Safety in Engineering Industries 05102018

Safety in Engineering Industries( 23109)
CHAPTER 1
1.1 PRINCIPLES OF MACHINE GUARDING
1. Definitions :
Point of operation: That area on a machine where material is positioned for processing by
'the machine and where work is actually being performed on the material.
Zero Mechanical State (ZMS): The mechanical state of a machine in which every power
sourcethat can produce a machine .member movement has been shut/locked off. This means
deenergised, de-pressurised and neutralized condition of the machine or equipment which
provides maximum protection against unexpected mechanical movement.
Power off: The state in which power (electric, pneumatic, hydraulic, atomic etc.) cannot flow
tothe machine is considered a power-off stage.
Power-locked off: The state in which the device that turns power off is locked in the off
positionwith the padlock of every individual who is working on the machine.
Guarding: Any means of effectively preventing personnel from coming in contact with
themoving parts of machinery or equipment which could cause physical harm to the
personnel. In case of a power-press, a cover on point of operation (die and punch) is called
'guard' while those on other danger zones are called 'enclosure' or 'safeguard'.
Safety by Guarding is most important as other methods are not always possible.
Depending upon the dangerous part, its size, position, speed etc., a guard should be selected.
Generally the parts to be guarded fall within three categories:
The prime mover.

Transmission parts from the prime mover to the machine and the transmission parts in
the machine itself. It is desirable to minimise them and enclose completely.
Operating parts of a machine, of which the points of dangerous operation need
effective guarding.
1. A machine guard means any enclosure, barrier or device constructed to prevent a person or
hisclothing coming into contact .with dangerous parts of the machine. The point of operation
is that part of working machine at which cutting, shaping, forming or any other necessary
operation is accomplished. A guard for that part is known as the point of operation guard.
1. Enclosures: Guarding by fixed physical barriers that are mounted on or around a machine
toprevent access to the moving parts.
2. Fencing: Guarding by means of a locked fence or rail enclosure which restricts access to
themachine except by authorised personnel, Enclosures must be a minimum 1m (42 in) away
Prepared by P.M.Pathak, Advanced Diploma In Industrial Safety ,K.K .Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

Page 1
from the dangerous part of the machine.
3. Safety by Position or Location: It is a guarding as a result of the physical inaccessibility of

aparticular hazard under normal operating conditions or use. Words "Safe by location" or
"Safe by position" are used to denote safety by distance.
The words "safe by position" are used by Section-21 of the Factories Act. It means the
situation (out of reach) or position in such a way that normally it is not possible to touch the
dangerous parts. However intentional contact should be prevented. Moving feed opening can
be made safe by position if gravity or remote feeding device is applied. But, then, it is a type
of indirect guarding. A distance of 2.6 m or 8'6" is considered safe by position.
Ingoing (in-running) Nips: A hazard area created by two or more mechanical

componentsrotating in opposite directions in the' same plane and in close conjunction or
interaction e.g. calendar rolls, in running rolls of textile or paper machines.
Safety by Construction : It indicates parts so constructed as to cause no hazard, viz. shaft,

slidingand link mechanism so located or with slow speed that their contact is not dangerous.
Built-in-safety- is the similar word for designing and constructing new machinery in such a
way to make the dangerous parts safe by deep housing or position etc.
1.2 ERGONOMICS OF MACHINE GUARDING

1. Meaning of Ergonomics :
As explained by W.T. Singleton in ILO Encyclopaedia, literal meaning of 'ergonomics' is the
study, measurement and organisation of work. It is concerned with making purposeful human
activities more effective. The focus of study is the person interacting with the engineering
environment. The designer should consider complexity arising from human nature and his
limitations. To consider human factors, it studies anatomy, anthropometry, biomechanics and
psychology as useful sciences. To consider design aspect of work, systems, workspace, environment,
interface and work situation, it studies technology. Thus an ergonomist is expected to take an over-
all view and identify the key design aspects for particular people engaged in particular tasks.

Page 2

Page 3
As explained by K. Kogi, a Regional Advisor to ILO, ergonomics is a useful tool for fitting
work to people, not people to work. 'Ergon' means work and 'nomos' means habit of law. Thus
ergonomics is for the purpose of solving the problems of work habits. It requires designing of proper
workspace, working posture, reach, seat, controls, knob, brake, display, communication, skills, work
intensity; sufficient time for rest, good environment, clear understanding and providing platforms or
lift tables, carts, transport ways, proper storage racks, buffer stocks, good lighting, ventilation and
housekeeping, proper guards and good welfare facilities. Thus ergonomic principles include
comfortable posture, balanced and easy motions, adequate rest and enough variety.
As a science, ergonomics studies anatomy, physiology and psychology. Anatomy includes

anthropometry and biomechanics. Anthropometry, the measurement of man provides the
dimensional data needed for the positioning of controls and the size of work spaces. Statute (height
upto head), eye height, shoulder height, elbow height, knuckle height (upto the palm of hanging
hand), sitting height, shoulder width, breadth across elbows, upward reach, sideways reach, forward
reach, hand length, hand breadth etc., are main human dimensions as stated by W.T. Singleton.
Biomechanics is concerned with the application of forces by the human body. This requires
knowledge of the locations of the main muscle groups, their composition and their modes of action.
Physiology includes work physiology & environmental physiology. Work Physiology is

concerned with the human process of energy production & considers human efficiency, oxygen
uptake capacity etc. Environmental physiology provides measures of the stress and standards of
reasonable parameters of climate, light, noise, vibration etc. Their effects on human behaviour are
studied.
Psychology considers various factors described and also some theories such as human
performance theory based on an information model of the human operator, learning and skill theory
and training and organisation theory for work and system designs. Such psychological theories say
about human error - why people make mistakes. Many times guards, controls and protective
equipment are provided but operators fail to use them. Why do they do so is an important question
which can be replied by psychological study only. Effective audio-visual information, choice reaction
times, information processing capacity, memory, attention, understanding, fatigue effects, interaction
with other people, morale, group behaviour etc. are useful factors to be considered. If workers are
properly educated and trained based on such study, their failure to use guards and safe job methods
will be minimised. Such human factors must be considered while designing any machine or work.
Explaining the historical part. King and Magid state in their book that this word was first used
in 1949 when the society, the Ergonomics Research Society was founded in Britain including
anatomists, physiologists, psychologists, industrial medical officers, industrial hygienists, design
engineers, work study engineers, architects, illuminating engineers and others. In USA the terms
'Human Engineerings and 'Human Factors Engineerings are used to cover the same field.
Biomechanics and Engineering Psychology are other expressions used.
1. Aims of Ergonomics :
Its aims are :
1. To facilitate whatever a person wishes to do and to ensure that he does it comfortably and
efficiently. Efficiency includes effective work without detrimental health effects and
minimisation of risk to the operator and others.

Page 4
1. The work, working conditions, plant and infrastructure should be so designed that they are
best fitting to the workers. Purpose is not to fit a worker to any awkward, unsafe, unhealthy
or uncomfortable work. But the purpose is to design or provide work and working conditions
comfortable to the workers.
2. To minimise the possibility of human error or mistake. To ensure industrial activities with
minimal use of energy and materials and without waste resulting from mistakes.
3. To develop knowledge and techniques by the combined use of many expertise and systems
approach.
4. To solve human problems of work performance by considering human factors in design of

machines and work and safe job methods which are explained in the following part.
3. Human Factors in Design of Machine and Work:
Technology has changed the people's ways of working but the people are not changed much.
Many times the people do not adapt physically and mentally, a tendency of modern work methods.
This generates negative reactions which also indicate human factors to be considered by the
ergonomists while designing work and machines. Some such factors are :
1. Increased stress.
2. Uninterested work.
3. Errors and accidents.
4. Work related diseases.
5. Awkward body position causing difficulty.
6. Repetitive tasks producing boredom and tiredness.
7. Confusing signals causing human errors in hurry.
8. Bent or awkward posture while handling heavy materials and causing back pain.
9. Perceptual limitation.
10. Short term memory.
11. Incompatibility in man-machine relationship.
12. Risk or chance taking.
13. Position or location not suitable to a worker such as unsuitable work height, seat, layout of
control and displays.
14. Organisation of heavy work.
15. Environment.
It may not be possible to incorporate all these factors in machine or work design.
Administrative measures, safety training, signs and signals, work scheduling, supervisory
observation, plant layout, psychological and medical measures and workers' cooperation may also be
necessary.

Page 5
REQUIREMENTS OF MACHINE GUARDING
Machine guarding is required as a basic need as well as statutory requirement.
1. Basic Need and Importance :
Basic need of machine guarding is to protect against contact with the dangerous and moving
parts of a machine, work in process and failure due to mechanical, electrical, chemical or human
causes. The guards remove workers' fear and thereby increase their morale and the production.
They allow the operation at higher speeds and compensate the expenditure on guarding.
Where danger exists from machinery, safe working practice alone is insufficient and cannot,
be relied on from safety point of view. Guards are essential as an engineering and built-in control
to prevent accident when other precautions fail.
For accidents due to machinery. Absence or defect of guard is the main cause of accidents
due to moving machines or their dangerous parts. Types of such dangerous parts are many.
It is obvious that when cutting edges of sharp tools, rotating and projecting parts, point of
operation or contact point of die and punch, nip (contact) points of pulley -.belts or gears, rollers,
calendar rolls, traversing tools or bed etc. are unguarded and workers are exposed to such openly
moving i.e. unguarded parts, their risk of accident is highest. Long sleeves (shirt), sadis, chain, i.e.
muffler, shawl etc can trap or entangle into unguarded rotating parts and serious or fatal accidents
are possible. Many such accidents have happened also. Therefore, basic need of machine guarding
must first be understood.
Mainly machine guarding is of two types: (1) Guarding for points of operation i.e. guarding
for cutting edges, tool points, press or shear points, nip or running contact points, feed points etc.,
and (2) Guarding for Power Transmission Machinery i.e. gem's, •pulley-belts, couplings, clutches,
brakes, cams,
shafts, rolls, rods that transmit energy and motion from the source of power (prime mover) to the
point of operation.
2.1 Statutory Requirement:
Besides its basic need, machine guarding is a statutory requirement since a century. With the
growth of industrialization, need of machine guarding was noticed and incorporated by the enactment
of the Factories Act in England in 1844 and in India in 1881.
The ILO Convention (No. 119) and Recommendation (No. 118) of 1963, regarding 'Guarding
of Machinery' require national laws or regulations to provide guards on dangerous machine parts
before sale or purchase of machinery.
The Factories Act of 1881 was amended in 1891, 1911, 1922, 1923, 1926, 1931, 1934, 1948,
Page 6
1976 and 1987 to gradually include more and more aspects of safety and other provisions. The present
Act known as the 'Factories Act 1948' contains Chapter-IV on safety which includes many provisions
of machine guarding. The Gujarat Factories Rules 1963 provides further details to supplement these
provisions. The whole subject of the Factories Act and Rules is separately dealt with in Chapter-27,
but, some relevant portion is give below:
Definitions : The Factories Act defines as under:
Power means electrical energy or any other form of energy which is mechanically transmitted
andis not generated by human or animal agency.
Prime mover means any engine, motor or other appliance which generates or otherwise
provides power.
Transmission machinery means any shaft, wheel, drum, pulley, system of pulleys,
coupling,clutch, driving belt or other appliance or device by which the motion of a prime mover is
transmitted to or received by any machinery or appliance.
Machinery includes prime movers, transmission machinery and all other appliances
wherebypower is generated, transformed, transmitted or applied. Belt includes any driving strap or
rope.
Maintained means maintained in an efficient state, in efficient working order and in good
repair.
Fencing of Machinery : Section-21 requires that every moving part of a prime mover,
flywheel,headrace and tailrace of water wheel and turbine, lathe, electric generator, motor, rotary
converter, transmission machinery and every dangerous part of any other machinery shall be securely
constructed, positioned or fenced by safeguards of substantial construction and constantly maintained
and kept in position while the parts of machinery they are fencing are in motion or in use.
Work on or near machinery in motion: Section22 requires that any examination,
lubrication,adjusting operation, mounting or shifting of belts while the machinery is in motion shall
be carried "out by a specially trained adult male worker wearing tight fitting clothing supplied by the
occupier and his name shall be recorded in the register in Form No. 8. Such worker shall not handle
a belt at a moving pulley unless the belt is not more than 15 cm in width, the pulley is a normal drive
(no flywheel or balance wheel), the belt joint is laced or flush with belt, the pulley, joint and pulley
rim are in good repair, there is reasonable clearance to work, secure foothold / handhold are provided
and any ladder being used is secured fixed or held by a second person. At that time other parts in
motion shall be securely fenced to prevent their contact. Woman or young person is not allowed to
do such work.
Employment of young persons on dangerous machines : On power presses except

hydraulicpresses, milling machines, guillotine machines, circular saws and platen printing machines
no young person shall work unless he has been fully instructed regarding their dangers and
precautions to be observed and has received sufficient training to work on that machine and is under
adequate supervision by a person who has a thorough knowledge and experience of that machine

Page 7
Striking gear and devices for cutting off power: Suitable striking gear or other efficient
deviceto move driving belts to and from fast and loose pulleys and to prevent the belt from creeping
back on to the fast pulley, shall be used and maintained. Driving belts not in use should not rest or
ride upon shafting in motion (for which belt hangers are necessary). Other devices for cutting off
power are necessary in every work room. Such devices shall be so locked to prevent accidental
starting of the machinery.
Self acting machines : 45 cm or more clear space is necessary from the end of maximum
traverse of any self-acting machine or material carried thereon.
Casing of new machinery : Every set screw, bolt, key, gearing shall be completely encased
orguarded to prevent danger.
Work near Cotton-openers : No woman or child shall work in a room where cotton opener
is atwork. If the feed-end is fully partitioned from the delivery end, their employment on feed-end
side is permissible.
Revolving machinery : Effective measures are necessary to ensure not to exceed the
safeworking peripheral speed of every grinding wheel, revolving vessel, cage, basket, flywheel,
pulley, disc or similar appliance driven by power. A notice indicating maximum safe working
peripheral speed of the grinding wheel, speed of the shaft or spindle upon which the wheel is mounted
and the diameter of the pulley to secure safe working peripheral speed of grinding wheel shall be
affixed near each such machine. Effective brake is also required.
Further Safety Precautions: Rule 54 prescribes machine guarding details in respect of

textilemachinery, cotton ginning machinery, wood-working machinery, rubber mills, centrifugal
machines, power press and shears, slitters and guillotine machines.
Elimination of Hazard :
Hazards from machinery are generally of following types:
Crushing, shearing, cutting or severing, entanglement, drawing-in or trapping, impact,

stabbing or puncture, friction or abrasion, ejection of material from the machine, contact with moving
part, hot surface or sharp edge, free fall of any material, tool or equipment and high pressur-e-fluid
ejection.
The basic steps to prevent accidents are :
1 Eliminate the hazard from the machine, method, material, structure etc.
2 Control the hazard by enclosing or guarding it at its source.
3 Train personnel to know that hazard and to follow the safe job method to avoid it and
4 Use personnel protective equipment necessary.
Thus machine guarding is one of the basic step to eliminate hazard. Actually the machine

Page 8
should be so designed and constructed that all safety points are incorporated by built-in safety
principle and need of extra guards should be minimum. A machine safety checklist given by the
NSC, USA is worth mentioning. It suggests:.
Design the machine so that it is impossible for an operator to get at the point of operation or any
other hazard point while the machine is working.
Design the machine so that corners and edges
Locate machine controls so that the operator will not be in "the vicinity of the point of
operation while actuating the controls.
Place the control so that the operator will not have to reach too far or move his body off
balance in order to operate the machine.
Build power transmission and drive mechanisms as integral parts of the machine.
Build overload devices into the machine.
Design the machine for single-point lubrication.
Design mechanical, instead of manual holding devices.
Design a mechanical device for feeding and ejecting parts so as to eliminate the use of hands
for such operations.
Minimise motor drift-time.
Provide fail-safe interlocks so that the machine cannot be started when it is being loaded or
unloaded or being worked on.
Provide a grounding system for all electrical equipment.
Provide standard access platform and ladders for inspection and maintenance of equipment.
Design component parts of equipment for easy and safe removal and replacement to facilitate
maintenance.
Reduce sources of excessive noise, vibration, heat etc.
Such built-in-care in construction principles of a machine or equipment should also ensure

that it will cause no harm to the environment, no discomfort to the operator, no operational
contingencies, no contact with overheated or chilled surfaces,, no electrical accident and no access
to the danger zone.
Groups of Dangerous Parts :
Some examples of dangerous parts of machines are shown in fig. 14.1. They pose hazards and
there fore they need appropriate machine guards or fancing.
According to Motions :
Dangerous parts to be guarded according to their motions are generally classified as follows :
Group-1. Rotary Motions : (1) Rotating parts alone viz. shafts, coupling, spindles,

Page 9
projectionson moving parts, fly-wheel, saw, gear, knife, cutting tool etc. (2) In-running nips
subdivided as (a) Between parts rotating in opposite direction - gears, rolls etc. (b) Between rotating
and tangential moving parts conveyors, belt drives, rack and pinion etc. (c) Between rotating and
fixed parts - grinding wheel, paper machine felt or roll, drums, cylinders, worms, spirals etc.
Group-2. Reciprocating Sliding Motions: (1) Reciprocating sliding motions and fixed parts
(a)Approach type - danger of crushing viz. slides (rams) on power presses and forging hammers,
pistons, cross rod of a steam engine and riveting machines (b) Passing types - danger of shearing,
viz. planning machine, shaper, spot welder clamping fixtures, guillotine and the shear, power press
etc. (2) Single sliding motion- abrasive or sharp nature of objects such as saws or crocodile clips on
belts.
Group-3. Rotating/ Sliding Motion : A cam gear having sliding and turning movement etc.
fallswithin this group.
Group-4. Oscillating Motions : Trapping points between two moving parts or between a
movingpart and a fixed object viz. a pendulum, crankshaft, closing platens etc.
According lo H.A. Hepburn
25 groups of intrinsically dangerous parts of machinery as classified by H.A. Hepburn are as

follows:
Single Revolving Units - Risk of entanglement

1. Revolving open arm pulleys and other discontinuous rotating parts - Fan blades, spur
gear wheels etc.
2. Revolving worms or spirals in casing Meat mincers, rubber extruders, spiral
conveyors.
3. Projections on revolving parts - Key heads, set screws, cotter pins, complying belts etc.
4. Revolving shafts, spindles, mandrels and bars - drills, reamers, boring bar, stock bar,
milling etc.
Single Revolving Units - Risk of cutting or abrading

Revolving high speed cages in casings Hydro-extractors, centrifuge.
Revolving or oscillating mixer .arms in casings - Dough mixture, rubber solution
mixture.
Revolving drums and cylinders - uncased - Rumbles, shaking barrels, rag digesters etc.
Revolving cutting tools - Circular saws, milling cutters, shears, routers, chain
mortisers.
Abrasive wheels - Grinding wheels etc.
In-running Parts - Risk of nipping and tearing

In running nips of the belt and pulley type - Pulley - belt, chain and sprocket gear,
conveyor belt etc.
Revolving beaters, spiked cylinders and drums - Scutchers, cotton opener, laundry
washers.
In running nips between pairs of revolving parts - Gear wheels, friction wheels,

Page 10
calendar bowls, mangle rolls etc.
Nips between, gears and rack strips. (d) Reciprocating Tools or Parts - Risk of cutting
or crushing
Moving balance weights and dead weights - Hydraulic accumulators, balance weight
on slotting machine etc.
Reciprocating knives and saws Guillotines for metal, rubber and paper cutting,
trimmers, perforators etc.
Nips between reciprocating and fixed parts other than tools and dies - Sliding table and
fixture, shaping machine and fixture.
Closing nips between platen motions Letter press platen printing machine, power
presses.
Reciprocating tools and dies - Power presses, drop stamps, relief stamps, bending
press, revolution press.
Nips between revolving control handles and fixed part - Traverse gear handles of
lathes, milling machineetc. Nips between revolving wheels or cylinders in pans or on
tables - Sand mixtures, edge runners, crushing mill, mortar mill etc.
Nips between fixed parts and unidirectional moving parts - Buckets or hoppers or
conveyors against tipping-bars etc.
Nips between connecting rods or links and rotating wheels, cranks or disc - Flat bed
printing machine, jacquard loom, automatic looms.
Pawl and notched wheel devices for intermittent feed motions - Planer tool feed
motion, power press dial feed table etc.
1. Running Edges - Risk of cutting

Cutting edges of endless band cutting machines - Band saws, band knives.
Projecting belt fasteners and fast running belts - Bolt and nut fasteners, wirp pin
fasteners, centrifuge belt etc.
Above discussed motions are shown in figure 147 143 and 144

Page 11

Page 12

Page 13
1.3 Requisite Characteristics (Design principles) of Guards:
Twelve characteristics, design principles, specifications, basic requirements or good guarding

practice for machine guarding are:
3. With its primary purpose of protection, it should also facilitate the work i.e. it should be
convenient, reliable and not hampering the work or rate of production.
4. It should fully satisfy the legal provisions and IS prescribed i.e. it should conform the
standards, be a complete guard and not incomplete or giving any access to the part to be
protected. It should be as close as possible.
5. It should be suitable and effective to the job and the machine. It should not weaken the
machine.
6. It should allow for oiling, inspection, adjustment and repair. If it requires opening for this
purpose, it should be easily and quickly replaceable.
7. It should withstand wear, shock, vibration and long use with minimum maintenance. If it
requires frequent opening and closing, this factor becomes more important.
8. It should be of proper material and construction. It should be well fitted. Fire and corrosion
resistant material is preferable..
9. It should be free from self-hazard such as sharp or rough edges, nails, splinters, more opening,
noise, vibration etc.
10. If visual watch of operation is necessary, it should be transparent and yet durable.
11. If dusting is possible as in case of machining of wood, rubber, brass, cast iron etc., apart from
the guard, dust suction device should also be fitted as a special guarding.
12. It should be fail-safe i.e. if it fails or breaks it should stop the machine or at least it should
give warning (alarm) to stop the machine.
13. It should be interlocking type i.e. the machine will not start till it is not closed and will stop
soon if it is opened.
14. It should fulfil special requirement depending upon its purpose viz. distance guard should
provide sufficient protective distance, trip guard must immediately trip the machine etc.
It may be difficult to fulfil all these requirements but it is desirable that safety engineers must
design guards by keeping above points in mind. If it is no possible to provide guard without
interfering with production, safety should be preceded over production Similarly when complete
protection is not possible incomplete (maximum possible) protection, should b( preferred to no
protection.

Page 14
1.4 Types And Guards Selection

Ways and means for machine safety can be classified as under :Machine Safety
Safety by
construction
Safety by position
Built-in safety
Safety by machine controls
Safety by precautions and
maintenance Safety by Guarding
prime mover, transmission parts
and points of operation
Fixed guards or fencing
15. Total enclosure
16. With .limited access
17. With adjustable access
18. Distance or barrier guard
Interlock guards.
1. Mechanical interlocking
2. Electrical interlocking
3. Tripguard
4. Control guard
Automatic guards
4. Mechanical type-sweep, knock or push away guard
5. Photo-electric cell type
Safety devices
1. Two-hand control
2.Optical sensor
3.Electro-magnetic sensor
4.Mechanical feed (conveyor)
5.Feed tools (tong, magnetic device)
6. Non repeat device
7. Pedal guard
Thus machine guarding is one of the ways for machine safety and first two modes of safety
b) construction and safety by position are equally important. They are explained below in brief :
Safety by Construction : A shaft end or any par without nip, spoke, nail or protruding
projection moving at very slow speed, any sliding or link mechanism moving at very slow speed
without danger of trapping or crushing, a power operated sliding door which will stop or return at

Page 15
touch are some of the examples of safety by construction. Such unguarded slow moving parts without
risk are considered safe by construction. Because of high production rate and dangerous cutting
shaping operations required, this type of slow moving machinery is hardly possible. Even then safe
construction of machines must always be aimed at. At least outer or exposed part must be safe.
Built-in-safety should not be understood as safety by construction. The dangerous moving

parts enclosed in casing so that no separate guard is required are an example of built-in-safety. Here
speed, nip or sharp edge of moving parts are dangerous if the casing is removed, therefore their
construction is unsafe and safety is built-in by providing a solid enclosure so that the moving parts
are neither visible nor exposed.
Safety by Position: When dangerous parts are so situated by height, depth or position that it
is normally difficult to touch them, they are called 'safe by position'. Overhead transmission
machinery, dangerous parts out of reach because of height or covered by some structure so as to
prevent access or contact, are generally called safe by possible.
This concept does not provide full safety. Unpredictable behaviour of a 'person or. touching
because of cleaning by broom stick can still cause an accident. Therefore decision regarding 'safe by
position' should be thought twice with all considerations.
Feed openings where access is possible and guard is not possible, should be made safe by
providing gravity, conveyor or remote control feeding. This is also a way of safety by position.
Hopper depth should be sufficient so that extended arm cannot touch the dangerous part.
Types of Guards and Selection:

Various types of guards are shown classified in previous part. Their suitability should be
selected. Preference should be given to the simplest type of guard ensuring complete safety. Some
are described below and some in subsequent paras.
Fixed guards : They are simple, easy to provide and cover parts as well as throwing particles
if any. They are of various types, materials and design. A minimum thickness of 1.2 mm is
recommended for sheet metal. Guard opening and its distance from the dangerous part should be
fully safe. Such spacing and distance are prescribed and formulae are also available, but it is rather
a matter of fact of individual requirement. They should be close fit, robust and should withstand
speed, vibration, impact etc. They should be properly fitted by clamps, bolts etc. They require special
tool for their removal.
Every fixed guard (or other guard) on point of operation should prevent entry of fingers
(preferably the smallest finger) or hands by reaching over, under, or around the guard into the point
of operation. Its fasteners should not be easily openable to prevent misuse or accident. On point of
operation it should offer full visibility, while on transmission parts it may not.
Following formula was suggested by the Chief Inspector of Factories, UK in his Report of 1975 –
5.1 = X + 6
12

Page 16
where Y = guard opening or gap in mm and
X = distance from danger in mm
Fixed total enclosures are used to cover prime mover and transmission parts such as headstock
gearing, belts, pulleys etc.
Fixed limited access guards provide minimum opening in the guard to insert and remove the
job (material). It disallows finger to trap. If the material is jammed, it requires special tool and
opening and refitting of the guard. They are used on power presses..
Fixed adjustable access guards -provide opening through or around guard to accommodate
materials of different sizes. Guards on band saws, jigsaws, milling cutter etc. can be raised or lowered
as per the thickness to cut. Such guard known as "crown guard" on circular saw or drill tool adjusts
automatically as the job or tool moves. Its disadvantage is that it gives little protection when thin
material is processed.
Fencing, distance or barrier guards make it physically difficult for people to gain access. Nip
guard to in-running rolls and fixed railing or fencing to engines, motors, planning or shaping machine
are of this type.Interlock guards make certain that the machine cannot be started until the guard
screen is in close position and conversely the guard cannot be removed until the working parts have
been stopped. Mechanical, electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic systems are used to actuate the guard.
Mechanical interlocking of a power press, card machine and electrical (limit or micro switches)
interlocking of headstock covers of many textile machinery are such examples. Many times the
interlocking is bypassed or made ineffective which is not good. This is its disadvantage. Correct
working condition of limit switch is most important. Limit or micro switches are used but they are
not fully safe.
Trip guards are actuated by anyone approaching beyond the safe position and operate a stop
or reverse control viz. trip rod along the conveyor belt, hand trip on a rubber mill, electronic eye, lift
door, platen printing guard, calendars or dough brakes etc.

Page 17
Control guards activate the machine when the guard is closed and opening the guard stops it. Thus
the guard acts as on-off switch. Such guard is useful for the machine which can be brought to rest
very rapidly, e.g. power press.
Automatic guards will ensure that the operator is prevented from coming into contact with
dangerous parts when the machine is set in motion accidentally. This guard is itself actuated by the
movement of the dangerous part. It can only be used where sufficient time is available to remove the
body part from the danger zone viz. sweep, knock or push away guard on a power press or platen
printing machine. Because of its stroke hazard it is hardly used. Photo-electric guard (device) operates
to stop the dangerous part when the light curtain is interrupted. This type of guard is used on shearing
or cutting machine.
Safety by Machine Controls: These should be differentiated from incidental safety devices
which are external and work like guard for protection. But the machine itself has many controls as
its inherent or attached elements. All levels, buttons, brakes, pedals, switches, handles, wheels, auto
controls etc., are machine controls to run the machine safely and efficiently. Such controls should be
clearly identified, marked and suitably placed tot ease of operation. Their purpose and direction of
movement shall be marked. Each stop button should accompany start button and they should be sunk
to prevent accidental pressing.

Page 18
Levers should be capable of being locked in position. Levers, handles, or wheels should
operate to give naturally anticipated direction (e.g. clockwise close and anticlockwise open, up
forward, down reverse etc.), controls should be at rest when power is applied and they should not
restart the machine after resetting. Guard or control should be of fail -safe type i.e. the machine will
stop if the control fails. When there are more controls nearly placed or on one board clear instruction
of their use must be marked to prevent then false operation. Locks or keys on some controls are
required to prevent their undesired operation by mistake.
Safety by Precautions and Maintenance: Above paras highlight the need of utmost precautions
in safe operation and maintenance of all safety guards, devices and controls. A man has made them
and a man can make them ineffective or misuse. Therefore all precautionary operating measures are
necessary in addition to the machine guarding. The machine operators should be made aware of
hazards in their works, location and operation of machine controls, regular checking of guards,
warning and training not to make the guards ineffective, repairs, adjustment etc., by specially trained
person, need of wearing tight fitting clothing and protective equipment necessary and using right
tools and equipment.
Criteria for Guard Selection : Selection of a guard depends on following factors :
1 Its physical dimensions, weight etc.

2 Method of drive and power requirements.
3 Limitations of speed, pressure, temperature etc.
4 Materials being processed or handled.
5 Access requirements especially for setting, adjustments and maintenance.
6 Environmental factors such as noise, vibration, dust, fumes and
7 Operating requirements such as visibility.
Built-in Safety Devices : The object of built-in safety device is to design and make the machine,
equipment, method and environment so safe that the workers' exposure- to accident or injury is
eliminated or controlled automatically.
It is well experienced that many a times the guards provided on the machines are removed,
not refitted and dangerous parts run without guards. Such unsafe practice leads to accidents.
Therefore it is always essential to incorporate built-in safety devices (guards) from the design stage
so that they become integral part of the machine and subsequent guarding is least required.
Built-in-safety can be designed for point of operation, transmission parts, controls,

maintenance, adjustment and cleaning. Unnecessary projecting parts should be avoided. Risk at
cutter, tool or equipment should be eliminated or minimised by design, enclosure, handle etc., closed
tools are safer than open tools, controls should be in easy reach and inching or slow motion, braking,
tripping, reversing etc. should be provided where necessary.
Benefits of Built-in Safety Devices :
They are more safe from accident prevention point of view.

They serve more than one purpose.
Page 19
They are less costly in long run. Subsequent addition of guards requires frequent maintenance
and they are usually more costly and less effective.
They provide better standard to the design and operation of the machine.
Need for training and supervision to control unsafe acts is reduced.
It helps for efficient production, high morale and less labour turnover.
For best results, planning at initial engineering level is necessary. Right from the-drawing and
design stage to the delivery stage, all safety aspects should be built-in. The responsibility should also
be extended to product design, machine design, plant layout and working conditions, selection and
specification of materials, production planning, time study methods, duties of production foreman
and the duties of the workers.
The disadvantage of built-in guards is that slight modification or unanticipated circumstances,

after machine installation can render the guarding less effective. Therefore necessary correction in
safety device should be made if such change is required.
I. Incidental Safety Devices and Methods :
Some incidental safety devices (indirect guards) equally useful as machine guarding are as below:
Two Hand control : Two push buttons are required to be operated simultaneously thus keeping
the operator's hands engaged and away from the dangerous parts. Such device does not protect
another approaching person, is prone to faults and cause difficulties on electrically, hydraulically or
pneumatically powered machines. Therefore such device alone is not advisable. It is used on garment
presses etc. Where two operators have to work simultaneously, four push buttons are required to
keep their hands away from dangerous parts.
Optical Sensor : This uses photoelectric cell and a light. On interruption of light beam, the
dangerous part is stopped. Its working must be checked before starting the work.
Electromagnetic Sensor : This uses a sensor of electromagnetic field, a coupler and
interconnecting cable and a control unit. Interruption of the field by an operator's hand causes an
electric signal which initiates the desired control action.
Mechanical Feed : A positioning device like conveyor or a rotating table moves the parts or
material into the point of operation where the hazard exists thus avoiding human contact there.
Feed Tools : Tools viz. tong, magnetic lifting rod etc., are used to place material in a press
with an intention to save the hand.
Pedal Guard : Such guard on foot-pedal of a power press prevents occidental foot-stroke on the
pedal. Ultrasonic device : Inaudible high-frequency sound senses the presence of any part in
the danger
zone. As sound attenuates over distance its application is limited.
Feed Hopper : It extends the feed length to prevent access. It can be used on pug mill, rubber mill
etc.
4.4 Guarding of Different Machines :
Some statutory specific guarding is mentioned below under the Guiarat Factories Rules, 1963.
Textile Machinery (Rule 54, Sch. 1) :
Applicability: This schedule applies to machinery to manufacture or process of 'textile'

Page 20
i.e.cloth or fabric. It does not apply to 'Jute Textiles' or manufacture of 'Synthetic Fibres' i.e. yarn.
This means it applies to manufacturing of cotton or synthetic cloths.
Definitions : 31 types of textile machines or their dangerous parts are defined. It

includesopening, combing, carding, weaving and processing (bleaching, washing, printing, drying,
sanforizing, shearing, cutting etc.) machinery. -
Machine Guarding : It is summarised in Table, 14.2
Table : Guarding of textiles machines.
Name of the Machine Guard / Device Suggested

1 General requirements 1 Individual Starting/ Stopping device in safe position
2 Belt shifting lock
3 Guards on all moving parts
Interlock guards / doors on beaters and dangerous
2 Openers/ Pickers 1 parts
2 Feed guards
3 Nip guards on fixed rolls and lap forming rollers
Interlocking doors on
3 Cotton Cards 1 cylinders
2 Fixed guard on licker-in
4 Trained worker for stripping or grinding
4 Garnet Machines 1 Fixed guard on licker-ins
2 Fixed guard on Fency rolls
3 Screen under garnet
5 Gill Boxes 1 Guard on feed end
2 Nip guards on rolls (Distances are suggested)
6 Silver/ Ribbon , lappers Guard on calendar drums and lap spool
7 Speed Frames Interlock doors on head stock gearing
8 Spinning Mules Guard on carriage wheels
9 Slashers/ Dryers 1 Nip guards on in-running rolls
2 Control levers within 1.7 mt from the floor
3 Stop/ Start push buttons conveniently located
10 Looms 1 Shuttle guard
2 Beam weigh fall preventer
11 Valve on Kiers 1 Locking device on valve
Tanks & containers 2 Shut off valves to stop overflow/ splash
12 Shearing Machines Guard on revolving blades (opening less than 1 cm)
13 Bleaching range Nip guard on rolls
14 Mercerizing range 1 Stop button at each end of the machine
2 Guard on frame between chain & clip opener
3 Nip guard on mangle rolls & washers
15 Centri-fugal extractors 1 Interlock guard on basket

Page 21
2 Brake to stop basket
16 Mangles, Washers etc. Nip guards on in-running rolls
17 Sanforizing and Palmer 1 Nip guards on in-running rolls
Machines
2 Side guards on in-running rolls
3 Trip rod, cable or wire near cylinders. Height not more
than 1.7 mt from working platform.
18 Rope washers 1 Splash guards
2 Trip rod near washers
Washers, tumblers or
19 shakers 1 Interlock door on cylinder
2 Holding open device for cylinder doors
20 Printing machine 1 Nip guard on rolls
2 Fixed guards on rollers, gears & wheel
3 Fixed guards on rollers, gears & wheel
21 Calendars Nip guard on rolls
22 Rotary staple cutter Guard on cutting zone
23 Plating machine Guard on space between knife and card bar
24 Hand baling machine Handle stop guard at right angle to the frame
25 Flat work ironer Trip bar/ guard on first pressure (feed) rolls to stop the
machine.
The machine guarding u/r 54, sch 2, 3 and 4 is summarised below in tale
Table : Guarding of Ginning, wood working and rubber machines.
Types of
Machine Dangerous Pars Guards
I Cotton Ginning (Sch. 2) :
Line shaft to run the gins Line shaft Wall or fencing with locking
doors.
II Wood working
1 Circular saws The saw A riving knife of prescribed
dimension
s and setting.
Adjustable top guards, two metal
plates guard, push sticks
2 Band Saws Top and bottom pulleys Fixed guards
and the blade
3 Planning machine Cutting slot, freed roller Bridge guard, efficient guard
Vertica
4 l Spindle Moulding Cutter, the wood being Suitable guard, A jig or holder
machin
e moulded
5 Chain mortising m/c Chain and cutters Suitable guard

Page 22
III Rubber Mills (Sch. 4) :
1 Rubber mill Inrunning rolls Height more than 96.5 cm, a
distance guard, feed hopper, trip
guard (rod) within 1.7 m height.
2 Calendar m/c Inrunning rolls Trip guard within 1.7 m height,
tight wire cable connected with it.
Note : See Chapter 23 for specific industries.
Centrifugal Machines (Rule 54 Sch. 5) :
Applicability: This schedule applies to centrifugal extractors, separators and dryers but
doesnot apply to similar machines of sugar manufacturing industry.
Requirements:
1. All parts of the machine shall be of good design, construction and adequate strength, properly
maintained and examined thoroughly by a competent person at regular intervals.
2. Lid on cage housing, revolving drum or basket shall be strong and interlocked.
3. Effective braking arrangement is required to stop the drum/basket after the power is cut off.
4. Operating speed shall not exceed the rated speed which is stamped at visible places on the
basket and the machine casing.
Power Press (Rule 54 Sch.6) :
Applicability : This schedule applies to all types of power presses including press brakes
exceptwhen used for hot working of metal. The CIF can give exemption by a written certificate with
conditions, if any, and he can revoke such certificate also.
Tower-Press' means a machine used in metal or other industries for moulding, pressing,
blanking, raising, drawing and similar purposes.
Guarding of Tool & Die : Tool and die shall have a fixed guard so as to prevent hand injury
inthe danger zone. A small aperture shall be provided at the bottom of the die guard to feed the
machine.
An automatic or interlocked guard may be used in place of a fixed guard but it should be
maintained in efficient working condition and if such guard develops defect, the press shall not be
operated till the defect is removed.
Trained person for testing, preparing etc. : To set, adjust, try out, install, inspect, test
orprepare a tool or safety device on a power press, an adult trained worker shall be appointed and his
name shall be entered in Form No. 8.
Testing by a Competent Person : No power press or safety device shall be used unless it
hasbeen thoroughly examined and tested by a competent person. Periodicity of testing for a power
press and its safety devices is 12 and 6 months respectively.

