13

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter consists of gathered information and literature. It covers the

review of related literature and the studies which includes discussions on facts and

principles in which the study is related.

Metals

According to A.M HelmenstinePh.D, (2017), Metal is a substance with high

electrical conductivity, luster, and malleability, which readily loses electrons to form

positive ions (cations). Metals are atoms that attach themselves to other atoms in a

particular way. Metal atoms, because of how their electrons are arranged, lose their

electrons easily. When they join up with other atoms to make molecules, metal atoms

join together by exchanging electrons. Because metal atoms join other metal atoms in

this special way, most metal is shiny, soft, and easy to bend. Most Metals are also

good conductors of electricity-that is, electrons move easily from one atom of metal to

the next (Carr, 2017).

Types of Metal

Aluminum. Aluminum is a soft, ductile metal that has a distinct bright silver

color to it. In terms of mass, it is the third most abundant element on the Earth’s

surface making it more common than iron. The issue with natural aluminum is that it

is extremely reactive, meaning that natural aluminum is extremely hard to find, which

is why it is commonly found in minerals of all shapes and sizes; the most common of

which is known as bauxite.

The most important features of aluminum are that it has a very low density,

meaning that it is incredibly light, and it has a very high resistance to corrosion
 14

through a process known as passivation; when the aluminum is exposed to oxygen, it

creates a microscopic film that coats it, which prevents any further corrosion.

Another significant feature is that it has an incredibly low magnetic

susceptibility. In fact, it is around 10 billion times lower than that of iron – which

means that it is non-magnetic (Varley,2017)

Brass. Brass is an alloy made primarily of copper and zinc. The proportion of

the copper and zinc are varied to yield many different kinds of brass. Basic modern

brass is 67% and 33% zinc. However, the amount of copper may range from 55% to

95% by weight, with the amount of zinc varying from 5% to 40%. Lead commonly is

added to brass at a concentration of around 2%. The lead addition improves the

machinability of brass (Helmenstine Ph.D, 2017).

Bronze. Bronze, alloy traditionally composed of copper and tin. Bronze is of

exceptional historical interest and still finds wide applications. It was made before

3000 BC, though its use in artifacts did not become common until much later. The

proportions of copper and tin varied widely (from 67 to 95 percent copper in

surviving artifacts), but, by the Middle Ages in Europe, certain proportions were

known to yield specific properties. An alloy described in an 11th-century Greek

manuscript in the library of St. Mark’s, Venice, cites a proportion of one pound

copper to two ounces of tin (8 to 1),approximately that used for bronze gun metal in

later times. Some modern bronzes contain no tin at all, substituting other metals such

as aluminum, manganese, and even zinc.

Bronze is harder than copper as a result of alloying that metal with tin or other

metals. Bronze is also more fusible (i.e., more readily melted) and is hence easier to
 15

cast. It is also harder than pure iron and far more resistant to corrosion. The

substitution of iron for bronze in tools and weapons from about 1000 BC was the

result of iron’s abundance compared to copper and tin rather than

any inherent advantages of iron (Varley, 2017) .

Copper. Copper is notorious for its color and its chemical properties. It can be

found as an uncombined form, also known as native copper, from copper sulphides,

such as chalcocite, copper carbonates, such as malachite and azurite, and the copper

oxide mineral cuprite.

Pure copper has a distinct reddish-orange color, and it has some interesting

properties, including that it is one of the best metals in terms of thermal and electrical

conductivity; this is why you would find copper wiring and piping in common places.

In order to use copper for these applications, it needs to be incredibly malleable,

which is a good benefit to have in everyday applications.

Once copper has been exposed to a large amount of oxygen, it starts to

become oxidized, but is a different way to iron; instead of producing an oxide that

erodes the metal, it produces a green Verdigris that coats the copper, which is why

you tend to see old copper buildings look slightly green (Varley, 2017) .

Gold. Pure gold is extremely malleable, and for this reason jewelry makers

often mix it with other elements to increase its strength. According to Price scope

Diamond Journal, the most common gold alloys include yellow gold, which contains

copper, silver and in some instance cobalt; and white gold, which contains copper,

zinc, nickel and in some instance palladium. Both alloys are found frequently in all

types of jewelry, such as rings, bracelets, necklaces and earrings (Devaney, 2018).
 16

Iron. In terms of mass, iron is the most abundant element on Earth, since it is

found in the Earth’s surface and core. On the surface, it is the fourth most abundant

element, meaning that is incredibly common to find underground, such as in quarries

and various mines.

Pure iron is incredibly difficult to find since iron reacts with oxygen very

easily and results in iron oxides, one of which is commonly referred to as rust. Crude

iron metal is extracted from its ore, the most common of which are hematite and

magnetite, by a material known as coke which is a type of fuel that has a high carbon

content which is turned into pig iron. After further refining, the desired iron is

extracted and can then be used with accompanying carbon to create steel and other

important metals.

On a physical level, iron is relatively weak; this is the reason carbon is added

to it, as it can increase its strength quite significantly. Another important feature is

that it is a ferromagnetic material, which is a material that can either form permanent

magnets or are attracted to magnets. This is incredibly important, as it can be used to

filter iron from non-ferromagnetic materials (Varley, 2017).

Lead. Lead (chemical symbol Pb, atomic number 82) is a soft, heavy metal.

