – projan relationship is patron -client relationship
patron is the land-owning higher castes while clients were service castes or
occupationally artisan groups were not prohibited from owning land, exception
were untouchable class e.g. Kolta is the lowest in hierarchy in Garhwal region.
The social court Dastur- ul -Amal had in writing that Kolta cannot own land.
Fig. Jajmani System.
FEATURES OF JAJMANI SYSTEM: as follow
(i) The goods are exchanged for services from the service caste.
Jajmans provide of agricultural harvest at harvesting.
(ii) Cash transaction was not there. This informal relationship was
permanent & hereditary in nature. i.e. sons of jajmani will be the
jajman or son of kamin.
(iii) The advocates of jajmani system say that jajmans protect lower
castes. But this relationship was not based on equalitarian
principles. Although they sometimes treated Kamins kindly.
Projans were spineless creature & hot no backbone. In traditional
agrarian society power emanates from land ownership.
Landlessness means powerlessness. Untouchables never defy
jajmani obligation. He did not have spine. So, he could not quit from
the hereditary profession.
(iv) Jajmani system is feudalistic in character i.e. projans in eastern

India provide the most needed service to the jajman & are called
kamin.
FACTOR RESPONSIBLE FOR CHANGES IN JAJMANI SYSYTEM:
Jajmani system is virtually vanished in life cycle rituals. Jajmani system is under
tremendous pressure, virtually crumbling or tottering. Following main factors
have contributed to the dilution of jajmani system:
1. Market forces: because of advanced means of transport and communication,

villages are interlinked with urban areas. Now landowners are most interested
in cash crops e.g. Ground nut, sugarcane, cotton etc. in Gujrat, Maharashtra,
Bengal etc. These goods cannot be exchanged at village level. It needs formal
cash transaction. Thus, traditional jajmani system became the biggest casualty
as there was no cash transaction.
2. Minimum wage act: With the promulgation of this act, an employer shall
pay minimum wages to his employees which is adversely affecting jajmani
system.
3. Technological innovations: Introduction of new technologies has released a

number of forces for social change in India e.g. Safety razor helps in self saving.
So, there is no need of barber except for hair cutting, which is not frequent.
Thus, it has minimized the role of barber in villages. Widespread use of factory
utensils has reduced the role of potters. Hand pump or motor pump has
virtually eroded the role of Kawar (water carriers).
4. Political mobilization: by the lower castes widened the gulf between

Jagman & Projan castes e.g. in UP, higher caste has been mobilized by BJP,
whereas lower caste by BSP. This growing competition in political arena has
altered the jajmani system forever.
5. Modern education: Education has also affected Jajmani system. After being
educated, people in general try to abandon their traditional job in order to get
private & public jobs in urban areas.
6. Green Revolution: It has made a great impact on jajmani system. The main
beneficiary of green revolution was peasant castes, especially middle level
castes. They cultivated their own land, as well as land of jajman. By the time
green revolution arrived in India, middle level caste, procured a lot of land as a
result of abolition of zamindari system & land reform measures. This was a
disturbing trend, because reform was directed towards untouchables, but they
did not get benefited. It was grabbed by middle level castes.
Thus, in urban areas ritualistic spheres only has the jajmani system & not in the
economic & political spheres. In rural areas, jajmani system is crumbling.
FUTURE OF CASTE SYSTEM

There is no sign of caste system losing its grip. The only visible change in the
attitude of different caste was to rise in caste hierarchy & gain social prestige.
The system remains intact for all purposes. It must be held that the change is
not in the direction of dissolving the caste system. Now a days a caste tries to
organize itself for social, economic and political purpose. Elections are fought
on caste basis. There are caste organization like India Kshatriya Mahasabha, all
India Mathur Sangh. Various progressive Hindus take distinct stand about the
future of caste system.
STAND OF THREE SCHOOLS: As Follows
First school: The caste is something evil & it should be abolished.
Second school: The caste system has degenerated & efforts should be made to
reinstate the traditional four orders i.e. Varna system. The most important
proponent of this school is Mahatma Gandhi.
Third school: The caste system should be continued but it should be reinstated
under totally different conditions. This school seeks to amalgamate various
caste having cultural unity & economic similarity, gradually the caste with well
approximately be on equal footing to be consolidated & ultimately a casteless
society will be established a result of education and formation of informed

opinion which will require time.
Scholar like A.J. Toynbee, T.H. Marshall, P. Kodanda Rau etc. have evaluated this
three schools of thought. Discuss the school led by Gandhi they contend that:
(i) In the present society people of the same family are engaged in many
different occupations. So, it would be impossible to assign them membership of
one or other caste.
(ii). Varna system has only four orders. What about the untouchables.
(iii). Are we going to permit or prohibit marriage between these four orders?
Are we going to continue restrictions in the matter of marriage, food etc.
Therefore, it may be concluded that a return to the four-fold division of the

society is impractical. Even it is accomplished it would serve no useful purpose.
About abolition of caste by consolidation of sub caste into larger caste, scholars
have said that to propose this point to miss the real problem. This method was
tried in Bombay, but the results were disruptive. The amalgamated group
retained their internal feelings of exclusiveness taking up a militant attitude
against other caste who are superior or inferior to them. Scholars claim that the
spirit of casteism or caste patriotism is created. Hence, this method could create
an unhealthy atmosphere for full growth of national consciousness.
About the immediate abolition of caste system -the greatest proponents of this
opinion were Indo-British scholars. They said that the constitution of India has
been a major threat to the various features of caste system e.g. Untouchability is
abolished in all forms (art.17). Besides, through various census since 1931
several castes have changed their status, so it can be easily abolished. But
according to D.N. Mazumdar it is just as a broken or poisoned finger which
needs to be amputated & not the whole hand e.g. Untouchability, exploitation of
one caste by another should be done away with & not the whole system
immediately. The property & function of caste which accounts for its
continuous presence in contemporary societies are:
(i) Provides opportunity for power.
(ii) It makes social mobility feasible
Thus, caste system will continue & it is going to be more strengthened &
consolidated.
SANSKRITIZATION
SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS IN INDIA:
India is a pluralistic country comprising Hindu, Muslims, Sikhs, Christians,

Buddhist, Jains etc. Apart from these, several tribal groups are also found.
Among them Hindu is in majority constituting of 80% of total population.
Indian society is divided on the caste line.
Table: socio-economic conditions
It is characterized by stratification, closeness & organic unity. Closeness is

expressed through ascribed status & endogamy. Though theoretically one
cannot change one’s caste status. But empirical data suggest that caste mobility
is possible. One of the means of mobility is Sanskritization pioneered by M.N.
Srinivas. This process not only affect Hindus but also effect other religious
communities, since they are living together since time immemorial.
Meaning of Sanskritization: The pioneer of the concept of Sanskritization is

M.N. Srinivas. He discussed this concept in his book. ‘’Religion & societies
among the Coorg’’. He noticed that some of the lower caste imitated the life
style of Brahman & moved towards the cultural life of Brahman. He identified
this trend as Brahminization and when he encountered with other model of
imitation then he revised his opinion & came out which the term
Sanskritization.
Sanskritization refers to process of cultural change. This is very important

mode of cultural change and it come under general principle of acculturation
(face to face contact). Sanskritization can be defined as the process by a low
Hindu caste or a tribal or other group having lower status changes its custom,
rituals, ideology & way of life in the direction of high & frequently twice born
caste. It is broadly a social mobility within the framework of caste system.
PREMISES OF SANSKRITIZATION:
 Sanskritization explain social change, primarily in cultural and not in

structural terms. Thus, it leads to positional change & not structural
change.
 Sanskritization stands for groups or collective mobility, entire caste or
majority of a caste should adopt Sanskritization, in case of failure by any
member caste- panchayat discourages the violation of norms of
Sanskritization e.g. Chamars in UP.
 Sanskritization is a two-way process not only caste takes cultural
elements from a caste higher to it. But in turn it gives something to
higher caste also.
 Mere adoption of Sanskritization is not a guarantee to upward social
mobility or social elevation. This may or may not occur. M.N. Srinivas
claimed that untouchable castes are never able to cross the line of
Shudras & move towards higher caste e.g. Chamars in UP.
 Sanskritization is a time-consuming process. It may require 2 to 3
generations. Sometime it results in tension & violence in local areas e.g.
In Rajasthan horse riding during marriage procession is not allowed for
lower caste. It is a practice of higher caste. So, when lower caste imitates
this, it leads to violence & conflict, underlying fact is as you are not equal
you cannot be treated as equal.
PREREQUISITE FOR SANSKRITIZATION -
Sanskritization results from certain development which may be called