Page 23
Details of such test report are prescribed in para 6(4) of the schedule. This includes name and
address of the factory, name of the occupier, identification number or mark to identify the press or
safety device, date of, the first use, date of each examination and particulars of defects found and
steps taken to remove them.
Disclosure of Defects & Measures: By any test > or examination, when any defect is
disclosedby a competent person, the defective press or safety device shall not be used till it is
remedied.
The competent person shall inform the occupier and the Inspector (within 14 days) in writing,
the defect to be rectified. The defect shall be remedied and its record shall be kept stating the
measures and the date of remedy.
Inspection & Test of Safety Device: After setting, resetting or adjustment of any tool,
everysafety device of the press shall be inspected and tested by the authorised (appointed) person
and then only the press shall be used.
Defect disclosed in a safety device as above, shall be notified to the manager forthwith.
Identification: Every power press and every safety device on it shall be distinctively and
plainly marked.
Training & Instruction to Operators: The operators shall be trained and instructed in the
safe method of work before starting work on any power press.
Shears, Slitters and Guillotine Machines (Rule 54 Sch. 7):
Guillotine machine has a straight or bevel edged blade and Shearing machine has a similar
blade operating vertically, while Slitting machine has circular disc type knives for slitting into narrow
strips.
These machines are used to cut metallic or non-metallic substances.
Machine Guarding:
The descending blade should have a fixed barrier guard in front of the blade (knife) fitted with
the machine frame.
Where fixed guard is not possible due to size and thickness of the material being fed, either
'two hand control' or 'push away' device shall be provided for the protection of hands.
At the back end, inclined ducting cum guard shall be provided through which the slit pieces
would slide and be collected at a safe distance and which would prevent a person from
reaching the blade.
Except continuous feed trimmers, power driven cutters shall have two-hand starting device
(push buttons) and at least one hand on a control during the completion of the stroke. In
addition to the brake (stop device), an emergency device shall be provided to prevent the
machine from operating in the event of failure of the brake.
An automatic guard to push away the hands at every descent of the blade. (Such guard may
be preferred as a last resort if other devices are not possible).
Where more than one worker work on the same machine, two-hand start device should be for

Page 24
each worker and at least one hand on a control to complete the cut.
Circular disc type knives shall have a fixed or manually or automatically adjustable guard to
enclose the knife edges. The space between the guard and the material should be less than 6
mm. Portion underneath the table should also be guarded.
Mechanical power press and its machine guarding are shawn in fig. 14.8.
Dangerous Machines : The substituted Rule 57, prescribes the following machines as 'dangerous'
and noyoung person (below the age of 18) shall work on it-
1. Hoists, lifts, lifting machines, chains, ropes, lifting tackles and revolving machinery (Sections
- 28,29,30).
2. Power presses other than hydraulic presses.
3. Milling machines.
4. Guillotine machines.
5. Circular Saws.
Platen printing machines.
HAND TOOLS
No work is finally possible without hand-held or hand operated tools. Such tools are of many
types, having many purposes and operated by hand only or by some energy e.g. electric, pneumatic,
hydraulic etc.
1. Causes and Control of Tool Accidents:
Causes of tool accidents and their safety aspects including ergonomic design are important -
Main Causes of Tool Accidents:
In India, injuries due to Hand Tools were 9 fatal and 10571 non-fatal i.e. total 8.25% in 1990
and 5 fatal and 3314 non-fatal i.e. total 5.47% in 1991.
It states 9 & 12 fatal accidents due to hand tools in Gujarat in 1996 .& 1997. This comes to
4.91% & 4.89% respectively.
It also indicates that hand tool accidents (Causation No. 124) were 4.52% (710 out of 15683)
in Gujarat in 1994. Thus hand tools accidents vary from @ 4 to 8% each year which need to be
controlled.
USA figures of deaths due to cutting or piercing instruments or objects were 103, 108 and
132 in the year 1994, 1993 and 1992. Percentage wise these were 0.11, 0.15 & 0.15 respectively.
(Accident Facts, 1997, NSC).
The causes and effects of hand tools accidents are eye injuries due to flying chips from tools,
puncture wounds and infections, cut injuries due to knives, chisels and hammers, bone fractures due
to defective or slipping wrenches and scratches due to scrap etc., cutting of fingers, tendons and
Page 25
arteries, contusion etc.
Poor maintenance, incorrect tool, wrong use, carelessness, bad storage and poor material are
main causes of tool accidents.
2. Prevention & Control of Tool Accidents:
The main control measures are:
The right tool for the right job: Wrong methods are: To use file instead of pry, wrench insteadof
hammer, pliers instead of wrench etc. This may cause accident. Therefore it should be avoided.
Tools in good condition : Examples of poor condition are : Hammers with loose handles,
screwdrivers and cutting tools with broken points or broken handles, wrenches with cracked or worn
jaws, dull saws, and flexible electric cables with splint insulation, broken plugs, unearthed ground
wire etc. Such conditions should be removed.
Tools used in the right way: Wrong ways are: Screw drivers applied to job (e.g. to open a lid,
toremove bearing), knives pulled toward the body and failure to ground electrical equipment. Tools
should be used in right way.
Tools kept in a safe place and safe way: Unsafe practices are: Tools kept overhead so as to
fall;chisels and other sharp tools kept in pocket or left in tool boxes with cutting edges exposed. They
should be kept in a proper way.
Good housekeeping for orderly layout and cleanliness: Haphazard lying of tools anywhere,
leaving tools at the workplace after completion of the job, slippery surface not cleaned, tools kept in
aisles or walkways etc. are common causes of tool accidents. Tools should be kept orderly.
The supervisors and workers should be trained

To wear safety goggles, face shield, helmet etc as per requirement.
To select the right tools for each job and their right use. To return the tools after use.
To guard, inspect, repair and maintain tools in safe condition.
To use the proper storage facilities in the too room and on the work place.
To put the tools in such a way that they can be readily available.
To scrap and replace the tools when worn.
To check out tools at cribs.
To store in safe condition when not in use.
Ergonomic Design of Hand Tools
Ergonomic design of hand tools takes into consideration that they should :
Effectively perform the intended function.

Be properly proportioned to the dimensions of the user.
Be appropriate to the strength and endurance of the user.
Minimise user's fatigue. It should be comfortable to him.
Page 26
Provide sensory feedback.
Some biomechanical factors to be considered in tool design are grasp, handedness (left or
right, single or double), hand strength, sex and clothing.
Criteria affecting handle design are its shape, diameter, length, angulations and texture.
Specific criteria are - diameter, shape, weight, section, length, angulations of and placement of handle
for hammer.
Screw drivers, pliers, saws and power tools are important for ergonomic design.
Types and Safe Use of Hand Tools:
Main types of hand tools are as under -
Metal Cutting Tools :
These are chisels, stamping and marking tools, tap and die work, hacksaws, files, hand snips
and
cutters.
Factors of selection and safe use are : Materials to be cut, size and shape of the tool, depth
ofcut, sponge rubber shield or combination of rubber hand grips and shields on hammer struck tools,
use of chisel holder or tong, safety goggles, vice, wrench, right type of file with smooth handle,
lubrication on cutters etc.
The flat chisel should have its cutting edge slightly convex. All chisels (flat, cold, diamond
point or cape type) should be strong enough so as not to bend when struck. Striking face of the
hammer should be slightly larger (9 mm by dia) than the struck face of the chisel. Bull chisel should
be held by tongs or chisel holder to save the holder from injury.
Stamping and marking tools should be held by tool holder to keep fingers away from the
toolbeing struck.
In tap and die work, hands should be kept away from broken tap ends and threads being cut.
Hack saws should be properly tightened in the frame to prevent buckling and breaking.
Selectproper blade (teeth per inch) for the proper metal (hard or soft) to be cut. Pressure should be
applied on forward stroke only. Cutting speed of 40 to 60 strokes per minute is proper.
Selection of correct file for the job can prevent injuries, increase production and file life. A file
shouldnot be hammered or used as a pray. It should not be used as a punch, chisel or other tool
because the hardened steel may fracture in that way.

Page 27
Jaws of hand snips should be kept tight and well lubricated. Do not hammer on the handles
or jaws of the snips. Safety goggles and leather or canvas gloves are necessary.
Cutters should be used to cut at right angles only. They need frequent lubrication and should
not be used as nail pullers or pray bars.
Wood Cutting Tools :
These are wood chisels, saws, axes, adzes and hatches.
Factors of safe use are : Proper method of holding and using the tool, splinters free handles,
naildetection, sheath or metal guard on axe blade, use of safety goggles, sharp and proper cutting
angle. Do not drop the tools.
The wood to be cut should be free of nails to avoid damage to the cutting edge. A wood chisel
should not be used as a pry or wedge, otherwise the hard steel may break.
Proper saw (crosscut or ripping) should be selected. When not in use, saws should be wiped
off with an oily rag and kept in racks or hang by handle. Nails should ,be cut by metal cutting saws.
Axes and hatches are designed to cut, trim or prune trees and soft wood. Their cutting edges
should not strike against metal, stone or concrete. A narrow - bladed axe is used for hard wood and
a wide axe for soft wood. Safety shoes, goggles and thick pants should be worn while using an axe.
Adzes are hazardous tools and should be used by trained workers only. Safety shoes, shin
guards and safety goggles are necessary. When not in use, it should be set aside in a safe place with
its cutting edge covered or left stuck in the timber.

Page 28
Material Handling Tools :
These are crow bars, jacks, hooks, shovels and rakes.
Factors of safe use are : Proper size and type of the tool and its handle, solid footing
and'lubricating of jack, shielded point of the hook, trimmed edges and polished handles of shovels.
A crowbar has a point toe to grip the object to be moved and a heel to act as a pivot or
fulcrum. Sometimes a wooden block may be placed -under the heel to prevent the crowbar from
slipping and injuring hand.
Hooks should be sharp so that they should not slip when applied. Handles should be strong
andproperly shaped and attached.
Shovels should be used by proper leg positions so as not to lose balance. Edges should be
trimmed and handles without splinters.
Hand feed tools :
To protect hand and fingurs while working with power presses, rolling mills, press brakes,
banding machines and other machineries and also working with hot matels, hand feed tools are used.
1. Torsion Tools:
These are adjustable wrenches (spanners), pipe wrenches, pipe tongs, machine wrench, torque
wrenches, socket wrenches, open end or box wrenches, pliers, tongs, special cutters, nail band
crimpers and screw drivers.
Factors of safe use are : Sharp jaws of wrenches, inspection of adjusting nut of the
wrench,correct size of the wrench and not to change its dimension, insulated handles of electricians'
pliers and screw drivers and screw driver not using for other purposes. A screw driver tip must be
properly ground. The user should not lose balance on slipping of tool or the job.
Box and socket wrench (spanner) completely encircles the nut, bolt or fitting and grip it at all
corners as opposed to the two corners grip by an open-end wrench. They cannot easily slip.
Wrench capacity should not be overloaded by using pipe extension on the handle or striking
the handle as normally bus drivers do. For heavy duty work, sledge-type box wrenches are available.
Penetrating oil (kerosene) should be used first to loosen tight nuts.
The use of the wrong size wrench can round the corners of the bolt or cause slippage and.
make its subsequent use difficult. Makeshift approach is not good.
Adjustable wrenches should be used for light duty jobs where no fixed spanner is available.
For the reason of safety, wrenches should be pulled toward the self and not pushed.

Page 29
Pipe wrenches should be prevented from slipping and falling. Its adjusting nut should be
checked frequently. If it is cracked, the wrench should be withdrawn from the use. A pipe wrench
should be used for pipes and their fittings only and not for nuts and bolts because their corners can
break the teeth of the wrench, thereby making it unsafe to use later for pipe work. It should also not
be used for soft metal (brass, copper) valves or fitting which can be crushed or bent out of shape.
Pliers are meant for gripping and cutting operations and should not be used as wrenches. A
guard cover on cutting edge of side-cutting pliers can prevent flying short ends. Pliers for electrical
work must be insulated and simultaneous use of electrician's shock-proof gloves is also necessary.
are used to pull out gear, wheel, pulley, bearing etc. from a shaft. Prybars and chiselsshould not be
used for this purpose.
Screwdriver tip must be properly ground to fit the slot and it should be of the correct size for
thehead. Handle should not be hammered. For electrical work, handle should be insulated. Screws
should not be overtightened to avoid slipping.
Shock Tools:
These are hammers, sledge hammers, riveting hammers, carpenter's or claw hammers. The
Page 30
handles should be smooth and of proper size.
1. Non-Sparking Tools for Hazardous area :
Such tools of non-ferrous (Beryllium, copper alloy, brass, copper, lead, plastic, rubber)
materials are used where flammable gases, volatile liquids and explosive substances are stored or
used. They should be kept free of picked up foreign particles to avoid friction sparks.
Hazardous area classification should be known first before selecting hand tools. In most
hazardous area where high risk of fire or explosion exists, non metalic ie. wood, rubber or plastic
tools should be used if possible and proper earthing of equipment should be ensured. There should
be flameproof electric lighting arid if hand lamp is to be used, it should not be of more than 24 V.
Working in day lighting should be preferred.
For use of welding/cutting tools, statutory provisions (viz. Sch. 24 of GFR) should be strictly
followed.
Necessary PPE for working in hazardous area should also be used.
They cannot be used to apply heavy stroke. Therefore careful use is necessary. It should be
properly selected.
Miscellaneous Cutting Tools :
Planes, scrapers, bits, drawknives, ice picks and brad awl are used for special purposes.
Knife accidents are many. A handle guard or finger ring on the handle of knife and the cutting
stroke away from the body are desirable. Knives should be carried over the right or left hip toward
the back. This will prevent severing a leg artery or vein in case of fall. Knives should not be kept
mixed with other tools. Knives should not be used in place of screwdrivers, can openers or ice picks.
All such tools should be kept sharp and in good condition. When not in use, they should be
placed in a rack on the bench or in a tool box in such a way that will protect the user as well as the
cutting edge.
Carton cutters are safer than hooked or pocket knives for opening cartons as they eliminate
deep cuts that could damage inner contents.
While walking or climbing on ladders, workers should use a strong bag, bucket, tool hoist
belt or pouch to hold tools safely and to keep both hands free for safe moving and working. Sharp
tools should not be put in pockets. Tools shall never be thrown on ground. Tools should not be put
on vibrating or slippery overhead surfaces, ladder step, scaffold plank, overhead piping or part of
any structure or machine from .which they can easily fall or hurt.
While giving tool to another person, the handle should be toward the receiver. While turning around,
care should be taken not to strike others.
Misuse of hand tools can cause injuries. Use of hand tool with power driven machinery (e.g.

Page 31
lathe) should be controlled. Training is necessary for their safe handling and use. Use of safety
goggles and setting up a shield or screen to prevent injury to others from flying particles, sparks,
excessive light, radiation etc. are also required.
Indian Standards should be followed for design, selection, use and maintenance of above
tools.
CENTRALISED AND PERSONAL TOOL ISSUE SYSTEM :
The main advantage of such tool control is the uniform inspection and maintenance of tools
by a trained man. It facilitates the effective records of tool failure, accident causes and suggestions
for improvement. It provides positive control than scattered storage. Tools are well maintained and
less exposed to damage, deterioration .and falling hazards.
The central tool control room attendant can advise and issue the right type of tool, ask to
return the damaged or worn tool and encourage the safe use of tools. He can also suggest the
appropriate type of personal protective equipment at the time of issuing the tool and make
arrangement to get clean and to well maintain the tools after and before issue.
Methods of service repair and reconditioning should be established. Supervisors should
frequently, at least weekly, inspect all tools and remove from service those found damaged. A
checklist of inspection can also be designed and used.
It is the employer's responsibility to see that the employees are provided with and use the safe
tools in safe methods.
PURCHASE, STORAGE AND SUPPLY OF TOOLS:

Careful purchase of hand tools can eliminate hazards from beginning. Standard (IS & others)
and approved type of tools should be ordered for purchase. Material of construction, quality,
durability, ergonomic design, good handle and insulation, effective cutting edge and electrical safety
with electrical tools are some of the points for better selection. Purchase of tool boxes, chests,
cabinets, belts and pouches also needs attention. In-charge of a central purchase department should
fix the criteria or guidelines for best quality tools. Advice of the safety committee and experienced
supervisors and workers should also be taken.
Storage of tools should be in a dry cool place and away from any chemical
effect. Tools should be kept in a tool box. Proper cupboard, rack or shelves
should be used to put tool boxes. Shelves may be movable so that workers
can reach all sections to get their tool boxes out.
Tool boxes should be used to put and carry the tools. A tool box
should have handle, catch or a hasp and locking arrangement. Bigger tool
boxes having more drawers or trays are called tool chests. Mobile tool
cabinets are bigger tool chests and move on wheels. Depending on size,
weight and number of tools, proper type of tool box, chest or cabinet should be
selected.
Supply of tools may be from a central tool room or through supervisors on need-base system
or allotted to the worker to keep with him in his tool box. It should be ensured that the tool should
be of good quality and in safe and good working condition. Supply includes replacement of damaged

Page 32
or worn tools. A record of purchase date, service condition, repair and maintenance can be useful in
this regard.
Tools should be in sufficient number so that it can be supplied or replaced individually and
work is not suffered because of any waiting time. If this is not possible, working time of the tool
should be so scattered and planned to minimise the waiting period. Time of supply should be during
working hours and suitable to the workers.
Causes of Tool Failure :

They are : overheating or under heating of the forging of steel when it was hardened, cracks
from improper forging, improper tampering, failure to relieve stresses in forging, improper
quenching, incorrect angle of cutting edge or steel of poor quality.
Defects of these types will be found in tools of inferior construction, which, because of
breakage and inefficiency, are more expensive in the long run than are tools of the best quality
obtainable.
1. Inspection, Maintenance and Repairs of Tools :

The tool room attendant or tool inspector should be qualified by training and experience to
pass judgement on the causes or defects of tool failure stated above and condition of tools for further
use. No dull or damaged tools should be given for work.
Efficient tool control requires periodic inspection of all tool

operations. Responsibility for such periodic inspection should be placed with
a top man, preferably the department head and should not be delegated by
him..
Hand tools receiving the heaviest wear, such as chisels, wrenches,
hammers, sledges, star-drills, blacksmith's tools and cold cutters require
frequent maintenance on a regular schedule.
Repair facilities require work benches, vices, hardening or tempering furnace or forge,
tempering baths, goggles, repair tools, grinders, fasteners and good lighting. Enough stock should be
maintained to replace and issue safe tools.
Tempering, Safe Ending, Dressing and Handles of Tools :

Tempering of Tools: Hammer-struck and striking tools (chisels, stamps/punches, cutters,
hammers, sledges and rock drills) should be made of carefully selected steel and heat-treated so that
they are hard enough to withstand blows without mushrooming excessively and yet not be so hard
that they chip or crack.
For safety, it is better that shock tools, some of which can be dressed frequently, be a little
soft rather than too hard, because a chip may fly from an excessively hard tool without warning when
the tool is struck with a hammer or sledge.
Forming and tempering of tools is a skilled operation. Before heat-treating any tool, the exact
analysis of tool or recommendations for its proper heat treatment should be obtained.
Safe-ending of Tools : Hammer-struck tools, such as chisels, rock drills, flatters, wedges,
punches, cold cutters and number dies should have heads properly hardened by a qualified workman.
The hazard of burred heads can be reduced by safe-ending the tool. This can be quickly and
economically achieved by grinding or flame cutting a shoulder recess about 1/8 inch wide and 1/4

Page 33
inch deep into the tool head and then bronze-welding it. The proper base-metal temperature for
bronze-welding is 1600° to 1700° F. The correct temperature is indicated by a bright red colour when
the tool is looked at through dark glasses in the light of oxyacetylene flame.
Short sections of tight-fitting rubber hose can also be set flush with the striking ends of
hammer-struck tools to keep chips from flying.
Dressing of Tools : Shock, cutting and pointed tools require regular maintenance of their
edges orstriking surfaces. Once the cutting or striking surfaces have been properly hardened and
tempered, only an emery wheel, grindstone, file or oilstone need be used to keep the head in shape
and the edges clean and sharp. Proper precautions should be taken before grinding hardened tools.
They should not be ground until they have been drawn or tempered. Grinding should be done in easy
stages with no attempt to take off much metal at one time. While grinding, the tool should be kept as
cool as possible with water or other cooling medium. The manufacturer's recommendations for type
and kind of grinding wheel should be followed. Each cutting edge should have the correct angle
according to its use and be finished off with a file.
Redressing of Tools : Redressing or reshaping of tool edges or surfaces which are badly
damagedis not recommended. It should be discarded.
Procedure for correct redressing of dull cutting edges is as under :
The tool edge should be supported firmly.
File or stone away from the cutting edge. Do not use a grinding wheel.
Restore the original contour of the cutting edge.
Handles : The handles of the tools should be of the best straight-grained material. Fitting
ofhandles is very important. Poorly fitted handles make it difficult for the worker to control the tool.
Design criteria for handle are its shape, diameter, length, angulations, texture and ergonomic aspects
for convenience and safe use.
Handles should be fitted or replaced by an experienced person. Long use or shrinkage can
loosen the handle. Wedges can be inserted in gap, tool head can be further driven in the handle with
wedges reset and the protruding end of the handle cut off. If this is not possible a new similar handle,
should be fitted after removing the old one.

Page 34
PORTABLE POWER TOOLS
Types, Hazards and Safe Use :

Portable power tools are divided into five primary groups according to the power source :
electric, pneumatic, hydraulic, gasoline and explosive (powder actuated). Several types of tools such
as saws, sanders, drills, and grinders are common to the first three groups; whereas explosive tools
are used exclusively for penetration work, compression and cutting. Pneumatic grinders, impact tools
and flexible shafts tools are also in use. Hydraulic tools, are used mainly for compression work. .
A portable power tool presents similar hazards as a stationary machine of the same kind, in
addition to the risks of handling. Typical injuries caused by portable power tools are burns, cuts and
strains. Sources of injury include electric shock, flying particles in the eyes, fire, falls, explosion of
gases and falling tools.
The power line should always be disconnected before accessories on a portable tool are
changed, and guards should be replaced or put in correct adjustment before the tool is used again.
Care should be taken to set power driven tools in safe area where they may not be struck by
passersby and activated. A tool should not be left in an overhead place where there is achance that
the line, if pulled, will cause the tool to fall.
Flexible cords, cables or hoses should be hung overhead and on safe points, and not over nails,
bolts, sharp edges, oil, hot surfaces and chemicals. They should be frequently checked for
cracks/opened joints, cut phases or earth wires.
Electric Tools:
Electric shock is the chief hazard from electrically powered tools. Types of injuries are electric
flesh burns, minor shock that may cause falls and shock resulting in death.
Main safety points for electric power tools are:
Flexible cable (cord) should be protected from misuse, abuse and damage to insulation
resulting in broken or exposed live conductor.
Plug-socket connection should be tight and safe. No bare conductors should be inserted in
plug. Three pin top should be used.
Metal casing should be effectively earthed. Earth .core of the flexible cable should be properly
connected to the metalwork to be handled. Flexible conduit is not suitable for this purpose.
Second alternative is the use of 110 V supply with centre tapped to earth to reduce an effective
shock voltage to 55-a relatively safe voltage.
Power cutting switches should be within reach and near the apparatus.
Regular maintenance to check earth core continuity and strength of earthing.
Additional back-up protection is ELCB. i.e. earth leakage circuit breaker which detects the
current difference between power supply line and current returning to the supply point. In
normal safe operating condition, this current difference is zero but if there is a fault and
leakage starts to earth, a differential current occurs which operates the device that rapidly
senses and trips its contacts to cut off power to the apparatus.
Electric tool should never be put in wet area or used in raining condition.
Double protection or double-insulated or all insulated type equipment which need not be

Page 35
earthed.
Dead man control. This tool operates till the button is pressed and it stops as the button is
released. Portable saw, hoist and remote control pendant are of this type.
While using electric drills, saws and grinding wheels,' eye protection is always required. Drill
bit should not be of excessive length, otherwise it may break. Electric saws should have guards.
Circular saw (portable) should be equipped with a trigger switch that shuts off power when pressure
is released. It will not run when not in use. Grinding wheel should be properly mounted and guarded.
Sanders should run away from the body as it cannot completely guarded. Dust should be
cleaned daily by a low pressure (30 psi or less) air and wearing safety goggles. Vacuum cleaning
equipment is safer.
Pneumatic or Air-powered tools are less hazardous than electric power tools. Grinders and
impact tools have air hoses (pipes) which pose tripping or stumbling hazard. Self-storing recoiling
air hoses are safe. Speed regulator or governor is necessary to avoid over-speeding the tool.
Impact tools include riveting guns and jackhammers. Air pressure safety valve, automatically
closing valve actuated by a trigger located inside the handle (machine can run only when the trigger
is depressed) and retaining device that holds the tool in place so that it cannot be fired accidentally
from the barrel are necessary.
Air should be filtered and cooled moisture or water should be removed from the tool.
Pneumatic tools are of two types - percussive and rotary. In rotary tool either piston and cylinder or
rotor vanes are used. Speed regulator is necessary. Pneumatic tools are started and stopped by means
of shut off valves and rotary valves. Rotary valves are equipped with a spring returning the rotary
handle to its 'stop' position as soon as the handle is released. Maximum operating pressure is 6 bar.
Additional handle is provided to control back twisting torque when the cutting tool (e.g. drill, reamer)
gets jammed.
Effects of noise and vibration cause health hazards. Vibration and jerks cause strain in the
joints and disease. 'White fingers' or 'Vasospastic vibration syndrome' is a disease due to vibration
exposure and vascular spasm. 8 to 16 Hz frequency causes' the most harmful effects as it generates
resonance in hand-arm system. Safe limit of vibration intensity i.e daily exposure is
60 HZ for 1 hour working and
112 HZ for 30 minutes working.
To reduce vibration, damping springs, air cushions and vibration absorbing handles are
necessary.
Noise level near the tool should be measured and ear protection should be given to the operator
if necessary. Eye protection is required due to flying chips. Two chippers should work away from
each other, back to back, to prevent cuts from -flying chips. They should not point a pneumatic
hammer at anyone. Neither should it be used to clean dust from clothes due to risk of intestine

Page 36
inflation. Jack hammer handles should have rubber grips to reduce effects of vibration and fatigue.
Operators should wear metatarsal - type safety shoes to protect against fall of heavy hammer.
Hydraulic power tools are hydraulic chain saws and compression devices. A small leak can
impose high oil pressure on finger. Therefore, proper pressure hose should be selected. Safety pins
are provided to shear at pre-set pressure. Pins should be secured by retainers. Poor quality shear pins,
improper design or use of sockets can cause sudden failure and result in flying missiles.
Selection, Inspection, Maintenance and Repairs :
Information and training to select right tool for the right job is necessary. If a small hole is to
be drilled and if it is easily possible by a hand drill, power drill is not necessary. Manual hazards are
less serious than the power hazards.
Tool supplier should be given complete information about the job for which a tool is required
so that he can recommend the most appropriate tool for that job.
Normally portable power tools are to be used on light or home work. For continuous operation
and production service or heavy work, 'industrial duty' tools are selected.
Periodic inspections are necessary to find defects and to keep the tool in good working
condition. Then it serves the purpose of preventive maintenance. It prevents hazards and costly
breakdowns. Defective tools should be tagged and repaired.
Record of date of inspection, fault noticed and date of repair is necessary. Cause of fault and
detail of repair carried out can also be added to such record.
Workers should be trained to inspect tools, identify defects, report and repair. They should be
warned not to do makeshift repairs and to do no repair work unless authorised.
For cleaning purpose non flammable and nontoxic solvent should be used.
Inspection Checklist
General : Low voltage equipment used in tanks and wet area? Tools well maintained? Motors
in good condition? Approved tools used in explosive atmosphere? Tools left where they cannot fall?
Cords : Insulation, plugs and sockets unbroken? Cords protected against trucks & oil? Cords
not in aisle?
Grounding : Ground wire fastener in safe condition? 3-wire plug extension cord? Defects or
minor shocks reported?
Guarding: Guards used on grinders & saws? Movable guards operate freely? Eye & face
protection worn?

Page 37
Use of Personal Protective Equipment:
Gloves, loose clothing and jewellery should not be worn by workers using revolving tools
such as drills, saws and grinders. The weight of most power tools makes it advisable for users to
wear safety shoes (with steel toe) to reduce chances of injury, if the tool falls or drops.
While working at overhead places with power tools, the operator should wear a safety belt
and use a good platform or support.
Dust type respirators should be worn on buffing, grinding or sanding jobs which produce
harmful
dusts.
Ear protection is necessary at high noise levels.
Safety goggles or face shields should be worn for work on grinders, buffing wheels and scratch
brushes because the unusual positions in which the wheel operates will cause particles to be thrown
off in all directions. For this reason, protective equipment is even more important than it is for work
on stationary grinders.
Eye protection equipment (safety goggles or face shields) is a must in all operations where
hardened metal tools are struck together, where wood working or other cutting tools are used, where
anything is struck by a metal hand tool, or where the cutting action of a tool causes particles to fly.
Clothing should be free of oil, solvents or frayed edges to minimise fire hazard from sparks.
WELDING AND CUTTING OPERATIONS :
Welding and cutting operations are frequently used in construction, demolition, repair and
maintenance works. The equipment may be permanently installed or portable. Hazards of permanent
installation .can be minimised by safe design and therefore a fixed welding shop is more desirable
than portable moving welding work. Where the work pieces are very heavy or not movable or at
height or depth etc. portable equipment is the only convenient device.

Page 38
Hazards at workplace
Hazards : The operations of welding and cutting are carried out at high temperatures which
aresource of "Fire" or Explosion. The liberation of the heat and energy into the work place can cause
chemical and physical reactions which do not normally take place at room temperature. The reactions
include the various types of radiation and release of various toxic gases, vapours, fumes, etc., which
may affect the health of the workers engaged in the process and near by. Some hazards are :
1. Flying metallic sparks and molten metal. Some of these sparks consist of tiny shreds of
extremely hot metal, sometimes molten, which may be hotter than 1000° F and may cause
painful burns on exposed skin. These sparks are also source of fire or explosion hazard, in
case flammable materials are near by.
2. Hot surfaces of the work pieces after welding or cutting may cause harms to unsuspecting
persons.
3. Flying materials while chipping the weld.
4. Enrichment of Oxygen (due to leakage from Oxygen cylinder) radically changes
flammability.
5. Glare which comes when the arc is struck or the torch is lit. It affects the optic nerve at the
back of the eye. Special eye glass (screen) is required.
6. Thermal heat radiation from welding can cause headache, fatigue and eye damage.
7. Infra red radiation. Some of the IR is stopped by the upper layer of the skin but part of the
radiation penetrates the exposed skin and may cause serious skin burns or pigmentation. Since
eye has no absorbing layer, it can be severely damaged by this and may cause "heat cataract".
8. Ultra-violet radiation may cause skin burns and prolonged exposure may lead to skin tumours.
Inert gas shielding is a strong source of UV radiation.
9. Workers on the shop floors may be exposed to noise due to welding, cutting or chipping
operations.
10. Fall of materials and equipments during operation.
Electrodes and Holders : Electrode holders are used to connect the electrode to the
weldingcable supplying secondary current. In order to prevent accidental striking of an arc they
should be fully insulated. Holders should be capable of handling the maximum current required by
the electrode. Electrode holders are liable to become hot during welding operations if they are not
designed for the purpose, i.e. holders for light jobs are used for heavy work or if there is a loose
connection. In case the correct size of holder is not available an additional holder should be provided
so that one can cool while the other is in use. Dipping of hot electrode holders in water should be
prohibited as it may expose the worker to electric shock.
Electric Shock : The work set up is such that the work is grounded and if the worker is
notcareful, he can receive electric shock. A welder may be exposed to the open circuit voltage while
changing electrodes, setting up work, or changing working position. Danger is more in humid
environment or if the welder is "sweaty". The risk of shock can be reduced by providing an insulating
barrier between the worker and the ground of nearby metal objects, while changing electrodes. Dry
leather gloves act as good insulator. It is also advisable to use shoes with rubber soles. The electrode
holder should be sufficiently insulated between the handle and the bare part that grips the electrode.
The welding cables should be of good quality to resist hard wear and inspected for insulation defects.