Bluish white when freshly cut, it tarnishes to dull gray when exposed to air. It is

widely available and can be readily converted into various shapes. For these reasons,

lead has been used during much of human history. Lead and its compounds are also

poisonous, so they are no longer used in paints, gasoline, or water pipes. Nonetheless,

they continue to be used for many other purposes. For instance, lead is a constituent

of lead-acid batteries, solder, pewter, and fusible alloys. It is also used to make bullets

and shielding to protect against ionizing radiation. Lead (II) acetate is used to fix dyes
 17

on textiles, lead (II) oxide is used in the manufacture of some types of glass, and lead

sulfide is used in sensors of infrared light (Devaney, 2018).

Nickel. Nickel (chemical symbol Ni, atomic number 28) is a silvery white

metal that takes on a high polish. In the human body, nickel is required for the

function of several enzymes. In addition, nickel is used in many industrial and

consumer products, including stainless steel, magnets, coinage, and special alloys. It

is also used for plating and as a green tint in glass. Nickel is pre-eminently an alloy

metal, and its chief use is in the nickel steels and nickel cast irons, of which there are

innumerable varieties. It is also widely used for many other alloys, such as nickel

brasses and bronzes, and alloys with copper, chromium, aluminum, lead, cobalt, silver

and gold. In the laboratory, nickel is frequently used as a catalyst for hydrogenation,

most often using Raney nickel, a finely divided form of the metal (Devaney, 2018).

Steel. Steel is an alloy composed mainly of iron, with carbon content between

0.02 and 1.7 percent by weight. Carbon is the most cost-effective alloying material for

iron, but many other alloying elements are also used. Carbon and other elements act

as hardening agents, preventing iron atoms in the crystal lattice from sliding past one

another.

By varying the number of alloying elements and their distribution in the steel,

one can control its qualities such as hardness, elasticity, ductility, and tensile strength.

Steel with increased carbon content can be made harder and stronger than iron, but it

is also more brittle. The maximum solubility of carbon in iron is 1.7 percent by

weight, occurring at 1130 °C. Higher concentrations of carbon or lower temperatures

produce cementite, which reduces the material's strength. Alloys with higher carbon

content than this are known as cast iron because of their lower melting point. Steel
 18

should also be distinguished from wrought iron, with little or no carbon (usually less

than 0.035 percent).

Currently, there are several classes of steels in which carbon is replaced with

other alloying materials, and carbon, if present, is undesired. More recently, steels

have been defined as iron-based alloys that can be plastically formed-pounded, rolled,

and so forth (Devaney, 2018).

Titanium. Titanium (chemical symbol Ti, atomic number 22) is a silvery-

white, lustrous metal. Light and strong, it is resistant to corrosion, including corrosion

by seawater and chlorine. It is used in strong, lightweight alloys (most notably with

iron and aluminum), and in powdered form to other materials, such as graphite

composites. Its most common compound, titanium dioxide, is used in white pigments.

Examples in which white pigment, consisting of titanium oxide, is used, are

correction fluid and commonly used white paint to repaint walls. It is also used in

toothpaste, white road marking paints, and white fireworks. Substances containing

titanium are called titaniferous.

The element occurs in numerous minerals with the main sources being rutile

and ilmenite, which are widely distributed over the Earth. There are two allotropic

forms and five naturally occurring isotopes of this element-46Ti through 50Ti with

48Ti being the most abundant (73.8 percent). One of titanium's most notable

characteristics is that it is as strong as steel but is only 60 percent its density.

Titanium's properties are chemically and physically similar to those of zirconium

(Devaney, 2018).

Tungsten. Tungsten (formerly wolfram) is a chemical element with the

symbol W and atomic number 74. This heavy metal, steel-gray to white in color, is
 19

remarkable for its robust physical properties, making it very useful for many

applications. Its melting point is higher than that of any other non-alloy, and it is

therefore used in filaments in light bulbs and heating elements in electrical furnaces.

Its extreme hardness makes it suitable for use in "high speed steel," which can cut

materials at higher speeds than carbon steel, and in "super alloys" that perform well

even at elevated temperatures. Tungsten carbide, a compound of tungsten and carbon,

is one of the hardest known substances and is the most common material to make

milling and turning tools. Calcium and magnesium tungsten are widely used in

fluorescent lighting, and tungsten oxides are used in paints and ceramic glazes

(Devaney, 2018).

Plastic

A plastic is soft and easy to turn into many different forms during

manufacture. It is synthetic materials, made from polymers, which are long molecules

built around chains of carbon atoms, typically with hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and

nitrogen filling in the spaces. Plastic is very useful because it can be coloured, melted,

shaped, squashed, rolled into sheets or made into fibers plastics. Plastics are also

hygienic and it is not poison to human bodies. Plastic is used made ropes that are very

strong and fishing lines, glues and paints (Woodford, 2018).

Types of Plastic

Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET). Polyethylene is the most well-known

member of the polyester family of plastic polymers. It initially gained widespread use

as wrinkled-free fiber, and the majority of its production still goes toward textile

manufacturing. Typically used to make bottles for soft drinks, water, juice,

mouthwash, sport drinks, and containers for condiments like ketchup, salad dressing,
 20

jelly and jam. PET is considered safe, but it can actually leach the toxic metal

antimony which is used during this manufacturing (Mercola, 2013).