structural pre requisites for the process as follow:
 Some improvement in social and economic status of the lower caste are
necessary precondition for Sanskritization. Because it helps them to
follow the life style of higher caste & also enhances the degree of
acceptability by the higher caste.
 Change in the self-image of the caste followed by higher status aspiration.
 The closure of other avenues, except through emulation of life style of
higher caste.
 Absence of organized opposition from the upper caste to such behavior
of the lower caste.
CASE STUDY
In this context following case studies can be cited:
(i) BISIPARA village, Orissa: Here some caste’s occupation was preparing liquor.
After independence they were given license for liquor manufacturing.
Consequently, they earned huge wealth & also they had changed their self-
image at the same time. Hence, they wanted to elevate their caste status in local
hierarchy through Sanskritization by imitating local kshatrya & over the period
of time they have achieved a higher status.
(ii) NONIA CASTE IN UP: Nonia of Shudra caste had traditional work of salt
making, during the British period salt tax was imposed by the British govt. After
the post-independent India, it had become a private affair. As a result, Noina
caste became economically well off, their self -image undergone change & over
the period of time they have been able to alleviate their social status in local
caste hierarchy by emulating the life style of local Kshatriya.
However, the Chamars of UP in and around Agra earned economic prosperity

because of leather profession and they had become neo- rich in local area.
Hence, they tried to elevate their social status by virtue of Sanskritization on
the line of local Jat caste. However, they could not gain the status of upper caste,
because they were untouchables engaged in filthy and polluting occupation i.e.
leather work. However, within the Chamar caste, those have Sanskritization got
little higher status & now they are identified as Jathav.
ROLE OF SANSKRITIZATION FOR SCS, STS & NON-HINDUS:
Sanskritization has never been very useful to scheduled castess. They could
rarely break the barrier of untouchability, for them untouchability is a potent
barrier to Sanskritization. The caste who are beneficiaries of Sanskritization are
middle level or clean occupation castes i.e. Shudra. They are occupationally
specialized jatis & do not have ritually polluting jobs. For SCs, untouchability is
the highest barrier in most cases their attempt to elevate their status through
Sanskritization is a gross failure because they cannot give up ritually polluting
jobs. Will they be allowed to give up their jobs? They do this under jajmani
obligation. They could not defy unless and until they are politically mobilized or
economically strong.
Shudra had land; they did not perform ritually polluting jobs & they are
economically sound. So, they could take to Sanskritization. Thus, Sanskritization
is the dominant medium for social change for middle level castes or clean
occupational castes in ritual areas.
The new Dalit consciousness does not accept ritual approach. The demand is
not social reform but sharing power of fruits of development. The emphasis is
on sharing & not in entering into temples.
Large tribe like Bhil, Munda, Santhal, Oraon were always at the periphery of
Indian culture, despite of their geographical isolation. When tribal learned
cultivation from neighboring Hindu communities, it led to peasantization & in
most cases Hinduisation. To support this, study of N.K. Bose can be quoted, ‘’
The Hindu way of tribal absorption’’ Or ‘’ The Santhal tribe in search of great
tradition’’ by Martine.
M.N. Srinivas in one of his lesser known work, ‘’Cohesive role of Sanskritization
& other essays’’ commented that’’ Sanskritization has proved to be a cohesive
force for Hindu society, because it is attracting the peripheral Hindu population
into mainstream Hindu society.
SANSKRITIZATION VIS- A – VIS NON-HINDUS:
Non-Hindu societies have adopted caste system in varying degrees. Muslim

community is one of the glaring examples. They have also adopted stratification
model of Hindu Society consequently, whenever one comes across caste
hierarchy in Muslim population, one sees that there is a tendency of upward
movement. It is described by Imtiaz Ahmed in his major work i.e. “caste & social
change among Muslim”. Another work is, ‘’Muslim caste in UP’’ by G. Ansari,
another one “caste among Non- Hindus” by Yogendra Singh in all these works
the tendency of upward movement by cultural imitation is there.
IMPACT OF SANSKRITIZATION: Are as follows
(i). A conscious move towards joint family i.e. shifting from liberalism to
conservatism.
(ii). Loss of cultural autonomy to women e.g. symbolic curtailment of women’s

liberty.
(iii). Tendency to give up commensal relation with reference to lower caste.
(iv). Vegetarianism & teetotalism depends upon reference group.
(v). Religious beliefs & strong tendency of adopting of popular rituals of higher
castes i.e. Hari Katha, Satyanarayana Katha, Jagran, starving at particular
occasions.
(vi). Increasing tendency of modern education.
(vii). Giving up of a number of customs & traditions and adoption of new ones
e.g. giving up of the practice of bride wealth & adoption of dowry.
(viii). Adoption of new caste titles e.g. carpenter caste in western U.P adopts the
title of ‘Sharma’, Kurmi and Yadav adopted ‘Singh’ etc.
(ix). Increasing tendency of adoption of new Sanskrit words e.g. Maya, Papa,
Punya, Moksha etc.
(x) Improvement in hygiene and sanitation, thus, overall cleanliness.
Thus, it can be said, virtually every institution has undergone change.
ROLE OF SANSKRITIZATION:
According to David Mendelbaum, Sanskritization has served as a safety valve

for castes system. He says, theoretically, caste status is ascribed status & there
is no scope for mobility. When there is no mobility, then the only option for the
lower caste people is to walk out of the caste system & thereby smashing the
caste system. But this does not happen, except when ‘Mahars’ took to Buddhism
under the aegis of Dr. Ambedkar, they quit Hinduism to get rid of caste system
Mendelbaum said Sanskritization is like a carrot. It keeps tension of caste
system within a manageable limit. Sanskritization gives some rays of hope.
Thus, it acts as a safety value.
Sanskritization motivates lower caste people to alleviate their social status &
thereby promoting equal treatment or social equality. This leads to equal access
to resources & status. Thus, those who have been able to elevate social status by
means of Sanskritization can be equal partner of higher caste.
Besides, it promotes the habit of hygiene and sanitation among lower caste.
LIMITATIONS OF SANSKRITIZATION:
Sanskritization does not take into account social mobility through political
process which is a new trend among lower caste people. It does not take into
account the impact of Buddhism, Christianity & Islam, especially on Indian
society. One gets a feeling that perhaps Hindu society existed in isolation. This
is not true.
It is a culture bound concept. It is only applicable to caste system. Where caste

like situation does not exist Sanskritization as a concept cannot be used to
explain change in the society.
Sanskritization as explained by M.N. Srinivas does not take into consideration

two major areas independently.
(i) Along the axis of status
(ii) Along the axis of power
M.N. Srinivas ignored the aspect of power. He stressed that the objective of
Sanskritization is to attain equal social status whereas in reality ultimate
objective of Sanskritization is gaining power.
Sanskritization is gradually altering the very basis of caste ideology. Caste

system does not prescribe change of status through achievement. It is based on
ascription. However, Sanskritization suggests that one can change one’s status
through achievement. So, the very ideology of ascription is threatened. It was
never pointed out by M.N. Srinivas.
DECLINE OF SANSKRITIZATION IN POST-INDEPENDANT INDIA:
Sanskritization might not be a result of lower caste’s greater acceptance of the

value of the upper caste. It is used by the lower caste as the only pragmatic
means available to them for status mobility in a closed system of social
stratification.
After independence lower & backward castes have been given equal political &
legal rights. As a result, they started giving up Sanskritization as it is a time-
consuming process & not necessarily leading to status alleviation. The three
main axis of power is political, economic and ritual or social power, possession
of power in any axis leads to acquisition of power in other two. Thus political &
economic mobilization has resulted in the declined of Sanskritization.
Thus, Sanskritization is an important instrument for middle level and clean

occupation castes for the elevation of social status in local caste hierarchy.
According to book view, jati system is closed system but empirical reality or
field view suggest that even in jati system upward caste mobility is possible.
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
Social stratification is a universal phenomenon among humanities. There is

various basis on which societies are stratified. This is maintained by means of
force or customary practices. It has many socio-economic significances.
MEANING OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION:
It refers to division of society into a number of strata or hierarchically arranged

grouping. Irrespective of nature of social stratification, it has some common
features throughout the world.
1. Ranking of individuals & groups in a hierarchy of status e.g. In India social