Page 39
Joints between cables should be by insulated connectors of equivalent capacity. The welding
equipment must be safely earthed. There should be two distinct and different earthing circuits so that,
in case if one fails, the other will afford protection.
Brazing, Soldering and Metalising Operations :
Such operations involve metal fumes because of heating. Inhalation of fumes (toxic or
irritating) should be removed by local exhaust ventilation. Lead oxides and chlorides are released
when soldering with lead-tin solder and zinc chloride flux. Lead oxides and formaldehyde are
released when soldering with rosin core solder. Hazards of different types of solder should be known
before starting work.. Hazardous contaminants should be measured by air sampling. Lead solder
particles should not be allowed to accumulate on the floor or work tables. For protection against
spattering of solder or flux, workers should wear faceshield or do the work under a transparent shield.
Respirators are required to protect against metal dust or fume while metalising or burning of
metal. Hand gloves can protect against burns. Insulated, noncombustible holders can protect against
fire and burns. Table cover should be heat resistant.
Finishing Operations like Polishing, Buffing, Cleaning, Shot Blasting :
Polishing wheels are made of leather faced wood or stitched canvas disks or similar material
coated with abrasive glue on the periphery of the wheels.
Buffing wheels are made of disks of canvas, linen or felt with a coat of mild abrasive, tripoli
or rouge.
Brush or scratch wheels are made of protruding wires and used to remove burrs, scale, sand
and other materials.
While cleaning or finishing rough or ground jobs by air, sand or shot (metal) blast cleaning
or polishing and buffing by rotating wheels, main hazard is dust (abrasive or metal) generation during
such
operations. It should be removed from the point of origin by an efficient exhaust system. Room dust
(flying) should be collected by wall exhaust fans. Dust collectors should be cleaned regularly.
Shot Blasting by small metal balls (ferrous or nonferrous) is done through an air gun
(jet).Pressurised air is passed through metal balls and they are shot blasted on metal plate, rough
casting or any job requiring such shot blast cleaning. Because of air jet (force) surface is cleaned
(corrosion removed) but metal and other dust is heavily generaged. It can spread and fly nearby.
Therefore a close chamber is constructed and worker does this operation inside. For dust collection,
powerful exhaust system with blower and dust collection chamber is required. The worker (blaster)
wear full face protection and also use air line respirator to inhale clean air comming through it.
Blasting chamber door should have glass window to watch worker inside. In case of difficulty he
should come out. His medical examination for dust exposure and chest X-ray are necessary.

Page 40
Sand blasting is prohibited.
Workers should wear eye protection and dust filters rather full face protection."
By pre cleaning of casting or machined part by keeping it in a rotating barrel, mill or abrasive
chamber in close condition, subsequent dusting can be minimised.
The space around dust generating or cleaning process should be kept dry, clean and free from
obstructions.
Solvent cleaning of metal parts pose fire and toxic hazard. Non-toxic or non-flammable
solvents or cleaning agents like alkaline solutions are safe in this regard. Oil and grease should not
be allowed to mix with cleaning compounds. Carbon tetrachloride and petrol are banned for cleaning
purpose. Ventilation is needed to remove vapours.
Polishing and buffing wheels require :

Substantial stands and rigid mounting of wheels.
Guards to avoid contact with protruding nuts and the ends of the spindles.
Exhaust hoods to drive away the dust and flying particles. More than one branch pipe may be
provided depending upon the shape and size of the pieces being worked.
Speed within the limit (15 to 35 m/s) when variable speed motors are used.
Avoidance of hand gloves.
A jig to handle the work against the wheel.
Not more than 3 mm clearance between the work rest and the wire brush wheel and use of
leather or heavy canvas aprons, gloves and face shield while working on wire brush wheels.
Monitor procedures same as for grinding wheel.
No smoking while buffing or polishing as a spark pulled into the exhaust system might cause
a fire.
No common exhaust systems for polishing, buffing and grinding operations because of the
fire hazard.
Selection, Care and Maintenance of Equipment and Instruments :
Equipment and instruments for welding and cutting, brazing, soldering, metalising and
finishing operations like cleaning, polishing and buffing require careful selection, use and
maintenance for avoidance of hazards and accidents.
For protection against hot sparks, arc radiation and glare, fumes and gases, compressed gases,
chipping slag, metal and abrasive dust and electric shock, goggles, helmets and shields should be
worn by operators, welders and their helpers. These equipment should conform to IS. Welder's
handbook SP-12, welding equipment for eye and face protection 1179, protective filter 5983 and IS
guides for selecting the correct filter lens for welding and cutting operations, dust filters, gas
respirators, breathing apparatus, protective clothing and other personal protective equipment must
be referred.
Sampling, identification and safe removal of gases, fumes and dusts by proper instruments

Page 41
and exhaust ventilating equipment are required first. Such instruments should be of good quality,
well calibrated and properly maintained. They should be handled by trained personnel. Selection is
dependent on job to be carried out, toxicity and concentration of gas or dust and working
environment.
Welding equipment (e.g. torch) should not be used in a confined space. Welder's safe
breathing zone requires at least 280 M3 space per welder and ceiling height more than 5 m. If natural
cross ventilation is not sufficient, mechanical ventilation (local exhaust, local forced, roof or wall
exhaust fans etc.) is necessary. They should be maintained efficient and with sufficient capture
velocity. Welding partitions may be used to protect eyes of surrounding people.
As oxygen alone cannot burn, acetylene, hydrogen or other fuel gases are used with torches.
For example, propane, propylene and their mixtures are used in gas cutting. Such gases are filled
with pressure in metal cylinders. Therefore they should be safely handled. Foregoing Part contains
safety precautions for handling and storing of gas cylinders.
Manifolds are used to centralise gas supply at a rate higher than that of a single cylinder.
Regulators, headers and distribution pipes are used therewith. They should be properly designed,
erected and colour-coded. Oxygen manifolds should be located away from the source of ignition or
flammable material. Leak detectors with alarm are desirable in manifold room.
Hoses and hose connections should be fully safe. Colour coding (e.g. red for fuel gas, green
for oxygen and black for inert gas, see IS booklet) should be followed to avoid wrong connection.
Special torch connectors with built-in-shut-off valves are available. Connections should be of ferrule
or clamp type. Special tools for special threads should be readily available. External metallic covering
on hose pipe is not desirable. Flashback devices (NRV) between torch and hose can prevent flashback
into hoses and regulators. Burned hose section should be replaced by new one.
Gas torches should be of approved type. Cutting torches differ from welding torches in jet
and valve design. Select proper welding head for mixture, tip or cutting nozzle according to the charts
and screw it firmly into the torch. Do not use matches to light torch. Use a lighter. Safe operating
procedure should be followed for welding or cutting.
In resistance or spot welding, point of operation should be guarded by enclosure, gate, two-
hand control or similar safety guard. Back doors of machine and panels should be locked or
interlocked. Control circuit should operate at low voltage (24 to 36 volts). A flash welding machine
should have a shield or hood to control flash and fumes and a ventilating system to carry off the metal
dust and oil fumes. Air or electrical foot switches should be guarded to prevent accidental operation.
In electric arc welding machine (AC or DC) current values should be kept minimum to avoid
heating. Electric cables should be well insulated and automatic voltage controller should be used.
Electrode holders should be fully insulated to avoid shock or arc burn. Proper holder should
be selected (heat resistant) depending on light or heavy work. Connections between cable and holder
should not be loose. Hot holder should not be dipped in water for cooling. Bare electrode or holder
should not touch the skin or wet clothing.
Holders for brazing and soldering operations should be made of noncombustible material and
insulated to avoid fire and burn hazards. The best holder completely encloses the hot surface and so

Page 42
inclined that the weight of the iron prevents it from falling out.
Exhaust hood, duct, dust collector, fan etc. should be regularly inspected for choking, velocity,
leakage etc. and kept clean for good working.
Gloves should not be worn by polishers and buffers to avoid dragging of hand. If the motors
that drive polishing/buff ing wheels, have adjustable speed controls, the controls should be kept in a
locked box and the speed shall be changed only by an authorised person.
While working on wire brush wheels, leather gloves, leather or canvas aprons and face shield
should be worn.
Equipment and instruments should always be used in accordance with the manufacturer's
instructions.
1. Presses, Shears and other Machines:
Hand and Foot Operated Presses :
Non-power presses are generally hand or foot (kick) operated and are used for blanking,
forming, punching etc., mostly on metal, but also on leather, card board plastics and pastry. An
accident may take
place if the operator's attention is distracted, the work is jammed in the die, the ram descends due to
slackness in guides and insufficient frictional resistance, mistake of one operator if two operators
work on the same press. Their safety devices include:
Closed tools, fixed guards and restricted stroke.
Interlock guards.
Pendulum and sweep away device.
Automatic device which arrests the ram.
Two hand control.
Firm foundation and mounting of the press.
Sufficient spacing or screens to prevent other workers coming into contact with
moving parts.
The ram should not descend due to gravity.
Regular inspection and maintenance and
Good training and supervision.
Power Presses :
Power presses are used in metal pressing, riveting, coining, assembling, staking, burnishing,
trimming, sizing, flattening, bumping, embossing homing, forcing, flanging, bending, straightening
swaging, planishing, punching, extrusion etc. The power may be mechanical, hydraulic or pneumatic.
Types of Guards recommended for Power Presses are as under :
Starting and stopping mechanism to prevent over running of the press or descent of the ram

Page 43
during tool setting etc. A brake to stop ram in upper position and -an arrestor brake to arrest
the movement of crank shaft and flywheel are also necessary.
Protection of tool and die by means of a fixed guard with a slip plate to enclose the front and
sides of the tool, fixed guard surrounding the die with back tunnel for falling the pressed
article to the rear, a feeding device through chute or otherwise at the bottom of the die guard,
an efficient automatic or interlock guard in place of a fixed guard if the fixed guard is not
possible
Fixed die-enclosure guard.
Fixed barrier guard to allow ready access to the die. The pivoting or sliding section must be
interlocked with the press control to prevent operation of the machine when the section is
open.
Adjustable barrier device attached to the frame of the press and which can be adjusted for dies
of almost any size.
Gate or movable barrier device to enclose the point of operation before the clutch can be
engaged.
Auxiliary point of operation device.

Two hand tripping device requiring constant pressure till the slide has reached the bottom of
the downstroke.
Sweep device to push hands out of the point of operation zone. Such device is activated by
the slide through linkage and may have a single or double arms.
Pull-back, pull-out or pull-away device to pull back hands as the slide descends. Such device
should be adjusted to each job because of variation.
Electric or electronic device to prevent the pressure from cycling. Such device can be used
only on presses having friction clutches with brakes to stop the press at any point of slide
travel. It is not effective on punch presses with positive clutches because no device can
prevent completion of the cycle once it starts.
Photo cell device operating on interruption of light beam near the dangerous zone.
Pedal guard over the foot pedal or switch button. A spring closed door requiring positive
pressure in such guard provides further safety.
Instead of foot pedal, if the hand lever is used, a spring latch to prevent accidental or premature
tripping, should be provided. If there are more than one operator, the hand lever should be
interlocked.
A press with a positive clutch should have a single stroke attachment which disconnects the
pedal or operating lever after each stroke.
When the press is used on continuous operation by making the single stroke or non repeat
device inoperative, the die should be completely enclosed regardless of the method of feeding
and ejecting device to avoid use of hands between die and punch. The six semiautomatic feeds
are chute (gravity and follow), plunger, slide or push, sliding dies, dial and revolving dies.
The best method of ejection is usually pick-up fingers or compressed air.

Page 44
Hand feeding tools such as vacuum cup, tong, magnetic rod etc. to put and take small parts to
and from a punch press.
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Presses:

The hazards are similar to those of the power presses. Some particular hazards are: sudden
dropping of the slide due to power failure or breaking of a pressure line, defective dual controls,
leaking valves, air pressure built up between dual controls in wiring etc.
Control measures are :

Limiting slide travel by means of a cylinder designed for short travel, by die or jig and fixture
design or by auxiliary stops.
1. Fixed barrier guards.
2. Movable barrier guards.
3. Electrically controlled and air operated solenoid valve holds the slide in an up position in case
of power failure.
4. Interlock guard to stop closing movement of the tools.
5. In case of Die-Casting Presses, to avoid trapping and splashes by molten metal, a sliding cover
is interlocked with hydraulic or pneumatic power. A mechanical scotching device to restrain
the platens from closing when the interlock sliding shield is open and guard operated electrical
switches linked to the solenoid of the main platen cylinder control valve are also necessary.
6. Plastic Moulding Presses are of two types injection and compression. In case of injection
moulding press, a sliding cover on vertical parting (dies) surfaces and in case of compression
type an interlocked scotch (a heavy struck or a hook type) are necessary to avoid trapping
between dies.
7. Rubber Moulding Press is compression moulding type and an interlocked guard is necessary
to prevent trapping.
8. Bailing press needs a hinged guard interlocked with the driving power. .
9. Pie and Tart press used for moulding and filling pastry for pies and tarts, a hinged guard for
protection against operating ram, electromechanical brakes on motor and blanking of gaps
near
tops of the moulds are necessary.
11. Brick and Tile presses need interlock guards or photoelectric safety device. In case of
mechanically fed presses, a tunnel guard near delivery opening is necessary.

Page 45
Press Brakes :
A Press brake is a type of power press used to cold-form angles, channels and curved shapes
in plate, strip or sheet metal stock. It is also used for punching, embossing, corrugating, notching and
other operation. Typical hazards are :
1 Crushing between the punch and the die or between the work being bent and the ram.
2 Cuts from contact with stock being processed.
3 Injuries from handling punches and dies.
Control devices are:
A front horizontal work rest cum distance .guard (this may be a fixed, automatic or interlocked
guard) adjusted to coincide with height of die and supporting brackets and fall back device on
rear side to stop the material being fallen.
Photo electric device in addition to fixed, interlock or automatic guards.

Worn punches and dies should be retooled or discarded as they give excessive strain on the
press.
Instruction and training of operators.
Periodic inspection and well maintenance of parts in good working condition.
Starting devices such as two-hand switches or levers, treadle bars, foot switches. Foot controls
should be covered by stirrup guards to prevent accidental tripping.
Reverse control with the start switch to use when tools become frozen.
Soft metal pliers, rather than fingers, should be used to feed small parts to the press. Fingers
should not be brought within 10 cm of the point of operation.
Positive over-run stop device, single stroke device and elimination of treadles by a shrouded
pedal to prevent inadvertent operation.
Operators should be instructed to test operate the machine before start of each shift. They
should be well trained and well informed of the work.

Page 46
Metal Shears and Slitters:
Squaring shears should have fixed barrier guard placed at least 12 mm away from the shear
(knife) and not more than 10 mm above the table or it may be a self adjusting barrier which will
automatically adjust itself to the thickness to be cut with a limit of 8 mm above the table. The guard
should extend across the full width of the table and it may be slotted, perforated or set at an angle to
permit good visibility of the cutting line. The hold-down can be guarded separately or as a part of
the knife guard. The back of the knife should also be guarded and chutes or slides should be attached
to catch the work without reaching close to the knife. The entire length of the treadles should be
provided with fixed guard allowing only a gap for the operator's foot. To avoid accidental tripping
of the shear, an extra foot latch may be attached to the treadle.
Alligator shears are used in forging operations. For cutting rods and bar stock to length,
thealligator shear operates continuously and the operator must be trained to time his movement with
the opening and closing of the cutter. An adjustable guard should be set close to prevent the fingers
from entering the danger zone.
Forming Rolls:
The nip point (full length) between the rolls should be guarded utilising a feed table. A special
purpose feeding device (channel type) can be easily installed to feed short pieces. Reverse electric
switches or emergency tripping bars are also useful. Brakes are necessary if the rolls continue to
revolve after power has been cut off.

Page 47
Bending and Forming Machine :
This power driven machine is used to band preformed stock (ie. plate, bar, tube, pipe etc.)
into desired shapes. Forming and banding are performed by dies, banding punches or other tools.
Hazards are - trapping in dies or in -running nips of rollers, sharp corners of materials, slipping
due to lubricants and heating due to friction of motion etc.
Point of operation should be guarded. Power transmission parts should be enclosed. Safety
stop sweech is necessary and accidental restarting should be prevented.
1. Metal Cutting Machine :
Metal cutting machine has a blade (hacsaw) which works

horizontally and cut the stock (bar, rod, plate, pipe, tube etc.). Coolant
or lubricant is necessary. Hazards and control are similar to wood
cutting machine. Guard is required to protect the moving blade and
transmission machinery.
Cold Rolling Mills :
In Cold Rolling nip guards on rolls are necessary to avoid trapping. Dangerous parts of
shearing, cropping, trimming and guillotine machines should be securely guarded. Oil spillage on
floors should be cleaned. Gratings, absorbent materials and non-slip boots are necessary. Fire
protection in plants containing hydraulic equipment is necessary. Accidents due to material handling
should be avoided by different methods. Good housekeeping and good illumination are also essential.
Hard hats, safety shoes, gaiters, gloves, goggles etc. should be worn.
Noise is at many places such as gearbox of rolls and straightening machines, pressure water
pumps, shears and saws, throwing of metal products. Planning at design stage to segregate such noise
zone is essential. Sound proof and heat radiation proof cabins for operators and crane drivers increase
safety as well as efficiency. If technical control of noise is impossible or insufficient, ear protectors
should be given to workers.

Page 48
Vibration due to percussion tools and recoiling and rebounding effect of the material
introduced into the gap between the rolls may cause health hazards for which engineering control is
the only best remedy. Other measures are less effective.
Wire Drawing Operations :

The usual meaning of wire is a coiled metallic stock up to 3/8 inch cross sectional width. Wire
drawing is cold working in which semi-finished metal rod stock is transformed into wire of smaller
diameter and perfectly round cross-section by pulling it through a die or dies. The operational
diagram is shown below.
Annealed or patented wire can further be subjected to acid clean, water wash, coating and
redrawing. At the end the wires kept into wire stock or used for products. Drawn wire may be
galvanised or tinned before delivery. During wire drawing operation either the wire is passed through
dry lubricants (soap or sodium, calcium or aluminium stearates ) or wet lubricants (soap solution,
paraffin etc.) in which the dies are fully immersed for maximum lubrication and cooling which also
gives a bright clean finish.
Hazards are acid splashes, burns, cuts, bruises, falling forging bodies in to eye, skin diseases
dueto acid, dusts, scale and lubricants and lead poisoning due to lead baths which are not covered or
have no fume extraction.
Preventive Measures include guarding of dangerous moving parts, drive, nips, wire pulley
nipsand feed points by screens and barriers (adequate to contain a broken wire), enclosure of
dangerous chemical processes, removal of fumes and dust by exhaust ventilation, use of personal
protective equipment (safety helmets, goggles, face masks, gloves, aprons, footwear), safe material
handling, training, barrier creams and medical examination of workers.
Machine Tools :
Classification, uses and safety aspects of machine tools are important.
Definition and Classification of Machine Tools:
A machine tool is a machine for making articles of a given shape, size and accuracy (according
to the blueprints) by removing metal from work pieces. Machine tools are factory equipment for
producing machines, instruments and tools of all kinds. Machine tools are classified as (1) Lathes (2)
Drilling and boring machines (3) Grinding, Polishing or Finishing machines (4) Combination
machine tools (5) Gear and Thread cutting machines (6) Milling machines (7) Planning, Shaping,
Slotting and Broaching machines (8) Cutting off machines and (9) Miscellaneous machines.
CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machine tools are used for doing multi operations. CAD
(computer aided design) and CAM (computer aided manufacturing) technique gives fully automatic
machine tools operations.
Machine tools may cause less serious accidents than do metal-forming machines, but, because
of their greater use, their accidents may exceed in number.

Page 49
(1) Safety in Use of Machine Tools :
Machine-wise hazards and guards are explained below.
(B) Turning Machine (Lathe) :
Turning consists in shaping a rotating piece by revolving it against a cutting tool, thus
producing a
cylindrical surface. Machine tools coming under this category include all forms of metal-turning
lathes including automatic screw machines. Some hazards and suitable guards are as follows :
S. No. Hazards Guards / Controls
Head-
1 Contact with projections of face stock guard. Chuck
plates and chucks. guard.
2 Contact with projections of the dogs Counter sunk screws.
and projecting set
screws.
Enclosur
3 Flying metal chips, long burrs and e guard,portable
tunings. perspex screen guard, use of
chip breaker
tool.
4 Hand braking of machines. Foot pedal brake with trip
switch, pneumatic chuck and
feeding tools for small jobs.
Automati
5 Filling and emerying without a c emerying. Emery
holding device. holder.
6 Gauging the job while machine is in Dial indicators. Tight fitting
motion. clothing.
Cleaning chips in Safety hook /
7 motion brush.
8 Projection of the work or stock Tube guard. Bar stock guard.
beyond machine.
9 Flying off the job. Full enclosure guard.
10 Inserting blanks and removing die Spindle jaws, mechanical
processed part without stopping. feeding device and safe
Page 50
fixture.
11 Splashing of coolant resulting in Splash guard, pan and
slipping hazards and dermatitis. enclosure guard mounted on
rollers. Floor mats.
12 Flying chips of cast iron, brass and Chip guard. Goggles or face
other non ferrous metals. shield.
13 Pulleys, belts, ears, setscrews. Fixed guards
Hinged guard.
Turrets & Capstan Lathes :
14 Counter weight falling and bar flying Tube guard. Blank off hole.
through turret head.
Multispindle Lathe :
15 Collecting component while just Wire mesh. Spoon collectors.
martin off.
16 Parted component comes in between Sharpening tools properly
tool and the first spindle.
1. Boring or Drilling Machines :
Boring or drilling consists of cutting a round hole by means of a rotating cutting tool.
Machines ir this class are vertical or horizontal, fixed or portable drills, reamers, honors. Some
hazards and guards are as follows :
S. Haza Guards /
No. rds Controls
1. Spindle contact. Sleeve guard.
Telescopic drill guard,
2 Tool and chuck. combined
drill & check guard.
Unclamped job and Clamp the job. Use iron
3 breakage of plate (L
tool or struck by
the job. section) for a big job.
Hair and loose clothing Cage type guard. Cap.
4 in contact Tight
with revolving spindle fitting clothing. Gloves
and bit. neckties
long sleeves not
permissible.
Sweeping chips
5 by hand. Brush.
Belts, pulley, gears,
6 setscrew. Fixed guards
7 Flying particles Barrier guard, Goggles.
Rotating horizontal Surrounding machine
table. guard.

Page 51
Milling Machines:
Milling consists of machining a piece of metal by bringing it into contact with a rotating cutter
with multiple cutting edges. Machines in this class are vertical or horizontal milling machines, planer-
type milling machines, gear hobbers and special machines using one or more milling cutters with
other tools. According to one survey @ 66% of all milling machine accidents occur when operators
load, unload or make adjustments while machine in motion. Some hazards and guards are as follows
:
Sr. No. Hazards Guards / Controls

1. Revolving cutter Jaw type interlocked or adjustable guard,
or a self closing guard which
automatically close when the job tables
moves backward and opens when it
moves forward for operation. The guard
may be transparent if visibility is
required.
Removing chips and swarf cleaning
2. by Brush, magnetic sweep, cleaning after
hand and using rag to clean oil while
it stopping the machine. Long sleeves to be
is running. avoided.
3. Failure to clamp the work properly. Permanent magnetic plate fitted on the
bed.
4 Failure to draw the job back to a safe Fixed guard.
distance while loading or unloading.
5 Tightening or loosening arbor nut and Use proper spanners. Education and
other parts. training.
6. Power drive pulley, belts, gears etc. Closed housing or fixed guard and start /
stops switch within reach.
1. Planning & Shaping Machines :
Planning consists of machining a surface by moving the work (job on bed) back and forth
under a stationary cutting tool. In shaping the work is held stationary under a reciprocating tool.

Page 52
Machines in this class include planers, shapers, broachers, slotters and key seaters.
Some hazards and guards are as follows:

Planners:
1. Bed traveling within short distance Fixed guard or fencing to prevent
entrapping within 45 cm (section 25,
from fixed object. F.A.)
All gaps to be guarded.
2. Falling material from the table or bed. Fixed or self adjusting table guards on
sides. Job clamping device.
3. Pulley, belts, drives and reversing Fixed guards, starting and stopping
dogs. device.
4. Flying particles. Aprons, goggles side runway for large
planners.
Shapers :
1 Speed changing and other drives Fixed or hinged guards.
2. Flying and removing chips. Aprons, goggles, brush.
3. Flying jobs. Clamping device.
4. Moving ram and tool Transparent shield for tool. A retriever to
the limit of the stroke of ram channel.
5. Reversing dogs. Fixed guard.
6. Other as for planners. As for planners and stated above.
Broaching Machine
Slotting Machine
Slotting machine is like a shapping machine Tool may work vertically or horizontally.
Hazards and controls are similar to that of shapping machine.

Page 53
1. Grinding Machines:
Grinding consists of shaping metal by bringing it into contact with a rotating abrasive wheel.
Grinding may be internal or external, flat, cylindrical or centerless. Polishing, Buffing, honing and
lapping are also considered as parts of the grinding process.
Main causes of accidents are wheel breakage due to hidden or undetected cracks,
mechanicalshock, over or loose tightening, unchecked traverse of the work on to the side of the
wheel, over speeding, incorrect selection of wheel, excessive heating, excessive work pressure and
eye or face injury due to flying particles.
Some hazards and guards are as follows :

1. Flying particles, Coolant and Goggles or face shields. Eye shield
lubricants
. attached with the machine frame.
2. Dust generation. Local exhaust ventilation.
Bursting of the
3. wheel. Protection hood (wheel guard) and
protection of flanges. Chucks or bands.
No over speeding. Avoid grinding on the
side of the wheel. Compliance of sec. 30,
Factories Act.
4 Accidental contact with the running Tool or work rest and its proper
wheel. adjustment to avoid contact and trapping.
5 Portable grinders. Wheel guard. Electrically earthed and
fully safe. Shock-proof gloves.
6 Belt drive and other dangerous parts. Fixed guard
Main precautionary measures are as under:

(D) Selection of a right wheel for right speed and right diameter. With the same rpm, peripheral
speed increases as wheel diameter increases and centrifugal force increases as peripheral
Page 54
speed increases. Due to excessive centrifugal force, the wheel may break. Therefore
peripheral speed (m/ s or f/m) is most important and a grinding wheel should be selected based
on its peripheral speed.
(E) Ring test is carried out by a qualified person to check any crack in the wheel.
(F) Speed test before installing wheel. Test speed should be 1.5 x service speed. Testing should
be on special stands.
(G) The wheel should never be rotated at a higher speed than that stamped on it.
(H) Wheel guard (hood) should be fastened securely to the grinding head to protect against flying
fragments or coolant if any. An adjustable tongue or a movable wheel guard is necessary to
restrict wheel exposure to 6 mm.
(I) Abrasive dust and slurry removal equipment should be in good repair. Dust generating
equipment should be in a separate room.
(J) Electrical earthing, bonding and on-off switch in easy reach.
(K) Proper storing in dry area . Use special racks, shelves or boxes according to the shape & size.
(L) Proper dressing of the wheel.
(M) Use wheel washer and flanges of correct size and equal diameter (at least 1/3 dia of the wheel).
(N) Avoid overtightening or loose tightening. Use proper tool. Proper mounting to avoid internal
stresses. Use mounting blotters supplied with wheels.
(O) Check spindle threads so that the nut is not loosened on revolution.
(P) Use spindle of correct diameter.
(Q) Balance the wheel to avoid vibration. Balance before installation.
(R) Apply the work slowly and gently. Do regular lubrication.
(S) Avoid side grinding, over speed and cleaning, adjusting or gauging while the machine is in
motion.
(T) Wheel exceeding dia 15 cm or speed 50 m/s should have a strength-test mark.
(U) Adjust tool rest properly.
A checklist of the following type should be used by a grinder or maintenance man.
Checklist for a Grinding Machine
Name of the in/c :

Identification No.
Location& Department:
Type & Use:
Size _________________ RPM _________________ Peripheral Speed _________________
Item Tick if ok
Wheel guard :
Securely fastened …
Properly aligned …
Tongue adjusted (to minimize guard clearance) …
Tool rest :
Within 3mm of the wheel …
Properly tightened …

Page 55
Speed :
Legal notice displayed
…
Wheel selection correct
…
Drive guard :
Pulley-belt guarded
…
On-off switch :
Properly working …
Within easy reach …
Flanges :
Equal size
…
Correct dia (1/2 wheel dia)
…
Wheel face :
Dressed evenly …
Well lighted …
Frame & Foundation :
Securely mounted …
No vibration …
Goggles / Face Shield :
Clean …
In place …
Unscored …
CNC Machine :
Numerical Control of a machine tool means automatic control of its operation under a
programme expressed in numbers or symbols which determine values and kinds of displacement of
operative members of the machine. Such machine tools are known as NC machine tools. When their
control is computerised, they are known as Computerised Numerical Control (CNC) machine tools.
The change-over from job to job in NC machine takes less time than other type of automatic
machine where this is done by changing cams or templates, displacing stops, limit switches etc. Such
automatic machines are also programme-controlled, but their setting up is complicated. They are
advantageous only in mass and batch production.
The main feature and advantage of NC machine tool is the simplicity of changing over, which
makes it possible to develop economically effective systems of automation for small-batch and single
piece production. Programme can be fed directly in the machine for limited volume, or it can be
preparedoutside the machine for unlimited volume. In the second method, information is stored in
the storage medium like punched tapes, magnetic tapes, wire discs, or drums, paper tapes, punched

Page 56
cards, films, and in the movement of storage medium, this information is successively read out and
is employed to control the movements of the machine operative members. The storage medium is
usually prepared outside the machine by applying computing technology (computers) and special
devices for recording the programme. CNC system can be employed for lathes, milling machines,
drilling, boring and other machines with automatic tool changers which make it possible to increase
output, reduce rejects and inspection operations.
The decimal system or binary system of noting numbers is used to represent machine part
movement. The displacements are specified in pulse systems with the number of pulses coded. The
information can be recorded, for instance, in the form of holes on a punched tape. In computer
system, electronic media is used to give number, code, symbol and graphic to store and translate
information for automatic machine movement.
The basic components of CNC system are :
1. CNC (computer numerical control)

It contains a. CPU (central processing unit)
(programmable logic
b. PLC control)
Inputs/outputs
Memory
1. Axis and spindle control
It contains a. Servomotor for axis
Power motor for spindle
feedback for drives
8.4 Positioning display system
It contains a. Position sensors
1. Processing of sensors
2. Display unit
The function of the CNC system is to take the commands in the form of a program or by
manual data entry and to give command to the motors to achieve the required position movement. It
also stores the programs, controls the logic functions of the machine and checks all inputs/outputs.
To take care of the functions it has following components :
Safety & Maintenance :
Many tools are fitted in an auto tool changer which operates suddenly as per the programme.
Therefore all moving mechanism of a CNC machine should be totally enclosed in a plastic cover to
afford safety and visibility. Such covers should be so interlocked that inner parts will not start till the
cover is closed and will not open till the inner parts are stopped. Limited openings for the job
insertion, machined part ejection and scrap removal are permitted. Any manual control, if required,
should be remote. Machine should not start inadvertently. Necessary trips and locks are provided for
built-in safety. Electrical double earthing, start-stop switches in easy reach, sound foundation to
eliminate vibration, automatic lubrication system, mono-rail and chain pulley block to handle heavy
machine part or the job, numerical display system, sufficient surrounding space for work and
Page 57
maintenance and protection of computer system are basic safety requirements. Tool magazine
operating at a height as in case of steel plant, are considered safe by position. Machine operators
should be qualified and well trained for the operation of machine and the job.
Selection and Care of Cutting Tools:
Cutting tools are fitted to machine tools for required operations on the job.
Selection of a right machine and right cutting tool for the job is essential. From a variety of
lathes single or multi operation, turret, spinning, screwing etc. - a particular one is to be selected
depending on the type of operation to be carried out.
Similarly selection of a drill for small holes, boring machine for big holes, planning machine
for a big sized and heavy job, slotting or shaping machine for small jobs, metal saw (circular) or gear
cutter milling machine for specific work, internal, external or centreless grinding machine and
selection of buffing or polishing machine need special knowledge and experience.
Cutting tools should be stored and used carefully. Their sharp edge is to be protected to avoid
injuries and sharpened for easy cutting. A tool rack should be provided for classification, easy
placement and preservation. Tools store area should be dry and protected from raining, fumes, gases
and other chemical effects. It should be well ventilated and lighted. Proper stools or ladders should
be provided to prevent fall of tools while putting or taking from the racks. Passageways should be
more than a meter wide.
While fitting the cutting tool to a machine, necessary hand tool or equipment should be used.
Chucks and fixtures should be properly positioned and tightened. Alignment of tool centre is
important. Tool guard is necessary to prevent injury in case of its breakage. Cutting tools should be
regularly inspected for defects, dressed for proper cutting angle and sharpness of the edge. Broken
and unsate tools should not be used. Tool and tip metal should be properly selected.
ZERO ACCESS GUARDING PRINCIPLES

1. No operator can touch harmful machine parts. (Intentionally or Unintentionally)
2. To find all problems you have to assume they are there, until proven safe
3. Rules and behaviour do not give zero access
4. To be a guard it must require a tool to remove it or be interlocked
5. Interlocks must be adjusted to prevent access until safe
6. Physical access is a bigger problem than interlock category
7. Interlock maintenance & adjustment is more important than interlock category
8. Not all moving parts, holes or unsecured doors pose a hazard.
ROBOTICS
Industrial robots are programmable multifunctional mechanical devices designed to move material,
parts, tools, or specialized devices through variable programmed motions to perform a variety of
tasks. Robots are generally used to perform unsafe, hazardous, highly repetitive, and unpleasant

Page 58
tasks. They have many different functions such as material handling, assembly, welding, machine
tool load and unload functions, painting, spraying, and so forth.
Studies indicate that many robot accidents occur during non-routine operating conditions, such as
programming, maintenance, testing, setup, or adjustment. During many of these operations the
worker may temporarily be within the robot's working envelope where unintended operations could
result in injuries.
Hazard Recognition
Hazards are present in every work environment. Being unaware of them when dealing with robotics
can be fatal. The following references aid in recognizing hazards related to robotics in the
workplace.
 OSHA Technical Manual (OTM). OSHA Directive TED 01-00-015 [TED 1-0.15A], (January
20, 1999).
o Industrial Robots and Robot System Safety. Includes safety considerations necessary to
operate the robot properly and use it automatically in conjunction with other peripheral
equipment. This instruction applies to fixed industrial robots and robot systems only.
o Glossary for Robotics and Robotic Systems
o Other Robotic Systems Not Covered By This Chapter
 Preventing the Injury of Workers by Robots. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
(DHHS), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Publication No. 85-
103, (December 1984). Victim entered the working range of the robot to do maintenance and
was pinned between the back of the industrial robot and a steel safety pole.