High Density Polyethylene (HDPE). The versatile polyethylene polymer has

the simplest basic chemical structure of any plastic polymer making it very easy to

process and thus extremely popular for numerous low value application especially

packaging. HDPE has long virtually unbranched polymer chains which align and pack

easily making it dense and very crystalline and thus a stronger, thicker form of

polyethylene (Mercola, 2013).

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC). Long the second most widely used plastic resin in

the world. PVC use has decreased because of serious health and environmental

pollution issues associated with its manufacture, use and disposal-its whole life cycle

is toxic. But it is popular and in common use because of its cost-effective versatility.

PVC contains toxic chemicals including DEHP, a type of phthalate used as a plastic

softener (Mercola, 2013).

Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE). LDPE polymers have significant chain

branching include long side chains making it less dense and less crystalline and thus a

generally thinner more flexible form of polyethylene. LDPE is used in bags for bread,

newspapers, fresh produce, household garbage and frozen foods, as well as in paper

milk cartons, it may pose risks of leaching estrogenic chemicals similar to HDPE.

Polystyrene (PS). Polypropylene is commonly associated with the trade name

Styrofoam food containers and packing peanuts made of expanded (PS), which is

essentially foamed PS that has been puffed up with air. PS synthesis requires benzene,

a known carcinogen, to form the monomer styrene, which is reasonably anticipated to

be a human carcinogen. Apart from low cost, low strength foam, PS can be made as a
 21

clear, glassy, hard polymer used for things like cutlery and cd cases also higher

impact versions exist for harder applications.

Polycarbonate (PC). Polycarbonate use as a consumer plastic has decreased

drastically in recent years due to the health-related problems associated with

bisphenol A (BPA), the primary molecule in PC polymers, as well as increasing

national bans on its use for certain products.

Recycling

Recycling is the practice of reusing items that would otherwise be discarded as

waste. Variations of recycling include up-cycling, which involves adding value to an

item for reuse, and down-cycling, which involves breaking down an item or substance

into its component elements to reuse anything that can be salvaged. Pre-cycling, an

alternative approach, involves avoiding the acquisition of unnecessary items that

would have eventually have to be recycled or dealt with as waste.

E-cycling

E-cycling is the practice of reusing, or distributing for reuse, electronic

equipment and components rather than discarding them at the end of their life cycle.

Discarded electronics and electronic components (e-waste) are creating a serious

problem because of toxic elements involved in their manufacture. Usually, discarded

computers and other electronic devices, such as cell phones, are functional and could

be passed on to another individual or organization. Often, even non-functioning

devices can be refurbished and resold or donated (Rouse, 2012).

 22

Scrap

Scrap is a small piece or portion, fragment or an old, discarded or rejected

item or substance for use in reprocessing or as raw material, as old metal that can be

melted and reworked. It is an existing in the form of fragments or remnants of use

only for reworking as metal. It is recyclable material sold to a trader below its original

purchase price. A scrap dealer is a person who is brought or collects scrap and then

sells it on for profit. They are also known as a junk dealer or junkman (Collins, 2012).

Metal Scrap

Scrap metal can originate from commercial and residential use. Whether it’s

ferrous or non-ferrous metal, the processing of this into vital secondary raw material

for the smelting of brand-new metals is absolutely the key. These scrap metals have a

high market value, with their ability to be re-used again and again. For instance,

electricians might have wires and electrical equipment, plumbers are likely to have

used copper piping and brass fixtures and even construction firms will have beam

upon beam of steel that could be quite literally given a new lease of life (Geniti,

2017).

Machine

According to Haresh Khemani (2008), Machine is the devise that comprises of

the stationary parts and moving parts combined together to generate, transform or

utilize the mechanical energy. All the machines are made up of elements or parts and

units. Each element is a separate part of the machine and it may have to be designed

separately and in assembly. Each element in turn can be a complete part or made up

of several small pieces which are joined together by riveting, welding etc. Several

machine parts are assembled together to form what we call as complete machine.
 23

Classification of Machines

Machines generating mechanical energy. The machines generating

mechanical energy are also called as prime movers. These machines convert some

form of energy like heat, hydraulic, electrical into mechanical energy or work. The

most popular example of these machines is the internal combustion engine in which

the chemical energy of the fuel is converted into heat energy which in turn is

converted into mechanical work in the form of the rotation of the wheels of the

vehicle. Some other examples of this group of machines are gas turbines, water

turbines, steam engine etc.

Machines transforming mechanical energy: These machines are called

converting machines because they convert mechanical energy into other form of

energy like electricity, hydraulic energy etc. Some examples of these machines are

electric generator in which the rotation of the shaft is converted into electrical energy,

and hydraulic pump in which the rotation energy of the rotors is converted into the

hydraulic energy of the fluid.

Technology

According to Karehka Ramey (2013), Technology is a body of knowledge

devoted to creating tools, processing actions and the extracting of materials. The term

‘Technology’ is wide, and everyone has their way of understanding its meaning.