hierarchy is done in the following way:
Brahmin Higher Caste

Kshatriyas
Vaishyas
Shudra Lower Caste
Untouchables
Fig. Stratification in India according to caste system
2. Inequalities are institutionalized & legitimatized by the society.
3. Stratification is a universal phenomenon.
4. Bases of inequalities varies from society to society & from time to time.
5. Stratification is social in nature & does not include biologically caused

inequalities.
6. Stratification is found in both simple & complex societies. In simple societies

it is based on age, sex, physical strength etc.
7. Members of various strata tend to have common life style & may display an
awareness of common identity & this characterization further distinguished
them from other strata.
BASES OF GROUPING OR STRATIFICATION:
In terms of time & space the most familiar bases are class, caste & estates but
sometime it may be gender & ethnic grouping. These bases vary from society to
society & from time to time e.g. in pre- industrial western society it was based
on religious and military superiority. But in post-industrial society, class based
social stratification become deep rooted.
Similarly, in India caste-based stratification has been continuing since time

immemorial, but due to broadening of political & economic opportunities class
has become an added factor in Indian society.
MECHANISM & DYNAMICS OF STRATIFICATION:
Andre Bettie tells us that everywhere power plays on important role in

maintenance & continuation of social stratification e.g. State sponsored
enforcement of privileges & disabilities of superior strata & inferior strata, as in
south Africa. Outside the state power, the violent means of doing so as in the
case of lynching of blacks by whites in America & of untouchables by higher
caste in India.
SIGNIFICANCE:
Social stratification helps in groups solidarity, maintain cultural identity,

political consolidation, economic cooperation & promote religious affinity.
Thus, social stratification is a universal phenomenon. But whatsoever be the

explicit force of stratification the underlying meanings are income, wealth
power, prestige & some other forces.
CASTE MOBILITY
Caste in practice has shown mobility in upward as well as in downward
direction. Although book view says that caste system is an ascribed status, there
are many means for caste mobility.
CASTE SYSTEM IN INDIA:
According to caste system or jati model there are five groups arranged in a
hierarchical manner.
Brahmin Higher Caste

Kshatriyas
Vaishyas
Shudras Lower Caste
Untouchables
This grouping is an ascribed or closed grouping. It means status in the caste

system is the result of birth i.e. one is born in a caste marriage. Besides there
are various rules & regulations for interaction among different caste members.
However, in practice or according to field view caste status can be achieved i.e.
caste mobility.
MEANING OF CASTE MOBILITY:
Caste mobility means movement of caste from one position to another position.
It may be upwardly or downwardly.
Upward mobilization:
1. Mobility through warfare: K.M. Panikkar has said that since 5th century BC
every known royal family has come from non-Kshatriya caste e.g. Maurya
belonged to Shudra caste. M.N. Srinivas has given the example of Shivaji. He
belonged to Shudra caste. After over throwing the Mughal power in
Maharashtra, he went through a religious rite of transition into Kshatriyahood.
2. Mobility through serving rulers: jatis whose members served either Hindu
or non-Hindu rulers, attained higher varna rank e.g. Kayastha a caste of scribe,
was a low caste who made themselves serve to the Mughal & then to the British.
By 19th century A.D, they rose up to the twice born category.
3. By population census: Recording jatis identity in census enumeration from

1891 to 1931 many middle & low castes made efforts to get themselves
registered a member of twice born varnas. Evidence was offered from myth &
history for every claim. Some of them were sustained but most of them were
rejected e.g. ‘Kurmi’ cultivators of Bihar wanted to be Kurmi Kshatriyas, the

Teli, oil pressure wanted to be Vaishyas.
4. Caste mobility through ocial Sanskritization & Westernization:
Sanskritization:
Sanskritization advocated by M.N. Srinivas is the process of emulation of life

style of higher caste by the lower caste & in the process ensuring higher status
e.g. Pocock has shown successful upward mobility in the case of ‘Kurmi’ a
traditional middle rung peasant caste of Gujrat to the new & more honorable
status of Pattidar.
Westernization:
As a result of cultural contact with the western society for long period, many
individual members of lower caste have been able to change their caste status,
it is not a group mobility rather individual mobility.
5. Politicization: Use of politics for securing governmental benefits &

representation to legislative & political bodies have enabled many lower castes
to move in upward direction e.g. Mahars of Maharashtra; Nadar of TN. Reddy &
Kama of AP etc.
DOWNWARD MOBILIZATION:
1. DE Sanskritization: Many castes, from higher position changed their

position to lower within the caste system e.g. jatis belonged to Kshatriya varna
however in order to reap the benefits of reservation policy they have gone
down to OBC.
2. Tribalization: Means when a caste through the process of depeasantization

and DE Sanskritization transforms themselves into a tribe e.g. Many castes in
Baster district have become tribes by staying with tribal people & following
their life style for generations. Recently in many states, Gur jar community who
belonged to OBC category has been trying to become a tribe.
Thus, Indian society or Hindu society or caste society is not a closed or static
society. Mobility is there since time immemorial. But in ancient & medieval time
it was in the upward direction, but presently it is in the downward direction.
Book view suggests that there is no mobility in Jati system but field views talk
about mobility in Jati system.
WESTERNIZATION OR MODERNIZATION
According M.N. Srinivas, westernization can be defined as socio-cultural
changes in India as a result of contact with British. It is a very simple concept.
He also considers the role of modernization in India at ideology, cultural &
technology level.
MEANING OF WESTERNIZATION:
In technological dimension M. N. Srinivas refers to innovations introduced by

British. Though originally not meant for Indian welfare that was for colonial
interest, but eventually we became the beneficiaries e.g. Rail, printing press,
telegraph etc. at ideological level those explored to western philosophy &
education achieved a new orientation. Westernization emphasized on equality
rationality, scientific temperament, secularism fraternity etc. Consequently, it
cultivated in Indian people a high degree of liberalism, women’s autonomy,
reinterpretation of Hinduism. The westernized ones had a new look at caste
system.
IMPACT OF WESTERNIZATION ON INDIAN SOCIETY:
 It has promoted disintegration of joint family because of the force of

modern education, industrialization & urbanization feminism.
 At the level caste system westernization has promoted derecognition of
inequalities.
 It has promoted secularization of education. Previously sacred precincts
of math, philosophy, mythology was imparted at sacred places. The
content of education has also secularized now but previously it was caste
or religion oriented.
 The westernized individual tends to live maximally in the universe of

class. They are more class or status concerned & they live minimally in
the universe of caste.
 Westernized member tends to live with similar people cutting across the
lines of caste or community. They may defy the rules of ritual purity &
pollution. They may take to polluting occupation. They marry outside
caste; they analyze day to day experience rationally.
 Efficacy of divinity has minimum place in their day to day life since
rationally oriented, they may look at elements of divine phenomena
through a new dimension.
 Between westernization & Sanskritization – when we compare there are
some similarities & dissimilarities as follow:
DISSIMILARITIES:
 Sanskritization is a collective approach whereas westernization is an

individual approach.
 Sanskritization promotes caste system and unity & cohesiveness in caste
system. whereas westernization weakens it.
 Sanskritization promotes religiosity whereas dominant idea is secularism
in westernization.
 Sanskritization is an age-old process. But westernization has been
promoted in India after coming in contact with the British rule.
 Westernization unlike Sanskritization is not confined to any particular
population and its importance can be found in terms of affecting the
number of people year after year e.g. Changing preference in matrimonial
add in last two to three decades which are as follow: In Hindi matrimonial
advertisement there is emphasis on caste & religion but English
matrimonial shows that girls & boys are coming from educated
background & caste no bar.
SIMILARTIES:
However, both Sanskritization & westernization travel together comfortably.