Page 59
CHAPTER 2
MATERIAL HANDLING
MANUAL HANDLING
Kinetics of Manual Handling :
In manual material handling human body acts as a machine (lever mechanism) and undergoes
forces and torque. Therefore stress and strain occur and if work goes beyond one's capacity, pain,
fatigue or injury results.
Types of adverse effects or injuries associated with manual material handling are strain,
sprain, back pain, cuts, bruises, burns, fracture and non traumatic injuries occurring after a long time.
Therefore it needs to understand kinetics of manual material handling. Lifting and carrying
exert strains to the body. The body can be kept erect only by tensing muscles. Even while walking
on slopes or stairs, considerable effort is required. '
Carrying load imposes a static strain on muscles of arms and trunk and also on back and heart.
Muscles are also engaged while holding the load and cause fatigue. Serious fatigue results in reduced
output and may cause accident.
Clinical investigations carried out by Schroter on groups of manual handling workers and
office workers shown effects on skeletal system such as in the spine elbow joints, knee joints etc.
While lifting load, lumber discs are affected much.
The lifting system of the spine can be represented as a double armed lever arrangement in
which the force of the back muscles is applied to the ends of the spinous process, which are about 5
cm long. According to the principles of levers, the force exerted by the back muscles must be 8 or
more times the resistance represented by the load. The strain borne by the disc exceeds that exerted
by the back muscles by an amount equal to the weight of the load. It has been noticed that on men
between 20 to 35 years, a disc stress of over 30 kg/ m2 can be damaging.
Lifting lighter loads with jerks is also harmful and may cause spinal pain.
Page 60
Safe Methods of Lifting and Handling :
They are necessary to minimise physiological stress and accidents while handling materials
of different size and shapes.
Avoidance of Excessive Muscular Efforts
Careless or wrong manual load handling causes injury to the spinal column and adjacent muscles,
particularly the lumber region. It may also cause pulse rate rise, blood pressure rise, brain
haemorrhage, abdominal hernia, back pain and ptosis of abdominal organs. When excessive loads
are regularly carried from an early age, the constant stress and strain on
muscles, ligaments, joints and bones can cause deformities such as scoliosis or kyphosis in the
vertebrae, damage to the arch of the foot and inflammatory and painful conditions of the muscles
and bourse. Constant pressure on the skin, muscles or nerves leads to callosities, neutric
pains or paralysis, hypertrophy, back trouble, heart enlargement, hardening
of the blood vessels and hypertension. Women are much affected than men
and in children it may affect bodily (skeletal) growth. Therefore avoidance
of excessive muscular efforts is utmost necessary.
Back pain due to manual handling results in absenteeism. Lundg

renquestioned 1200 Swedish workers who had been absent because of back
trouble. Those engaged in heavy work reported more absenteeism from back
complaints as those employed in light work. Kramer has estimated that
overall 20% of all absenteeism is caused by injury to discs and this account
for half of all premature retirements. Further research (Davis and Stubbs) has
shown a close relationship between forces acting on the lower back and
pressures generated in the abdominal cavity. They have found 'that the
workers whose
abdominal pressure was found in excess of 100 mm of Hg, had significantly high incidences of back
pain.
Based upon observations on some 700 British male subjects, a guide was issued by the
Material Handling Research Unit, University of Surrey which gave force limits for lifting, pulling
and thrusting. By using this guide, work practices can. be designed so as not to exceed the maximum
limiting intra-abdominal pressure, 90 mm of Hg and thus indirectly reduce the possibility of back
pain.
Age and sex affects .the efficiency. After the age of 30 efficiency declines. Women have
weaker muscle power than men and are shorter in height. Hence their reach is less and the maximum
physical capacity of a woman is about 2/3 of a man's.
Steps of Kinetic Method of Lifting are :

One foot ahead of the other in the direction of the movement.
Grasp the load from the palm and not from the root of the finger
Keep back straight, not necessarily vertical.
Keep the load close to the body.

Page 61
Start lifting with the thrust of the rear foot, keeping the object close to your body as you lift
with your legs, not with your back.
Keep the head in correct position. It is also necessary to keep the centre of gravity of the load
as near as possible.
The feet should be placed close to the load and properly spaced for body balance.
Back straight and as nearly vertical as possible. Elbows as straight as possible. Knees bent

Page 62
until the hands reach the proper place for gripping the load.
Grasp the load firmly. Lift should be completed by straightening the knees, keeping the load
close to the body.
While putting down the load, above procedure should be reversed. .
Banding upto ground level should be avoided. , Support at hip level (3 to 4 ft.) is necessary.
Safety precautions while Manual Handling :
Movement should be in horizontal plane. Push and pull is preferable than lift or lower. Before
lifting, the distance to be travelled and the time of grip should be considered.
Lifting or lowering should be between knuckle (hip) height and Shoulder height, it should be
close to and in front the body. Bending or twisting of body causes overexertion injuries.
Material should be light, compact and safe to grasp. It should not have sharp edges, corners
or pinch points.
Material from bin or container should be easily removable. The operator needs not to dive
into the container to reach the material. Containers of chemicals should be properly closed.
If load is too heavy, use mechanical lifting device or take help from somebody.
Get the load close to the body and feet also close to the body. Stand in a stable position with
the feet pointing in the direction of movement. Lift mostly by straightening the legs.
Temperature of the material, floor and work area. should be comfortable. The floor should
not be slippery.
Use proper hand, eye, leg protection and respirator if necessary.
Keep hands free from oil and grease. Clean the material if it is slippery or dirty.
Handle with firm grip. Keep fingers away from pinch and shear points.
Don't lift or lower awkwardly or by twisting the back or bending sideways or by extending
the arms. Don't continue if the load is too heavy.
Workers should be trained for correct manual handling. They should know the weight to be
lifted, position of centre of gravity, their capacity to lift, distance to be carried, physical hazards of
the material such as sharp edges, size, brittle, slipperiness, greasiness etc., PPE necessary and
chemical hazards including temperature and health effects.
Team Work in Lifting : When the load is beyond one man's capacity, more persons are
engaged.Then the team workers should ensure that the load is within their total capacity. Team
workers should be nearly equal in height, size and physique and the lifting should be done
simultaneously. If necessary, one should act as a leader or signalman to guide others.

Page 63
Long sections should be supported on the same shoulders (with shoulder pads) and walking
should be done in step. It should be noted that the total load that can be lifted is not the sum of each
person's capacity. J.F. Dashiel (1935)'s study had noticed coordination loss in team work as it is
unlikely that each person in the team would exert his maximum force exactly at the same time. Hence
if one person can lift 55 Kg, two persons can lift 100 Kg (not 110 Kg), three persons can lift 140 Kg
(not 165 Kg), six persons can lift 210 Kg (not 330 Kg) and so on. But this cannot be always so, as
motivation can change the situation, their minds are concentrated on some word or slogan or their
efforts are properly united.
Lifting and Carrying of Different Objects :
Their methods are briefly as follows :
Boxes and Cartons : Grasp .them at opposite top and. bottom corners. Draw a comer
betweenlegs.
Barrels and Drums : Two men stand on opposite side. Grasp both chimes near the high point
-up and while pressing down the bottom and straighten up with the drum.
Handling on incline - Use ropes and tackles. To control motion, pass a rope around a
drum. One end of the rope should be fastened to the platform at higher level. A worker keeps
a firm grip on the free end, then gradually lower or raise the drum along the risers.
Sheet Metal : Handle with leather gloves, hand leathers or gloves with metal inserts because
ofsharp edges and corners.
Sheet Glass : Handle with gloves or hand leather. Cover wrists and forearms with long
leathersleeves. Leathers, or canvas apron and guards for feet and ankles should be worn. Carry
the glass sheet with the bottom edge resting in a palm turned outward and with die other hand
holding the top edge to steady it or balance it. Never carry glass sheet under the arm because
fall might sever an artery.
Long Objects : Long pipes, barstock, lumber should be carried over the shoulders, with the
frontend held as high as possible to prevent striking. Other employee should guide when
going around corners.
Irregular objects : If it is difficult to handle because of its shape or weight, assistance should
begiven.
Metal Scrap : Wear goggles, gloves or hand leathers, safety shoes and skin guards.
Workersshould be cautioned against tripping or slipping on objects which may roll or slide
under feet. Mechanical handling of this commodity (magnetic lift crane) is preferable.
Heavy machines, round, flat objects etc. need specially trained workers. Specially designed
truck, trolley or device is required.
Safe Use of Accessories for Manual Handling :
Each tool or other device should be kept in good repair and used for the job for which it is
designed.

Page 64
Hooks : Danger of glancing off hard objects. When carried in a belt, the point should be
covered.Sharp point necessary for handling bags, logs, crates, boxes etc. should be protected.
Crow Bar : Main hazard is slipping. Point or edge should have a good bite. Proper position
ofhand and body to minimise chances of hand pinching or worker falling if the bar slips.
Never work astride a crow bar. When not in use, keep on a rack.
Rollers : Heavy or bulky objects are often moved on the rollers. Main hazard is fingers or
toesgetting pinched or crushed between the roller and the floor or the roller and the object,
when the direction of the roller is changed. To move a roller under load, use a sledge or a bar,
never hand or foot.
Hand truck and wheel barrow :
It has mostly 4 or more wheels.
Knuckle guards to protect jamming of hands against door frames or other obstructions.
Wheel should be under the truck if possible to save injuries to toes and feet. Wheel guards are
preferable.
Provide brakes to avoid holding a truck with a foot on wheel or axle.
Inspect daily and keep in good repair.
No one truck is right for handling all types of material. Select appropriate one.
Loaders should keep their feet clear of wheels. Load should be so placed that it will not shift,
fall off or block clear view ahead.
On two wheelers, centre of gravity of load should be placed well forward.
Four-wheelers should be pushed and not pulled.
Avoid collisions especially at blind corners. Use mirror at corner.

Page 65
Do not. park trucks in aisle ways so as to obstruct traffic or causing stumbling hazards.
Hand Trolley:
It has mostly 3 to 4 wheels.
Cover floor holes or remove bumps and make it even to prevent trolley
from jumping.
Provide rubber tyres on wheels to minimise noise and damage to
flooring.
1. Load should be evenly distributed to prevent tilting.

2. Don't overload trolleys. It is unsafe.
3. Load height on trolley should not obstruct vision.
4. Secure load on trolleys with ropes, stay blocks etc. wherever necessary.
5. While going up on slope, pull up the trolley and while going down on the slope push down
the trolley.
6. Trolley handles should be held at the front artd not on the sides to avoid knuckles getting
bruised due to contact with wall or machine etc. If the trolley handles are to be held on sides,
provide knuckle guards.
7. Pathways should be clearly marked in white or coloured lines.
8. Park trolleys in such a way that they do not obstruct passageways.
1. Jack:
An identifying plate showing lifting capacity should be visible. It should be
painted or marked on it and never be exceeded. If hydraulic fluid leaks, that jack
should be removed from use. Jacks should be lubricated only at points required.
They should not be thrown or dropped. The resting floor should be checked for load
bearing capacity and level. A hard wood insert should be used between the jack head
and the load to avoid metal to metal contact. After the load is raised, metal or heavy
wooden stands should be placed under it for support and risk of lack slipping or
falling. To raise a large sized load, two or more jacks should be used, but they should
be equally raised. Workers should wear safety shoes. Oil spiUage should be cleaned
before and after the work.
2. Storage and Handling of Materials:
Floor conditions and safety in storage, loading and unloading are important.
Safety in Storage of Materials:
Bagged Materials : Cross ties with mouths inside. When pile is five feet high, step back by onerow
for each additional three feet. Do not remove a bag from a lower row first Prevent fire risks.
Pipe and Bar Stock : Consider strength of the floor. Pile in layers with strips of wood or ironbetween
layers. Strips should have block at one end or one end turned up. Bar steel stock would be stored in
racks inclining towards the back to prevent rolling. The stack height should be limited to 2 mt.
Buttons should be placed between tire of bundles to facilitate slinging. Heavier bars should rest on
Page 66
rollers. Light bars may be stored vertically in a rack.
Barrels and Drums :- Pyramid shape is safe Bottom row should blocked when stacked on sides. If
piled on ends. i.e. up right, planks should be laid between rows. Strength of the drum, its size, shape
and weight should also be considered.
Metal Sheets and Plates : If the sheets are i bundles and of fairly standard size, they can besafely
stacked upto 2 mt height with buttons between each bundle. Sheets of random size should be stored
in toast racking form. Heavy steel plates of more than 4 feet width should be laid horizontally. With
plates of varying sizes, the largest ones should be at the bottom and the smallest on the top. Use
leather gloves or gloves with metal inserts to hold sharp edges and corners.
Long Objects : A pile of lumber (bamboo, timber) should not be more than 20 feet high. Tiepieces
are needed not only to stabilise the pile but also to provide air circulation. These pieces should not
extent much into gangways.
Cartons : Loaded cartons should be stored on platforms or shelves to protect against moisture
orbreakage. When the sides are of unequal size, the tires should be so laid as to give natural bonding
and provide stability. If natural bonding is not possible provide artificial bonding by a sheet or a
wrapping paper placed between two layers.
Paper Reels : Fork lift can be used to store reels on ends.

Forstacking on ends, a well leveled floor is essential and the reels
should be of the same diameter. Reels may be stored in horizontal
position in nesting tires. Then the first or bottom row should be
blocked to prevent the rolls from shifting.
Liquid Chemicals :
Portable containers such as
drums, barrels and carboys should be stored and handled carefully.
Store room should have impervious walls and floors and provision
for safe disposal of spillage. Before handling, check corrosion of
nails or weakening of packing by the chemical. For transporting
carboys use a carboy trolley. Safe way to empty a carboy is to move
liquid by suction from vacuum pump or start the siphon by means
of rubber bulb. Properly designed carboy inclinators are also
satisfactory. Before piling empty carboys should be thoroughly
drained and stoppers replaced.
Gas Cylinders:
Cylinders may be rolled on the bottom edge but never dragged.
Carry cylinder in a cradle or in a suitable type of carrying device.

Page 67
Safety in Stacking and Un-stacking :
Neat and orderly stacking or un-stacking minimise hazards and conserve space. Materials
piled haphazardly increase accidents and damage to materials. Planned material storage reduces time
to bring raw materials into production and to remove finished products from production. The
warehouse supervisor should direct the proper stacking and un-stacking.
Adequate ceiling clearance under the sprinklers, side clearance to keep free and clear the
electrical panel boxes, switches and other controls and unobstructed access (passageways) to fire
hoses and extinguishers must be maintained. All the exits and aisles should be kept clear. Codes on
installation of sprinkler systems should be referred for clearance between the storage and the sprinkler
heads.
Loading and unloading areas and aisles should be kept clear i.e. no material should be stacked
there. Aisle width should allow for the turning radius of any power truck to be used. These areas
must be marked or painted with lines.
Racks, stands, shelves, platforms and bins should be provided to facilitate storage and reduce
hazards, e.g. bromine bottles on shelves. Damaged racks should be repaired soon. Workers should
not climb racks.
Height indicating line should be painted on wall to show maximum limit of stacking. This
helps keep the floor load within limits and sprinkler heads in the clear.
High rack (bay) storage requires unique, specially designed and high lift handling equipment.
Upto 30 ft (9 mt) heights manually operated and for more height computer controlled equipment are
available. Audible and visual warnings on moving equipment are necessary.
Toxic materials should not be stacked with flammable materials. Volatile material should be
kept in a cool shed. Boxed carboys should not be stacked higher than 3 tiers and those of strong
oxidising materials, not more than 2 tiers. Incompatibility should also be checked. Proper and
sufficient fire fighting arrangement should be provided in and around the storage.

Page 68
Lifting hoist cage should have safe lift way. It should be so enclosed that material cannot fall
on Workers. Landing platforms must have safe guard rails to prevent material to fall from opening.
If two overhead travelling cranes are operated at the same height and on the same rails, limit
switches, buffers and alarms must be provided to maintain their safe inter distance and Driver's cabins
should face each other.
Paper or cloth rolls, barrels, cylinders and materials which may roll or slip must be stacked
safely. Begs and boxes must be kept cross tied and not overhang. Containers must be well marked
with the content to avoid mistake in their identification.
Proper ladders, platform and inters tacking containers should be used.
Floor and Lay-out Conditions :
1. Floors : Depending upon the load and type of operations, the conditions of the floor such as
(a)Cleanliness (b) Absorptive qualities (c) Marking (d) Colour (e) Non-sparking of static
disseminating properties and (f) Durability will give great effect on material handling.
Floor used for stacking should be of sound construction, well maintained, levelled and
facilitating drainage. Ground should withstand all weather conditions for the load to be
imposed. Stacks should not be built close to railway tracks or in the vicinity of vibrations or
possibility of fire.
2. Walls : Generally walls are not retaining walls. Therefore load should not be stacked
againstwalls or leaning to wall. A clearance of 18" from wall facilitates inspection of stacks
and avoids stacks touching the walls.
3. Construction of Stacks : Height base ratio, size, shape, bulk, weight, type, rigidity and
fragilityof materials and availability of space influence the size of stacks. Normally height
should not exceed three times the narrower width.
Bonding articles in the stack is useful for me stability. Interlocking provides natural
bonding. Artificial bonding uses materials like battens, canvas sheets etc. between the tires.
Stacking should not obstruct fire alarm boxes, sprinklers, controls, fire extinguishers,
first-aid boxes, switches, fuses, lights etc. Exits and aisles must be clear. Clearance below
sprinkler heads should be more than 2 ft. It should be large enough if the material being stored
is inflammable.
Aisles having one way traffic should be more than 3 feet wider than the widest vehicle
when loaded. If the material is to be handled from aisles, turning radius of the power truck
should also be considered. Marking line on wall to indicate maximum height of stacking keeps
the floor load within limit and the sprinkler heads with clearance,
4. Lighting : Inadequate light is a factor behind many slips, falls and injuries. There are
varioustypes of light fittings available and these should be selected and used for specific work
or areas. The required levels of illumination for different operations are given in Chapter-9.
All stores,
godowns, yards, workrooms and places of material handling should be properly illuminated.
7. Ramps : Ramp gradient should not exceed 1 in 10. It should not be slippery, uneven or

Page 69
broken. Itshould have sufficient width.
8. Obstructions : Pipes, conduits, drains, valves, fire apparatus, etc., are necessary parts of
plantstructures, yet they often cause hazards. In planning the plant, such parts should be so
placed that they may cause minimum interference with persons or materials.
9. Ladders: Do not climb on stock-piles. Use ladders. Fixed ladders are preferable.
Ifthe height exceeds 2 m provide railing and hand-tools pocket for the ladders.
Portable ladder should have non-slip base or its bottom should be held, tied or
securely anchored to prevent slipping.
10. Bridge plates : Bridge plates should be of adequate strength and they
shouldalways be properly anchored.
Ergonomics of Manual Handling and Storage :
Ergonomics, human factors or human engineering is the study of human characteristics for
the appropriate design of the living and work environment. Human characteristics include
capabilities, limitations, motivations and desires. Hence, ergonomics is human-centred, trans-
disciplinary and application oriented science. Scientific principles, methods and a variety of data are
used to develop systems more suitable to people and successful application is measured by improved
productivity , efficiency, safety and acceptance of the resultant system design. The user-oriented
design philosophy considers human variability as a design parameter and incorporates built-in safe
guards to avoid or reduce the impact of unpredictable human error.
Psychology, physiology, biomechanics, anthropology, science and engineering are the main
disciplines to be considered in ergonomics.
Work physiology takes into account capacity for physical work. and its energy cost, heart rate
at work, matching people and their work, rating the perceived effort, work/rest cycles and fatigue.
Anthropometry ' measures human body dimensions for work and biomechanics explains
strength of human body in mechanical terms. It considers muscle strength and its method of working.
It is this muscular strength which is mainly used in manual material lifting and handling.
Four keys 'explained by Kroemer (1984) for ergonomics of manual handling are as follows : 3
= Improved facilities of good layout provides safe and efficient material transfer.
= Job or task design should consider stress on the worker and should decide whether to assign
certain tasks to a person or a machine.
= Selection, use and improvement of equipment, machines and tools strongly affect material
handling requirements. Space requirement, control device, visibility, colour and sign coding
etc. should be considered.
= System must be designed for people as they are king pins of material handling. Their body
size, strength and energy capability should be considered.
These four keys provide systematic analysis of material handling problems and many of the
Page 70
risks and strains can be avoided or reduced by intelligent job design, selection and use of equipment
and well designed facilities.

Page 71
MECHANICAL HANDLING
For overall understanding, a classification of material handling process and equipment is
given below:
Material Handling
Manual
Individual or Team-work. Accessories.

Storage and Handling of Specific Materials
Mechanical
Lifting Equipment
Hoists and Lifts
For man
For material
Lifting Machines
Cranes, Crabs, Winches,

Pulley-blocks, Derricks,
Overhead crane, monorail
Lifting Tackles
Slings, Rings, Hooks, Shackles,

Swivels, Couplings, Sockets,
Clamps, Trays
Transport Equipment
Mobile Crane
(Crawler, Tyre
mounted. Hydra)
Industrial Trucks
Platform, Pallet, Fork-

lift, Reach, Tractor-
trailers, Hand
lift trucks. Wheel barrows
Conveyors
Belt, Slat & Apron, Flight,

Chain, Screw, Bucket,
Pneumatic, Aerial, Portable,
Gravity, Chutes, Live roll,
Vertical, Pipelines &: pumps
Others
Mechanical Shovels, Elevators,

Page 72
Escalators
Manual handling is discussed in previous part. Mechanical handling is discussed below.
(2) Statutory Provisions :
They are as under - .
Factories Act and Rules :
Section 28 and 29 of the Factories Act are regarding hoists and lifts (with platform or cage
and fixed way) and lifting machines and tackles.
Difference between 'Lifting machine' and 'Lifting tackle' is explained at the end of sec. 29.
Lifting machine means a crane, crab , winch, teagel, pulley block, gin wheel, transporters or
runaway. For figures see Part 3.5.1.
Lifting tackle means any chain sling, rope sling, hook, shackle, swivel, coupling, socket,
clamp, tray or similar appliance, whether fixed or movable, used in connection with the raising or
lowering of persons or loads by use of lifting machines. For figures see part 3.5.2
Above explanation clarifies that lifting tackles are used with lifting machines and hoists and
lifts are not included in lifting machines. Therefore Form No. 9 is prescribed for hoists and lifts and
Form No. 10 for any other lifting machine.
The word lifting gear is used to indicate any item which is used fo connect aload to a lifting
machine or appliance but which is not in itself capable of providing any movement to lift or lower
the load. It is also known as lifting appliance, lifting tool or lifting tackle.
There is no mention of trucks and conveyors. Rule 58 to 60A of the Gujarat Factories Rules
prescribe report forms for hoists and lifts (Form No. 9), lifting machines and tackles (Form No. 10)
and further details thereof. The abstract of these statutory provisions is incorporated in the following
paras.
Bombay Lift Act and Rules :
The Act : The Bombay Lift Act, 1939 has 14 Sections. It applies to the State of Maharashtra.
Section 3 includes definitions of lift, liftcar, lift installation, liftway and liftway enclosure.
Here 'Lift' means a hoisting mechanism equipped with a car which moves in a substantially vertical
direction, is worked by power and is designed to carry passengers or goods or both.
Sections 4 to 7A require permission to erect a lift, report of completion of erection, licence to

use a lift and no operation, addition or alteration to the lift installation without previous permission.
Sections 8 & 8A give rights of Lift Inspector and Owner's duty to provide facilities for inspection.
Section 9 requires accident reporting to the Inspector of Lifts, Commissioner of Police or District
Magistrate, as soon as possible , no interference with the lift installation till inquiry and no re-
start without the written permission.
Page 73
Section II requires six monthly inspection by the inspector authorised. Section 12 gives rule
making powers and Section 13 is a penalty provision.
The Rules : The Bombay Lift Rules, 1958 framed u/s 12 of the above Act, provide as under :
Rule 2 gives definitions of 54 terms.
Emergency Stop Switch means a device to cut off power to stop the lift car.
Safety Gear means a mechanical device attached to the car-frame or counter-weight to stop
and to hold the lift-car or counter-weight to the guides in the event of free fall or if governor operated
at over speed in the descending direction.
Slack Rope Switch means a device incorporating a switch used in a drum-driven lift for
automatically cutting off the power in case all or any of the suspension ropes becomes slack.
Permission for installing lift or for making additions or alterations is necessary (R.3 and
Form A). Licence for working lift necessary (R.4). It shall not be granted unless requirements laid
down in the Schedule are complied with (R.5.). Terms for Licensee (R.6), Report of accidents in
Form F within 24 hours (R.8), Unused lifts (R.9) etc. are some other rules.
Schedule u/r 5 gives the most important thirty technical items which include many safety
devices. The lift- well for the fire lift, required for more than 24 mt height , shall be segregated by
a brick masonry or RCC wall of a fire resistance of more than 2 hours. Minimum landing gate
(door) size is 68 cm width and 2 mt height. Interlock devices for gates/doors should be of electro-
mechanical type. A special key should be available to open the door in case of emergency.
Minimum lift-car height 2 mt. Minimum thrust resistance 75 Ibs without deformation. Man weight
criteria 68 Kg. Maximum load to be marked. Overloading prohibited. A push button alarm wired
from electric mains other than the lift mains shall be provided. Emergency exit in the car roof
necessary. Factor of safety of the combined suspension ropes shall be as under :
For rope speed upto 2 m/s F.S. – 10

3.5 m/s F.S. – 11
7 m/s F.S. - 12
Chains are not allowed for suspension ropes. For drum drive two ropes and for traction
drive three independent ropes are required for lift-car or counterweight.
More details are prescribed for lift-car safely gear and overspeed governor. The later is
meant to retard the descending overspeed.
Indian Standards :
There are many IS on material handling a few of which are : Material handling equipment,
non powered, terminology 6839, Hoists and cranes, design, manufacture, erection and testing 807,
Hoists and lifts, steel wire suspension ropes for 2365, Hoist chain, electric 6547, electric wire rope
3938, wire slings 12735, for hydraulic gates 6938, 10210, Ropes-coir 1410, 1411, 1412, cotton
2452, 2453, 3143, fibre 3871, 4575, guide 3623, jute 5177, manila 1084, nylon filament 4572,
6590, 3253, test methods 7071, polyethylene 8674, steel wire 1835, 5836, 2266, 3973, aerial
ropeway and cable ways 7649, 5229, 5230, Single-chain, mild steel 2760, 8324, legs and wire rope
2762, fibre rope slings 9944, socket 2485, Shackle 4690. 6132, Swivels 4531, C-hook 3813, head
nut 10749, Tackle 6549, 5529, Elevator 6930, 7167, Escalators 4591, Conveyors - glossary 4240,

Page 74
safety 7155, apron 7423, 8599, belt 6687, 8597, 8531, chain 7155, 6834, screw 5563, Electric
passenger and goods lifts 1860, 3534, 6620, inspection of lift wire ropes 8216, Hand operated chain
pulley blocks 3832, Portable mine hoist 11922, Round steel short link chain (electric butt welded)
grade 30, 2429, grade 40, 3109, Gas cylinders safety devices 5903, colour code 5, handling 3870,
Safety for handling cryogenic liquids (liquefied gases viz. 0,, N,, H,, Helium, argon, neon and
krypton) 5931. Powered industrial trucks 6305, 7552, 7553, 7862, cable lift 4289, chain lifting safe
use 8324, Gantry travelling crane 3177, for lifting air cargo 12462, winch 9507, wheel barrows
2431, 4814.
Safety nets 11057, Metal hooks, clips and eyes 4066, Crane, safe working loads 6511.
Stability testing of forklift trucks 4357, Platform trucks 7361, 10311, Side loader trucks 9075,
Powered tow trucks 10312, Safety Code for handling and storage of building materials 7969,
Safety Code for scaffolds and ladders 3696.
Packaging code 10106, Pictorial markings for handling and labelling of goods 1260,
Requirements for packing pesticides 8190.
IS :1860 Code of Practice for Installation, Operation and Maintenance of Electric Passenger
and Goods Lifts is worth mentioning.
It includes 58 definitions (terminology) and essential requirements -like conformity with
statutory provisions and IS, lift wells, lift pits, bottom and top clearance, well enclosures, lift cars,
locking devices, suspension ropes, counter-weights, buffers, emergency safety device, safety gear
tests, slack rope switch, automatic power cutting device, electric wiring and apparatus.
It gives design consideration of number of lifts and capacity, passenger lifts, goods lifts,
hospital bed lifts, positioning of lifts, positioning of machine room, structural consideration, fire
protection, quiet operation, supply cables and switches.
It also deals with testing, running, maintenance and general information to be given with
inquiry and order.
General Requirements of Mechanical Handling:

Mechanical handling is defined as the movement of goods by mechanical force for the
purposeof feeding, loading or unloading to or from a machine, plant or storage place, to or from a
means of transport such as vehicles, ships or air transport.
The equipment employed may be powered by electromagnetic, hydraulic or pneumatic
energy,
Main hazards of mechanical handling are contact with moving dangerous parts (pulley-
belts, gears, in-running nips, couplings etc.), falling from the height or on the floor, striking against
or struck by falling bodies.
Types & Uses :
Types of mechanical material handling equipment are classified in the beginning of this Part 3.
Factors affecting selection of means of handling and lifting are : Weight, shape, size,
physical and chemical character, rate of handling, purpose and distance of moving, obstacles if
any, structural condition of the floor, pathway and direction of movement.
Uses of the main mechanical handling equipment are given below :

Page 75
Equipment Useful for

Electric Overhead Travelling crane
(EOT) Lifting, shifting and placing, anywhere in the
traveling area.
Jib Crane (Mobile) Gantry crane Lifting and shifting at desired places.
Power trucks Three or four wheeler truck to pick, hold and carry
(transport) material. Useful in making piles,
Power trucks Three or four wheeler truck to pick, hold and carry
(transport) material. Useful in making piles,
stacking and unstacking.
Conveyors Transporting/Carrying material between two fixed
points. Useful as a feeding device where manual
feeding is unsafe. Workers should not ride on
conveyors.
Lifting tackles They are rings and slings (chain or rope, metal or
fibre), hooks, shackles and swivels. They are used
to connect load or container to nay lifting device.
For Lift Truck It is a power truck having projecting fork to pick,
hold, carry and unload (replace) the material or
container. May be power driven or battery
operated. Conveniently used on smooth
floor.
Pay loaders, Power shovels, Winch crab, Pullers Used to dig, lift and transport heavy material. Well
operators supervisio
and Hydraulic/ Pneumatic jacks trained , n and good
maintenance are necessary.
Lifts and Elevators Moves vertical, horizontal or in any unilateral
direction (cable path) between two fixed points,
lift
vertically and carry material or persons. A cage or
cabin must travel in a fixed path and well
enclosed.
Interlocke doors/gates
d necessary.
Hoists. Hoists are of three types : Electric, pneumatic
and hand operated chain hoists. Chain hoists are
of three types - spur geared, differential and screw
geared i.e. worm drive. The spur-geared type is
most efficient Push-button cable must be
supported
by a chain to protect against strain.
Mono-rails Should be well supported on both ends like a
hanging bridge. The chain pulley block or hoist
mounted on it should move freely. Stops must be
provided at both the ends. Useful to lift load and
Page 76
carry horizontally between two fixed
points.
Safe Working Load :
Safe Working Load (SWL) is the limiting safety factor to lift and carry any load safely. It
must be clearly marked on any lifting device (hoists, lifts, lifting machines and tackles).
Section 28(l)(c) of the Factories Act, prescribes as under :
"The maximum safe working load shall be plainly marked on every

hoist or lift, and no load greater than such load shall be carried
thereon."
Section 29(1)(b) of the same Act, prescribes as under :
"No lifting machine and no chain, rope or lifting tackle shall, except
for the purpose of test, be loaded beyond the safe working load which
shall be plainly marked and duly entered in the prescribed register,
and where this is not practicable, a table showing the safe working
loads of every
kind and size of lifting machine or chain, rope or lifting tackle in use shall be displayed in
prominent positions on the premises."
Rule 60 of the Gujarat Factories Rules 1963 requires that:
(A) The safe working load has to be specified by a competent person after thorough testing and
examination.
(B) Where the safe working load may be varied by the raising or lowering of the jib, a table
indicating the SWL at corresponding indication of the jib or corresponding radii of .the load
shall be attached with the jib-crane.
(C) A table showing the SWL of every kind and size of chain, rope or lifting tackle in use, and
in case of a multiple sling, the SWL at different angles of the legs, shall be posted in the
store room.
Marking System of SWL :
Lifting equipment should have a tally plate indicating the SWL. The tally plate also
indicates the identification number which can be mentioned in die test certificate held by the user.
It should also indicate the date of last inspection.
Safe Working Load of different types of slings are given in the table below :
Safe Choke Basket 0o Basket 0-90o Basket 120 o ELTECH COLOUR

Page 77
workin SLINGS
g load
in
straight
pull
Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg Average Dia
in mm
1000 800 2000 1400 1000 18 VIOLET
2000 1600 4000 2800 2000 20 GREEN
3000 2400 6000 4200 3000 22 YELLOW
4000 3200 8000 5600 4000 25 GRAY
5000 4000 10000 7000 5000 27 RED
6000 4800 12000 8400 6000 32 BROWN
8000 6400 16000 11200 8000 38 BLUE
10000 8000 20000 14000 10000 46 L. GREEN
12000 9600 24000 16800 12000 58 GRAY
15000 12000 30000 21000 15000 70 ORANGE
20000 16000 40000 28000 20000 78 ORANGE
36000 28000 72000 50400 36000 114 ORANGE
Place of marking of SWL of different equipment is shown in the table below :
Type of Equipment Place of Marking of SWL *

Lifting eye bolt Side of the eye. Size and type of thread also be
marked.
Shackles On one leg SWL and on other leg identification
mark and symbol are marked.
Chain Sling On terminal fitting (ring) or on a separate idel link.
SWL at 90o angle is marked on upper terminal
Multiple legged slings ring.
Wire ropes A metal sleeve or tag with marking is attached.
Chains Marking for quality of material on every 20th link
or 3 feet apart whichever is less. SWL on chain
sling.
Hooks SWL on one side of non vital part and on reverse
side the identification mark.
* Where marking on the body part is not possible, it should be shown by tagging.
Calculation of SWL:
SWL = Minimum breaking load quoted by the manufacturer

Factor of Safety
For wire ropes, FS is 6 for general purpose and 7 for heavy industry. A thumb rule formula
is

Page 78
SWL = (Wire rope dia)2 x 8 kgs

viz. for 12 mm dia wire rope,
SWL = 122 x8= 1152 kgs
For slings, SWL depends on the length of the sling leg (L) and headroom between the hook
and the load (H). Then for bridge hitch
SWL = SWL of single vertical hitch x H/L x 2

For double basket hitch,
SWL = SWL of single vertical hitch x H/L x 4
Tables showing the SWL of all slings at different angles of the legs shall be posted in
prominent positions at work place.
For hoists, lifts, cranes etc., SWL is recommended by the manufacturer.