People use technology to accomplish various task in their daily lives, it can describe

technology as product and processes used to simplify their daily lives. They use

technology to extend their abilities, making people the most crucial part of any

technological system. Technology is also an application of science used to solve

problems. But it is vital to know that technology and science are different subjects
 24

which work hand-in-hand to accomplish specific task or solve problems. People apply

technology in almost everything they do in their daily lives; they use technology at

work, they use in technology for communication, transportation, learning,

manufacturing, securing data, scaling business and so much more. Technology is

human knowledge which involves tools, materials, and system. The application of

technology typically results in products. If technology is well applied, it benefits

humans, but the opposite is true, if used for malicious reasons.

Many Business are using technology to stay competitive; they create new

products and services using technology, and they also use technology to deliver those

products and services to their customer on time and within budget (Ramey, 2013).

Technology in Society

Technology and human life cannot be separated; society has a cyclical co-

dependence on technology. They use technology; depend on technology in daily life

and needs and demands for technology keep on rising. Humans use technology to

travel, to communicate, to learn, to do business and to live in comfort. However,

technology has also caused us concerns. Its poor application has resulted in the

pollution of the environment and it has also caused a serious threat to our lives and

society. This calls for the proper use of technology. The biggest challenge facing

people is to determine the type of future they need to have and then create relevant

technologies which will simplify the way they do things (Ramey, 2012).

Impact of Technology in Society

According to Ramey (2012), technology impacts the environment, people and

the society as a whole. The way they use technology determines if its impacts are

positive to the society or negative.

 25

Positive Impacts of Technology on Society

Technology has Mechanized Agriculture. Modern agricultural technology

allows a small number of people to grow vast quantities of food in a short period of

time with less input which result into high yields and RIO "return on investment".

Through government subsidies, small and medium-sized farmers have managed to

acquire plowing, sowing, watering and harvesting machines. The use of technology in

agriculture has also resulted in the manufacturing of genetic crops which can grow

fast and they can be resistant to many pests and diseases. The farmers use technology

that can all process can be automated to save time.

Technology Has Improved Transportation. Transportation is one of the

basic areas of technological activity. Both society and business have benefited from

the new transformational methods. Transportation provides mobility for people and

goods. Transportation, like all other technologies, can be as a system. These parts all

work together to meet a certain goal. Transportation uses vehicles, trains, airplanes,

motorbikes, people, roads, energy, information, materials, finance, and time.

Technology has Improved Communication. Communication is used for a

number of purposes. Both society and organizations depend on communication to

transfer information. People use technology to communicate with each other.

Electronic media like radios, televisions, internet, social media have improved the

way they exchange ideas which can develop the societies. In many countries, radios

and televisions are used to voice the concerns of the society, they community can

contribute through mobile phones or text service system like tweeter.

Technology has Improved Education and Learning. Education is the

backbone of every economy. People need well and organized educational

 26

infrastructures so that they can learn how to interpret information. Many schools have

started integrating educational technologies in schools with a great aim of improving

the way students learn.

Negative Impacts of Technology on Society

Resource Depletion. The more demand for new technologies and

advancement of current technologies, the more pressure they put on earth's natural

resources. Human population is increasing every day and all these billion consumers

demand either mobile phones or a computer in homes or offices. For the

manufactures, the demand for their gadgets is high, but to sustain this demand is to

exploit Mother Nature for resources like aluminum, once these resources are extracted

from the earth plates, they will never return back because it took them a billion years

to mature, That means that at one time, it shall be left with no natural resource which

can be a problem to the future generation and economy.

Increased Population. Technology has helped live longer by improving

health facilities and aiding in the research for solutions for most health problems

which affect humans. This is good news for developed countries but is bad news for

developing countries which have not been in a position to access these health care

benefits brought by technology. In developed countries population growth is

controlled by advanced birth control methods, this has helped them balance their

population in relation to natural resources and other opportunities which come with a

planned population. This is different in developing countries, the rate at which people

produce is veer high, the morality rate is high, food is scarce and health care is poor.

Increased Pollution. Pollution affects the land they grow crops on, the water

they drink and the air they breathe. The increased demand for new technologies and -
 27

advance of technologies has resulted in many manufacturing and processing factories.

As they work so hard to create the best technologies for both society and business,

they release harmful chemicals and gasses which have polluted the environment and

this has resulted in climate changes (global warming). So the more technology enjoy,

the more harm the environment.

IDE

An integrated development environment (IDE) is a software suite that

consolidates the basic tools developers need to write and test software. Typically, an

IDE contains a code editor, a compiler or interpreter and a debugger that the

developer accesses through a single graphical user interface (GUI). An IDE may be a

standalone application, or it may be included as part of one or more existing and

compatible applications.

An IDE's toolbar looks much like a word processor's toolbar. The tools in the

toolbar facilitate color-coding, source-code formatting, error diagnostics, and

reporting and intelligent code completion. The interface allows the developer to

compile and execute code incrementally and manage changes to source code in a

uniform manner. IDEs are typically designed to integrate with third-party version

control libraries, like GitHub or Apache Subversion.

Increasingly, IDEs are being offered through a software-as-a-service (SaaS)

delivery model. The benefits of cloud IDEs include accessibility to software

development tools from anywhere in the world, from any compatible device; minimal

to nonexistent download and installation; and ease of collaboration among

geographically dispersed developers. Popular IDE tools include NetBeans, Eclipse,

IntelliJ , Visual Studio and Windows PowerShell.