According to professor Dube, western technology has been transformed into an
agent of Sanskritization e.g. New printing technology & microphone indirectly

promoting Sanskritization specially in urban areas. The higher caste in urban
areas are accepting westernization & giving up of Sanskritization e.g. giving up
of sacred thread, norms related to kitchen & the manner in which they are used
thus creating a vacuum, which is filled by lower castes through Sanskritization.
According to Dube. It is nothing new in India. Since time immemorial different
streams have been coexisting. It is distinctive nature of Indian culture, on
birthday in the morning people visit temple & in the evening people cut cakes &
open up wine bottles. It is largely due to accommodation of different views &
practices in other words it is an able management of pluralism. We are not only
tolerant but also respect various ideas. In purusharth, Sanchay or accumulation
& tyag or sacrifice go hand in hand in India. The very fact is that we are in a
position to modernize the tradition rather giving it up. In other words, we try to
adopt & mould according to needs or desire e.g. Using computer for preparing
horoscope.
Thus, it is an able management or adaptation of different tradition rather

management of contradiction. In this way westernization has become an
important vehicle for social transformation in India.
DOMINENT CASTE
The concept of Dominant caste was given by M.N. Srinivas in his essay “the
social system of Mysore village” during the study of Rampura village in 1956.
He had observed that ritual status has not always had superiority in social
setting. It is not the only means of dominance. There are several other ways of
exploring dominance. It is part of existing socio – economic reality of Indian
village.
DEFINITION OF DOMINANT CASTE:

“A caste may be said to be dominant when it preponderates numerically over
other castes and when it also wields preponderant economic and political
power. A large and powerful caste group can be more easily dominant if its
position in the local caste hierarchy is not too low.” M.N. Srinivas
McKim Marriott viewed that the concept of dominant caste in various studies of
anthropological research lies on the political power which traditionally called
as juridical power in village community and at times yields religious and quasi-
divine power and the power to employ physical force.
“A caste to be dominant, it should own a sizable amount of the arable land

locally available, have strength of numbers and occupy a high place in the local
hierarchy. When a caste has all the attributes of dominance, it may be said to
enjoy a decisive dominance.” —M.N. Srinivas
FEATURES OF DOMINANT CASTES:

In the agrarian society as in India an understanding of land-owning caste is
necessary to have some idea about the process of social change in India despite
rapid industrialization, ownership of land still the main source of wealth, status
& political power. The concept of dominant caste gives some new insight about
the process of social change in India. M.N. Srinivas asserts that to be dominant
caste must have the following features:
(i)It shall control the traditional capital or means of production i.e. land, cattle
etc. (ii) numerical strength (iii) it shall enjoy great deal of political power locally
or regionally. (iv)dominant caste generally enjoy high ritual status.
(iv)dominant caste are always first ones to seek modern or western education.
(v) they must representation in local administration.
In 1984 M.N. Srinivas added two more variables.
(i) Dominant castes always have tradition in agriculture &
(ii) They always have tradition in violence.
Examples of Dominant caste
 Yadav & Kurmis in UP & Bihar.

 Kama & Reddy in Andhra.
 Okkaliga in Karnataka.
 Nayar in Kerala.
 Jats & Gujjars in Rajasthan.
 Nadar in T.N.
 Pattidars in Gujrat.
 Patil in Maharashtra etc.
TYPES OF DOMINANT CASTE:
On the basis of nature: Cumulative & Dispersive – When a caste dominates

other in economy, ritual & political field then it is called cumulative dominant
caste e.g. Brahmins in Shivpuram village in Tamil Nadu, however, in north India
dominance is always dispersive e.g. Jats & Gujjars are decisively dominant but
they do not occupy highest ritual position.
On the basis of extent: Local & Regional-due to expanding means of transports

& communication village level dominance is no longer sufficient to make a caste
dominate caste instead regional dominance seems to be a greater criterion of
dominance.
FACTOR RESPONSIBLE FOR EMERGENCE OF DOMINANT CASTE:
Various factors such as land reform, Sanskritization, westernization, green

revolution, PRIs are responsible for emergence of dominant caste in different
parts of India. After independence, India in order to achieve socio economic
equality have undertaken land reforms & abolition of Zamindari system. As a
result of it, zamindars generally belonging to higher caste lost their land which
distributed among the poorer sections of the society coming from Shudra or so-
called untouchable community. However, the main beneficiaries of land reform
were peasant especially middle level castes. These people were greatly devoted
to cultivation. For them it was a way of life. By the time green evolution arrived
in India & this further benefited this caste & they have become wealthier.
Indian has guaranteed universal adult franchise in which every citizen above 18
years of age is entitled to vote at all level of electoral process. Because of their
numerical strength they have gained immense political power & have become
pressure group which have forced the state to bring out policy of reservation in
education & public employment which helped them economically, educationally
& administratively. At the same time because of their economic & political clout
there was change in their self-image, which led them to adopt Sanskritization.
Over the period of time they have been able to alleviate their ritual states in
local caste hierarchy. Thus, a number of dominant castes came into being in
different parts of the country. They dominated in economy, socio-cultural
affairs & virtually all spheres of life.
BASIC PREMISES OF DOMINANT CASTES:
On the basis of several studies done in the different parts of the country, basic
premises of the dominant caste can be discussed below:
 The caste become very arrogant, which is reflected in social behaviors.

 It also maintains a social distance in relation to lower caste in social
hierarchy.
 It also poses as the protector & guardian of local culture.
 They also make a posture which keep vigil on the entire society.
 They want their authority to be acknowledged in different spheres of life.
Thus, they become authoritarian.
 Their relation with other castes of local society is likely based on the
extent of dominance mainly economic & political dominance.
 They try to exert their authority on political & economic spheres.
DOMINANT CASTES & CASTE ASSOCIATIONS:
There are inequalities of wealth, prestige & power among the members of a
dominant caste. So, there is diversity of interest within the dominant caste also.
All members do not receive equal privileges. Hence, there is chance of internal
bickering within the dominant caste. As long as the dominant caste is able to
put up a unified resistance against the outsiders, the objective of the dominant
members of dominant caste are achieved.
The purpose for the maintenance of unity among the members of dominant
caste is done by forming a caste association studied by Ghanshyam Sinha. It is
an important innovation introduced by dominant members of dominant castes
for maintaining harmony among various economic strata within the structure
of domination caste. Thereby, it ensures hegemony and protect its own caste
interest.
The history of such of kind of caste association goes back to late 19 th century
e.g. The Kurmi Kshatriya Sabha in UP & Bihar, the Nadar Mahajana Sangham in
Tamil Nadu, the Gujrat Kshatriya sabha etc. these caste association projected
interest of the dominant group as the caste interest in order to win over the
support of the proper strata of the caste the assembly generally adopts two
strategies:
(i). Eulogizing the caste ideology, based on the concept of purity & pollution
exhorting to improve their caste status glorifying their caste etc. thus a sense of
oneness among the caste members is promoted. Around the rhetoric such as
economic backwardness, economic development of the caste members etc.
(ii). The caste association occasionally pass resolution ventilating grievances of

exploited strata of the caste against the government.
DOMINANT CASTE & SOCIAL MOBILIZATION:
According to M.N. Srinivas there is done relationship between dominant caste &
social mobilization. There are three alternatives:
(i) If dominant caste is dwija, westernization is the process of social

mobilization.
(ii) If touchable lower caste or Shudra then Sanskritization.
(iii) If untouchable then the process is politicization.
ROLE OF DOMINANT CASTE IN VARIOUS SPHERE OF LIFE:
1. In Politics: In village, key position is occupied by members of dominant

caste. They are mainly decision makers. To Bailey, they not only occupy
important position in decision making body of village but also in village political
system with western education, they take elite jobs i.e. they can carve out a
place for themselves in local economy & politics. These result in absentee
landlordism. They take active part in caste mobilization, entering into village
politic & thereby making total caste vote bank. When caste becomes vote bank
it brings about tremendous change.
Edmund opined that basis of caste system is cooperation which is par

excellence. By entering into politics, they enter into competition. Thus, new
things are emerging due to reservation setup i.e. no of seats reserved for SCs &
STs in legislative & parliamentary election. Even in the election of reserved
seats they have to earn the good will of dominant caste. Dominant caste’s
influential members provide money & muscle power, especially in rural
constituencies. Even in that case members of dominant caste are de-facto
members to legislative assemblies & Lok Sabha. Thus, they are politically visible
even in the reserved constituencies.
2. In economy: because of democratic decentralization, the state has adopted a

number of welfares programme which are implemented by democratic
institutions e.g. PRIs. These institutions are dominated by dominant castes. The
programmes are directed to the interest of dominant caste at micro level. By
this progrrame they are in a position to strengthen their dominance further.
Lower level officials, bureaucrats are hand in globes with the leaders of
dominant caste. These officers are transferred in accordance to the whims of
the influential members of dominant caste. In UP bureaucrats are handled like a
pack of cards. It has become a transfer industry. Although no state is an
exception. Even the officers have to earn the good will of the leaders of
dominant caste. Thus, economic development is largely in the hands of newly
emerged leader of dominant caste.
3. The dominant caste often acts as a reference model to the lower caste group.
The lower caste people imitate their behavior, ritual pattern, customs etc. In
this way, they help in cultural transmission.
4. The dominant castes of a particular locality act as watch dogs of pluralistic