SWL of any mobile crane depends on operator's skill, condition of the ground, boom length,
radius of rotation while lifting the load, -inclination of boom to the vertical and out rigger blocked or
free.
SWL is generally tabulated in the load chart of the crane. Sometimes, it is de-rated (decreased)
due to defects in welding, bend in angle, bracing etc. and condition of clutch, brake etc. Modern
cranes give digital display of SWL and alarm for exceeding load.
Factor of safety of fibre ropes varies from 6 to 12 depending on conditions of use. Fibre rope
less than 12 mm dia should not be used for a sling or a part of a lifting appliance. Their factor of
safety (FS) varies with diameter. Factor of Safety for hook, wire rope sling, chain, fiber rope and belt
are given in the table below:
No. Item Factor of Safety

1 Mild Steel Hook 5
2 High Tensile Steel Hook 5
3 Wire Rope Sling 6
4 Endless Wire Rope Sling 8
5 C Hook 5
6 Shank Hook (General Purpose) 5
7 C Hook with Eye (0.25 T) 4
Point Hook with Shank (63-160
8 T) 5
9 Hook (General Purpose 1-25 T) 4
10 Hook (General Purpose 25-100 T) As per IS : 7847
11 Chain Gr. : 30 4
12 Chain Gr. : 40 4
13 Chain Gr. : 63 4
14 Chain Gr. : 80 4
15 Chain Sling 4
Page 79
16 Eye Hook for Chain Sling 4
17 Synthetic Fiber Rope
Diameter
12 mm. 12
14-17 mm. 10
18-23 mm. 8
24-29 mm. 7
40 and above 6
18 Polyester Belt 7 (For belt)
4 (For end fitting)
Proof Test:
Proof testing is the application of a load greater than the SWL to detect defective
workmanship, faulty welds or other inherent weaknesses. It is not a means to assess the SWL which
should only be done by calculations and checked where necessary by suitable tests on samples.
Proof test is required as a part of 'thorough examination' u/r 60(1) of GFR and no lifting
machine or tackle should be used for the first time without this proof test.
In general the proof load applied to chains, rings, hooks, shackles and similar gear is twice
the SWL. It should be just under the yield stress for the material.
The standard proof load for mild steel or wrought iron short link chain is as under :
Grade Test load in Tons

Upto 30 12 d2
Upto 40 16 d2
Upto 60 24 d2
Upto 80 32 d2
Where 'd" is the diameter of the material from which the chain is made.
All items used in lifting machinery should be subjected to proof test loads as under :
Item Proof Test Load

Chains, ring, hook, shackles, swivels, slings, 2 SWL
individual components of hoists, wire rope, chain,
pulleys, hooks, eye bolts, pins, axles, bearings,
turn
buckles & ringing screws.
Single sheave pulley blocks 4 SWL
Multiple sheave pulley blocks
Up to 20 T 2 SWL
Up to 40 T SWL + 20 T
Over 40 T 1.5 SWL
Electric Hoists, Cranes (Mobile & EOT)
UP to 20 T 1.25 SWL
Page 80
20 to 50 T SWL + 5 T
Over 50 T 1.10 SWL
Endless Slings 4 SWL of single part
Derricks 1.25 SWL static & 1 SWL for all full movement.
After above proof examined thoroughly by signs of cracks, fatigue, stretch etc.
Lifts and Hoists :
The Factories Act requires as under
Every hoist and lift shall be of good mechanical construction, sound material and adequate
strength, properly maintained and examined by a competent person at least once in every six
months. Its report should be in Form No. 9, GFR.
Good construction means as per standards (e.g. IS). Sound material means as per required
quality of the material. Adequate strength means proper design, factor of safety and good
workmanship. Properly maintained means following safe and standard procedures, work permits,
manufacturer's and other guidelines.
Every hoist or lift shall have the safe working load plainly marked on it and no load greater
than such load should be carried on it. The cage of every hoist or lift used for carrying persons
should be fitted with a gate on each side from which access is afforded to a landing and such gates
should be fitted with interlocking or other efficient devices to ensure that they cannot be opened
except when the cage is at the landing and the cage cannot be moved unless all the gates are closed.
Whenever the cage is supported by rope or chain, there shall be at least two ropes or chains
separately connected with the cage and balance weight and each rope or chain with its attachments
should be capable of carrying the whole weight of the cage together with the maximum load.
Efficient devices should be provided and maintained capable of supporting the cage together with
the maximum load in the event of breakage of the ropes, chains or attachments. There should also
be an efficient automatic device to prevent the cage from overrunning.
Gujarat Lift Act and Rules provide more details. See Part 3.1.3.
See Rule 65 and 78 of the Building Workers Central Rules, 1998. (Part 7.2, Chapter-28).
Horsepower to lift a load is given by the following formula:
HP = LXS
450
Where L = load in Ibs and S = speed of lift in ft/sec.
For example, if one ton load is to be lifted at 5 ft/sec, HP of an electric motor should be :
HP= 2240 Ibs x 5 fl/sec = 24.88 = 25

Page 81
450
Similarly load on the line can also be determined. For example, when a 30 HP motor moves
a drag bucket 60 ft in 10 seconds, the load on the line is
L = HP x 550 = 30 x 550 x 10 = 2750 lbs

S 60
Here I HP = 550 foot-pounds per second are considered and not the figure of 450 which allows
for friction losses.
Since an electric motor can deliver 50% overload for a short time, the maximum load on the
above motor (and the lifting line) could reach 2750 x 1.5 = 4125 Ibs, if the drag bucket struck an
obstruction.
Safety in Design, Construction and Operation :
General requirements are as under :

1. Hoist limit switch to cut of power and apply brakes when hook/cage rises to a predetermined
level to prevent over-winding.
2. Limit switches to prevent over travelling and over transferring.
These limit switches should automatically reset within a reasonable distance travelled
in' the opposite direction.
3. Emergency push button for prompt use.

4. Isolation switch to cut off all power except lighting. Proper earthing.
5. Off position interlocking to prevent the circuit breaker from being closed unless all controllers
are in off position.
6. Screen on bare conductors.
7. Pilot lamp (red lens) to indicate on or off condition.
8. Hand lamp of 25 volt DC or AC.
9. Earthing as per Electricity Rules.
10. Means of anchoring when the hoist/crane is left unattended or under storm conditions.
11. Others : Sheaves guard to retain ropes in grooves, safe means of access, ladders and guards
on moving/rotating parts. Examination for wear, malfunction, damage and proper operation
of hooks, ropes, brakes, clutches and limit switches.
12. Safety points for operation : No loading over SWL. Marking of SWL and load indicators for
varying SWL. Pick up load only when it is directly under the hook, otherwise stresses will
develop. Full vision in driver's cabin. Fire extinguishers, warning device, safe operating
precautions for raising and lowering loads, moving loads over workers working underneath
and duties of drivers while leaving the cabin, should be prescribed and followed. People
should not be lifted or transported by hoist or crane.
Safety Aspects of Lifts or Elevators:
Following are the specific safety aspects for safe design and operation of lifts or elevators:
Lift Wells : No projection inside, sufficient space for repairs and maintenance, fire proof to
Page 82
themaximum extent.
Lift Well Enclosures : Enclosed construction, if wire mesh, opening should not be more than
32mm. Clearance between moving car and the platform sill or wall shall not be more than 25
mm to avoid trapping.
Lift Pit : It should be waterproof to disallow water from outside.
Top & Bottom Clearance : Minimum I mt in the top and I mt in the bottom.
Landing Gate & Doors : Landing door should cover the full size of the car gate opening and
if itis collapsible, grill opening should not be of more than 6 cms wide and if it is solid, it
should have a vision panel of not more than 25 mm width. Solid door is safer.
Interlocked Gates & Doors : Lift car shall not, move until all landing doors are closed and
theywill not open till the car is moving, except by a special key. Automatic door-closures are
useful.
Lift Cars : Enclosed type, smooth and non-slippery floor, alarm and push button,
light,ventilation, plug-socket on car top to take power supply for maintenance work, factor of
safety more than 5, marking of 'persons' capacity' (base 68 kg per person)
Counter Weight : Should be in a steel frame, secured by two tie rods to prevent fall and
travel inrigid steel guide.
Buffers : Spring or hydraulic type, of adequate strength, on the pit floor to absorb shocks if
thecar falls.
Suspension Ropes : 3 independent ropes for traction drive and 2 ropes with drum driveeach
rope separately and independently fixed to car and counter-weight, ropes free from joints and
factor of safety more than 12 based on static contact load + weight of car and accessories.
Emergency Safety Device : Safety gear Instantaneous type. Gradual Wedge clamp orFlexible
guide clamp - to retard the speed if it exceeds I m/s and operating on both the guides.
Over Speed Governor : It prevents the car from falling or overspeeding downwards. If
speedexceeds the normal design speed, the governor applies brakes on the car driving
mechanism and also releases safety clamps against the guide rails to bring the car to a smooth
sliding stop.
Slack Rope Switch : If the car is obstructed while descending and the rope becomes slack,
thisswitch will stop the machine.
Machine Room : Height should be more than 2 m, space around m/c more than 60 cm,
handlamp provided and room locked with a key, with the authorised person.
Machine Supports : Supporting beams shall be of steel or RCC. The factor of safety shall be

Page 83
5for steel and 7 for RCC.
Final Limit Switches : Upper and lower ultimate switches to stop the car automatically
withinthe top and bottom clearances independently of the normal operating device and the
terminal limit switches.
Testing, Inspection and Maintenance:
Testing includes insulation tests for electric wiring. Test voltage should be DC (more than
twice the rated voltage) and insulation resistance of each wiring circuit should be more than 2 m
ohms.
Tests for satisfactory operation of each controller, switch, contactor, relay, interlocks,
sequence of operation, protective devices. Tolerance on specified speeds at full load shall be within
10%.
Overload test by 125% of the working load. Proof (test) load may vary from 1.5 to 4 times of
the SWL as mentioned in Part 3.3.3. Sample of wire ropes should be tested.
Periodic inspections to detect unsafe conditions, warn or damaged parts, wear and other
defects in wire and fibre ropes, lifting gear, tyres etc. are necessary.
Gear wheels and pinions should be maintained in good condition, properly keyed and in their
correct gear mesh. Gear wheels and pinions with broken teeth or cracked areas, rims or bosses should
be discarded and replaced. The faces of all ratchets, jaw clutches, gear locks and collars should be
kept in their correct relationship to ensure safety in use.
Repairs shall be carried out by 'permit to work' system. All power shall be disconnected while
doing such work.
Notices like 'under repair' 'out of order' 'don't' . start' etc. shall be displayed.
Signalling :
Importance of proper signalling for co-operation between the hoist/crane operator and the
slingers/ signallers or the motion indicators should be recognised, a code of practice should be
developed and followed.
Signaller (hook-on person) should be thoroughly acquainted with the standard hand signals,
the operation of the lifting equipment, the correct methods of securing, handling, stacking and piling
loads and should be completely responsible for arranging slings or other hook-on devices and giving
the signals that direct the equipment operator during the moving of the load.
The crane operator shall respond to signals only from the appointed (trained) signaller but
shall obey a stop signal at any time from any body.

Page 84
Lifting Machines and Tackles :
Statutory provisions of Gujarat Factories Rules, Dock Workers Safety Rules and Building and
Other Construction Workers Rules should be referred for details.
According to the Factories Rules, no lifting machines, chains, ropes and lifting tackles should
be taken into use unless it has been tested and all parts have been thoroughly examined by a
competent person and a certificate of such examination specifying the safe working load is obtained.
Also no lifting machine, chain, rope or lifting tackle should, except for the purpose of testing,
be loaded beyond the safe working load. The safe working ' load shall be plainly marked on each
such gear together with an identification mark and corresponding entries made in a register.
Whenever these cannot be marked, a table showing the safe working loads of every kind and size of
lifting machine, chain rope or lifting tackle in use should be displayed in prominent positions.
Types and Safety aspects of Lifting Machines :
Lifting machine means crane, puUy block, mono rail, crab, winch, derric etc.
Different types of cranes are available. Their selection depends upon type of use. Jib crane,
pillar crane, climbing crane, overhead crane (manual or power driven), gantry crane, cantilever gantry
crane, semi-gantry crane, hammerhead crane, wall crane etc.
Detailed safety rules for inspection, operation, signalling and maintenance should be available
in writing, the operators should be trained for that and they should be strictly followed. Chapter-VII
(R.55 to 81) of the Building & Construction Workers Rules is most relevant. See also Part 7.2 of
Chapter-28.
Overhead Travelling Cranes : Electrically operated (power driven) overhead travelling

cranesare known as EOT or OET cranes. Others are non-powered i.e. manually operated overhead
travelling cranes. In the use of overhead cranes, great care should be taken for the safe and adequate
means of access. It is necessary that all ladders and steps should be

Page 85
provided with secure handholds and footholds. Stairways are preferable to ladders. Proper landing
or stages should be provided at the point of transfer from ladder to the driver's cabin.
While any person is employed or is working on or near the wheel track of a travelling crane
in any place where he would be liable to be struck by the crane, effective measures shall be taken to
ensure that the crane docs not approach 6 m of the place. Effective means should be arranged to
prevent a crane from travelling into the dangerous zone.
Passage way for crane : The passage (walk way) (= 50 cm width, toe board 10 cm) shall
beprovided at a lower level than the crane track and safe access ladders (width > 40 cm, double hand
rails of 90 cm high) shall also be provided at suitable intervals to afford access to these passage ways
and from passage ways to the rails track [Rule 60A GFR]. Vertical head clearance between the
walkway and the overhead structure should be more than 2 m. Walkway surface should be non-slip
type and without floor openings.
Rubber mat at the control panel in the cab is necessary to protect against electric shock. The
cabdriver should have full view of the area of work. Rail alignment should be checked every year.
Rail stops or bumpers should be so located that when contacted, the crane bridge remains right angle
with the runway.
When not in use, a -crane should be' parked with hook raised at a safer height, all controls in
off position and the main switch open.
Inspection and testing of heavy duty EOT crane include deflection test, over load
test,operation test, insulation test, warning light test, earthing and bonding check, hoist and track limit
Page 86
switches check, proximity warning device check, braking and locking check, control gear check,
guarding and weather protection, means of access, buffers and wire ropes of sufficient capacities. -
All control mechanism, safety devices, leakage in air or hydraulic system, hooks and ropes, electrical
apparatus, travel and steering devices should be properly checked. Preventive maintenance is most
desirable. Moving parts should be regularly lubricated. A crane should not be left unattended. Crane
operators must be fully trained for safe operations.
Deflection test must be carried out with the SWL M rest and with the crab in a central
position.The deflection should not exceed 1/900 of the span.
Jib Cranes : A jib crane means a stationary or mobile crane in which suspension rope
issupported by a projecting, horizontal or inclined member known as a jib. Jib crane can lift, lower
and rotate the load within the circular arc covered by a rotating arm or jib.
t is important that capacity of the jib crane clearly showing
the maximum safe working load for the various inclination of the jib
or various positions of the trolley on horizontal jib should be marked
on the sides of the jib or on the mast or on the pillars.
A number o accidents have occurred due to overloading of

jib cranes. It should be fitted with automatic indicators which will
give efficient sound signals whenever the load moved is in excess of
the safe working load.
Structure (floor, wall or column) should be checked for its strength before mounting a jib
crane. The jib should be guyed or braced to withstand heavy load.
A stop plate (bumper) at the end of the jib is necessary to prevent the load trolley from running
oft the beam. It should be frequently checked.
Bridge and Gantry Cranes : These are similar to
travellingcranes except that they run on rails at ground level
instead of on elevated runway girders. Gantry cranes have short
spans, while bridge cranes may have spans upto 100 m or more.
Bridge cranes are usually used for handling coal or ore. Sweep
guards on nip between rail and wheels, rail clamps and brakes to
prevent movement due to high wind, safe height of electric contact
rails, operator's cabin to be fireproof and weatherproof, I m side
clearance with the truck wheels of gantry cranes, skew switches
to prevent excessive distortion of the bridge etc., are some .of the
safety measures.
A sounding device (gong) should always warn when the crane is moving. The bumpers should
be of cast steel plates or spring type. Floor or foot-walk should have drainage, a handrail and toe
board up to entrance landing. A rope ladder in the cab for emergency escape and locking ratchets on
wheel locks, rail clamps and brakes to secure against high wind etc. are necessary.

Page 87
General requirement for all crane equipment are : good construction, sound material, adequate
strength and free from patent defect. It should be regularly inspected and properly used. Statutory
provisions must be followed.
Design safety measures should include over-travel limit switches, protection of bare
conductors, controls to prevent inadvertent operation, load indicators (audio-visual automatic excess
load indicator), safety catches, emergency escape, operating position and marking of SWL.
Safe operating techniques must be taught to the operator.
Lifting accessories - chain, wire rope or fibre rope slings, eyebolts, shackles and special lifting
equipment must be of good construction, sufficient strength, properly designed and heat-treated as
per requirement.
See Rule 80 of the Building Workers Central Rules 1998 for 'Tower Cranes'.
Pulley-blocks or Chain Hoists : These are spur geared,

screwgeared and differential chain hoists. They may be portable, portable
but permanently hooked onto a monorail trolley or built into the trolley
as an integral part. They are suitable for many operations on which a
block and tackle fitted with manila rope is used and are stronger and more
dependable than rope tackle.
The spur geared type is the most efficient. Screw- geared and
differential hoists are self-locking to automatically hold a load in
position. Load carrying parts should be made of steel. The load safety
factor of chains should be more than 5. It should be more than 10 for
manila rope.
While using pulley block in confined spaces, the whole block or the rope or wire nip should
be guarded.
The safe working load should be plainly marked on the block and it should be tested every
year. All parts subject to wear should be frequently examined.
See Rule 60 and Form (test report) 10 under the Gujarat Factories Rules and Schedule I and
Forms VI to X under the Building and other Construction Workers
(Central) Rules 1998.
Monorails : This system consists of one or more

independenttrolleys supported from or within an overhead track from
which hoists are suspended. Monorail hoists are used to raise, lower and
transport materials. They are of three types - hand operated, semi hand
operated and fully power operated. Rail stops at the ends of monorail
tracks are desirable. Tracks and their supports must be checked for
strength and smooth running.
Crabs and Winches : They may be hand operated or

Page 88
electricallydriven. Portable crabs and
winches must be securely anchored against the pull of the hoisting rope or chain. A dog to lock the
gears and a brake or safety lowering devices, crank-pin, lever on pawl and gear guards are necessary.
Barricade guards are necessary to protect the operator against breaking wire and recoil of broken
ropes.
See Rule 59 & 81 of the Building Workers Central Rules, 1998.
Derricks: Main types are the stiff-leg, A-frame, guy, ginpole and the breast derrick. With
allderricks,
every part should be firmly anchored. Striking from mast, boom, sill, pulley block and swivel hook
should be prevented. The hoist engine should be firmly tightened with the base to prevent its pull
out. Derrick foot must be firmly supported. For safe rigging of derrick and its gear, rigging plans
should be available.
Hazards and Precautions of Remote operated Lifting Machines:
They are as under :
Hazards:
As directions (EWNS) are mentioned on the remote, operator is likely to be confused.
Chances of accidents in case of wrong movement of direction are possible.
As the operator is operating from the ground, his attention is deviated by the co-worker
resulting in accident.
Person not trained in crane operation also tends to operate the crane, as remote (pendant) is
Page 89
easily accessible.
In case the "Push Button" or lever gear is pressed by mistake, crane motion may start
automatically.
Operator may lock the motion by mechanical means in order to avoid holding by operating
the push button/lever.
Motion of the crane is activated by radio frequency. Interference by other radio frequency
may move the crane automatically and cause dangerous situation. 8 In case of emergency,
main switch is not easily accessible. Main switch of DSL may be far away.
Advantages:
Operator is not required to climb on the lifting machine.
Operator can operate the crane close to the load; this gives more accuracy and precision in
handling.
Communication between operator and attendant (slinger) is better. Hand signaling may not be
required, verbal communication is possible.
Operation of crane is easier.
For smaller lifting, the work of slinger (attendant) may be carried out by operator himself.
Attendant (slinger) or any other person can easily be trained for crane operation.
No chance of electrical shock as it is completely isolated from high voltage.
Disadvantages:
As the remote works on radio frequency operator may operate the crane from any place. He
may not be moving close with the load.
Crane remains unattended, as operator is not close to the crane. Any abnormality like noise,
vibration, loose part, lubrication, is not noticed regularly.
Maintenance person or operator is required to check the crane separately, regular (daily)
inspection by operator may not be possible.
In case of operating from ground, the operator doesn't get the overall view of complete scene,
e.g. obstruction in the part of a moving crane.
Main switch in the control cabin is not accessible.
Licence is required for radio frequency used for remote control.
Types and Safety aspects of Lifting Tackles :
Lifting tackles, gear or appliance means fibre rope slings, wire rope slings, chain slings,
hooks,rings, sheaves (grooved pulleys), swivel, shackles and similar gears.
Ropes : Generally manila and sisal ropes are used in hoisting, lowering and handling
operations.There are various grades of ropes and therefore while purchasing, their guaranteed
breaking strength should be obtained from the manufacturer in order to assess the safe working loads
of the ropes.
Fibre ropes are very susceptible to mechanical damage and they should therefore be
frequentlyinspected for their strength. Particular care is necessary when it is
suspected that the rope may have been contaminated by chemical action.
Fibre rope of less than 12 mm dia should not be used for a sling or a
lifting device. For ropes, safe working load can be calculated by dividing the
minimum breaking load quoted by the manufacturer by factor of safety
depending on the use. For SWL and factor of safety see Part 3.3.2.
Periodical inspection of the whole length of rope is necessary to detect

Page 90
broken wires, amount of wear, corrosion, rust etc. Broken wires in a rope must
always be regarded as a warning sign. Wire ropes must not be knotted. They
should be joined solacing.
For the same working load, the chain sling is 5 to 8 times as heavy as wire rope but it has a longer
life, stands up better-rough use and is almost 100% flexible.
The chain is obtainable in many grades viz. wrought iron, mild steel, high tensile steel and alloy
steel. Wrought chains require to be periodically heat treated to remove brittleness.
the number of legs. For example, when a 2 ton load is lifted by directly booking to the chain
or cable, the load on the line is 2 tons. But if it is hooked to a two-legged sling, the leg of each sling
carries I ton (while the line connected to the sling holds 2 tons). If ifs a four-legged sling, each leg
carries 0.5 ton.
The stress in any leg increases as the angle of tile leg with t1ie horizontal decreases. In the
two-legged sling, each leg carries a stress equal to the total load when the angle is 30°, and a stress
of nearly six times the load when the angle is 5°. Therefore it is important to keep the angle as large
as possible and the stresses be computed carefully to maintain a reasonable safety factor.
While using a sling, the ratio of the load lifted by any leg of the sling is inversely proportional
to Hook is either of a circular section oi trapezoidal. The former is meant for light loads up to 5 tons.
Seepart 2.5 for figures.

Page 91
Shackles according to difference in shapes are known respectively as D and Bow shackles.
Thepins are usually of circular section. The methods of securing

Page 92
shackle pins in position vary according to the nature of the use of the shackles. When there is a risk
of the pin coming out, pins are secured by means of a nut and a cotter pin. A cotter pin affords more
rigidity than a plain pin.
All slings, rings, hooks, shackles, swivels, couplings, sockets etc., should be as per Indian
Standards. Permissible working load of one leg should be calculated from the ready table of sling
diameter and varying angles between two legs.
Plate lifting clamps are shown in fig. They are attached to rings or/and slings. They must be
properly tightened so that in lifting condition plate or load should not slip or fall.
All tackles should be thoroughly checked before use.
Safety in Design, Construction and Operation of Lifting Machines and Tackles :
The main requirements are as under :
2. Section 29 of the Factories Act and Rule 60 of the Gujarat Factories Rules require that (1) All
parts including the working gear, whether fixed or movable, shall be of good construction,
sound material, adequate strength and free from defects, properly maintained and thoroughly
examined by a competent person at least once in a year (2) A travelling crane should not be
moved within 6 m of any person where he would be liable to be struck by the crane and (3)
All rails and tracks shall be of proper size, adequate strength, even running surface, properly
laid and maintained and adequately supported.
3. Safe working load (SWL) and distinguishing or identification number should be marked on
each lifting gear. A table of varying load and angle should be attached.
4. Heat treatment of lifting gear should be carried out to remove defective structure developed
during forging, welding or service and to improve the properties of the material i.e. to increase
its strength, hardness, ductility and toughness.
Rule 60(5), GFR, requires annealing of parts in general use at least once in a year and
that of the parts used to lift molten metal or slag or if made of less than 12.7 mm dia, once in
6 months.

Page 93

Page 94
(C) Chain slings should be selected as per the load requirement. Never decrease the angle
between the legs of the chain sling and the horizontal. This will increase load in the sling
legs. Pad sharp corners. Lift without jerk. Keep hands and fingers out of the chain and the
load. Stand clear of the load when it is being lifted. Don't lift beyond SWL and employ
trained personnel.
(D) Wire rope is preferable than fibre rope due to its greater strength and durability, no change
in physical characteristics and predictable stretch characteristics.
(E) There are five basic design elements of a wire rope : Grade of wire. Number and pattern of
wires in the strand. Type of lay. Performing and Type of core. Knowledge of these
characteristics is useful in selection of wire rope or wire rope slings.
(F) The diameter of the pulleys, reels, drums should be large to reduce bending action on the
rope.
(G) Parts subjected to impact, wear and rough use should be of sufficient strength for its rated
service. Bearing pressure of shafts should be within safe limits.
(H) Open hooks are unsafe. Spring lock at hook point and guard on load block pulley rope are
desirable. Heavy hook should have handle to guide it for slings.
(I) Gantry cranes should have rail clamps, parking brakes and wind velocity indicator and alarm.
(J) Rated load should be marked on each side of the crane and on each load block (hook
assembly) in case of more hoisting units on one crane. The crane shall not be loaded beyond
its rated capacity except for testing.
(K) Operating levers and control should be within reach of the operator. They should have
'spring returns' to move automatically to 'off position.
(L) Platforms, footwalks, steps, hand holds, guard-rails and toe guards shall be provided for
safe walking and access ways. Platforms should have non-slip surface. Step gap should not
exceed 30 cm.
(M) Positive stops or limit switches shall be provided to prevent overrunning the safe limits.
Lower and upper travel limit switches should be provided.
(N) Lubrication points shall be in safe position.
(O) All gears, moving parts, couplings and rope neaps should be totally enclosed.
(P) Travelling cranes should have powered and non-powered warning bells. Independent
brakes for ' hoisting, traversing, travelling and parking operations.
(Q) Sheaves and drums should be inspected for wear. Enlarged grooves indicate replacement.
(R) The rope end should be firmly anchored to the drum by a socket arrangement and minimum
two turns (wraps) of rope should remain on the drum when the hook is at the lowest level.
(S) The rated load divided by the number of rope parts should be less than 20% of the nominal
breaking strength of the rope.
(T) Power shall be shut off and personal padlock or tagging shall be provided before starting
any repair or maintenance work. Arrangement should be made to prevent entry of another
crane in the zone of crane under repair.
(U) DCP, CO, or equivalent fire extinguisher should be kept in crane cabin.

Page 95
Care, Testing, Inspection and Maintenance of Lifting Machines and Tackles :
Care in design, operation and maintenance of any lifting equipment is utmost necessary. It
includes many points some of which are common and some specific points differ with the type of
machine.
Some Common Points of Care :
Design Operation Maintenance

Appropriate factor of safety. Trained operator. No loading Periodical tests and certification.
Sound material & Good const. above SWL. Moving hook load Lubrication of parts. Repairs and
Safe design. Marking of SWL & safely. Use signaling & warning. replacement of parts. Daily and
identification. Provision of limit Raise or lower carefully. periodical inspection. Display of
switches, brakes, anchoring, Following manufcturer’s notices and load tables.
earthing, guarding, means of instruction. Work on or near
access, ladders etc. tracks. No load handling over
workers on floor. Safe position at
the end of work.
Some specific points are mentioned below :
Hoists & Lifts : DOS and Don'ts of safe operation should be followed. Safety devices
andinterlocking should be well maintained. Regular testing' and examination are necessary.
Lifting tackle or gear : If more than 10% wires are found broken or wear on any stress
bearingpart exceeds 10% of the requisite nominal dimension or the part shows signs of excessive
wear, corrosion or other defects, it should be considered unfit for service.
Testing period of lifting machinery and tackles, prescribed by the Factories Act is one year.
A test certificate specifying the SWL is also necessary (Rule 60, Form 10, GFR)
Metallurgical Defects and Heat Treatments :
Ferrous and non-ferrous metals are used to make lifting gear. Monel metal (2/3 nickel, 1/3
copper, small percentage of manganese and iron) is highly resistant to corrosion. Chains and other
lifting gear made of monel metal are suitable for use in chemical plants.
Copper is the main constituent in brasses and bronzes. They are mainly used for bearings
.in lifting gear.
Aluminium and manganese bronzes have high strength, ductility and corrosion resistance.
They are used to make chains and fittings where higher corrosion resistance is required.
During welding process, the adjacent material is subjected to intense local heat and becomes
brittle on cooling. Links, rings and chains require heat treatment to correct this coarse structure.
In the process of forging, drop forging steel is highly heated to have desired shape. Then

Page 96
the structure becomes brittle. With hammering or hot work the grain size in the material changes.
Defects are also developed during service. Due to interlink pounding, wrought iron
develops surface brittleness. Due to bending strain, link becomes hardened and develops crack.
Over a period it results in link fracture.
Internal hardness can develop both in wrought iron and steel gear due to overloading.
Improper use causes reduction in ductility. Certain low carbon steels are liable to strain-ageing.
Rings, hooks, links etc. used in a sling must be of the same material and of equal strength as
the
chain.
Heat treatment (a series of operations involving heating and cooling of metal parts) - Low
temperature annealing, normalising, hardening and tempering should be carried out as per
requirement.
Heat treatment like normalising or hardening and tempering can restore the strained parts to.
original condition provided no crack has taken place. Types of heat treatment are - low temperature
annealing, normalising, hardening and tempering. Thus such metallurgical defects should be detected
by proper inspection and necessary heat treatment be applied.
Defects and Precautions : Stretch or deformation, excessive wear, cracks, nicks, gouges and
corrosion pits- should be searched by proper inspection procedure and removed.
Selection of proper rope and inspection before use are important. Workers should be
thoroughly instructed to follow safe operating procedure in using ropes and chain slings. They should
be kept away from heat, fumes, chemicals and exhaust gases. They should not be used against sharp
edges. Protect them by padding. Observe proper slinging rules. Do not exceed safe slinging angles.
Check for friction heating for fibre ropes.
No tackle should be dropped from heights. They should be stored in clean dry place.
Inspection of Tackles:
Normal inspection periods are as under:
Device Period
Hoisting and lowering wire rope 3 months
Wire ropes with broken wire 1 month
Cranes and attachments 12 months
Thorough inspection of all parts of crane 3 years
All other lifting machinery 12 months
Half inch and smaller gear 6 months
All items used in lifting machinery should be subjected to proof test loads (see Part 3.3.3) and
after the test, they should be thoroughly examined by a competent person for signs of cracks, fatigue,
deformation, stretch etc.

Page 97
Hooks must be removed from service if they have opened outmore than 15% of the normal
throat opening, measured at the narrowest point or twisted more than 10 degrees from the original
plane of the hook. The bent hook should not be straightened and reused.
A locking pawl prevents the load to come out from the hook.
Fibre ropes should be inspected before use every time. Broken fibres, yarns, cuts, nicks,
abrasion, unlaying and reduction in diameter are the main defects. If the fibres pulled from the rope
breaks, it shows brittleness and need to replace the rope.
Wire ropes should be inspected for broken wires, torn, flattened and abraded wires, reduction
in rope diameter, rope stretch, corrosion, kinks, crushed or jammed strands, bird caging and
inadequate splices
New lubricants,
free of grit should be applied on wire rope to penetrate internally as well as to coat the external
surface.
Defects in wire ropes are : broken wires, worn and abraded wires, reduction in rope diameter,
rope stretch, corrosion, kinks, crushed, flattened or jammed strands, bird caging and damaged splices.
In such cases new wire rope should be used.
The visible broken wires should not be more than 5% of the total wires in a length of 10 rope
diameter. Wear on the surface of the rope should not be more than 1/3 of the diameter of the wire. In
pendants or stranding ropes, there should not be more than 3 broken wires in one rope lay.
Rope stretch should not be more than 15 cm per 30 m length in the six strand wire ropes. Rope
should be discarded if more than 20 breaks appear on a rope lay.
Reduction in diameter of the rope due to core failure, abrasion etc. should not be more
than 1.0 mm for ropes upto 19 mm dia
1.5 mm for ropes of 22 to 28 mm dia 2.0 mm for ropes of 32 to 38 mm dia
Chains : Most of the causes of chain failures can be detected before they occur if proper
procedure is followed. Frequency of such inspections depends on service conditions. Normal defects
Page 98
are (1) stretch or deformation (2) excessive wear (3) cracks (4) nicks and gouges and (5) corrosion
pits.
Chains are to be checked for crack, corrosion and pitting. More than 10% wear at their two-
link-touching point render them unfit for use. Avoid jerks and impact loads. Never re-weld alloy
chain links. Avoid crossing, twisting, kinking or knotting a chain.
Causes of chain failure are defective welds, defective metal and overloading. All chains
should be thoroughly inspected link by link by a competent person. After shock or impact loads, it
must be immediately inspected. It is an unsafe method to use the broken chain by inserting a bolt
between two links.
Clean the chain thoroughly in a solvent solution. Lay it on a clean surface. Use magnifying
glass to look for stretched links, wear, crack, corrosion and pitting, bent, twisted or damaged links.
If stretch (elongation) is more than 3% the chain should be discarded. Elongation should be measured
between fixed length of 10 or 20 links.
When the dia of the link is reduced due to wear and tear, SWL shall be reduced as under :
Normal chain link When the dia at worn section is as under Remove from
dia (mm) (mm), reduce rated capacity by service when dia
5% 10% (mm) is or lower
6 5.75 5.70 5.40
9 8.78 8.55 8.10
13 12.68 12.35 11.70
16 15.60 15.20 14.40
19 18.53 18.05 17.10
22 21.45 20.45 19.80
25 24.38 23.38 22.50
Shackles worn more than 10% of the original diameter in crown or the pin should be replaced.
Pins should not be bent. Shackles shall not be pulled at an angle because it will reduce its capacity.
Chain pulley blocks of proper lifting capacity should only be used. They should be lubricated
before every use. No alteration should be done on chain blocks. They should be tested for slip by
suspending safe load. The chain should not come out of pulleys. The anchorage should be strong and
rigid. Opened out hooks should not be used. Chain block/puller must be checked if stored for a long
time, by subjecting to shock load, to observe slipping of load, jamming on links etc.
Winches should be placed on a firm base and properly anchored. Brake, ratchet arrangement,
gear and pinion including meshing, wire rope and its clamping arrangement, direction of receiving
rope drum and tie rods should be checked before using any winch.
Derrick - The mast, guy-ropes, wire ropes, swivel hook, rope clamps etc. should be thoroughly
checked before erecting the derrick. Its lifting capacity should be ascertained by a competent person
and it should not be overloaded. Guys of the derrick should be anchored tightly with strong structures,
hold fasts, anchorage blocks etc. Welded parts should 'be periodically checked for any crack or
defects in metal itself.

Page 99
Mobile Cranes should not be used on a slope unless adequate precautions are taken to ensure
stability.
SWL of cranes apply only when they are installed on a level, firm and uniform surface. Crane
stability is reduced when operating on a slope. Therefore level must first be checked. It is dangerous
to lift a load with 2 cranes and should be avoided unless a single crane of the required capacity is
unavoidable. Trapping or striking with persons should be avoided. A crane should not be left
unattended.
Jib or boom of a mobile crane should not touch any electric wire or loose construction which
may fall. When any overhead material handling work is going on, simultaneous work down below
must be avoided to eliminate risk of being hurt by any falling material.
Mobile cranes should be parked on hard soil or strong base. Tag lines should be used while
hoisting heavy and bulky materials. The brakes, boom, hook, wire ropes, pulleys and rope anchoring
should be checked periodically by a maintenance man to ensure the safe operation. Required derating
should be done in case of any defects found and it should be formally made known to all concerned.
In case of a mobile crane, the load shall be derrick out while going up a gradient and the load
shall be derrick into the minimum radius while going down:
Mobile cranes are to be tested for (1) A dynamic test of 10% overload (2) Test with 25%
overload and (3) Static stability test.
All control mechanism, safety devices, hydraulic system, hooks, running ropes and electrical
apparatus of a crane should be inspected frequently for malfunction, wear, deformation crack, fluid
leak, dirt and moist accumulation etc.