 28

Arduino

According to Sandhu, (2016), Microcontrollers are notorious for being

difficult to program; the goal of Arduino is to create an accessible way of software

developers to enter the world of microcontroller interface built around an Atmel

ATmega processor, coupled with a language and programming environment for

creating logic on the chip. Arduino refers to an open-source electronics platform or

board and the software used to program it. Arduino is designed to make electronics

more accessible to artist, designers, hobbyists and anyone interested in creating

interactive objects or environments. An Arduino board can be purchased pre-

assembled or, because the hardware design is open source, built by hand. Either way,

users can adapt the boards to their needs, as well as update and distribute their own

versions. A pre-assembled Arduinoboard includes a microcontroller, which is

programmed using Arduino programming language and the Arduino development

environment. In essence, this platform provides a way to build and program electronic

components. Arduino programming language is a simplified of C/C++ programming

language based on what Arduino call “Sketches, which use basic programming

structures, variables and functions. These are converted into a C++ program. Other

open-source electronics prototyping projects, such as Wiring and Processing, provide

the underpinnings of Arduino technology.

Arduino Mega

The Arduino Mega is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega1280

(datasheet). It has 54 digital input/output pins (of which 14 can be used as PWM

outputs), 16 analog inputs, 4 UARTs (hardware serial ports), a 16 MHz crystal

oscillator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button. It
 29

contains everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a

computer with a USB cable or power it with a AC-to-DCadapter or battery to get

started. The Mega is compatible with most shield designed for the

ArduinoDuemilanove or Dicimila.

Inductive proximity sensor

A inductive proximity sensor can detect metal targets approaching the sensor,

without physical contact with the target. Inductive Proximity Sensors are roughly

classified into the following three types according to the operating principle: the high-

frequency oscillation type using electromagnetic induction, the magnetic type using a

magnet, and the capacitance type using the change in capacitance (keyence.com,

2019).

Servo motor

According to Cornelam (2019), Servo motors are great devices that can turn to

a specified position.

Usually, they have a servo arm that can turn 180 degrees. Using the Arduino,

we can tell a servo to go to a specified position and it will go there. As simple as that!

Servo motors were first used in the Remote Control (RC) world, usually to

control the steering of RC cars or the flaps on a RC plane. With time, they found their

uses in robotics, automation, and of course, the Arduino world.

Stepper motor

As stated by Simon Monk (2018), Stepper motors fall somewhere in between

a regular DC motor and a servo motor. They have the advantage that they can be
 30

positioned accurately, moved forward or backwards one 'step' at a time, but they can

also rotate continuously.

According to sea.omega.com (2019), A stepper motor is a brushless,

synchronous electric motor that converts digital pulses into mechanical shaft rotation.

Every revolution of the stepper motor is divided into a discrete number of steps, in

many cases 200 steps, and the motor must be sent a separate pulse for each step. The

stepper motor can only take one step at a time and each step is the same size. Since

each pulse causes the motor to rotate a precise angle, typically 1.8°, the motor's

position can be controlled without any feedback mechanism. As the digital pulses

increase in frequency, the step movement changes into continuous rotation, with the

speed of rotation directly proportional to the frequency of the pulses. Step motors are

used every day in both industrial and commercial applications because of their low

cost, high reliability, high torque at low speeds and a simple, rugged construction that

operates in almost any environment.

Switched-mode power supply (SMPS)

A switched-mode power supply (SMPS) is an electronic circuit that converts

power using switching devices that are turned on and off at high frequencies, and

storage components such as inductors or capacitors to supply power when the

switching device is in its non-conduction state.

Switching power supplies have high efficiency and are widely used in a

variety of electronic equipment, including computers and other sensitive equipment

requiring stable and efficient power supply.

A switched-mode power supply is also known as a switch-mode power supply

or switching-mode power supply (Techopedia.com, 2019).

 31

Printed circuit board (PCB)

As mentioned by techopedia.com (2018), A printed circuit board (PCB) is an

electronic circuit used in devices to provide mechanical support and a pathway to its

electronic components. It is made by combining different sheets of non-conductive

material, such as fiberglass or plastic, that easily holds copper circuitry.

What is a Capacitive Sensor?

A capacitive sensor is a proximity sensor that detects nearby objects by their

effect on the electrical field created by the sensor. Simple capacitive sensors have

been commercially available for many years, and have found a niche in nonmetallic

object detection, but are limited to short ranges, typically less than 1 cm.

Capacitive sensors have some similarities to radar in their ability to detect

conductive materials, while seeing through insulating materials such as wood or

plastic. In practice, the differences are considerable (cs.cmu.edu, 2019).

List of Biodegradable, Every Day Products

As stated by Caitlin Erwin (2019), Biodegradable products or materials are

naturally broken down by biological agents, such as bacteria and fungi, into raw

materials. The goal of supplementing biodegradable products in your everyday life is

to recycle our natural resources and keep the Earth clean and free of growing landfills.

According to The Environment Today, not all products that claim to be biodegradable

are safe or effective. Some products may produce harmful toxins as they break down

while others can take more than 30 years to break down, or cannot break down in

landfills. Read product labels and reviews when shopping for biodegradable items to

add to your house, office or yard.

 32

You most likely use more biodegradable products on a daily basis in your

home than you are consciously aware of. Some of these items include food scraps and

coffee grounds, paper towels, toilet paper, newspapers, junk mail, paper plates and

cups, clothing and towels. The market for biodegradable household goods is growing

fast and there are a number of various products currently being released. You can now

find biodegradable dish soap, dishwasher detergent, laundry detergent, glass and

multipurpose cleaners, diapers, pet waste bags, trash bags and eating utensils.