culture and system. They set norms and regulations for social life. Anyone who
violates the norms is severely punished. Anil Bhatt has pointed out that the
leaders of the locally dominant caste may arbitrate in village disputes. They
decide the mode of rewards and punishment. They may determine civic and
economic privileges.
4. Dominant castes are the main power holders. They establish contacts with
the outside government officials, elected representatives and political leaders.
They influence the political process.
5. Dominant castes because of their dominant position exploit all the

developmental sources in their favors. They act as agents of rehabilitation
programs. They accelerate the process of socio-economic developments
6. The Dominant castes set values and norms for the community. Traditionally,
its primary functions were Judicial, executive and legitimacy. They form the
vital link between the villages and the outside world. They also help in the
socialization process.
7. Due to dominant position in rural society, they control the rural economy in
various ways and means.
8. Dominant castes play a greater role in the process of modernization.
DOMINANT CASTE & VILLAGE FRACTION:
Fraction is a pressure group or a cohesive unit which come into existence only
for a purpose. there are two views in terms of fraction.
(i) According to M.N. Srinivas dominant caste is also capable for explanation of
relation of caste in village.
(ii) According to others, concepts other than domination caste is also necessary.
Study Conducted by Anand Chakravarty in 1975 in DEVISAR village of Jaipur,

his emphasis was to find out role of village fraction vis – a - vis dominant caste.
He found that modernization & developments programme has broken down the
dominance of former dominant caste various, local power are coming up &
constituting fraction.
In Devisar, former dominant caste was Rajput during pre- Independent period,
reforms & other developmental programme in post independent India have led
to change in the status of other category like Jat, Ahir, Kambhat, Vats etc. They
acquired land & became landlords. Due to introduction of PIRs, they could
participate in PRIs which is constituted by dominant as well as other caste
today. To Chakravarty it was inconsiderable before independence. These castes
become fractions. They started bargaining to which Chakravarti calls politics of
bargaining. According to Chakravarti & others concept of dominant caste
cannot explain socio-political reality. It has to be supplemented by the concept
of faction, both at the level of village & at the level of politics.
CRITICISMS:
Adrian C. Mayer (1958) has questioned the stress on numerical dominance. He
has also pointed out to the failure of the concept to deal with the fact that
power and prestige are often in the hands of few individuals. He has also
pointed out to the need to recognize that dominance is not simply a one-way
affair since dominance is an object of emulation for the caste beneath it in the
hierarchy.
Louis Dumont has claimed that dominance should be considered as a purely

secular phenomenon distinct from hierarchy which is purely ritual.
Gardener reviewed that “dominance” should not be conceptualized in the form

of caste only. As there are four basic levels of dominant castes:
1. The ruler
2.The regionally dominant caste
3. The locally dominant caste
4. The village level landed pattern of dominant caste.
(d) David Pocock observes that Sanskritization is outside the pale of pan-Indian
culture and it is a manifestation of highly localized process of cultural change.
At the micro-structural level of villages and other territorial groups there were
functional equivalents of the kingly role represented by what Srinivas called
“dominant-castes”.
(e) With the land reforms, big landowning class has ceased to be an important
element of dominance. Andre Bettie observes that in place of big landowning
class, the strength of numerical support has become a decisive factor in the
formation of a dominant caste.
(f) Dominant caste is not always numerically a preponderant caste. D.N.

Majumdar observes that the scheduled castes preponderate in many villages.
But the people belonging to the upper caste exercise power and authority in
such villages.
GREAT TRADITIONS & LITTLE TRADITION

Great tradition & little tradition are part of primary civilization, which are
associated with civilization school in Anthropology, pioneered by Robert
Redfield of Chicago university who gave the concept of ‘Folk- Urban Continuum’
in order to explain the interaction between parts of civilization. Though this
concept is useful to understand the interaction within the civilization, yet it has
been criticized on several grounds.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND:
Anthropology began with the study of simple society in the middle half of 19th
century A.D. and this tradition in anthropology continued up to late 1930s. it
was Robert red field who explored societies other than simple ones & engaged
in the study of civilization or urban societies. Thus, red field gave rise to
civilizational school of anthropology.
Robert Red Field studied Yucatan province in Mexico & saw four communities
there & all these 4 communities interacted with each other. As a result, there
was no complete demarcation between them. On the basis of this study, he gave
the concept of Folk – urban – continuum in the following manner.
YUCATAN
MARIDA DIZTA TASKI CHANKO
(City Society) (Town Society) (Peasant Society) (Folk Society)
Urban Community Folk Community
Folk Urban Continuum
All these communities consistently interact with each other. His perspective
was to identity the ways in which these cultures carry out interaction or
activities. He gave some features of peasant or folk societies which are as

follow:
 It is always defined in opposition to nobility or gentry. They always

occupy lower position.
 Simple societies share some commonalities with peasantry.
 They are always politically dominated by outsiders.
 They are primarily producers or attached to land.
In this context Red Field engaged himself in the study of civilization. He told
there are two types of civilization.
(i). Primary civilization: evolved from indigenous base e.g. India, China, Mexico
etc.
(ii). Secondary civilization: No indigenous base, outsider established a

civilization.
Robert Red Field was more interested in primary civilization. According to him
every civilization consists of tradition. Tradition means past. It has been
derived from a Greek word ‘Trader’ means transmission. Tradition are
transmitted values, behaviors which bridge past & present. Behavior is rooted
in the past but still existing i.e. tradition. Thus, civilization refers to primary
civilization. On studying Indian civilization, Redfield’s students such as Milton
Singer, Mc Kim Marriott, M. S. Gore and L.P. Vidyarthi they gave the concepts of
great tradition and little tradition, universalization & Parochialization and
Sacred complex.
CONCEPT OF LITTLE TRADITIONS (LT) & GREAT TRADITIONS (GT):
Little Tradition: Features of LTs are as follows
 According to Robert Red field a little community is a small group of

people which carries all the element of community life. As a result of
living together.
 Little community is a human whole which is the smallest unit of the
entire mankind. Red field in his book, ‘’Little community’’ (1955) has
described some of the most distinctive feature of this type of social

grouping. According to him distinctiveness is the basis of little community
which are described below:
(i). The distinctiveness manifests itself in common culture or communal

consciousness. Because of these members of little communities know regarding
who belongs to their own group & who do not.
(ii). They are small sized in terms of population.
(iii). The most distinctive features of LTs are cultural homogeneity in terms of
language, dress pattern, food habits & world view.
(iv). They transmit tradition orally since they are unlettered peasantry. Some
people are there who are repertoire of the history of community. They maintain
oral record. Their magico-religious world is full of things which cannot be
explained rationally.
(v). Many of its are animist.
Great Tradition: Features are as follow
 Usually lettered consisting of intellectuals.

 They maintain tradition in writing through scriptures such as epics &
variety of books.
 Usual symbols of ‘GT’ are temple, math, place, of worship, sacred rivers,
ponds, trees etc.
 Most of their cultural norms are organized & can be explained rationally.
 Sometimes ‘GT’ are contemptuous to little communities.
 There may be more than one great community in a civilization e.g., in
India, other than Hindu great communities, Islamic & Buddhist, Sikhs great
communities are also found. At the same time thousands of little
communities are there for each great community.
Fig.: liitle communities under the umbrela of great community
LTs have strong attraction to GTs. During last 100 years little communities
have also been contacting each other due to economic forces. However, little
communities have joined the great community rank far as 1000s of year e.g.
The Ramayana & the Mahabharata point out the existence of several tribal
people along with the great communities.
Thus, little & great communities are always situated in a continuum. In India
little & great communities in the past interacted at sacred places from where
elements have diffused into LTs. At the same time some features from LT have
entered into GT. This process of interaction is known as parochialization and
universalization respectively. As a result of interaction between LT & GT we
can come into a situation like tribe caste continuum which is as follows:
Sacred complex in
Great tradition
Parochialization
Universalization
Little Tradition
e.g. peasants & tribe
RELEVANCE OF THE STUDY:
LT & GT are analytical tools for understanding primary civilization. They are
applied in Indian civilization by MC Kim Marriot & Milton Singer. This helps us
understand the manner in which civilization should be studied or hierarchy of

civilization should be studied.
GT is considered to be superior in terms of moral aspect and totality of tradition