Page 100
Defects to be checked in a crane are
Deformed, cracked or corroded members of crane, structure and jib.
Loose bolts or rivets.
Cracked or worn sheaves and drums.
Worn or damaged pins, bearings, shafts, gears, rollers etc. Excessive wear on brakes or clutch
parts, linings, panels and ratchets.
Diesel, electric or other power units for improper performance.
Excessive wear on chain drive, sprocket and excessive chain stretch.
Travel, steering, braking and locking devices for malfunction and
Excessively worn or damaged tyres.
During repair and maintenance, permit to work system should be followed. A preventive maintenance
programme, based on the crane manufacturer's recommendations should be established.
All moving parts should be regularly lubricated and lubricant level should be checked.
Crane operators should be of more than 18 years age and properly trained, medically fit with
regard to eye sight, hearing and reflexes, and understand fully the duties of die slingers and be
familiar with the signal code.
Documentation for record of inspection and maintenance and test certificates is equally important.
Safe Location :
Safe location or storage of lifting tackles is necessary.
Proper storage of chains will impress the workers the need for proper care at: all times. The
chains should be hung on racks in dry air and normal temperature to prevent rusting. Racks should
be so arranged that no worker should be exposed to lifting hazards. Heavy chains may be stored in
neat piles on a rack surface. Dampness, darkness and corrosive atmosphere should be avoided.
Slings should be kept on suitable racks or pegs when not in use. SWL should not be exceeded
as a result of the angle between the legs.
Store the ropes in a cool, dry room having good air circulation. Hung the ropes up in loose
coiled in pegs. Clean the rope after use and dry them before storing. Fibre ropes should be protected
from pests, rats, sun, weather and dampness.
Conveyors & their Safety Features:
For moving material, normally two types of equipment are used. Conveyors are used when
the path is fixed and industrial trucks are used when the path is free.
Various types of conveyors and mono-rail systems are used in many industries to eliminate
Page 101
manual labour, to expedite the movement of materials and also to facilitate the processing or
assembling. Belt conveyors are widely used and they are of flat or trough type and can be horizontal
or inclined. They are used for handling almost all the materials of modern industry including coal,
coke, grain, fertilisers and building materials such as sand and gravel. Some important safety
measures are :
(V) Conveyors shall be so constructed and installed as to avoid hazardous points between moving
and stationary parts or objects. Gears, sheaves, sprockets and all moveable parts shall be
securely guarded.
(W) Where workers have to cross over conveyors, regular crossing facilities affording safe passage
and adequate lighting shall be provided. To cross underneath, at least 7 feet headroom is
required. Crossovers should be with bridge, stairs and handrails.
(X) Conveyors shall be provided at loading and unloading stations and at other convenient places
with devices (pull wire) for stopping the conveyor in emergency. A pull wire at intervals of 8
m should be provided.
(Y) When two or more conveyors are operated together, the controlling device shall be so
designed that no conveyor can feed on to a stopped conveyor. This may be interlocked.
(Z) Where conveyors extend to points not visible from the control station, they should be
equipped with gongs, or signal lights to be used by the operators before starting the machinery
so as to warn persons who might be in position of danger.
(AA) Conveyors shall be provided with automatic and continuous lubrication system or with
lubricating facilities so arranged that oiling and greasing can be performed without the oilier
coming into dangerous proximity of the moving parts. Scrappers should be provided to
remove sticky material.
(BB) Workers should not ride on conveyors.
(CC) For repair/maintenance work, power must be totally stopped and danger-tag should be
displayed. Belt cleaning by flammable solvent should be avoided.
(DD) Tension pulley - nips. and idler rollers should have fixed guard on their complete length of
movement.
(EE) Moveable dead/counter weights should also be similarly guarded.
(FF) Static charge collectors should be provided close to the outrunning sections of the drive
pulleys and idlers.
(GG) Elevated conveyors should have walkway with toe board (10 cm) and hand rail (I m) all along
the length. Flooring should be non-slip type, particularly on sloping walkways. Handrail
should also be provided on the belt side. Stop cord must be within easy reach.
(HH) Underpasses should have firm ceiling. Guards should be provided below all conveyors
passing. over roads, walkways and work areas.
(II) Conveyors running in tunnels, pits etc. should be provided with sufficient lighting, ventilation,
drainage, guards, escape ways and maintenance clearance.
(JJ) If a hopper is used at floor level to feed conveyor, the grill or guard should be provided to
prevent falling of a person inside. Scrapper may be provided between the hopper bottom and
the moving conveyor. This will restrict the excess flow of material and alert any person under
passing it.
(KK) If two or more conveyors operate in series, it should be so interlocked that if one conveyor
stops, all conveyors feeding it are also stopped.
(LL) In case of reversing or running away possibility, anti-runaway and backstop devices should

Page 102
be provided so that the load cannot slide or fall in the event of mechanical or electrical failure.
(MM) Overload stop devices like slip or fluid couplings and shear pins are desirable.
(NN) The loading and discharge points of powdered material on conveyor should have exhaust
hood for dust removal.
(OO) If the material is combustible, the dust concentration should be below LEL, electric fittings
should be flameproof, the conveyor should be grounded and its parts bonded to prevent
differences in
electric potential. The container into or from which the material is conveyed should also be
similarly grounded and its parts bonded.
Tight fitting clothing, safety shoes, goggles in dusty area and respirators are useful equipment.
Before starting maintenance or repair work, power should be locked in 'off position with key
in pocket. It should be tagged also with 'not to start' notice.
Fixed scrappers or revolving brushes to remove sticky material from drum or pulley eliminate
need of hand operation.
Static charge collector should be placed nearer to the outrunning sides of the drive pulleys
and idlers.
Operators should be trained in safe work procedures near belt conveyors. They should be
trained to avoid pinch points to save their hands and fingers.
Other types of conveyors are gravity conveyors either chute or roller type; screw conveyors
(mostly used in cement, coal pulverising, pottery and grain plants), power roller conveyors, overhead
chain conveyors (to transport material from place to place) bucket conveyors and aerial cableways.
Screw conveyors should be covered at all times and the cover should not be opened without
stopping the conveyor, or it should be interlocked. Buckets of conveyor should be enclosed
throughout their length. Guard rails should be provided at picking point.
Pneumatic conveyor use air pressure or vacuum to push or pull the material in tube or ducting.
Noise insulation is required at high noise points (mostly bends).
Industrial Trucks:
Power trucks usually operate by petrol, diesel, LPG i.e. by internal combustion engine or dry
cell batteries and are extensively used in factories for handling of materials to and from stockpiles,
to and from machines and through warehouse or loading platforms. They carry, lift, push, pull, stack
and tier material. These trucks are of many types, such as fixed platform, elevating platform, forklift,
motorised hand truck controlled by a walking operator, electronically controlled without operator i.e.
Automated Guided Vehicle (AGV), straddle trucks, crane trucks etc.
The elevating type of platform is inserted under the skid elevated to lift it from the floor and
the truck carries it to some other point. Each truck needs overhead guard to protect its driver.
The forklift truck makes the lift by means of a two prong fork instead of a platform and lifts the load
up from the floor permitting high piling to conserve space. They could also be fitted with special
attachments for handling barrels, paper reels, etc.

Page 103
Safety precautions to be observed in operation of forklift trucks

are:
1. The capacity of every lift truck should be marked on the truck
and they should not be overloaded.
Loaded or empty forks should be carried as low as possible but high enough not to strike a
ramp.
Care must be taken to avoid jerking when tilting a load forward or backward, specially when
the load is at a height.
Personnel must not be allowed to ride on the forks.
Forks should be driven well under the load, preferably full length or at least 2/3 of the length.
When there is a danger of falling objects over the operator, canopy overhead guard should be
provided.
Aisles, floor etc., should be maintained in good condition including proper lighting.
Mirrors at turning points (corners) to avoid front collision of two fork lifts coming in opposite
direction.
Other operational safety precautions for all types of power trucks are :
Selection and training of the operator. He should be provided with DOS and Don'ts of the
operation, specialties of the work situation and layout, plant rules, manufacturer's instructions
etc.
While travelling, fork should be in lowered position and it should not be moved for tilling,
lowering or lifting.
Lift trucks should be driven in the reverse direction when the load obstructs the vision or
while coming down from ramps or slopes.
If any rail track is to be crossed, it should be done diagonally and not at right angles.
Before crossing a bridge, plate operator should make sure that it is properly secured.
Operators should be instructed –
not to carry persons on the truck.
to check the conditions of the vehicle before starting e.g. tyres, brakes and safety devices.
not to leave the truck on aisle space, and to park at the place allocated. Parking brakes should
be applied. Power should be shut off.
not to turn a truck on a gradient.
not to carry out unauthorised repair or adjustments.
to notify defects known by them.
OSHA prescribes detailed safety rules for power truck operation.

Built-in-safety features are overhead guard on driver's seat with visibility, static and dynamic
load test for overhead guard, overload warning devices, control levers, stability test, brakes test, forks
load test for 3 times the rated load per fork, lifting chain load test for 5 times the rated load.
Load backrest extension, tiers guard, guards on chain, sprocket, gears etc., name plate with
capacity, horns & flash light - are also required.

Page 104
Other power trucks such as reach truck (carrying load under wheel base), side loaders (forklift
trucks with side forks), picking trucks (to pick up material at different places from storage racks),
pallet trucks (with forked platform mounted on small wheels to go under a pallet), platform trucks,
tractor-trailer train, straddle trucks, straddle carriers and driverless electric trucks may be used as per
requirement and should use specific safety precautions.
Inplant truck routes should be identified with markings e.g. width of aisleways, gangways,
crossing for traffic, signs for narrow width of height etc. Blind corners and turns should be avoided.
Special precautions to drive trucks in flammable areas need necessary approval of a qualified
person, area monitoring, mufflers on exhaust pipes etc.
Regular inspection and maintenance of power trucks should include checking of lights,
brakes, battery, horn, lift system (fork chains, cables and limit switches), steering, controllers etc.
and using wheel block and brakes while loading, unloading or any maintenance work.
Safety points for powered trucks should include three sections as under :
Safe Operating Conditions : The floor, storage and stacking areas, width of stacking aisle,lighting,
loading and unloading areas, ramps and slopes, battery charging areas, pedestrians,
selection of proper size, type and capacity of truck, its maintenance and guards and view mirrors for
the driver.
Hazards in truck operations :

Overturning due to-
sudden braking, wheels striking obstruction, use of forward tilt with elevated load, driving down
ramp with load preceding truck, striking overhead obstruction when reversing, turning on or crossing
ramps, load shifting, wheels sinking into unsuitable floor or ground and overloading.
Collisions.
Floor level hazards - gullies, pot holes & debris.
Overhead obstructions like pipes, cables and fixtures.
Load unbalancing and falling.
Truck failure due to brakes, steering, chains, hydraulic system, condition of forks, other attachments,
horn, wheel nuts, tyres, electric wiring insulation, fuel supply systems on i/c engine trucks,
cleanliness of power unit i.e. free from dust oil etc.
Explosions and fire due to hydrogen while charging, contact of live cables with the' truck frame and
shorting of battery terminals by metal tools or lifting tackle. Battery terminals should have suitable
insulating covers.
Carrying passengers without suitable seats.
Safe Operating Techniques and Training : All truck operators must be trained for safe driving and
operating methods and matters stated in para I & 2 above.
1. Training of Operators :
See Rule 60(8) of Gujarat Factories Rules, 1963.

Page 105
Proper selection and training of operators for any lifting equipment and power trucks are the
most essential. The operators should be of more than 18 years of age, medically fit with regard to
eyesight, hearing, reflexes and driving requirement and should have experience and attitude to
operate the equipment safely. They should be fully trained to drive and operate the equipment with
better judgement of distance, height, depth, clearance and turning. Knowledge of working of the
equipment, routine checks and maintenance methods, signal code, colour code, hazards of materials
and their handling should also be given.
Any safe equipment may be unsafe in untrained. hands. Therefore good training of all
operators for mechanical handling is more important to prevent accidents due to material handling.
Each plant should devise rules for operators depending on types of industrial trucks provided,
types of material handled, plant layout and type of environment.
Initial and refresher training should be given to truck operators. Such training programme
should also consider types of truck accidents and losses already happened, operating habits of
operators, properties of materials to be handled, faults and repairs with vehicles, filling of operator's
daily reports, other performance forms and inspection and maintenance log. National Safety Council,
USA has designed such forms. See reference No. I at the end.

Page 106
Nine most common forklift truck accidents described by Theodore H Allegri in his book
(mentioned as Reference No. 9 at the end) are as under:
1. Employee struck by forklift truck.

2. Forklift throws load on employee standing between the forklift truck and a fixed object.
3. Operator struck by falling parts while manually handling materials.
4. Operator or other employee is injured while boarding or stepping down from the forklift.
5. Operator fails to recognise serious hazard ahead and fails to slow down the truck.
6. Vehicle runs into other moving vehicles.
7. Vehicle backs or runs off the edge of the loading dock.
8. Part of operator's body protruding outside the running lines of the truck.
Page 107
9. Parts fall on the operator.
Three main causes mentioned are :
1. Lack of knowledge or skill.
2. perator being inattentive to the job.
3. Operator taking chances with full knowledge of the possible consequences.
Therefore an accident reduction programme should include

1 Provision of quality training.
2. Inclusion of follow-up into every programme.
Control of safe work practices.
Competent Persons, their Duties & Responsibilities :
Section 28(1) of the Factories Act requires that every hoist and lift shall be thoroughly
examined by a competent person at least once in 6 months and a register in Form No. 9 (u/r 58 GFR)
shall be maintained.
Section 29(1) of the same Act requires that lifting machines and tackles shall be thoroughly
examined by a competent person at least once in a year or at an interval specified by the CIF. The
record shall be kept in Form No. 10 (u/r 60 GFR).
For a competent person 7 years experience is required after B.E. (Mech. or Elect.) to test and
certify hoists and lifts (Rule 2A GFR).
For lifting machines and tackles, B.E. (Metallurgy) is also allowed.
Duties expected by the competent person include load testing, heat treatment and checking of
safe working conditions. Facilities for such work should be available at his workshop.
The thorough examination means visual examination, hammer test, detection of cracks,
porosity and other damage and by dismantling the parts in order to arrive at a reliable conclusion as
to the safety of the parts.
Duties of the Competent Person :
1. To study the provisions of the Factories Act, Rules and other statutes pertaining to hoists,
lifts, lifting machines and tackles.
2. To study Indian Standards and other relevant Codes for design, operation, maintenance,
testing and certification of material handling equipment.
3. To go on call to the manufacturers and users of the material handling equipment to test and
certify them.
4. To keep ready the necessary load testing, heat treatment, NDT and other equipment to test the
machine parts.
5. To keep ready the necessary statutory forms to be filled after the statutory examination or
testing.
6. To report the defects to be rectified to the user/ customer and to the concerned authority.

Page 108
7. To test and certify again after the rectification of the defects previously notified.
8. To get renewed the certificate of competency issued by the authority. .
Responsibilities of the Competent Person :
To calculate the SWL where it is not available.

To prepare a table of SWLs and load angles in case of a jib-crane or multiple sling - where
SWL varies at different angles of the jib or legs and to display near the machine.
1. All hoists, lifts, lifting machines and tackles shall be thoroughly examined and tested and a
certificate in the prescribed form (No. 9 for hoists and lifts and No. 10 for lifting machines
and tackles) shall be signed specifying the SWL and defects found if any, and given to the
user.
2. Different types of load tests including deflection test of an overhead travelling crane shall be
carried out and certified.
3. Different types of defects shall be ascertained and remedial measures shall be suggested to
remove them.
4. Defective parts (lengthened, altered or repaired by welding or otherwise) shall not be used
again unless it is adequately tested, examined and certified in writing by him.
5. Annealing (low temperature heating and cooling) process shall be carried out under his
supervision (1) at 6 months interval, of the parts made from a bar of 12.7 mm or smaller
diameter or being used to handle molten metal or slag and (2) at 12 months interval, of all
other parts in general use.
6. Any chain or lifting tackle subjected to normalising (instead of annealing) shall be thoroughly
examined by him at, 12 months interval and particulars of such examination shall be entered
in Form No. 10.
7. To attend an office of the authority or court, on call, in connection with any examination/test
carried out by him or certificate given by him To obey the instructions given by the authority
who issued him a certificate of competency, for the purpose of safety.
8. He should notify the serious defects and safety measures pointed out by him in relation to
specific cases where a testing period needs to be decreased and intervention of the CIF is
necessary as prescribed in Section 29 (l)(a)(iii of the Factories Act 1948 or where a serious
concern from safety point of view is involved See also Part 6.8 of Chapter-6.

Page 109
CHAPTER 3
PLANT LAYOUT DESIGN AND HOUSEKEEPING
3.1 PLANT DESIGN AND LAYOUT
Components in Design Process:
If components of any structure, vessel, equipment etc. are weak or not properly designed, they
may fail. Therefore a component should-be designed to withstand (1) static loads (2) dynamic loads
(3) internal and external pressure (4) corrosion & erosion 11(5) loads due to large differences in
temperature / pressure and (6) loads due to external impacts (wind, settlement, earthquakes etc.).
Selection of proper "factor of safety' and proper material of construction (MOC) are important
form design point of view.
These loads may be included in the design process. It is of more importance for pressure plant
containing flammable, explosive or toxic substances or liquids above their flash points or boiling
points.
Components of control systems (manual or automatic) should be properly integrated with

necessary safety devices, trips and alarms, interlocks, pressure reducing valve (PRV), non-return
valve (NRV), excess flow valve (EFV) and automatic process controllers etc.
Reliability of components of main and sub-systems (parts) is important. See Part 5 of Chapter-
19 for reliability aspect.
Load and pressure testing of components i.e. testing of the assembled systems, piping and
joints, valves and fittings is also necessary.
Travel Chart:
Travel chart is a simple and useful, method to analyse deficiencies in the layout of a factory
and in planning a good layout.
The deficiencies in a poor layout are :
Congestion on the shop floor.

Excessive waiting time of machines and materials.
Poor space utilisation.
Absence of easy access to machines, tools and materials.
Excessive handling of materials.
Irregular flow of process and materials.
Back tracking and zigzag movements.
Absence of necessary aisles and routes.
Page 110
Unbalanced activities resulting in poor utilisation of men, machines and materials, and
Inflexibility of layout allowing no scope for expansion or alteration needed with time.
The travel chart technique detects above deficiencies to improve the plant layout and suggests
follow-up action necessary. It is a mathematical approach which measures quantitatively the
movements of materials and in-process work. The purposes of such measure are :
To assess the quantities and the nature of materials flowing from area to area and from
machine to machine.
To reduce movements to minimum. .
To relocate contributing and user areas on the basis of percentage contribution, and
To arrange operations in each section for self sufficiency.
Unit movement is noted by multiplying distance and frequency. From the data of number of
components, their weights, distances travelled, frequency of trips etc., templates for the machines
and equipment and other details, the travel charts are prepared.
The .study of travel chart suggests improvements in materials handling methods and machines
in operation, types of containers, aisles, travel routes etc.
Planning, Design and Layout :
Plant or factory premises vary in size and manpower employment. There are giant
petrochemical and fertiliser plants on one end and small factory in a single room on the other end.
Under the Factories Act, more welfare facilities are required from bigger factories depending on
number of workers arid male-female employment. Stringent safety provisions are applicable to
chemical plants and major hazard (MAH) installations. Before starting a factory permission from
local authority and other related government departments is also required. Where pollution is
possible, permission from State/Central Environment Department and Pollution Control Board is
also necessary.
Definition of a 'factory' is given under the Factories Act 1948 and it is the main Act (together
with State Factories Rules) applicable to the layout, design, construction and working of a factory.
A plant should be located after considering siting criteria mentioned in Part-4, and be
constructed by considering statutory requirements mentioned in Part-2.
General Principals of Planning and Design
They are as under :
1. Siting criteria as mentioned in Part 4.

2. Good transportation facilities.
3. Safe handling and storage facilities.
4. Personal and Welfare facilities.
5. Engineering, utility and safety facilities.
6. Walkway, stairs, .platform, ramps etc.
Page 111
7. Good lighting and ventilation.
8. Elevators and lifting machines.
Boilers and pressure vessels.
Fixed and portable machinery and equipment.
Electrical installation.
Fire protection.
Other provisions for health and safety, viz. effluent disposal, water, firs-aid, emergency
power, equipment and emergency planning etc.
General principles of any workplace design:
They are as under

Plan the ideal, then the practical.
Plan the whole, then the detail.
Plan the work process and equipment around the system requirements.
Plan the workplace layout around the process and equipment.
Plan the final enclosure around the workplace layout
Use trials to evaluate alternatives and to check the final design.
Design aspects should include proper buildings and roads layout, storage & process layouts,
proper heights, lights, depths, spacing and dimensions considering ergonomic requirements, loads
and climatic factors and specific process hazards.
Some notable points for good planning and design are:
Sound foundations, stable construction and loading, non-congested machinery layout (safety
distance 1 m), no overcrowding (otherwise claustrophobia is possible), minimum floor area per
worker (1 to 2 m2), minimum alley width, safe roadways, walkways, yards etc., prescribed ventilation
area (15% of floor area), sufficient natural and mechanical ventilation, humidity control, sufficient
natural and artificial lighting, open plant for chemical processes, dykes, boundaries and blast walls
(to' withstand 7 kgf/cm2 force), safe layout and erection of chemical vessels and equipment,
ergonomic considerations, segregation of noisy and dusty processes, fencing and covering of water-
ways, reservoirs, ditches, floor openings, gutters etc., separate entrance and exit gates, parking plots,
safe layout of control room, provision of fire prevention and protection systems, safe storage of
flammable, explosive and toxic materials, waste disposal T arrangements for solid, liquid and
gaseous wastes, ; effluent treatment plant (ETP), scrubbers, incinerators, flare or exhaust as per
requirement, safe : discharge of smoke, fumes, dusts, gases etc., ' maintenance of separation distances
mentioned in Part-4.4, proper layout of utilities (water, power, steam, air, oil, inert gas etc.) and
ancillary services, : safe transportation and security arrangement, hazards identification and removal,
safe pipe work, follow-up of standards, codes and reliability criteria, \ limitation of inventory, fail-
safe design, built-in safety devices etc.
Thus points of plant layout and design are numerous and selection of particular point depends
on process, technical and safety requirements.
General Principals of Plant Layout

Page 112
General Layout : Size, shape, location, construction, buildings layout and other facilities
shouldpermit efficient utilisation of machines, processes and materials. Need and possibility of one
storey or multi-storey structure should be decided.
Layout should be properly planned to allow smooth flow and efficient use of men, materials,
methods, processes, time cycle etc. and should allow good and .safe working conditions to prevent
any accident or risk.
Some General Principles for good Layout arc:
1. Enough work space (2 m2 per 'person) should be provided for workers to work without
restriction.
2. Proper roads, walkways, tracks, alleys, catwalks etc. should be provided for free passage of
men and materials to avoid delay and obstruction.
3. Sufficient doors, windows, ventilators and open space must be provided for good ventilation
and lighting.
4. Installation of machinery, floors, stairs, lifting machines, electric wiring etc. must be done to
ensure safety. Allow at least I m space around each machine.
5. Keep the handling of materials to the minimum. Use mechanical means to reduce manual
strain.
6. Provide safe means of access to all work places.
7. Provide safe transport facilities for men and materials.
8. Provide adequate emergency exits.
9. Purchase and arrange in orderly manner machines and equipment with built-in safety.
10. Isolate high noise, vibration, fire, explosion and toxic hazards. Design a work bench, table,
booth, roof, ladder, platform, sheet, support etc. with safety standards to avoid such hazards.
11. Allow space for future expansion.
12. Provide repair and maintenance workshop, welfare facilities and education and training
facilities.
13. Use appropriate colours, notices, signs, labels, posters etc. for safety.
14. Provide easy locations of fire alarms, fire fighting equipment, personal protective equipment,
emergency assembly points, medical centre, safety office etc.
15. Provide and maintain good housekeeping.
Other factors of plant layout and design from safety point of view are:
1. Safe design and construction using safety standards and good engineering practices.
2. Statutory requirements for plant layout and design.
3. Containment of leakage and accidents.
4. Segregation of different risks.
5. Safe storage, process, utilities and waste disposal design.
6. Safe control room location & design.
7. Emergency control devices.
8. Fire fighting and gas leak control facilities. Ample water storage.

Page 113
9. Auto controls, alarms, trips, interlocks and necessary safety devices.
10. Railings and guarding at chances of fall, cross over and on moving machinery.
11. Roads of sufficient width and signs.
12. Safe loading, unloading, transport and piping facilities.
13. Security round the clock.
14. Wind direction and speed indicator with recorder to know wind direction and speed.
15. First aid centre and ambulance van.
The site layout is prepared first, then the plot and equipment layouts. Site is subdivided into blocks
or plots. Equipment layout includes P & I diagrams and fire equipment layout. This is as under –
Plant layout
Equipment
Site layout Plot layout layout
Preliminary
layout General General
consideration consideratio
Main layout s ns
Segregation Hazards materials
Separation Fire fighting P.&I.
distances Escape diagram
Fire
Fire Construction equipment
containment Operation layout
Services/ Maintenance
Utilities
Effluents
Transport of
materials
Emergencies
Security
Factory Building and Internal Layout
IS:875, 1904 and 1905 for structural safety and IS:8089 and IS:8091 for layout safety are
important.
For approval of drawings under the Factories Act and Rules see foregoing Part 2.
Location of Buildings : Segregation of raw material storage, process building, finished

productstorage and storage of hazardous materials, flame or ignition sources is necessary. Statutory

Page 114
specifications for storing flammable liquids shall be followed. Fire resistant wall is required between
flameproof and non flame proof area. A detailed flow sheet shall be used for layout. The cross flow
of materials and/or pedestrians should be minimised.
All buildings and parking plots should be located near periphery to limit internal traffic. The
entire parking area should be fenced. White lines 10 to 15 cm wide, standard stalls of 5 m x 6 m,
driveway of 8 m, for two-way traffic and unobstructed viewing are desirable. Separate entrances for
incoming and outgoing vehicles and night light of about 100 lux m2 at a height of 1m should be
provided. Buildings having more people should be away from hazardous areas. Production building
should have roads and access for fire fighting, maintenance, vehicles, lifting machines etc. The flow
of materials should be such that its length of travel and frequency of handling are minimised. Cooling
towers should be so located to minimise mist and ice hazards.
Ventilating, heating and air-conditioning are needed for personal comfort and sometimes for
process conditions. Extra ventilation should be provided where heat or bad fumes are generated.
Boilers, fans and air- conditioning equipment should be located in separate rooms for their fine
adjustment and confinement of noise. Boilers should receive adequate air and combustion by-
products should be exhausted safely. Location of incinerator should ensure that negative pressure
differential in a building does not cause an incinerator stack to serve as an air source.
Space for storing supplies, tools, frequently used equipment, racks, bins, shelves etc: should
be provided. Waste storage and additional required facilities should also be considered.
Rail, Road and Footpaths: Good design for railway sidings is necessary. Provisions for piping,
valves, pumps, derails etc. to unload or load tank Wagons, guarding of side track and public thorough
fares and clearance (distance) from main plant are necessary.
Roads should be carefully laid out, substantially constructed, well surfaced, drained and kept
in good condition. Road should be at least 11 m. away from buildings. Heavy duty truck hauling
requires road up to 16 m. wide for two-way traffic with ample radii curves. Gradient up to 8% and
slight crown for drainage with ditches to carry off water are necessary. Traffic signs, markings, speed
breakers should be provided. Good footpaths with shortest distance should be .provided to discourage
short cutting Concrete is preferred for footpaths.
Floors, Platforms and Catwalks: The floor area should be sufficient to allow men, machines
andmaterials without any obstruction and overcrowding. As per Section 16 of the Factories Act,
14.2 m3 breathing space per worker limited to a height of 4.2 m is necessary. The minimum floor
area per worker in power and non-power factories should be 3.3 sq. m. (36 sq. ft.) and 2.3 sq. m. (25
sq. ft.) respectively. Minimum roof height should be as mentioned in Part 2.1(A). The floor should
be non-skid type of sound construction, easily cleanable, free from moisture retention and well
maintained. Other factors of floor viz. load bearing (strength), durability, noise, drainage,
resilience, appearance, light reflection, dustiness, chemical composition and reaction, heat and
electrical conductivity and maintenance should be considered for proper selection. Marble, slate,
asphalt, tile, linoleum, cement and wood are reasonably safe, provided their surfaces are properly
maintained. Welding floor should be of noncombustible material. Spark-proof and conductive
flooring such as magnesium and conductive rubber are good where flammable air mixture is likely
to be ignited by a friction or static charge.
Page 115
Floor openings and floor holes, wall opening and wall holes,
open-side floors, platforms and catwalks shall be guarded with railings
and guards as mentioned in IS:4912. General height of railing is 100
cm maximum and 75 cm minimum with minimum distance between
its members (posts) as 20 cm and capable of withstanding a point load
of at least 90 kg in any one direction. Floor covers should withstand a
truck load of 9 to 15 tonnes.
The gangway should be at least

1 m wide and firm to withstand
movement of a trolley, hand truck.
Catwalk is a passage way for persons
elevated above the ground or any floor
level such as foot walk along shafting
or a walkway between buildings. Every
catwalk should
be al least 42 cm wide and guarded by a tow guard (a vertical barrier
erected along exposed edges of a floor opening, platform, -catwalk,
ramp etc., to prevent falls) of 15 cm nominal height. Ramps slope
should not be more than 15°.
Stairs, ladders and Scaffolds:

Stairs are safer than ladders. Circular stairways should be avoided.
Stairway slope should be 30° to 35° from the horizontal. The
maximum height of a staircase should be 3.7 m (12') with riser height
between 13 cm to 20 cm and tread width 23 cm (9") or more. The
width

Page 116
of the staircase should be 1.12 m (44") or more and load bearing i strength of 500 kg./sq. I m. (100
lb./sq. ft.). Two \ distant staircases are j needed at hazardous
Scaffold and its supporting members should be designed

tosupport a given load with a factor of safety at least 4 No plank less
than 5 x 25 cm should be used for scaffold plains. Their overlap
distance should be at least 30 cm. Tubular steel scaffolds designed,
tested and built by experts are more preferable over built-on-the job
wood scaffolds. Their advantages are: safety of worker, lower cost,
lowered fire hazard and good appearance. 15:2750, 3696 and 4014 are
on scaffolding.
Exit, Doors and Windows: Maximum distance between two

exitsshould be 20m in high hazard factories and 30 to 50m in low
hazard factory. They should be as per requirement. Exit doors should
be clearly visible and open outwards. The standard size for a door and
window are 200 x 120 cm and 150 x 90 cm respectively. A sill level
of a window
from working floor is 1 m. For every 9.35 sq. m. (100 sq. ft.) wall area one window of standard size
should be provided. Normal distance between two windows (centre to centre) should not exceed 2.4
m. (8') . The window shutters should also open outwards. Ventilators should be provided SOT a
height above 3.5 m.
Stores: Mechanical handling should be preferred. All bunds or dykes should have good
drainage.Local stores and stocks should not cause obstruction. Inventory and site of hazardous
materials should be limited. Stocks, racks, shelves, stacks, electrical machinery etc. should be
protected from rain or water.
Loading-unloading should be so located to minimise disturbance to traffic. Storage of

explosive, reactive, unstable, flammable and toxic materials should be so designed to maintain
sufficient distances within the storage area and between other areas. Maximum limit per unit area
should be decided so that if larger quantities are to be stored, new store area well separated from the
first may be provided.
Safe storage of flammable, explosive, toxic and radioactive materials should be ensured.
Flameproof electric fitting, fuming (low Boiling Point) chemical in AC room, closed (pipe) transfer,
safe pumping, local exhaust etc. are necessary.
Engineering workshop: Clear gangways around dangerous machines, separate welding bays
with shielding, ventilation and fume extraction, outside racks and chains for gas cylinders, permanent
lifting gear at correct place for all foreseeable loads, machine to machine or machine to wall distance
of at least 1 m., clothing and tool cupboards, and first-aid box etc., need good planning.
Layout of equipment: Various methods are used to determine the safest and efficient layout
of production machines and equipment. Threedimensional models made to scale can be rearranged
Page 117
on a scaled floor plan to determine such layout. Congested area should be anticipated and avoided.
A vertical distance of at least 2.2 m is generally specified between passage stairways and overhead
structures to provide ample clearance (head room). Overhead cranes and conveyors require at least
60 cm of vertical and horizontal clearance. Aisles for two-way traffic should be more than I m wider
than twice the width of the widest vehicle. For heavy traffic, aisles from 4 to 6 m wide are specified.
Aisles should have a 2 m radius for truck turn and should have no blind corners. Where ramps are
needed, a I m wide walk-way should be provided.
All hot parts should be lagged to avoid burns. Operations of ignition sources (welding-cutting
etc.) should be located away from use or store of flammable materials. Toxic operations should be
kept away from a populated area.
Electrical Equipment: Complete metal enclosed unit substations should be installed

andgrounded. Oil-filled transformers may give off flammable gases which should be safely
discharged. Non-flammable transformers are desirable near flammable area. Short circuit protective
devices should be large enough to carry the maximum short circuit current. Circuit breakers, fuses
and safety switches should not fail. Grounding system should be capable of conducting earth leakage
current. Battery room should be isolated and well ventilated. Automatic -CO injection system helps
to extinguish electrical fire. There should be sufficient sections to allow maintenance without
shutting down the whole system. Metal enclosures should be grounded. Cable circuits should be
enclosed in rigid conduit or interlocked armour cable. Metal enclosed plug-in-bus-ways are desirable
for machine tools. Three wire systems with one ground wire for all electric equipment are necessary.
Electric shock guards (ELCB) are also desired.
Others: Laboratories with fume cupboards and selected flooring, offices with proper layout,
saferack, shelves, height and designed furniture, canteen, lunchroom, rest room, cloak room, creche,
ambulance room etc., should be as per statutory requirements. ETP and waste disposal plant should
be provided from beginning.
All gutters, reservoirs, waterways, ditches in or near the factory should be fenced to prevent
fall.
Underground rooms should have sufficient lighting, ventilation and proper height (> 3 m).
Fumes generating process is not allowed therein.
For good housekeeping, lighting & colour, ventilation & heat control, electrical safety, noise
& vibration, fire & explosion, machine guarding, material handling and working at different levels
see Chapter-3 to 16 respectively.
Standards and Codes of Practice for Plant and Equipment:
While referring to standards and codes, it is useful to understand following definitions:

1. A criterion is any rule or set of rules that might be used for control, guidance or judgement.
2. A standard is a set of criteria, requirements of principles.
3. A code is collection of laws, standards or criteria relating to a particular subject, such as the
National Building Code, National Electric Code, National Fire Code etc.
Page 118
4. A regulation is a set of orders or rules issued to control the conduct of persons or manufacture
within the jurisdiction of the regulatory authority e.g. Indian Boiler Regulation (IBR).
5. A specification is a detailed description of requirements, usually technical.
6. A practice is a series of recommended methods, rules or designs, generally on a single subject.
Design handbooks, guides or manuals contain non-mandatory practices, general concepts and
examples to assist a designer or operator.
Standards are based on necessary tests and requirements. They give assurance about
soundness,quality, durability, reliability, safety etc. Design standard.s give sound criteria for safe
design. Quality standards indicate proper material or product. Codes and Standards for pressure
vessel design provide correct method of construction and testing. Standards may be mandatory or
voluntary. Test standards are set and, used for testing and certification of products. Indian Standards
on safety are available on thousands of Hems.
Codes of practice are generally followed where no statutory provisions are available or
wheremissing details are required. On hundreds of 'items of manufacturing there may not be any
legal standard. In that case code of practice should be followed.
In designing foundation work for any building, in designing and construction of steel
structure, vessels, piping, supports, equipment etc., safety standards and codes
should be followed. BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards) Handbook - 1996, gives
14357 standards of which some examples are given in Part-3, Table 7.1. Many
'Safety Code for ....' are given in alphabetic index of this handbook. Some examples
are given below in Table 7.3.
Table : Code of Practice & Safety Codes (IS)

Page 119
Code of Practice for… IS
Architectural and building drawings. 962
Day lighting of buildings 2440
Demolition of buildings 4130
Design & construction of floors & roofs 14215
Design & construction of steel chimney 6533
External hydrant system 13039
Fire safety in hotels 13716
Fire safety in iron & steel industry 13694
Galleries and opening in dams 12966
Laying mastic flooring in LPG industries 13074
Manufacture of safety books & shoes 13295
Measurement of civil engineering works 3385
Structural safety 13063
Super capacity bucket elevator 12941
Safety Code for…. IS
Body Protection 8519
Chemical Laboratory 4209
Colours and signs 9457
Concrete framed structures 8989
Conveyors 7155
Electro heat installation 519
Footwear for steel plants 10348
Industrial radiography 2598
Working with construction machinery 7293
Handling and storage of building materials 7969
Hot bituminous construction 5916
Layout of industrial plant 8089, 8091
Plant railways 8218
Powered industrial trucks 6305
Conditions for woodworking machines 8964
Data processing equipment 10422
Devices for gas cylinder 5903
Equipment, eye, face, ear 8520, 8940
Foot & Leg 10667
Glove, industrial 6994
Masonry walls 1905
Nets, industrial 11057
Structural loading 875
Hand tools 8235
Scaffolding, steel 4014
Relief valves 3233
Shallow foundations 1904
3.2 NEED FOR PLANNING AND FOLLOW UP

Page 120
Need and Approach:
Need of planning for safety and health and 'safety engineering approach in design, planning
and construction of new plant or new alteration or addition' are basic and most essential, because:
General efficiency and safety in industrial activities can be greatly increased thereby.
Accidents and occupational diseases can be prevented from the earliest days.
Cost saving factors can be considered by effective use of floor area, providing ample space
for men, materials and machines, reducing the cost of material handling, reducing the time of
work or process and making efficient use of resources, personnel and equipment etc.
Efficient flow of work is maintained, and
Safety and comfort of people are achieved by considering ergonomic aspects.
Therefore safety and layout engineer must take into account :
Products and product layout

Raw materials, processes and their layout
Size and type of site and building.
Machinery, vessels and equipment required.
Assessment of manpower required.
Relationship between departments.
Process flow chart.