Similar to your home, there are numerous biodegradable products used

throughout the majority of schools, from kindergarten to universities, as well as in the

average workplace. These items include printer paper, paper towels, toilet paper,

paper plates, bowls and cups, parts of textbooks and notebooks, paper folders and

cardboard boxes. In addition, many school and office supply companies are

responding to the growing demand for biodegradable products. According to

physorg.com, some companies are now producing biodegradable pens, mechanical

pencils, rulers, pencil cases, page protectors and project folders.

It is outside, in your garden or yard, that you may be the greenest. Almost all

of the waste that comes from your garden or yard is biodegradable, such as weeds,

grass and plant clippings, fall leaves, peat pots, plant stakes and plant-based

pesticides. Purchase all-natural and organic fertilizers to grow your garden and buy

biodegradable lawn trash bags to collect all the waste.

Proper Waste Segregation & Disposal

As mentioned by Russell Huebsch (2017), Generating waste is almost

unavoidable in today's world. Properly segregating and disposing of your waste not

only reduces the amount of toxins that enter the atmosphere, you may even save
 33

someone's life. Not all wastes are equal and some are so dangerous that they fall into a

category all their own: hazardous waste. You can easily reduce all types of waste with

changes in your habits, and even save some money in the process.

Preparation. Before you can begin to segregate and dispose of your waste,

you must first determine if your waste meets the guidelines for the definition of a

solid waste in Section 261.2 of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act,

according to the Environmental Protection Agency. In general, most solids, liquids

and gases are considered solid waste.

Identification and Segregation. Once your waste meets the definition of

solid waste, you must then determine if it meets the definition of hazardous waste

under Section C of the RCA. While every material considered hazardous is listed

under Section C, dangerous waste usually displays the characteristics of flammable,

corrosive, reactive or toxic, according to the EPA. Be sure you know how your

hazardous waste mixes. Two different wastes can often react to form explosions or

dangerous vapor.

If you waste meets the definition of hazardous waste, then you need to isolate

it from any municipal waste you have and prevent it from entering the municipal

waste system. Then you must apply for a permit to treat and dispose of the waste,

usually through a state health office. This includes tracking your waste and recording

waste levels, according to the EPA.

Disposal. If your waste is not hazardous, then you can choose to recycle it or

enter it into the municipal waste stream. Most MSW is stored in landfills or simply

burned, according to the EPA.

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Before disposing of hazardous waste, you must attempt to neutralize any

dangerous components. For biological material, incinerators are a common method.

Unless you plan to treat and dispose of hazardous waste on-site you will likely need a

temporary storage facility. The 55-gallon drums are a popular method for storing

hazardous waste. Extremely large amounts of toxic waste may require using the

entirety of an empty building.

Once ready for disposal, you must decide on a proper method. Incineration

treats and eliminates biological waste, thus a very popular choice. Hazardous liquids

are often stored in underground injection wells. Metals and other materials that does

not burn easily may have to be stored in drums in a landfill.

Considerations. Consider recycling waste or reducing the amount of

resources you consume. This helps the environment and prevents potential health

hazards in waste streams. Syringes are commonly thrown out into the MSW stream,

often injuring or infecting waste workers, when many places offer to dispose of them

for free. Buy products that use less packaging, such as open-air fruit and economy

size goods. Start a compost instead throwing out yard waste.

Near Infrared (NIR) measurements

Near Infrared (NIR) measurements are based on specific absorption bands in

the electromagnetic spectrum between 800 and 2500 nanometers (nm). This region is

just above the visible light region of 400 - 700 nm. Electromagnetic waves in the

region have the best combination of energy, sensitivity and absorbtion to be useful for

quantitative measurments of solid materials.

While full spectrum analyzers may utilize the entire spectrum and multivariate

mathematical treatments such as Principal Component Regression (PCR), Partial

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Least Squares (PLS) or neural networks, photometers use “slices” of the spectrum that

correspond to specific molecular overtones and associated vibrational absorptions.

Photometers utilize narrow band pass interference filters that have a specified

band width typically 50 nm wide, though the band width is sometimes application

dependent. The NIR has broad bands as opposed to the sharp peaks in the Infrared

region. Common bonds are O-H (1940 and 1420 nm) in water, C-H (2340 nm) in

organics and oils and N-H in proteins. The NIR sensors are extremely sensitive

instruments that are optimized to measure the absorbancies of samples at these

specific wavelength regions. The quantity of the constituent to be measured us

proportional to the absorbance level at these specific wavelengths

(processsensors.com, 2019).

Five simple ways to pratice waste segregation

What is waste segregation? Waste segregation refers to the separation of wet

waste and dry waste, the purpose is to recycle dry waste easily and to use wet waste as

compost.

Why should we segregate waste? When we segregate waste, there is

reduction of waste that gets landfilled and occupies space, air and water pollution

rates are considerably lowered. Segregating waste also makes it easier to apply

different processes - composting, recycling and incineration can be applied to

different kinds of waste.