& it has capacity to cut across the aggregate of all the little communities. There
is constant interaction between ‘LT’ & ‘GT’. Marriot pointed out that
universalization & parochialization help understand this interaction.
CRITICISM:
Dichotomous division of Indian civilization can be done only at the cost of

cultural diversity. One might come across utility of this concepts in Mexico. But
in India it is difficult to accept. S.C. Dube criticized that Indian civilization
cannot be divided into two categories. He opines that Indian civilization has six
traditions.
(i). Local tradition
(ii). Regional tradition
(iii). The emergent national tradition
(iv). Classical tradition i.e. Great tradition
(v). Western tradition
(vi). Sub-cultural tradition of special group of bureaucrats.
Mandelbaum says that GT is essentially a convenient abstraction. It is not

followed in its pure literary form in villages or for that matter many among city
folks.
Although with the concept Indian primary civilization can be understood but it
gives some understanding about structure of great Indian primary civilization.
UNIVERSALIZATION AND PAROCHIALIZATION

The concept universalization refers to the carrying forward of little tradition to
great tradition. While parochialization is the process of integration of little
tradition into great tradition. Parochialization is a process of localization. When

the elements of ‘GT’ mix with the elements of ‘LT’ they parochialise themselves.
It has shown that despite the limited range the rural or folk tradition has a lot of
cultural resilience & instead of being completely submerged by GT they add up
to the GTs & change their forms & content.
It may be said that parochialization does not give much importance to

rationality & deep thinking. There are many LT elements which cannot stand
the scrutiny of rationality. Yet they continue to be accepted from generations to
generations. As a result of this, cultural elements of ‘GT’ get diluted or distorted
or they become less organized when elements are parochialised. Whereas in
the process of universalization, cultural elements of ‘LT’ moves upward, being
elaborated & systematized & given more organized forms.
Examples of Universalization:
1. Veena Das’s study of Santoshi ma is an example of universalization. She was

not a deity of all India level. However gradually she found a place in ‘GT’.
2. Goddess Sauratri: citing the example of worshiping of the goddess from

Kishangarhi, Mc Kim Marriot has demonstrated the universalization of ‘LT’
elements. He said that the practice of Laxmi worship during Deepawali is a very
popular religious practice in many parts of India which is nothing but
universalization of LT. During Diwali, the people of Kishangarhi carve the image
of Saurati with the rice flour to invoke her blessing for wealth & health. He
contends that such practice did not originate in the GT of the Hindus, but it was
the part of LT. Thus, Saurati worship travelled upward which was accepted &
scripted in the religious texts & epics of ‘GT’ & became part of ‘GT’ in the course
of time.
3. Similarly the celebration of Raksha Bandhan, the popular festival in India, has
its origin in ‘LT’. The corresponding celebration of SALUNO festival in
Kishangarhi has been universalized into Raksha Bandhan. In Kishangarhi
married sisters on the day of Saluno apply tilak on the forehead of their
unmarried brothers & sisters and receive money & gift in turn likewise
Brahmin priests tie Rakhi on their patron & get something in return.
EXAMPLES OF PAROCHIALIZATION:
1. Gobardhan Puja & Navaratri puja in Kishangarhi: Mc Kim Marriot said

that these are paochialization of two great traditional elements. The people of
Kishangarhi decorates the mound of cow dung which with corns flowers &
worship it. Marriot is of the view that this Gobardhan puja is a parochialization
of Govardhan puja i.e. worship of the possessors of cows i.e. Lord Krishna.
2. Same is the case with Navratri Devi worship. Navratri festival has been quite
popular throughout the country. pooja of Durga, Amba & Kali is performed
during the days of Dussehra. People of Krishnagar perform the worship of a
local or parochial goddess Nauratha during these days. Nauratha does not enjoy
any mention in the GT Hindu scriptures.
These interaction between LTs & GTs took place in ancient time at sacred
center or complex which have resulted in continuity between them in the
following way.
Fig: Draw circular diagram of GT and LT
RELEVANCE OF THE CONCEPT:
It tells us about adaptation & innovation by local community. It also tells us

about cultural synchronization It is useful in understanding the process by
which the level of civilization interacts by reinforcing cultural change. In LT" &
'GT the process of universalization & Parochialization talk of processual,
functional & operational aspect of culture.
CRITICIMS:
These two concepts explain the two directional flow of cultural element i.e.. LT
to GT & GT to LT. Actually, this flow should be considered circular i.e. part of 'LT
may get incorporated into 'GT' & again after sometime may travel to 'LT' &
again the cycle repeats. Moreover, without history even the dichotomy of
'Universalization & Parochialization may have no meaning. This is largely
because of the inability to trace back the origin of many cultural phenomena in
the centuries long process of development & makes the task of assigning them
to one or the other tradition a difficult one.
Although, these concepts are scientifically valid. However, because of lack of

data their application is doubtful in Indian context.
SACRED COMPLEX
The concept of sacred complex was developed by L.P. Vidyarthi in Indian
context under the aegis of his teacher Robert Redfield. This complex consists of
sacred specialist, sacred geography & sacred performance & it explains the
diffusion of Indian traditions.
Robert Redfield postulated that the center of reverence should be the centers of
diffusion at a time when there was no advanced means of transport and
communication from where cultural interaction went on. In order to study this
hypothesis, L.P. Vidyarthi, the disciple of Robert Redfield came to India &
studied sacred complex of Gaya.
STRUCTURE OF SACRED COMPLEX:
It was put forth by L.P. Vidyarthi in his book, "Sacred complex of Hindu Gaya".
Under the influence of Chicago-school of social-Anthropology, the cultural role
of the cities came to be studied. In that light, the contribution of traditional
centers to Indian Civilization came to be analyzed. Vidyarthi studied the great
Hindu city of Gaya & analyzed it through three concepts i.e. Sacred geography,
Sacred performance& Sacred specialists. These complexes are collectively
called Sacred Complex which is as follow:
1. SACRED GEOGRAPHY: The entire geography of Gaya, emanates

sacredness in varying degrees. e.g. sacred rivers, stones, trees, buildings
etc. Secularization has reduced sacred zone in Gaya in recent times. But
in 1950s, it was not so.
2. SACRED PERFORMANCE: the pilgrims perform certain rituals such as

pind-dan, Gaya-Shradh, Puspan etc. These performances are supervised
by Gaya Wal brahmins. They are highly ritualistic & conservative. Even
now they do not accept modern education. There are many classes of
Gaya Wal Brahmins. Some work for elites & some for common men &
they are called SACRED SPECIALISTS.
within this universe there was always diffusion of Indian-tradition. When a

person visits a sacred place, he carries with him some practices which he did
not know earlier. They are under psychological impact in these centers.
Religious experiences become the binding force & common cultural
consciousness was developed. In this sacred-complex cultural element from
'GT' through the process of Sanskritization enter into 'LT & they have
become parochialized. When Jajman or sacred specialist visit 'LT for various
purposes some elements of 'LT enter into 'GT' which become universalized
and, in the process, there has been a continuity between 'LT & 'GT', since 'LT
not only includes Hindu-peasant folk but also tribal people there by resulting
in Tribe-caste continuum.
Fig.: draw the circular diagram of LT & GT.
OTHER STUDIES OF SACRED COMPLEX:
A group of younger sociologists was attracted talking lead from Vidyarthi,

toward this new field of research. Saraswathi has made prominent contribution
to this field through his studies like the holy circuit of Nimsal, temple
organization in Gaya & Kashi. "Myth & reality of a classical cultural tradition"
Among other contributors are Jha -The Sacred complex of Ratanpur'&
Mahapatra’s "Ling raj temple-Its Structure & Change"
FUNCTIONS OF SACRED COMPLEX:
The Sacred complexes are the centers of civilization where pilgrims from
different regions of India, different levels of culture interact. Thus, they act as
agents of diffusion of tradition. In other words, they serve to integrate diverse
culture & traditions into a common bond of civilization.
Thereby Sacred complex has helped a lot in maintaining cultural continuity in

spite of absence of advanced means of transport and communication in the
history of Indian civilization.
TRIBE CASTE CONTINUM