String and flow diagrams.
Templates and scale models.
Drawings and plot plans, and
Travel chart etc.
Follow up :
As need for planning is important, follow up action according to that planning is equally
important. Without follow up no planning can be executed. Therefore distinct responsibilities should
be assigned to different persons to implement the follow up actions of every stage or step decided in
planning. It should be reported to the higher officer, feed back should be received for correction or
addition if any and the work should be completed within a stipulated time. All points of safety,
health, environment and ergonomic factors should be included from the built-in stage. If this follow-
up is missed in the initial stage, later follow-up may become continuous and costly.
3.3 HOUSEKEEPING AND SAFETY:
Statistics of accidents suggest the items of bad or poor housekeeping and from them we infer
the methods to improve housekeeping. Therefore they are considered first.
Typical Accidents due to Bad (poor) Housekeeping :

Page 121
Statistics : See Table 5.8 in Chapter-5 for injuries in India in 1990 & 1991. Causation No. 10
to15 give accidents due to (a) Hand tools (b) Falling bodies (c) Persons falling (d) Stepping on or
striking against object (e) Handling goods/ articles and (f) Others. Thus total 84386 out of total
128099 (in 1990) and 42079 out of 60582 (in 1991) clearly indicate that more than 65.87% and
69.45% accidents in
India were due to the causes of bad housekeeping.
See in Table 5.22 of Chapter-5 for industry and cause wise accidents in Gujarat in 1994.
Considering Causation No. 123 to 131, in the last row of total, the accidents figures are as follows :
Cause
No. s Total Accidents
1 Others in machinery not moved by mechanical power. 511
2 Use of hand tools. 710
3 Struck by falling bodies. 980
Persons falling from height. 506
5 Persons falling on the flat. 474
6. Persons falling into pits, excavation etc. 338
7. Stepping on or striking against objects. 1472
8. Handling goods or articles. 949
9. Others. 3342
Total 98282
Comparing with the total of all accidents 15683 this gives 59.18%. This clearly indicates that
about 60% accidents in Gujarat (in 1994) were due to the causes of bad housekeeping.
The Causes of bad housekeeping : These are well evident from above tables. The causes
contributing the maximum accidents are :
3. Stepping on or striking against objects.

4. Handling goods or articles.
Page 122
5. Struck by falling bodies.

6. Persons falling from height.
7. Persons slipping on the floor.
8. Use of hand tools, and
9. Others or miscellaneous.
The details or sub causes can be had from the actual accident reports. But some are as under
:
Accidents due to poor or bad housekeeping i.e. their causes are : Striking against or
fallingover machine parts, materials or other obstructions left lying in passageways, cuts from objects
left protruding from benches and especially on construction sites, punctures by nails protruding from
objects or lying anywhere, falls on floor left slippery, greasy or damp, badly stacked materials, fires
due to accumulation of combustible waste or leakage of flammable materials, cabinet drawers left
open, dangerous dust or chemicals on floors and not cleaning them quickly,, congested aisles, no toe-
guards or hand rails, overloaded waste containers, broken lockers and washrooms, dirty and unsafe
walls, ceilings and windows, lint and dust on bearings of machines, tools left on machines or
walkways, poor lighting, unsafe handling of chemicals; spillage of oil, grease, acid etc. on floors,
pipes of air, water, steam and oil not properly maintained, no marking of safety and traffic signs,
signals, loose or unsafe wiring etc. These should be the targets of planning for good housekeeping.
Indicators of Bad Housekeeping :

Page 123
It is essential to know the items of poor or bad housekeeping so that they can be recognised,
detected and removed. See Fig. 8.1. Such indicators of poor housekeeping are many and a list may
become long. Some main indicators are listed below:
Objects & Materials on Floor : Excessive material, waste, debris, tools lying
anywhere,congested aisles, walkways and workplace, spillage of oil, grease, acid etc., dropped
or thrown down materials and disorderly piled material as obstruction.
Poor Storage Practices : Unsafe store design and unsafe piling i.e. too high or improper
piling,overloaded waste bins, storing in aisles or obstructing doors, passage ways, storage of
excessive material in work room.
Equipment out of Place : Wrongly parked vehicles, trucks, trolleys and wrongly placed
tools,equipment, material, ladder, wire ropes etc. where they should not be.
Dirty walls, windows, ceilings, floors etc. : Dirty walls, windows, ceilings, floors,
lightingfixtures, lint and dust on bearings or moving parts, open locker/drawer, slippy or dirty
washrooms, latrines, urinals, canteens and workplaces.
Poor waste disposal system : Failure to provide receptacles or containers for waste and
scrape,overflowing pans, dripping containers and unsafe handling of cutting oils etc.,
inadequate or leaking exhaust system, scrubber, treatment plant etc., emission of gas, fumes,
vapours, accumulation of dust and no provision for cleaning device.
Fire Hazards : Accumulation of rubbish, oil, oil soaked rags or cotton waste, paper and
packing material, substances causing spontaneous ignition e.g. dusts, oils, solvents, fertilisers,
sugar, leather scraps, jute, hemp, hay etc., uninsulated, hot piping, hot bearings, sparks,
welding-cutting in flammable area or unsafe manner.
Chemical Hazards : Nowadays chemical factories are increasing and workplace pollution
dueto chemical exposure is also increasing. This spoils the atmosphere and housekeeping.
Splashes, leakage, dripping and escape of chemicals pose danger to health and safety and result
in bad housekeeping. Acids, alkalis, solvents, pesticides and many dangerous chemicals
change the colour and status of a factory. For details see Chapter-18 &19.
Others : Poor lighting, dark colours, poor ventilation, noise and vibration, broken tools,
ladders,stools etc., open or loose electric wiring, no hand railing, no toe guard, no machine
guarding, no fencing on pits, platforms and floor openings, drawers left open etc. -
From above discussion keys to good housekeeping are inferred as under - :
Cleanliness of floors, buildings & equipment.

Proper and speedy disposal of scrap, waste and surplus materials.
Keeping each object in its designated place and returning after work.
Sufficient work' areas, exits, walkways, aisles etc.
Orderly arrangement of material, process, machine, tools and equipment.
Good lighting, colour and ventilation.
Benefits of Good Housekeeping:

Page 124
If the need, benefits, usefulness, results, advantages or effects of good housekeeping are
known or explained in the beginning, it helps to provide zeal to maintain it. Therefore they are
explained below. Good housekeeping increases safety and productivity as under:
It is an essential routine support to industrial safety and health.
A large number and wide range of accidents due to bad housekeeping can be eliminated by
good housekeeping.
It aids to good maintenance and working as complementary to it and increase overall safety
and productivity.
Clean, hygienic and safe plant environment increases attractiveness and morals of the
employees.
Machines, tools and equipment work better in clean condition and boost up the workmanship.
If tools are placed in easy to find manner, job; run smoothly and give good results.
Clean and well maintained floors, stairs walkways, doors, windows, lifts, latrines urinals,
washing facilities, furniture, records dresses, first-aid and protective equipment and proper
layout of materials, tools and process flow certainly avoid many accidents.
Constant monitoring and control of hazardous chemicals, their processes and emission;
minimise many hazards.
Much floor space or area is utilised because o proper access to machines and equipment for
cleaning and maintenance purpose.
The fine and sophisticated instruments equipment and personal protective equipment give
better results when kept in good and deal condition and checked regularly.
Accidents due to stepping on or striking against objects or fall of persons and objects,
stumbling tripping, bumping, body caught between object etc. are well controlled.
Time spent in locating tools and appliances and wastage of time is controlled resulting in
increase of efficiency.
Damage to person and property likely to occur due to disorder is reduced resulting in loss
control.
Conservation of materials/property/energy results due to less scrap and spoilage and improves
better capacity utilisation.
Loss due to misplacement of costly items would be reduced due to proper placement and order.
Losses due to out break of fires could be controlled to a great extent by proper housekeeping.
Minimisation of losses on this account alone justifies the effort.
Values of materials and machines do not get reduced when they are properly maintained.

Page 125
Overall life and utility of plant, building and equipment are increased due to good
housekeeping.
19. Majority of small fires result from and spread by poor housekeeping conditions. Sources
of ignition due cotton waste, solvent spillage, oil dripping, friction, sparks,
to oily flames,
smoking etc. can be prevented by good
maintenance and housekeeping. See Part 6.5.
A clean and well maintained plant can be operated at a lesser cost.
Production increases due to reduced obstacles and wastage of time and speedy availability
of material, equipment, tools etc.
Repair and maintenance work become easy due to easy access and clean space availability.
Aisle traffic becomes smoother and speedy. Truck/trolley collisions become less.
Employee moral is boost up due to orderly things, neatness and cleanliness, sufficient space
to work, good lighting, colour and ventilation and mostly due to reduced possibilities of
accidents and injuries.
Outside visitors, market people. Government authorities, local community and the top
management are attracted and overall the company
image of rises up.
Some examples of good housekeeping are shown in
Fig. 8-2. .
METHODS OF GOOD HOUSEKEEPING:

After knowing the benefits of good housekeeping ' as above, the methods of good
housekeeping are to be devised. Such methods are many. A few are given below:
General Considerations :
The 25 items listed in Part 4.3 suggest general considerations or essentials for good
housekeeping in a factory. In short, they should include proper placement and use of hand tools,
materials, equipment, clear and unobstructed workplaces, aisles stairs etc., speedy disposal of waste,
scrap, splashes and obstructions, safe means of handling goods or articles, fenced platforms, floor-
openings and wall openings to prevent fall accidents, removal of possibilities of falling bodies,
provision of sufficient containers for waste collection, avoidance or fencing of sharp edges, corners
etc., safe and efficient cleaning methods, good lighting, colour and ventilation, proper marking and
identification, protective equipment to cleaners and maintenance men, special areas for storage of
raw materials, finished product, tools and accessories, racks for hand tools or implements above
work-benches, under bench drawer for storage of small personal possessions, devices on machines
to prevent deposit of oil, water etc., cleanliness of surrounding floors, drainage, channels etc, special
cleaning gangs with necessary cleaning materials and equipment, daily and weekly cleaning
schedules, regular arrangements for removal of waste and emptying of waste containers, prevention
of debris and clutter under benches and machine parts and special precautions depending upon the
nature of industry.
Disposal of Scrap and Trade Wastes :

Page 126
This is the major part of good housekeeping. Estimation of probable wastes in advance and
planning for suitable means of their collection and disposal in the most economical and efficient
way is desirable. Separate sweeping service, sweepers with equipment, waste and scrap receptacles
with cover, overflow pans, chip screens, chip catchers, chutes, exhaust and dust collection systems,
drain for liquid splash, vacuum cleaners, waste containers, methods of their transport and disposal,
schedules of daily, weekly and special cleaning need attention. Such general service is not expected
to pick up scrap, spoiled work, refuse, processed parts or tools. The plant workers are responsible
for keeping such items off the floor. The supervisor/foreman is responsible for orderliness and
cleanliness of his area. Instructions regarding hazard of cleaning up in Part 6.4 should be followed.
Hazardous waste should be disposed of with care. Fire hazards of combustible waste should
be prevented. Chemical wastes should be rendered harmless before being disposed or dumped. Strong
acids should be neutralised and not poured in open. Poisonous materials, explosives, radioactive
waste requires special procedures for safe disposal. The workers should be properly trained for safe
disposal.

Page 127
Prevention of Spillage
Oil, coolant, water and chemical splashes on floors are routine phenomena in industries. If
they are not quickly and properly cleaned of, they cause slips falls, burns etc. If the chemical is
flammable, explosive, reactive or toxic, additional danger is added. The basic effort should start from
the design of appropriate floor viz. acid proof lining, rubber lining etc., drainage system for flow
collection, covering on gutters, splash guards as on jigger machines (for dyeing textile), oil or coolant
screens and collection trays, drip pans to collect drippage from leaky valve, line etc. Damage to floors
or such devices should be repaired immediately. Workers should be trained to remove such spillage
as early as possible. Appropriate neutraliser (caustic, lime, soda, sand etc) and absorber should be
used.
Marking Aisles and other Locations:
The aisles, gangways, catways, internal roads and passages, stairs, ramps and working
platforms also cause accidents due to improper marking, unsafe condition and frequency of persons
passing on them. Therefore they must be properly marked, equipped with necessary handrails,
footholds, fencing, lighting etc., and kept clean, dry and unobstructed.
Similar marking and up-keeping of other locations such as loading- unloading or receiving-
dispatch points, parking area, store area, electrical switch yard, tool room, rest-room, lunch-room,
sanitary block, washing centre, drinking water centre, first-aid centre, assembly points, emergency
equipment points, fire protection points, environment monitoring points, effluent points, scrubbers,
dust bins, waste collection centres, dumping yard, scrap yard, storage tanks etc., also necessary for
good housekeeping.
Truck, trolley, cart and moving equipment should not be left on the way to cause obstruction
or harm. Aisle width should be sufficient to contain traffic. Its portion for pedestrian traffic should be
distinctively marked. Bright coloured lines (e.g. zebra strips) can be used for pedestrian crossing.
Yellow strip should be marked on the edge of level difference. Mirrors should be placed to judge or
see the man or material approaching from the other side not otherwise visible.
Sufficient storage space should be designed and provided to contain full inventory. Design of
chemical stores needs much attention. Orderly locations, placements and marking help much for
better housekeeping.
Tool Housekeeping:
Disorderly placed tools or absence of holding device is a common phenomenon. Orderly

arrangement of tools in crib (rack or box) or in a tool room and regular checking of tool condition
and necessary repairing are most essential. Necessary tool box, pens, holders, racks, shelf etc. should
be provided with the machine and also in the tool room.
A fixed tool holder (tray) with machine or a movable trolley holding a set of tools, jigs, parts
etc. should be provided.

Page 128
Tools placed at their proper place do not waste time in searching them. The workers and
supervisors should insist for such habit.
Use of Colour as an Aid :
The subject of colour is separately dealt with lighting in the next Chapter. It is important to
note here that proper colour selection for walls, ceiling, passageways, machines, piping, railings,
fencing, guards, boundaries, fire equipment, lifting machines, warning signs, danger zones etc., play
vital role in improving housekeeping and safety. Statutory or IS for colour-code, if any, should be
followed, otherwise the selection should be based on the best effect and necessary contrast.
Cleaning Methods :
Normally employed cleaning methods are cleaning by broom or brushes, vacuum cleaning,
washing by water or steam, air-jet cleaning, super-sucker to suck spillage, blockade or choking etc.
Broomstick cleaning's useful for a limited area and where no much dust is accumulated. Air-
jet cleaning is also not desirable in open workplace, though it is effectively useful to clean inner sides
of any vessel, pipe, tube, equipment etc. But while doing so, air-pressure should be regulated
(controlled) dust masks must be worn and proper dust collector should be provided.
Brushes are useful to clean sticky material. Wire brushes are employed to clean hard and metal
surfaces or deposits. Soap or detergent powder may be used with water.
The best cleaning method is by vacuum cleaning because it does not push or cause to fly dirt
or dust here and there but pulls inside the dust chamber which can be emptied at a desired place. This
method has the least health hazard as it does not allow dirt or dust in atmosphere. It can suck dust
from air also. Vacuum cleaners are available of different sizes and capacities. They may be portable
or fixed for particular location, machine or system.
Local exhaust ventilation (LEV) is an improved design of vacuum cleaning device and
effective engineering control to collect dust or waste from near the source of generation. Its
application in industry is very wide and instead of cleaning device it
is considered as an integral part (safety device) of .the machine or equipment to which it is attached.
Carding machine (textile), buffing and polishing machine, grinding wheels and many dust or gas
generating processes (e.g. acid cleaning) are provided with such local exhaust ventilation or dust
collectors. See Table 18 in Chapter-32 for guide to select dust collectors.
In chemical and metal industry, special cleaning agents - HGI, H,O,, HP etc. - decreasing
agents and organic solvents are used .to clean metal surfaces and piping. Purging by air or nitrogen
is also utilised to clean vessel, equipment, pipeline etc.
Trolly mounted portable cleaning device is available to clean floors,

walls, vehicles, storage vessels, machine tools, construction machinery,
factory shade etc. High pressure jets are used to clean effectively. It
removes dust, scale, oil, grease, rust etc from the surfaces. Plain water or
water mixed cleaning agent can be used.

Page 129
Parts washer is also available to clean small parts of labouratories,

auto mobiles, metal, plastic and glass, general machinary, service stations
etc. Cleaning is done in enclosed chamber. It removes oil, grease, rust, dirt,
paint, scale, scrap, burrs etc. Washing pressure is kg/cm2.
MANAGEMENT OF GOOD HOUSEKEEPING
Good housekeeping is not possible without management policy, planning, efforts,

responsibility, follow up and overall co-operation of all plant people. -This is explained below :
Management Policy and Responsibility :
Like Safety, health or quality policy, the top, management must establish, declare and
implements housekeeping policy emphasising that
1. Dirt and disorder are always evidence of waste of materials, time, energy and effectiveness.
2. Regular cleaning of dirt and maintaining orderly things may be a tough job, but it is the
management's responsibility.
3. Good housekeeping reduces accidents and increases safety, productivity and morale.
4. Working in dirt, dust and disorder increases cost and decreases workers' comfort,
5. If you can't manage to have cleanliness and order, you can't manage your department.
Management must formulate such policy, encourage supervisors to' implement it and help
removing beliefs like 'That is naturally dirt/,'IP cannot be avoided', 'How many times to clean it ?'
If top management, will accept this policy and responsibility, others will follow it.
Housekeeping programmes must be 'planned, promoted patiently, regularly and carefully.
Planning and Follow up :
Merely wishing good housekeeping is not sufficient. Certain policy must be established and
followed. Aids and equipment necessary for good housekeeping must be purchased. The management
must understand the results of bad housekeeping and must accept responsibility for good
housekeeping
Planning and follow-up should include -

2. Deciding policy and technique for good house keeping.
3. Proper layout of work area.
4. Marking of aisles, ways and storage areas.
5. Cabinets and holders for tools and equipment.
6. Storage arrangements for materials.
7. Containers for materials in process.
8. Efficient sequence of operations to avoid bottlenecks.
9. Anticipation of waste, scrap, dust, spillage, splashes etc., and inclusion of methods of their
control stated in Part 5.2.
10. Efficient transportation of raw material, finished:; products and refuse. Use of mechanical feeding
belt conveyor etc..

Page 130
11. Efficient cleaning methods including vacuum cleaners etc., and without interrupting the production
schedule.
12. Necessary training of workers.
This is a sample list which may be modified according to the particular requirements of a plant.
Good housekeeping cannot be left to the unplanned activities of persons employed. It is a

management technique and it should be laid out in such a way that it is easy for order and cleanliness
to be observed.
A good housekeeping committee, competition, rewards and individual and group incentives for
good housekeeping play an important role to increase and maintain motivation for housekeeping.
Overall Co-operation :
After setting up of policy and programme for good housekeeping and division of responsibility
for implementation and compliance up to the floor level, it becomes necessary that all plant people
must wholeheartedly co-operate for the success and achievement of good housekeeping in every corner
and at all times.
Supervision and cleaning arrangements for working areas and sanitary facilities are essential. It
is necessary to maintain interest of all plant people for such co-operation. Motivation and competition
bind the co-operation. Co-operation of safety engineer/officer, supervisors and workers in their
respective areas is most important for overall efforts of good housekeeping. They are explained below
in brief.
Housekeeping Contests :
To stimulate the interest by an element of competition, many times housekeeping contests are
arranged between different departments or groups of a factory or between different factories on district
or state level where organisations like National or State Safety Councils take interest.
Committees are formed to inspect participating departments. Representatives from different

departments should be co-opted by the safety department.
Inspection may be limited to the period of contest only or it can be made regular by making it
monthly, bi-monthly or quarterly. The visit should be unannounced so that real picture can be seen and
regularity in housekeeping may be developed.
An award, prize or incentive may be given to the winning department (to its leader or to all
employees of that department). Small gifts of attractive or useful nature may also be given. Such awards
should be given m a function of all employees and by the hands of the top executive. Supervisors of
the winning department should be specially complemented. Their encouragement is most important to
get the work done.
Employees Assignment:
It is the management's responsibility to assign sufficient employees to carry out routine daily
housekeeping job. Mostly such work is given on contract and company employees believe that
housekeeping is not their job. However where this job is assigned to company employees, the picture

Page 131
is not good at some places. Because of unionism, company employees are less duty -conscious and not
that much regular as the contract workers. Such tendency is diverting more -and more jobs to contract
workers. Housekeeping, gardening, security, transport, canteen and other welfare activities are such
jobs.
Depending on number of latrines, urinals, bathrooms, washing facilities, canteen, rest room,
lunch room, medical centre and size of work areas, compounds, roads, godowns etc., sufficient number
of employees should be allotted for housekeeping work. If more than one shift are running, appropriate
staff in each shift is necessary.
If sufficient manpower is not assigned looking to the area and hours of work, good housekeeping
cannot be achieved. Economy or shortage in manpower will result in bad housekeeping. But because
of increasing cost of manpower, compulsion of reduction in cost of production in competitive market
and availability of cleaning machine replacing manpower, proper balance has to be maintained in
assigning employees for housekeeping.
However, it should be borne in mind that dirtiness and bad housekeeping create health and
safety problems and may increase medical expenses, absenteeism and HR problems. Therefore
employee assignment for housekeeping job needs careful consideration and due weightage.
Instead of solely depending on or waiting for employees for housekeeping job, if each company
employee feels his own duty to clean and maintain own workplace, own machine and own table, it will
be more meaningful and useful. 'Housekeeping is everybody's job' should be the concept. 'Work is
worship' is not a slogan, it is to be practised.
Safety Officer's Role :
A safety officer has to play an important role by

Suggesting the best housekeeping policy, procedure and equipment to the top management.
Co-operating in finalising the policy and planning including preplanning, space requirements and
facility requirements for good housekeeping.
Implementing the policy, procedure and programmes through supervisors, workers and all concerned
throughout the plant.
Advising and assisting all plant people for their co-operation in good housekeeping efforts.
Solving the problems by appropriate design, layout, planning and purchasing equipment for good
housekeeping.
Arranging supervision, competition, award and incentive schemes to improve housekeeping and
maintain interest.
Designing and arranging regular and special inspections, checklists, rating forms and records for good
housekeeping.
Paying more attention on all points mentioned in other parts of this Chapter and particularly on (a)
Clean premises, machines, equipment and orderly layout (b) Clean and hygienic sanitary facilities,
bathrooms, cloak-rooms, mess rooms etc. (c) Storage places for raw materials properly classified (d)
Cabinets and holders for tools and portable equipment (e) Containers for materials in process and
products (f) Prompt removal of dirt, dust, refuse, splashes, wastes and unwanted 'materials (g) Careful
training of workers and (h) Maintenance of plant 'including lighting, painting and motivation for good
housekeeping.

Page 132
Supervisor's Role :
For good housekeeping the interest and cooperation of the supervisory group is more important
as it is the more responsible group and more close to the working conditions and workers. All
supervisors must provide initiative and leadership for daily attention of the workers on cleanliness and
orderliness of workplace, machine, equipment, tools, materials etc. in their control.
They have to carry out the management policy, programme and maintenance of good
housekeeping in their areas. They should take part in competition of housekeeping and try to win
awards for that. They can contribute much to boost up workers' morale, attitude and enthusiasm
towards their day to day checking and. efforts for good housekeeping. They have to obtain co-operation
from all workers for their success. If any award for rating standards are prescribed for their superior
performance, they should explain the workers how to achieve them. They must pay constant attention
on all items of removing bad housekeeping and maintaining good housekeeping.
Workers' Role:
No success is possible without workers' efforts and co-operation for any safety or housekeeping
programme. This should be taught to them from their initial training. Creating and maintaining their
interest is most important. It is the management's skill and workers' wish to do it. They have to
implement the policy and checklist given to them for good housekeeping. A list of items of daily and
periodical checking should be prepared, displayed and followed up accordingly. It should contain the
items given in
To keep their own place of work, machine, equipment, tool etc., clean and in working order is in their
interest. Nobody else cankeep their things so clean and in order as they keep for themselves. Daily they
should spare a few moments for cleaning up.
Hazards of cleaning up in proximity to moving machinery must be informed to workers.

Theworkers for such work should be well aware of -
Risk of entanglement, use of compressed air, electric shock, chemicals, cuts from scrap metal,
swarf or broken glass etc.
Skin affections and dermatitis due to detergents, oils and cleaning materials.
Need to wear personal protective equipment for protection from striking by objects, stepping
over sharp edges, handling such material or facing dust, fumes, gases, splashes etc.
Need of washing, cleaning, first-aid treatment and vacuum cleaning when required. To keep top
cover and bottom (drain) valve open while cleaning any tank from the top.
1. Role of Maintenance:
The term maintenance maybe mixed with the term good housekeeping and therefore their
difference should be understood.
Maintenance covers the work done to keep building, plant, equipment and machinery in safe
andefficient working order and in good repair, the upkeep of all sanitary and welfare facilities and the
regular painting and cleaning of walls, ceilings and fixtures.
Good Housekeeping includes day-to-day cleanliness, tidiness and good order in all parts
ofundertaking. Good housekeeping is not possible without good maintenance and vice versa. Thus both
are complementary.

Page 133
Preventive maintenance is a scheduled or regular periodical maintenance of plant

andmachinery. Its purpose is to prevent sudden or accidental failure, stoppage or breakdown of plant
and machinery. Without waiting for breakdown or failure, periodical oiling, greasing, tuning, changing
of parts, testing and examining keep the machinery in efficient working condition, smooth running
without excessive noise and vibration, leakage etc and it helps to maintain good housekeeping.
Sometime 'shutdown' is planned for such preventive maintenance.
Productive maintenance is for the purpose of improvement in production. If speed or output

isdecreased, noise, vibration, out running, reject, breakage, leakage etc. may increase, then such
maintenance is carried out to remove these losses. Even without such losses or disorder, modification
is carried out to boost up or increase the production rate or to achieve desired quality or quantity of
products.
Breakdown or corrective maintenance is compulsorily required when plant or machinery

stopsdue to breakdown, sudden failure, stoppage, accident or leakage etc. Then without urgent repair,
restarting is not possible, otherwise it adversely affects housekeeping.
Thus role of any type of maintenance is to improve safety, productivity and housekeeping.
JAPANESE CONCEPT OF ‘FIVES'

A Japanese concept for good housekeeping states “Five S’ as under -
Seiri : This means segregation. Dirt, dust, rubbish and all unwanted wastes or material
shouldbe collected and segregated first.
Seiton i.e. arrangement. There should be effective arrangement of safe disposal of

segregatedwastes. This also includes preventive ' arrangement such as local exhaust
ventilation, dust collectors, vacuum cleaners, guards, covers and devices to reduce noise,
vibration, leakage, spillage etc.
Sciso or cleaning. Main activity of good housekeeping is cleaning. It includes cleaning

offloors, walls, ceiling, sanitary and welfare facilities, parts of plant and machinery, PPE and
other equipment, tools, lighting fixtures, lamps, tubes etc.
Seiketsu i.e. maintenance of standard. This suggests compliance of statutory provisions

andnational or international standards for safety, quality, cleanliness and environment.
Maintenance should also include all activities mentioned in Part - 6.5.
For example, maintenance of standard mentioned in Schedule 2 of the Factories Act
and Form 7 and 37, GFR, indicates status of housekeeping.
For statutory provisions see Chapter 27 and 28.
Shitsuke or Discipline - This indicates duty of everybody to follow rules,

regulations,instructions, notices, orders, appeal etc for maintaining good housekeeping and
safety.
Notices to spit in spittoons only, not to throw rubbish anywhere, not to smoke in
flammable areas, not to run machine at over speed, not to open guard or safety devices without
authority, not to waste water, power, oil etc, to follow traffic and safety rules, to wear ear
protection in high noise area and other PPE for specific woik,to use proper tools and equipment

Page 134
etc should be strictly followed as discipline. Motivation is required for self discipline. For
maintenance of good housekeeping discipline plays a vital role.
INSPECTION AND CHECKLISTS
Inspection Rating :
Purpose of housekeeping inspection is to detect the items or causes of bad housekeeping to
remove them. Such inspection may be by an individual such as supervisor, inspector, plant in-charge,
safety officer, superintendent or by a housekeeping committee, safety committee or team consisting
some of them as per requirement. Instead of inspecting own department it is advisable to inspect
other's department to avoid any favour or bias. Monthly inspection is sufficient. It may be weekly
also.
For a systematic inspection, a checklist should be prepared covering our own plant details and
specific requirements. Condition ratings should also be fixed for easy marking or evaluation. A
specimen checklist with score (marks) 0 to 10 is described below:
Excellent Housekeeping (Score 10.0 to 8.1) General appearance very neat and tidy. Gangwaysvery
clean. Pieces of cotton waste, papers etc., not seen on the shop floor. Materials stored in very orderly
manner. Portable machines, hand tools, equipment etc., kept tidily and in orderly manner. No leakage
of compressed air, oil or any material. Roofs, fixtures and fittings etc., free from cobwebs.
Good Housekeeping (Score 8.0 to 6.1) General appearance clean. Gangways and shop area
fairlyclean. Most of the materials stored properly. Machines, equipment kept clean. No cobwebs on
roofs, fixtures and fittings.
Average Housekeeping (Score 6.0 to 4.1) General appearance satisfactory.. Gangways free
frommaterials, cotton waste or pieces of papers. Cleanliness on the remaining floor area average.
Machines and equipment kept reasonably clean. Roofs, fixtures and fittings not thoroughly free from
cobwebs.
Below Average Housekeeping (Score 4.0 to 2.1) General appearance not satisfactory.Gangways
partly blocked with materials. Few pieces of cotton waste seen on the gangways. Other shops are not
clean. Machines and surroundings not clean. Cobwebs on roofs and walls, fixtures and fittings not
clean.
Foot Housekeeping (Score 2.0 to 0.0) General cleanliness much below the required level.Gangways
blocked with materials and pallets. Pieces of papers, cotton waste etc, seen on the floor. Machine and
equipment not clean and dripping with oil and grease, etc. Materials not stacked properly.
Such items and rating may vary. They should be devised according to need.
A Model Checklist :
Housekeeping checklists are many and they may differ for details. Plant in-charge should
design its own checklist best suitable to it. Such checklist must cover all statutory points. A sample
checklist is given below. Write replies and remedies against each item. -
Plant Layout : (1) Are Size, shape, location, construction and layout of building, machinery andother
facilities permit the most efficient and orderly utilisation of men, materials and machinery ?
No doubt this aspect should be considered at the design stage, still some improvement can
be expected with slight modification and adjustments in die old layouts. Is such modification
Page 135
necessary for good housekeeping?
Storage : (l) Are materials or items stocked too high? (2) Arc stairs, fire escape exits?
Fireextinguishers obstructed? (3) Are aisles free from obstructions? (4) Are items over
hanging or protruding so as to cause injuries? (5) Are bin cards and tally cards displayed for
identification?
Interior Arrangements : (1) Are machines, benches, cabinets, racks so arranged as to

facilitategood housekeeping? (2) Are aisleways marked? (3) Are marshalling areas so located
as to encourage their use? (4) Is colour or white washing in attractive and appealing condition?
(5) Are sitting facilities provided and furniture in good condition?
Machinery and Equipment : (1) Is machinery/ equipment well maintained and colour coded?
(2)Is there any leakage of gases or spillage of liquids? (3) Is there any deposition of dust or
other contamination on them? (4) Is moving machinery well guarded? (5) Are they causing
noise or vibration ?
Electrical fitting and illumination : (1) Are cables or wiring loose or hanging? (2) Are
sockets,plugs provided and cables are of standard requirement? (3) Are all areas sufficiently
lighted to reveal dirt obstructions and hazardous conditions? (4) Are there burned out bulbs or
sockets without bulbs or light shades hanging? (5) Is there dirt or dust on the control panel or
instruments?
Are trenches full of rubbish? (7) Are all earthings all right? Floors, drains, pits and manholes
: (1) Are floors uneven and dirty? (2) Are drains full of wasteand choked? (3) Are drams and
manholes open? (4) Are floors dirty and slippery? (5) Are maintenance materials like gaskets,
nuts, bolts, nails etc., scattered? (6) Is cotton waste or oily material thrown on the way? (7)
Are pits and opening fully covered or guarded?
Platforms and stairs : (1) Are control valves at height provided with platforms and ladders?
(2)Are platforms and staircases provided with hand railings and toe guards? (3) Are ladders
provided with handrails? (4) Is ergonomic design followed ?
Sanitation and ventilation : (1) Is ventilation adequate throughout the area? (2) Is
thereindication of rodents and insects? (3) Are personnel eating in work areas creating in
sanitary conditions? (4) Are urinals and bathrooms stinking and require white washing and
disinfectant spraying and cleaning? (5) Are unnecessary odour prevalent? (6) Are proper
receptacles provided for the waste?
Fire extinguishing System : (1) Are all extinguishers charged of correct type, in their
properplace and readily accessible? (2) Are plant personnel trained in fire fighting?
Safety and First-Aid : (1) Are required type of safety appliances available, kept in proper
placesand well maintained? (2) Are first-aid boxes or eye irrigators kept at proper places and
well maintained? (3) Are persons trained in the use of first-aid appliances and first-aid
practices?
Yard Areas : (1) Is material properly segregated and kept in earmarked areas? (2) Is
properdunnage and pallets provided wherever required? (3) Are identification boards
displayed on each material? (4) Are areas free from unwanted growth of grass or shrubs?