Here are some steps to manage and segregate waste:

1. Keep separate containers for dry and wet waste in the kitchen.
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2. Keep two bags for dry waste collection- paper and plastic, for the rest of the

household waste

3. Keep plastic from the kitchen clean and dry and drop into the dry waste bin.

Keep glass/plastic containers rinsed of food matter.

4. Send wet waste out of your home daily. Store and send dry waste out of the

home, once a week.

5. Keep a paper bag for throwing the sanitary waste.

Practicing waste management and segregation as a community. The best

way to practice waste management is to form a group of like-minded people. The

process of waste segregation should be thoroughly explained to family/neighbors in

your apartment building or neighborhood. Create awareness amongst the staff in the

apartment building/neighborhood to help make the process easier. Acquiring separate

storage drums for storing the dry waste and wet waste will be a great way to store

bulk waste. Contact the local scrap dealer to collect the dry waste (Rein, J. 2019).

Types of waste

Classification

Waste, according the Spanish Law on Waste is all materials considered to be

garbage and needs to be eliminated. The elimination is to avoid health or

environmental problems but also due to the shortage and depletion of raw materials,

the recovery or recycling of waste is to be prioritized wherever feasible.

We live in a context in which waste production is continually increasing and

the economic activity linked to them is becoming increasingly important.

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There is a general awareness of waste recycling under the principle of

hierarchy to focus on prevention, minimization, feasible reuse of the waste, before

proceeding to the elimination of it. This implies adopting a set of measures:

Measures at origin (prevention): before a product becomes waste, the principle

aim is to reduce the quantity and type of hazardous substances used and to avoid

adverse impacts on human health and the environment.

Transformation into a usable secondary product: through the efforts and

preparation so the waste can be reused, recycled or other forms of recovery (energy,

material, etc.).

Legal classification

The waste generated by industry and society needs to be classified in order to

apply the correct form of management. There are different classifications, depending

on their origin, composition, danger, etc. In Spain, the legal classification for waste is

defined in Spanish Law 22/2011, of the 28th of July, on Waste and Contaminated Soil

and describes waste as the following:

Domestic Waste. Household-generated waste as a result of domestic

activities. Similar waste generated in the service sector and in some industries, are

also considered to be domestic.

Industrial Waste. Waste resulting from the processes of manufacture,

processing, utilization, consumption, cleaning or maintenance generated by industrial

activity, excluding emissions into the atmosphere which are regulated in the Spanish

Law 34/2007, of 15th of November.

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The above classification is supplemented by the provisions of the Spanish

Royal Decree nº 1481/01 regulating the types of waste and their disposal into

landfills:

Inert Waste. Solid or as paste that once deposited in a landfill do not undergo

significant physical-chemical or biological transformations.

Non-hazardous Waste. Non-hazardous wastes are those that are not classified

as hazardous as they do not possess dangerous characteristics.

Biodegradable Waste.Waste generated from gardens and parks, food and

kitchen waste from homes, restaurants, collective catering services, retail

establishments and from food processing plants.

Special Types

Lastly, special types of waste are regulated by the following:

Radioactive Waste. (According to the General Plan for Radioactive Waste PGRR) is

any material or waste product that presents traces of radioactivity and for which no

further use is foreseen. Includes the liquids and gases contaminated waste.

Sanitary Waste. (According to Spanish Decree 83/1999 of the 3rd of June by

which the activities resulting in the production and management of bio-sanitary and

cytotoxic waste is regulated for the Community of Madrid) are those by whatever

state are generated in health centers health clinics and hospitals including packaging

and packaging waste both with or without content.

Construction and Demolition Waste. (According to Spanish Royal Decree

105/2008 of the 1st of February, by which the production and management of

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construction and demolition waste is regulated) are those wastes which by their

fundamental nature are inert generated through excavation works, new construction,

repairs, restorations, remodeling, rehabilitation and demolition including domestic

works and repairs.

As can be observed there is no simple single classification of waste. Some

emphasize on the origin or activity that produces them, others in their physical-

chemical characteristics and others in special compounds within their constitution.

However, the end result of this legislative variability aims to reduce and improve

waste management through the use of best existing technologies.

Republic Act No. 9003 Chapter III Comprehensive Solid Waste Management,
Article 2 Segregation of Wastes. Section 21. Mandatory Segregation of Solid
Wastes.

An act providing for an ecological solid waste management program, creating

the necessary institutional mechanisms and incentives, declaring certain acts

prohibited and providing penalties, appropriating funds therefor, and for other

purposes.

Section 21. Mandatory Segregation of Solid Wastes. -- The LGUs shall

evaluate alternative roles for the public and private sectors in providing collection

services, type of collection system, or combination of systems, that best meet their

needs: Provided, That segregation of wastes shall primarily be conducted at the

source, to include household, institutional, industrial, commercial and agricultural

sources: Provided, further, That wastes shall be segregated into the categories

provided in Section 22 of this Act.

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For premises containing six (6) or more residential units, the local government

unit shall promulgate regulations requiring the owner or person in charge of such

premises to:

(a) provide for the residents a designated area and containers in which to

accumulate source separated recyclable materials to be collected by the municipality

or private center; and

(b) notify the occupants of such buildings of the requirements of this Act and

the regulations promulgated pursuant thereto.