The concept of Tribe caste continuum (T-C-C) is related to that of Folk-urban-
continuum studied by Robert Redfield. Due to interaction & contact between
the Hindu caste system and tribal people in India. Tribe & castes both have
adopted socio-cultural features from each other. As a result, it is no more
possible to draw a neat & clear line of demarcation between tribe and caste
which is known as tribe caste continuum.
MEANING OF TRIBE CASTE CONTINUAM:
Tribes, although cannot be defined, yet it can be said that a group of people
living in a relatively geographically isolated areas, sharing similar customs &
traditions & taboos, no script, no money, primitive typo-technologies,
community ownership, subsistent economy, Kinship based political
organization & believe in animism, several spirits & gods where women enjoy
cultural autonomy with the practice of bride-wealth. Apart from these, they are
generalists and belonging to preliterate and pre-agriculturist groups Whereas,
caste can be characterized by hierarchical order based on purity & pollution
and caste-based occupation, jajmani obligations or socio-economic
interdependence, ascribed status, inhumane treatment of lower caste & women
with dowry as marriage payment. However, over the period of time because of
interaction between tribe & caste, they have been sharing a lot of
commonalities. Today, features of caste found among tribe and vice versa which
is known as Tribe-Caste continuum.
CONCEPT OF TRIBE CASTE CONTINUUM:
It is not always prudent to view tribes & caste as completely disjunctive entities
rather they should be viewed in terms of a continuum. It means that the tribes
& caste should be considered as to two extreme points of a continuum & in
between these two the various communities can be arranged in the form of a
graded series. These communities lying in between caste & tribe can neither be
classified as a pure tribe nor as a pure caste. Rather they process a mixture of
tribal & caste characteristics.
F.G. Bailey suggests that we should curb the tendency to view tribe & caste
disjunctively. Instead they should be viewed in terms of continuum. Surjit Sinha
on the basis of his field work among the tribe of Baster made attempt to
understand Indian society in terms of T-C-C. Sinha opines that many of the
lower caste in India seem to share with the tribal in terms of.
(i) Equality in social behaviors within one’s own ethnic group.
(ii) Considered freedom of cultural participations for women.
(iii) Super naturalism of the lowest caste.
It would be wiser to understand tribe & caste on the basis of some cultural
scale. When tribal characteristics end & caste characteristics starts is difficult to
mark.
THE PROCESS OF TRIBE CASTE CONTINUAM:
Tribe caste, though they are living separately. However, they have been in touch
with each other for long time. Consequently, the situation of T-C-C has emerged.
Fig: Draw the circular diagram of GT and LT
Case study:
(i). Juangs of Orissa studied by N.K. Bose Study:
N.K. Bose in the study of Juangs of Orissa found out the ways in which two
different castes appeared from Juangs, the hill dwellers of Keon jar district.
Their economy was completely based on forest & shifting cultivation. Due to
British economic policy & population pressure, one section of Juangs came out
of the forest and settled at pal lahara and other settled at Dhenkanal.
Pal lahara took to wheat cultivation & gave up tribal rituals, adopted caste
rituals & over a period of a time they started to enter into matrimonial alliance
with cultivating caste emerged as a kishan Jati and Dhenkanal group came in
contact of oil men and given the status of Teli caste. Thus, two jatis emerged
from the same tribe. To this method N.K. Bose called as Hindus method of
absorption or Hindu mode of incorporation.
(ii). Hill Reddy of Andhra Studied by Haimendorf:
The hill Reddy of A.P. were studied by Haimendorf. Among them whole social
life centered around village. Village chief MUTTADAR was responsible for
collecting land revenue & payed it to British government. They came in contact
with outside culture. Some of the Muttadar family changed their life style &
changed from shifting cultivation to plough cultivation. Over a period of time
they started receiving rituals services from Lingayat priests. They claimed the
status of Kshatriya & over a period of time they disowned their earlier identity.
These studies show that tribe may become part of caste system gradually.
FEATURES OF TRIBE CASTE CONTINUUM:
Surjeet Sinha opines that changing social economic reality affects Tribe caste
continuum. It involves some amount of socio-economic adjustment.
(i). Tribe must adopt value of hierarchy & hierarchy implied acceptance of high
& low status.
(ii). It must be associated with particular occupation.
(iii). Changes in habits & life style should be accepted.
(iv). It must adopt inequality & system of economic interdependence.
(v). Religion & cosmology: worship of Hindu gods & goddesses & belief in Hindu
world view.
(vi). Tribe must discard other social oddities like sacrifices & other tribal
practices.
VIEWS OF ANTHROPOLOGISTS:
During British period Risley said that Tribe caste continuum is nothing but a
political conquest. Hindu kings forcefully conquering them & turning them in to
caste. However colonial view was criticized. In contradiction to it, M.N. Srinivas
opines that force was never applied.
Mandelbaum opined that tribe caste continuum is a gradual & undramatic

process there is nothing coercive about it.
N.K. Bose opines that the process of Tribe caste continuum has been going on
from the beginning of Indian civilization & the tribes getting absorbed in the
caste fold i.e. Hindu mode of absorption.
Hinduism has its few features or structural basis;
(i). Hinduism is quite tolerant hence; tribes are able to enter into caste fold.
(ii). Hinduism is pluralistic, no single god & single text.
(iii). Hinduism has capacity to adopt to new situation i.e. synthesizing potential.
CAUSES OF TRIBE CASTE CONTINUUM:
1. Ecological & demographic factors:
According to Mandelbaum, it is a leading factor within a particular ecological

niche one had a definite carrying capacity. Once it exceeds optimum level of
carrying capacity leads to migration in neighboring villages. In due course caste
like features emerge.
2. Economic factors:
The tribe have mechanical solidarity hence the system is not very viable they
have always been attracted by caste system which provided some economic
security.
So ecological factor is a push factor & economic factor is a pull factor.
3. Change in tribal organization:
If the internal organization of a tribe becomes differentiated, it becomes

hierarchical & adopts caste system.
To move up, tribe have to go through following steps;
(i). Acceptance of an occupation & then acquiring monopoly.
(ii) Hinduisation & Sanskritization.
Thus, Tribe caste continuum reflects cultural change due to cultural diffusion in
Indian society. It was a natural diffusion and not organized diffusion.
NATURE MAN SPIRIT COMPLEX

Nature man spirit complex as part of developmental anthropology was
developed by L.P.Vidyarthi while studying the maler of Rajmahal hills. It has
several relevance in the field of welfare programme.
The Bihar government in collaboration with the central government wanted to

improve the conditions of Maler who were primitive tribe living at hill top in
Rajmahal hills recruited them directly without any formalities for the work in
NTPC in Kahelgaon, near Bhagalpur and allowed to stay in NTPC township
which was a lucrative offer. However, after staying there few months, they
given up the job and left for their original habitations. Consequently, Vidyarthi
was called upon to study the maler and their behaviors.
CONCEPT OF NATURE MAN SPIRIT COMPLEX:
L.P. Vidyarthi argued that Maler or Mal Pahariya was a completely isolated
group. They lived in deep jungles on hill top. Economy was shifting agriculture
known as Khalu & they grew maize. They depended on forest for economic &
health purposes.
Malers were organized into nuclear family. Several nuclear families were linked
together through the ties of lineage. Maler lineage comprised three to four
nuclear families. Several lineages constitute a village, several villages are found
in a particular region. Khalu requires cooperation among Malers. Health is
characterized by high infant mortality, miscarriages & skin diseases.
With all these conditions they have developed an explanatory scheme. They
believe in different types of sprits. The influence of this sprits is all pervading in
various spheres of life of Malers. The sprits, they believe in may broadly be
categorized into three types (i) Benevolent spirit which is responsible for
health, wealth, productivity in agriculture & so on (ii) while the malevolent
spirit causes sickness, miscarriages, death & calamities. (iii)The presiding spirit
is ‘GOSAIN’, who is governing over all the spirit. Thus, propitiation of various
types of spirit becomes one of their objectives, they resort to various types of
rites & rituals.
They believed that if presiding spirit is dissatisfied their health and relationship
shall be affected which will in turn affect their khalu that is their only livelihood
for survival. In this way spirits, the social institution & their principle economic
activity, namely shifting cultivation form a complex in the following manner.
Nature Man spirit

(economic life based (Social organization) (super natural world)
on forest & Khalu)
Nature – Man – Spirit complex
Thus, the nature & spirits exert profound influence over Maler life & these three
inter related factors are in constant interaction with other. The delicate
equation between nature man & spirit is found. it results in an adaptation
process.
Vidyarthi suggested that if this complex is broken by any programme or policies

the Maler will never accept it. So, what happened when they were recruited for
NTPC work, this complex was broken according to Vidyarthi. That was the
reason the Maler left for the hill top to restore the complex.
RELEVANCE OF NATURE MAN SPIRIT COMPLEX:
While any development programme is introduced to tribal area, planners

should keep in mind that this nature-man-spirit complex should not be broken
otherwise, they will reject the programme leading to wastage of resources.
Thus, the knowledge of nature -man-spirit complex can prevent wastage of
scarce resources.
IMPACT OF BUDDHISM, JAINISM, ISLAM &

CHRISTIANITY ON INDIAN SOCIETY
Impact of various religious are found in Indian society. Indian society is mainly
dominated by Hinduism. It has many dysfunctional elements such as casteism
or untouchability etc. which acted as push factor whereas other religious such
as Buddhism, Jainism, Islam & Christianity have some better principles which
acted as pull factors. Consequently, Indian society has come under the impact of
these religions.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF INDIAN SOCIETY:
In post Vedic times society was clearly divided into four varnas including
Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya & Shudras. Each one was assigned well defined
function. The Brahmin who were given the function of priest & teachers claim
the highest status in the society. They demanded several privileges e.g.
receiving grants, land etc. & they claimed the highest status in the society &
were exempted from taxes. The kshatriya ranked 2nd in varna hierarchy. They
fought & governed & lived on taxes collected from peasant. The Vaishyas were
engaged in agriculture, cattle rearing & trade. They were principle tax payers
but they enjoyed lowest position among the higher caste. However, they were
also given the status of dwija along with Brahmin & Kshatriya. The Shudras
were meant for serving the three higher varna & along with women, they were
barred from taking to Vedic studies. They appeared as domestic slaves’
agricultural slaves’, craftsman, laborer’s in post Vedic times. They were called
cruel, greedy, thieving in habits & some of them were treated as untouchables,
known as chandals.
The higher the varnas the more privileged & purer the person was, the lower
the varnas, the more severe punishment was prescribed for them. Naturally
varna divided society seems to have generated social tensions.
BUDDHISM:
Principles of Buddhism: The main essence in Buddhism wer:;
(i) Do not covet the property of others.

(ii) Do not commit violence.
(iii) Do not use intoxicant.
(iv) Do not speak lie.
(v) Do not indulge in corrupt practices.
They do not recognize the existences of god & soul. This can be taken as a kind
of revolution in the history of Indian religion. Most importantly, Buddhism
emphasized on equality. Hence, Buddhism was less philosophical & appealed to
the common people. Consequently, it owned the support of lower orders, as it
attacked the varna system. women were also brought at par with men.
Hence Buddhism was more liberal & democratic. As a result, Buddhism became
very popular & many Hindus accepted Buddhism, which impacted Indian
society.
Impacts of Buddhism:
Social impacts:
It rejected the system of caste & developed a sense of equality among the
people. It provided an opportunity for the lower caste to opt out of the caste
system by joining a non-caste religion. It promoted love, tolerance, compassion
& non-violence
Religious impacts:
Buddhism became a popular religion without any complicated & unintelligible

rituals, which could be performed by anyone. It was simply ethical code in the
form of eight-fold path or Astangika Marg. It comprises.
i. Right observation
ii. Right determination
iii. Right spirit
iv. Right livelihood
v. Right exercise
vi. Right memory
vii. Right action
viii. Right meditation
For one religious upliftment, one should not depend on priest. More ever the
conductivity through which one undergoes for which he is responsible which
was inculcated by Buddhism. Thus, man is the architect of his own destiny &
not of any gods or goddess.
Economic impacts:
With its emphasis on non-violence & no sacrifice of animal life, Buddhism

boosted the cattle wealth of the country and promoted peaceful environment.
The earliest Buddhist text Suttanipata declared prohibition of cow slaughtering.
This Buddhism promoted agrarian economy & mercantile economy as well.
Political impacts:
Buddhism preached Ahimsa & nonviolence. It killed militant spirit as a result

India invaded from out siders. The nation could not face the onslaught of the
invaders. Buddhism preached Dharma Vijay rather than Digvijay which
promoted universal peace.
Due to Buddhism India came into contact with other Asian countries Buddhist
missionaries went out of India to spread Buddhism. In Buddhist Vihar any
disputes were settled by democratic means. Thus, democratic sprits were
inculcated in our political life. It gave the country the feeling of political
oneness. The people living in diff part of the country felt as one & belonging to
one nation.
Impact on language:
They enormously enriched pali by their writings. The Buddhist monasteries

were developed as great centre of learning & called residential universities e.g.
Nalanda & Vikramshila in Bihar & Vallabhi in Gujrat.
Impact on arts:
Buddhism left its marks on the art of ancient India. The first human statue
worshipped in India were probably those of Buddhas. Gandharan art was the
result of Buddhist patronage on the outside world.
Buddhism broke the cultural isolation of India. Indian culture spread into
neighboring countries through Buddhist monks & scholars.
Others:
Buddhist created & developed a new awareness in the field of intellect &
culture. It taught the people not to take thing for granted, but to argue & judge
them on merits. To certain extent the place of superstition was taken by logic &
promoted rationalism among the people.

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Sapiens IAS: 2nd paper/section-a by Pradip Sarkar

DEMOGRAPHY: EVALUATION OF POPULATION POLICY

THEORY OF DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION: It postulates a three stage of of

1. I- STAGE: HIGH BIRTH RATE & HIGH DEATH RATE – STAGNANT

Reason of high birth rate: agrarian economy and preponderance of poverty,

Reason of High Birth Rate: similar socio-economic conditions exist or same as

3. III- STAGE: LOW DEATH RATE OF LOW BIRTH RATE

Reason of low birth rate: increase in urbanization & industrialization,

CAUSES OF RAPID GROWTH OF POPULATION IN INDIA: A high birth rate

Factors responsible for high birth rate in India: as follows

(ii). Predominance of agriculture: In India agriculture is more or less intensive

(iii). Slow urbanization process & preponderance of villages – In urban areas

It includes near university of marriage, lower age at the time of marriage,

CONSEQQUNCES OF OVER POPULATION:

Economic: Low per capita income, inadequate increase in food production or

Social: low standard of living including education nutrition medical facilities

Environmental: poor sanitation & unhygienic condition, environmental

POPULATION POLICIES OF THE SUCCESSIVE GOVERNMENTS:

STRATEGY: controlling birth rate & sustaining reduced death rate

POLICIES OF EARLIER PHASE:

Emphasis on group acceptance of a small family norm, personal knowledge

Integration of family planning programme along with health, maternity and

The 1976 FAMILY PLANNING APPROACH: more direct measures adopted

(iii) Planned to involve zila parishads, Panchayat samities, cooperatives,

(iv) Permission to state legislatures to pass legislation for compulsory

FAMILY PLANNING DURINGO 80s: Nothing significant happened.

THE NEW STRATEGY:

Decentralization of family planning programme, focus attention on younger

Research and developments methods aimed at regulation of fertility both in

EVALUATION OF THE POPULATION POLICY:

India needs an imaginative population policy to deal with the present

1. Over emphasis on contraceptives.

2. Inappropriateness of coercive methods of 1976 hurt the dignity of people

Persuasion supplemented by monetary compensation as well as group

3. Adhocism and shifting family planning approach:

Early 50s: clinical approach, planned parenthood movement of the western

Camp approach and coercive methods.

Expansion of the industrial sector, creation of employment opportunities in

RACIAL CLASSIFICATION BY GUHA

1. NEGRITO ELEMENTS: They were considered to be the 1st immigrants to

 Skin color is dark brown to black.

(2) PROTO – AUSTRALOID:

In addition to the Negrito, the aboriginal population of peninsular India has

 Skin color varies from dark- brown to nearly black.

The most obvious non-metric character which distinguish proto – Australoid

 Depressed root of the nose.

(ii). TIBETO MONGOLOID:

 Their head is broad & massive.

Examples: well represented by Tibetans of Bhutan & Sikkim.

This type comprises a number of closely graded types which can be

(ii). MEDETERRANIAN PROPER: It is closely skin to the European tribe, entered

 Medium to tall stature.

Examples: They are represented by Namboodiri brahmins of Cochin, brahmins

Its typical representatives include Bengali brahmins & brahmins of Mysore

It is claimed that Alpino-Dinaric people entered India through Baluchistan,

(iii). Extent of brachycephalisation as envisaged by Guha has been denied

NEGRITO ELEMENTS IN INDIA

FEATURES OF NEGRIOID ELEMENTS: are given below

 Skin color is dark brown to black.

ARGUMENTS IN FAVOUR OF NEGRITO ELEMENTS IN INDIA:

HUTTON studied Anāgāmi Nagas & observed sporadic occurrence of Negrito

CRITICIMS BY SARKAR & D.N. MAZUMDAR:

Sarkar made extensive study of Kadar of South India, that included