Review of related studies

Automatic Waste Segregator and Monitoring System

Rapid increase in population has led to improper waste management in metro

cities and urban areas which has resulted in spreading of diseases. It is estimated that

2.02 billion tons of municipal solid waste was generated universally in 2006. The

segregation, transport, handling and disposal of waste must be managed properly to

minimize the risks to the public, and the environment. An efficient method to dispose

the waste has been designed in our project, “automatic waste segregator and project”.

It is easy to use solution for a segregation system at households, so that the wastes can

be sent directly for processing. Automatic waste segregator is designed to sort the

waste into three main categories namely; metallic, organic, and plastic, thereby

making the waste management more effective. Ultrasonic sensors are added for

monitoring waste collection process. The sensors would be placed all the garbage

bins. When the garbage reaches the level of the sensor, then the indication will be

given to a microcontroller. The microcontroller will give indication to the driver of

garbage collection truck by sending SMS using GSM technology (Aleena et al.,2016).
 41

Plastic separation of automotive waste by superfast near-infrared sensors

Superfast near-infrared sensors for the fractionation of pure plastics from used

automotives have been developed by lla, utilised in a separation plant for shredded

waste. The complete separation technology was developed in co-operation with the

car producers daimlerchrysler, ford, and bmw, and with the plant builder steremat.

The conventional recycling for used cars will be more and more difficult due to the

increasing portion of plastics, which is expected to be 25% in the year 2005. The large

variety of polymeric material, around 40 different types will commercially be used in

automobiles, is an additional problem. The required purity cannot be achieved by

manual dissection. The new sensors are involved in a recycling technology, covering

all processes from dismantling, shredding, chemical removal of lacquers,

identification and mechanical separation up to reuse of separated plastics. Using two

different near-infrared sensors the detection and identification of plastic material is

performed by analysis of their characteristic spectra. The two-step sorting technology

starts with a sensor of high productivity of more than 1 ton/hour for the detection and

sorting of bright and coloured polymers, as well as for black polypropylene.

Subsequently, in the second step a long-wavelength-nir sensor detects other black

material like pc, pmma, abs, pc/abs blend and others (Lucht et al., N.D.).

Raspberry pi based automated waste segregation system

Rapid increase in volume and types of solid and hazardous waste as a result of

continuous economic growth, urbanization and industrialization, is becoming a

burgeoning problem for national and local governments to ensure effective and

sustainable management of waste. The Economical value of waste is best realized

when it is segregated. Segregation of waste at dumping sites consumes more time and

manpower. This work proposes an Automatic Waste Segregator (AWS) which is a

 42

cheap, easy to use solution for a segregation system at households. The AWS uses an

inductance sensing mechanism to identify metallic items and resistive sensors to

distinguish between wet and dry waste (Pawar et al., 2018).

Automated waste segregator using Arduino

Industrialization, modernization, rapid advancements and increase in

population have led to large generation of waste. Segregation makes it possible to

reuse and recycle the waste effectively. This paper proposes implementation of an

automated waste segregator at household level using Arduino microcontroller, to

control the entire process with ease and simplicity. The sensing unit consists of an IR

(Infrared) sensor, a moisture sensor and a metal sensor used to detect and identify

various types of waste respectively. The main architecture of the segregator comprises

of three prominent stages consisting of an IR sensor, a metal sensor, a moisture sensor

and the segregation bins. The IR sensor detects the arrival of waste. Identification and

separation of waste is done by sensors. The microcontroller controls all the activity of

sensors. Results have presented segregation of waste into metal, wet and dry waste

(Naveen et al., 2018).

Raspberry PI controlled automatic waste segregator

With the developing populace rate, the measure of waste being created is

additionally expanding at a speedier rate. It is addition-ally representing an intense

issue at the city level to deal with the squanders being dumped wherever as landfill

squander. Along these lines, it is extremely pivotal to have some framework to

oversee squander naturally which is as of now not there. The paper proposes a novel

technique where the arrangement is given to isolate out metal and non-metal waste

into particular receptacles by the detecting of various sensors fused along the transport

line. Bits of glass, paper, wood and metallic materials are isolated out from proposed
 43

work. Utilizing the isolation, a large portion of the metal and non-metal segments like

paper, glass, plastic expands the monetary estimation of the loss to its best. The paper

proposes a novel strategy where the arrangement is given to iso-late out wet and dry

waste into particular containers by the detecting of various sensors fused along the

transport line on which at first pulverized waste is moving. Bits of glass, paper,

metallic materials, and wet waste are isolated out from proposed work. Utilizing the

isolated wet waste as the natural fertilizer for development of plants and reusing of the

greater part of the dry segments like paper, glass, plastic expands the financial

estimation of the loss to its best. We are utilizing Raspberry Pi framework as

fundamental part and proposed framework is recreated (Prabhu et al., 2018).

Automatic waste segregator using raspberry pi

Rapid increase in volume and types of solid and hazardous waste as a result of

continuous economic growth, urbanization and industrialization, is becoming a

burgeoning problem for national and local governments to ensure effective and

sustainable management of waste. The Economical value of waste is best realized

when it is segregated. Segregation of waste at dumping sites consumes more time and

manpower. This work proposes an Automatic Waste Segregator (AWS) which is a

cheap, easy to use solution for a segregation system at households. The AWS uses an

inductance sensing mechanism to identify metallic items and resistive sensors to

distinguish between wet and dry waste (Kumar et al., 2017).