Page 136
Display and Identification : (1) Are process flow sheets and circuit diagrams displayed
atappropriate places? (2) Are lubrication and maintenance schedules displayed? (3) Are safety,
first-aid and hazard posters and charts displayed? (4) Are equipment identified properly?
Another checklist for working conditions and productivity in small and medium-sized enterprises,
suggested by ILO is given as Table-6 in Chapter-32.
HOUSEKEEPING OF SPECIFIC INDUSTRIES
Special nature of industry needs special items to be included for its housekeeping. Problems of
housekeeping are not same in engineering, foundry and pharmaceutical factories. Some factories become
more dusty and dark due to their processes. Chemical factories have special hazards. Therefore their
specific points must be considered well in advance at the designing stage so as to facilitate easy
housekeeping Rule 16 of the Gujarat Factories Rules gives a schedule of factories to which provisions of
painting, white washing etc., are not applied. Blast furnaces, brick works, cement works, copper mills, gas
works, iron and steel mills, stone, slate and marble works are exempted thereby. Simple washing, sweeping,
brushing, dusting vacuum-cleaning etc., are required for them.
A specimen checklist for an engineering factory is given in Table 8.1 as a guide.
Table : Weekly Check List for Housekeeping of an Engineering industry
Action Remar
Sr. Check List Yes or No. Comments By ks
& Action to
be taken
Is there leakage or accumulation
1. Shop/ Work Areas : (15) of
combustibles? Dykes provided
surrounding
(1) Is the floor swept properly and kept tanks?
an
clean? (16) Is there anyloose d hanging
(2) Are the gangways & passages temporary wiring? Earthing broken?
Are all instruction charts, sign
clearly marked and completely free (17) boards,
notice boards, etc. in position and
of materials? kept up-
to-date? Notices for 'no smoking",
(3) Are the stairs/staircases, ladders 'high
noise area' etc.
swept properly? Is the approach displayed?
Are the lavatory blocks clean
clear? (18) &
(4) Are the drains kept clean and deodorised?
unobstructed? (19) Are the water coolers clean? Is there

Page 137
any
water
(5) Are the machines and equipment spillage?
Are fire protection appliance
kept reasonably clean and guarded (20) kept
unobstructed
while working?" ?
Are the lockers & cupboards clean
(6) Is shop free from accumulation of (21) and kept
in orderly
oil, grease, oily rags etc.? manner?
Are first aid boxes at proper places
(7) Are the window glasses, north light'(22) ?
Local du
glasses and partition glasses clean? (23) exhausts and st collectors
properly
(8) Are the roofs, walls etc., completely working ?
Lifting machines marked with SWL
free from cobwebs? (24) ?
Are lighting fixtures, fans etc., Rotating machines marked with
(9) wiped (25) notices of
and cleaned? speed?
2. Are tables, chairs, racks, cupboards
etc., clean? 2. Scrap Collection and Disposal:
Is die scrap and garbage collected nearly
(11) Is the shop clear from all the scrap (1) at
and other unwanted materials? Is one place regularly?
there proper location for discarding (2) Is the disposal being done
these? regularly/frequently as necessary?
Is area in and around the shop/building
(12) Are the raw materials stacked and (3) kept
stored properly and in orderly free from accumulated packing, scrap &
manner? other materials?
2. Are there any wastage / leakage of
water, electricity, fuel, steam, 3. Use of Uniforms, PPE etc:
Compressed air
seen? (1) Do workers wear necessary uniform and
(14) Whether lighting & ventilation is PPE?
Proper and clean? (2) Do they use proper tools and equipment?
(To be used by the Shop Foremen / Section Heads)
Note : Please mention any other items (not included above) which require immediate attention or
additional measures to be taken to improve housekeeping in your shop.

Page 138
BOILER SAFETY COMPLIANCE
B
oiler is an important utility in factories. It is used to generate steam. The generated
steam is distributed through pipes to feed various equipment in
thefactory.Poorlymaintainedboilerscanbeapotentialsourceofserious
accidents. There are several examples of boiler explosion and loss of lives and assets. In a recent
boiler explosion in a South Asian country, several floors of a garment factory collapsed, killing
about 200workers.
Boilers vary in size, capacity and technology. Smallest boilers are portable and pose a limited
risk. Very large boilers have potentially greater risk if not handled appropriately. Thus, factories
deploying smaller boilers will need basic and simple measures to ensure safety. However,
factories using large boiler plants will require extensive safetyprocedures.
The code of conduct requires proper running and maintenance of boilers. The local law in most
countries provides for specific guidelines with regard to boilers. Local regulations may require
factories to obtain a license for large capacityboilers.
Boiler operating hazards and Preventive Measure
It is important to follow the manufacturers’ instructions, local boiler safety rules and regulations
to avoid accidents from boilers. Neglecting safety in boiler operation can lead to loss of lives
and assets. The table below provides a very general guideline of possible hazards associated
with boiler operation. The manufacturers’ manual should be referred for safe operation of a
specific equipment.

Page 139
Fig. 5: Preventive Measure For Boiler Safety

PREVENTIVE
OPERATING POSSIBLE LIKELY
MEASURE
HAZARD CAUSES EFFECT
OIL FIRING:
High fuel temperature Improper setting of Oil gasification. Poor Periodic check of
thermostat. atomization. Unstable heaters and controls.
Steam control valve flame. Fireside
stuck open in steam explosion. Fire.
heater.
Damage to boiler and
Electrical supply
contacts welded assets damage. Loss of
closed in electrical life or injury.
heater explosion.
Low fuel temperature Faulty heater element. Smoky fire. Poor Periodic checks of oil
Low setting of oil atomization. Discharge temperature and
temperature control. of unburned oil in the heaters.
Steam supply disrupted furnace. Fireside
or closed. Electric power explosion Fire.
of heater off. Damage to boiler and
Explosion. assets damage. Loss of
, life.
Wet steam during Steam line not insulated. Smoky fire. Poor Ensure insulation of
atomizing Steam traps not working. atomization. Sparkles steam lines. Periodic
Steam wet from source. in flame. Unburned oil check of trap
Explosion. discharged in furnace. operation
Fireside explosion.
Fire. Damage to boiler
and assets. Loss of life.
Low steam pressure Improper setting of Smoky fire. Poor Insulate all steam
control valve. Supply line atomization. Unburned lines. Check proper
valves inoperative or not oil discharged in trap operation
open. furnace. periodically. Follow
Low supply pressure. Fireside explosion. manufacturer’s
Explosion. Fire. Damage to boiler instructions.
and assets. Loss of life
and/ or injury to
personnel.
Worn or damaged Normal wear and tear. Incomplete Regular service of
atomizer Abrasive material in oil. combustion. Flare tips. Gaskets should
Burner tip not serviced. back. Fire. be replaced when
Explosion. cleaning or replacing
tips.
Page
GAS140FIRING:
Gas line leaks Improperly assembled Explosion. Ensure adequate
joints. Excessive Asphyxiation. Fire. ventilation. Piping,
PREVENTIVE
OPERATING POSSIBLE CAUSES LIKELY EFFECT
MEASURE
HAZARD
Gas Line Repair Damage Piping or valves Explosion. Fire. Loss of Accepted methods
life or injury. Damage to of r purging and
assets. recharging gas lines
should be used
High Gas pressure Defective gas pressure Fuel rich mixture. Monitor for regulator
regulation. Fireside explosion. Fire. operation. Check
Loss of life or injury. operation and setting
Damage to boiler and of pressure switch
assets. periodically. Repair
or replace defective
regulators and
switches.
STEAM LEAKS
Steam Leaks Damaged or corroded Severe burns. All joints and pipes
pipes and pressure parts should be secured.
HOT FLY ASH
Accumulations of hot Serious burn injury Warnings to all

fly ash and fly ash in workers about
boiler flues and potential hazard.
plenums. Allow sufficient
Workers stepping on cooling time before
hot fly ash. Fly ash walking on fly ash.
may retain heat for Hot fly ash should be
several weeks. removed with caution
No visible difference using equipment.
between hot and cold Water should be
fly ash. Explosive sprayed on hot fly
effect of water on hot ash.
fly ash.
STEAM EXPLOSION

Page 141
Low water level Defective low water Overheated boiler Periodic verification
cutoff or low water surfaces. Ruptured of boiler water feed
cutoff bypassed. boiler. Loss of life and/or system.
Improper water column injury to personnel. Asset Periodiccheckoflow
blow down procedure. damage. water cut-off
Tampering with low operation. Water
water control. Defective column blow down
boiler water feedsystem. procedures should be
Defective or inoperative correct.Donottamper
gauge glass. Operator with low water
error. controls. Replace
defective low water
controls. Periodic
inspection of
equalizing lines.
Operators should be
trainedproperly.
Defective safety Obstruction between No release of excess Promptly replace or
valves. boiler and valves. pressure. Excessive repair safety valve.
Damaged or corroded pressure on the boiler. Remove
valve. Level tied down. Boiler ruptured. Loss of obstructions.
Valve outlet obstructed. life and injury. Damage Periodic test of safety
to assets. valves.

Page 142
PREVENTIVE
MEASURE
HAZARD
Defective steam Broken gauge or poor Gauge will not show the The gauge should be
pressure gauges. calibration of gauge. The correct pressure even calibrated regularly.
line from boiler to gauge when the boiler is under Defective gauges
blocked. Gauge cock is excessive pressure. The should be preplaced
closed. operator will not be promptly. Periodic
Conflict of multiple aware of true operating inspection of gauge
gauges. conditions. connection and piping
to boiler for blockage
or closed cock.
Scaling or corrosion in Poor maintenance and test Ruptured boiler due to Regular maintenance
boiler’s internal methods. Improper overheating. Loss of life and inspections. Keep
surfaces. chemical cleaning. or injury to workers. maintain log. Boiler
Improper water treatment Assets damage. water treatment
and contaminated boiler should be appropriate
water. Poor feed water
control.
Bypassed controls. Defective electrical Malfunctioning or no Periodic test and
wiring. Control and functioning of controls. verification of
electrical wiring tampered. Boiler ruptured. controls. Controls and
Explosion in furnace. wiring should no be
Loss of life. tampered.
Damage to assets.
Tampering with Lack of proper training to Improper operation of Only trained and
controls workers boiler may lead to authorized workers
boiler rupture. should have access.
Explosion in furnace. Operators should be
Loss of life. properly trained.
Damage to assets.
Poor maintenance Lack of maintenance Fatal risk for workers Implement a well
policy an procedure. and assets. Low documented
Poor or no training to operating efficiency maintenance policy and
workers. and poor operation. procedures.
Leads to high repair Keep maintenance log.
and replacement cost.
Condensate tank Improperly vented tank Excessive tank pressure Traps in vent line
explosion. or vent too small. Vent may lead to explosion. should be eliminated.
may be trapped. Trapped Loss of life. Damage Vent should be of full
vent has frozen toassets. size.
condensate.

Page 143
Explosion in furnace
Inadequate Low pressure of oil or Delay in ignition or Ensure periodic

pilot/igniter. gas. Not correctly may not ignite the main maintenance of pilot.
positioned. The nozzle flame. Fireside Correct the pilot
may be too small. explosion. Fire. Boiler position, conduct
Improper setting of light- damage. Loss of life periodic pilot
off. Damper. Plugged and severe injury. verification test.
orifice. Damage to assets.

Page 144
PREVENTIVE
MEASURE
HAZARD
Ignition delayed. Pilot or igniter is not Fire. Fireside Ensure adequate
adequate. Fuel pressure explosion. Can damage pilot. Light-off
may be low or fuel rate the boiler. Loss of life fuel/aeration. Pilot
may not be sufficient. and severe injury. turndown test.
Excessive air rate. Low Damage to assets. Excessive restart
oil temperature. Water in attempts should be
fuel. avoided.
Combustion air not Lack of adequate air Delayed ignition. Ensure adequate air to
sufficient. openings in the boiler Combustion may be boiler room.
room. Dirty combustion inadequate. Fireside Combustion air fans
air blower. Combustion explosion. Loss of life should be clean and
air blower running too and severe injury. running properly.
slow or slipping. Setting Damage to assets. Fire. Periodic inspection of
of fuel/aeration not Boiler damage. air inlets and outlets,
proper. Blockage in Enhanced emissions. combustion controls,
blower inlet or in boiler gas passages,
outletdamper. hot fuel gas passage,
Boiler gas passage may be dampers and hot flue
plugged gas temperature.
Combustion safety Lack of knowledge or poor Can lead to fireside Only authorized
control tampered operator training. explosion. Fire. Loss of personnel should
life and serious injury. conduct maintenance.
Damage to boiler and Operators should be
assets. properly trained in
maintenance and
operationprocedure.
Leaks in fuel safety Defective valve. Foreign Fuel can flow to the Periodic inspection of
shutoff valves. objects under valve seat. boiler. Uncontrolled valves. Defective
ignition of fuel. Fireside valves should be
explosion. replaced promptly.
Loss of life and severe Regular leak test and
injury. Fire. Damage to verification of
boiler and assets. valves’ operation.
IMPLOSIONS
Excessive negative Flame out Damage to equipment. Control equipment

pressure Serious risk of injury. should be properly
operated and should
not be bypassed.

Page 145
MAINTENACE
Equipment undergoing Lock out/ tag out not Can lead to severe injury The equipment
maintenance. Sudden followed, equipment not or death of workers should be
starting of remotely in zero mechanical state, replacedinzeroenerg
controlled equipment. or not in zero energy ystate and zero
Release of fluid state. mechanical state.
pressure. Electrical Comply with lockout
shock. and
tagoutprocedures.W
orkers should be
trained for alertness.
Post warning signs.

Page 146
PREVENTIVE
MEASURE
HAZARD
Cleaning Neglecting safety Can lead to severe injury Carefully follow all
procedures for or death of workers maintenance
maintenance cleaning procedure cleaning.
Provide appropriate
protective clothing to
workers. Regular
cleaning and removal
of ash, soot, slag etc
can prevent excessive
accumulation.
Entering a confined Can be extremely Con lead to severe injury Ensure sufficient
or enclosed space hazardous due to toxic or or death of workers ventilation for the
such as furnace, inflammable oxygen fresh air. Conduct test
ducts, drums, shell, deficient atmosphere for oxygen
gas passes, flues, and hot material. deficiency, toxic or
tanks, bunkers, inflammable gases
hoppers, tec. before entering.
Ensure adequate
lights before entering
an enclosed space.
Follow all applicable
safety rules.
Airborne contaminants Ventilation or exhaust not Can lead to sever injury Ventilation or exhaust
such as gases, fumes, proper. Leakage. or death of workers system should be in
vapors, dust and mist. good working
condition.
Provide respiratory
mask and protective
clothing.
Moving equipment Safety guards missing Can lead to severe injury. Ensure safety guards
or parts and fan are installed. Loose
blades in exposed clothing and long hair
condition should be avoided.
Congestion in work Poor housekeeping. Risk of falls, slips and All equipment should
area trips leading to injury. have clear and
unobstructed access.
Maintain good
housekeeping.

Page 147
Accidental opening Closed door is not locked Risk of bodily injury Ensure all access
of the access door. or bolted. doors are locked.
ELETRICAL
Exposed/ naked Damaged or no Risk of severe electrical Ensure all

electrical wiring insulation. Poor shock causing injury, electrical wiring
maintenance. burns or even death. is secure and
insulated.
Exposed electrical Negligence Risk of severe electrical Ensure electrical
boxes. shock causing injury, boxes are covered
burns or even death
Switch box opens Safety catch damaged Risk of severe electrical Safety catch should be
without turning off allowing opening shock causing injury, repaired immediately.
powers. without shutting off burns or even death.
power.

Page 148
Additional measures for boiler safety compliance
Boiler licence, manual and log
 Obtain a boiler licence if the local law requiresit.
 Keep manufacturers’ safety manual for all equipment accessible andhandy.
 Keep and maintain a service log for eachboiler.
 Boilers should be serviced by licensedcompanies/individuals.

Location and access
 The boiler should be housed in a separate room away from the general production area.
 Ensure adequate ventilation in the boilerroom.
 Ensure that no flammable or combustible materials are stored in the boiler room or next
toit.
 Restrict the entry to the boiler area only to authorizedpersonnel.

Housekeeping
 Ensure good housekeeping of the boiler room. Do not allow dumping of waste or
unnecessary articles in the boilerroom.
 Keep floor drains clean, clear andunclogged.

Safe operation
 Do not leave the boiler operation to a person who is not trained or qualified. The operator
should ideally have a formal qualification and training to run a boiler of givencapacity.
 Clear direction should be provided for start-up, running and shutdown procedures, blow
down, high and low water conditions, and emergency procedures.
 If a boiler plant is started remotely and/or automatically without warning, workers must
be alert to avoid that equipment which can be startedremotely.
 The water for the boiler should be treated for hardness beforeusing.
 Each boiler should have a temperaturegauge.

Page 149
 Ensure easy access to ladders, runways andcontrols.
 Ensure sound boiler piping support, foundation and settings for allequipment.
 Piping systems including flow direction should be properly marked. Post piping diagram
at the location.
 A fire boiler utilizes flammable and potentially explosive fuel. Fuel-piping connection
should be of high quality using the correct gasket, bolts, thread lubricants and tightening
torque to preventleaks.
Maintenance and risk prevention
 Implement an extensive preventive maintenanceprogram.
 Gauge, control equipment pressure relief valves, pumps and valves, water quality and
treatment methods, burner and fuel systems must be checked periodically to
preventhazards.
 All pipes and fitting should e well-maintained and in goodcondition.
 The boiler area has many heated surfaces causing risks of burns and other thermal
hazards. Wherever possible, refractory and insulation should be used to reduce
surfacetemperature.
 Protect the water supply to the boiler by installing an approved back-flow stopper.
 Promptly repair leaking steam, water, fuel and other boilerconnections.
 Periodically clean and inspect exhaust venting, breeching and chimney to remove
combustiongases.
 Conduct periodic boiler water analysis and chemical treatment to prevent corrosion,
pitting andscale.
 Safety or relief valves should be tested by lifting the test lever at least once a year.
 High voltages exist in control panels and control components. Power must be shut off
before these components areserviced.
 The boiler plant should have a documented lockout and tag-out procedure that is
strictlyenforced.

Page 150
Workers training and PPE
 Workers must be trained in safe operation of the boiler equipment. The training
should be a continuous process to emphasize the importance ofsafety.
 Wearing loose clothing and jewellery should be avoided in the boiler plant.
Appropriate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), such as respirators, ear plugs,
guides, shields, or covers should be fitted in rotating equipment, mechanically
automated devices, or electrically and pneumatically operated control components
to preventaccidents.
Fire Safety and First aid
 Ensure safe exits in the boilerroom.
 Place an adequate number of suitable fire extinguishers in and outside the

boilerroom.
 Link the boiler room with the fire alarm system of the factory by installing a fire
alarmswitch/box.
 Place sand buckets near the boiler room to manage anyspills.
 Place “No Smoking” signs in the boiler room in the workers’ language as well as
in English.
 Place First aid kit just outside the boilerroom.
WHAT IS A THERMAL FLUID SYSTEM?
Thermal fluid (also known as hot oil) systems may be liquid or vapor.
Vapor phase systems may either incorporate a heater in which vaporization of the fluid takes place
within the vessel, or a flooded heater where the fluid is vaporized externally through a flash drum.
Vapor systems with condensing vapor provide a uniform heat source than liquid phase systems.
A liquid phase thermal fluid system uses a flooded pressure vessel (heater) in which the heat transfer
media (fluid) is heated but no vaporization takes place within the vessel.
Closed loop systems which may be open or closed to the atmosphere
Similar in concept to hot water boiler systems
Design Features
•Heaters are commonly direct-fired by combustion of a fuel, or electric resistance elements can be
used.
Page 151
•Heater design may be similar to a fire-tube boiler, electric resistance heated boiler, or a water tube
boiler.
•Heaters may operate at temperatures up to 750⁰F depending on the process requirements and fluid
selection.
•Large heaters may be field erected; however, heaters less than 30,000,000 BTU/hr are similar to
packaged boilers utilized in a variety of process applications and may be found in typical “boiler
room” installations.
Why use thermal fluid instead of steam?

•No corrosion or freezing concerns
•Simple circuit; no blow downs, steam traps, or condensate return systems
•Minimal maintenance
▫No hand-hole gasket replacement
▫No re-tubing
•No water treatment requirements
•High operating temperatures obtained with minimal system pressures (system pressure drop only).
•If a process requires heating and cooling, it may be done with a single fluid.
System and Safety Considerations

•Thermal fluid selection
•Pump and proof of flow
•Fluid excess temperature protection
•Stack excess temperature limit
•Expansion tank design and fluid level
Thermal Fluid Selection

•Any fluid specifically designed for heat transfer use may be considered.
▫Lubricating or hydraulic oils are not acceptable.
▫Fluids must have physical property data at elevated temperatures.
•Factors to consider include:
▫Maximum recommended bulk temperature
System operation should never exceed the maximum bulk temperature of the fluid.
▫Minimum operating temperature.
Is cooling required?
▫Minimum start-up temperature.
Outdoor or indoor application.
Thermal Fluid Maintenance

•Fluids should be tested annually.
•Lubricating oil tests that include dissolved metals are not adequate.
•Do not top off with different thermal fluid chemistry.
▫Mineral oil/petroleum vs. synthetic/aromatic.
Page 152
•Track heater inlet and outlet temperatures and pressures.
•Always record the date and the amount of fluid addition.
•Changing the type of fluid used in a system may require a change in the system components (pump,
expansion tank etc.).
▫Chemical cleaners may also be required
FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARDS WITH THERMAL FLUID SYSTEMS
Incidents relating to thermal fluid systems are unfortunately more common than we might
realise, and can be extremely serious. The fire and explosion hazards with thermal fluid systems have
been re-emphasised by recent incidents. These incidents have a direct bearing on the estimated 4,000
UK companies that operate thermal fluid systems.
Water or steam can be used as heat transfer fluids, but when high temperatures are needed
organic fluids, which are capable of forming explosive atmospheres, are often used. Although fire
and explosion hazards of low flash point flammable liquids are generally recognised, similar
hazards with high flash point materials, such as thermal fluids, are often missed. These heat transfer
fluids are often handled at temperatures above their flash point.
The Health and Safety Executive recently issued a prohibition notice to a UK company
following a major thermal fluid incident and significantly, following that incident, has identified
thermal fluid systems as a fire and explosion hazard. There have been other serious incidents this
year. Although not under HSE jurisdiction, there was a recent thermal fluid-related explosion and
fire at a German panel products plant which tragically caused three fatalities.
Most companies will be aware that any system that operates above the flash point of the
thermal fluid falls under the “Dangerous Substances and Explosive Atmosphere” Regulations 2002
(DSEAR). However, many people are unaware that heat transfer fluids based on mineral oils degrade
over time. This degradation can cause the fluid’s flash point to decrease dramatically, so
that thermal fluids which were not flammable at the operating temperature when they were initially
installed may, over time, become flammable at the operating conditions. Also, high flash point
materials (such as thermal fluids), can form explosive mist atmospheres when handled under
pressure, even at temperatures below the flash point.
The DSEAR regulations require that the risk from dangerous substances (flammable
materials) is assessed and eliminated or reduced. Systems need to be put in place to reduce the risk
and manage the residual risk. The ATEX directives require the hazardous areas to be identified.
Regular thermal fluid testing and the results obtained will indicate the physical condition of the
fluid and the degree of risk in the event of a fluid release. However, flash point testing alone is not
enough to comply with DSEAR. Procedures are also needed to change out the thermal fluid, or
remove the lower flash point components from the thermal fluid. Many companies operating thermal
fluid systems may not be aware of this.
This paper discusses recent incidents of fires and explosions which have occurred in thermal fluid
systems, and makes practical recommendations for how such incidents can be avoided. These
include carrying out Area Classification on thermal fluid systems, methods to avoid or limit mist
formation, avoiding ignition sources and installing proprietary equipment which removes the
lower flash point components from the thermal fluid.
INCIDENTS OF FIRES & EXPLOSIONS INTHERMAL FLUID SYSTEMS

Recent instances of explosions in thermal fluid systems include the following examples:
Page 153
1) A polystyrene manufacturing facility in Greater Manchester was operating with 22,000 litres of
Essotherm 500 (Mineral Oil) at 2858C. Although the plant had defined hazardous areas the thermal
oil system was operated as a utility with no formal risk assessment. No formal training
had been undertaken with the maintenance personnel having little knowledge of the risks associated
with high temperature oil systems. The thermal oil system was a closed loop system with no
deaeration facility, which meant that as the fluid degraded the gaseous VOCs generated could not
be removed easily from the fluid stream. The result was that the system ‘lack of circulation’ warning
would regularly trip causing production disturbance. Without understanding the significance of the
‘lack of circulation’ trip, an engineer ‘wired out’ the switch to prevent the recurrence of the alarm.
Recurring differential pressure alarms is an indication of rapidly dropping flash points and increasing
vapour pressure. In this instance the switch also acts as back up to the low level switch in the
expansion tank. On this site, following routine maintenance, some fluid was lost from the system and
as the low level switch indicated that there was oil in the expansion tank, the system was started up
as normal. Unfortunately, the low level switch had failed and air was being drawn into the system
on the suction side of the circulation pump. This condition would normally have been detected by
the differential pressure switch. However, as the switch had been disconnected the system ran as
normal. The air introduced into the system caused cavitation of the pumps and oil vapour was
released back into the expansion tank where it condensed. The cavitation caused rapid degradation
of the fluid eventually resulting in an explosion which tore the expansion tank apart, spraying hot oil
over the plant. When samples of the fluid were taken from the expansion tank after the event, the
fluid had a flash point of 428C with an auto ignition temperature of just 1408C. For new fluid the
flash point would be 2108C and the auto ignition temperature in excess of 3508C. These
measurements indicate that the fluid had degraded dramatically.
2) A frozen food company manufacturing Yorkshire puddings based in Leeds were operating two
serpentine ovens, using thermal oil in plattens to provide the heat inside the ovens. The operation
was dedicated to producing the highest possible output from the ovens. This resulted in the thermal
fluid being operated to the maximum operating limit. The thermal oil, Gulftherm 32, is a mineral oil
which states in the technical data sheet that the fluid can be operated to 3168C in closed, indirect
heating systems (up to 1808C in open heating systems). As a result the company
set their thermal oil circuits to 3158C in the belief that this would be both reasonable and acceptable.
The rapid degradation at these temperatures resulted in lowering flash and fire points, reduced
viscosity and increased vapour pressure, and subsequently, an explosion.
The cause of the explosion is still being investigated though it is enough to say that the fluid had a
flash point of below 308C, and was operating at 3158C! (The flash point of Gulftherm 32 is quoted
as 2308C).
3) Three workers were killed in the explosion of a thermal oil boiler at a plant in North Rhine-
Westphalia in Germany in February 2010. The plant produces timber, chipboard and laminate
flooring, and the accident occurred in the biomass heating plant. A replacement boiler,approved by
a certified company, had been installed in place of the normal boiler. The explosion, in which the
three workers died, was followed by a fire, which 47 firefighters were able to extinguish within 90
minutes. The cause of the explosion is currently under investigation.
LAGGING FIRES
Fires in thermal oil systems often occur in insulation. Fluid leaking from a valve, flange or instrument
port into “open” types of insulation materials, such as glass fibre or mineral wool, migrates from the
source of the leak and disperses within the insulation. If the insulation is removed or punctured,

Page 154
spontaneous ignition of the thermal oil can occur due to an increase in the oxygen available.
Spontaneous ignition can also be caused by an abrupt increase in operating temperature.
METHODS OF AVOIDING FIRES & EXPLOSIONS IN THERMAL FLUID SYSTEMS

There are several different ways in which fire and explosionhazards in thermal fluid systems can be
avoided:
1. Hazardous Area Classification and correct EquipmentSelection.
2. Regularly replace the thermal fluid.
3. Monitor the flash point of the thermal fluid regularly.
4. Install fluid conditioning equipment in the thermal fluidsystem.
5. Reduce the extent of mist formation by fitting mistguards.
6. Avoiding lagging fires.
HAZARDOUS AREA CLASSIFICATION AND CORRECT EQUIPMENT SELECTION

The potential for explosive atmospheres (hazardous areas)inside and around leak points on thermal
fluid systemsneeds to be recognised. The explosive atmospheres may bepresent around leak points
due to flammable mist formation,or because the thermal fluid flash point has decreased overtime and
it is being handled above its flash point. If theexplosive atmospheres cannot be avoided, the location
andextent of the hazardous areas need to be identified by carryingout a Hazardous Area Classification
Exercise. Once the hazardous area extents have been identified,an inventory of any equipment in
these areas needs to becarried out, to ascertain whether there is any equipment inthe area which could
constitute an ignition source. Although this is standard practice within the chemical industry, it isnot
always recognised as being necessary with thermalfluids. In many cases thermal fluid systems have
been supplied to companies with standard (i.e. not ATEX-rated)motors. This is despite the fact that
the connection pointfor the motor into the thermal fluid pipework is a leaksource around which an
explosive atmosphere may beformed. Therefore, the pump, motor and any other electrical equipment
in the hazardous area needs to be suitable for usein an explosive atmosphere.
REGULARLY REPLACE THE THERMAL FLUID

To prevent the degradation of the thermal fluid over time,(which will result in the reduction of the
flash point), thethermal fluid should be regularly replaced. Suppliers ofthermal fluid systems
recommend that the thermal fluid isreplaced annually, to prevent the dramatic reduction in flash point
However, although replacing the thermal fluid willavoid the formation of explosive atmospheres
when handlingthe fluid at atmospheric pressure, the formation of a
flammable mist atmosphere is still possible if the fluid ishandled under pressure.
REGULAR MONITORING OF THE THERMAL FLUID FLASH POINT

To prevent the reduction of the flash point over time viadegradation, the thermal fluid needs to be
sampled regularly,and the flash point of the sample determined. If the flashpoint has reduced
considerably, then the thermal fluid willneed to be replaced.However, as stated above, although
replacing thethermal fluid will avoid the formation of explosive atmospheres
when handling the fluid at atmospheric pressure,the formation of a flammable mist atmosphere is
still possibleif the fluid is handled under pressure.It is important to emphasise that flash point
testingalone is NOT sufficient to comply with DSEAR. Some companiesare offering to test the flash
point of a customer’sthermal fluid, giving them the impression that if this isdone, the customer will

Page 155
be compliant with the DSEAR regulations.This is not the case.
INSTALL FLUID CONDITIONING EQUIPMENT

If the flash point has reduced to an unacceptably low level,an alternative to replacing all the thermal
fluid is to removeonly the light end materials which are responsible for reducing the overall flash
point. This can be done by installingproprietary fluid conditioning equipment, designed toremove the
VOCs, as part of the thermal fluid system. Fitting fluid conditioning equipment has thepotential to
extend fluid life considerably, which canresult in significant savings compared with fluid
replacement.
AVOID/LIMIT MIST FORMATION

Although explosive mist atmospheres may be formed wherethe thermal fluid is handled under
pressure, the extent of thehazardous area created by the mist can be limited by fitting mist guards
around any leak points, such as flanges. Theseguards will limit the extent of the hazardous area
towithin the area inside the mist guard, which should beaway from any sources of ignition.However,
it is important that if the fitting of mistguards is used to reduce the hazardous area extent, then
proceduresmust be in place to ensure that the mist guards are replaced after any maintenance work.
AVOIDING LAGGING FIRES

Lagging fires can be avoided by a variety of methods. First,only use high temperature, closed-cell
glass insulation inleak-prone areas, e.g. near valves, flanges and instrumentports. Alternatively,
remove the insulation from theseareas completely.
When installing the thermal oil system, pay attentionto the following areas:
i) System cleanliness – ensure equipment is clean anddry. Contamination can result in low flow,
which cancause overheating and thermal fluid degradation.
ii) Component orientation – ensure valves are mountedstem-downward so leakage cannot enter
nearbyporous insulation.

Page 156
CHAPTER 4
HAZARD OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
Electric Current affects the body when it flows through. The basic unit of current is the amp. This is
the current which flows through a resistance of 1 ohm (Ω) when a voltage of 1 volt is applied across
it. However, currents as low as thousandths of amps (milliamps) can have an adverse effect on the
body. The table below gives an illustration of the types of effects various levels of currents can have
on the body.
Shock Physiological Effects
Electric Physiological Effect
Current
(1 second
contact)
1 mA Threshold of feeling, tingling sensation.
5 mA Accepted as maximum harmless current
10-20 mA Beginning of sustained muscular contraction ("Can't
let go" current.)
100-300 Ventricular fibrillation, fatal if continued. Respiratory
mA function continues.
6A Sustained ventricular contraction followed by normal
heart rhythm. (defibrillation). Temporary respiratory
paralysis and possibly burns.
30 mA can cause the onset of potentially fatal respiratory paralysis. The adverse effect will be
directly related to the level of current, the length of time that the body is exposed and the path the
current takes through the body.
Most of us have experienced some form of electric "shock," where electricity causes our body to
experience pain or trauma. If we are fortunate, the extent of that experience is limited to tingles or
jolts of pain from static electricity build up, discharging through our bodies. When we are working
around electric circuits, capable of delivering high power to loads, electric shock becomes a much
more serious issue, and pain is the least significant result of shock.
As electric current is conducted through a material, any resistance (opposition to flow of electrons)
results in a dissipation of energy, usually in the form of heat. This is the most basic and easy-to-
understand effect of electricity on living tissue: current makes it heat up. If the amount of heat
generated is sufficient, the tissue may be burnt. The effect is physiologically the same as damage
caused by an open flame or other high-temperature source of heat, except that electricity has the
ability to burn tissue well beneath the skin of a victim, even burning internal organs.
Another effect of electric current on the body, perhaps the most significant in terms of hazard, regards
the nervous system. By "nervous system" we mean the network of special cells in the body called
"nerve cells" or "neurons" which process and conduct the multitude of signals responsible for

Page 157
regulation of many body functions. The brain, spinal cord, and sensory/motor organs in the body
function together to allow it to sense, move, respond, think, and remember.
Nerve cells communicate to each other through the transmission of electrical signals (very small
voltages and currents). If electric current of sufficient magnitude is conducted through a living
creature (human or otherwise), its effect will be to override the tiny electrical impulses normally
generated by the neurons, overloading the nervous system and preventing internal signals from being
able to actuate muscles. Muscles triggered by an external (shock) current will involuntarily contract,
and there's nothing the victim can do about it.
This problem is especially dangerous if the victim contacts an energised conductor with his or her
hands. The forearm muscles responsible for bending fingers tend to be better developed than those
muscles responsible for extending fingers, and so if both sets of muscles try to contract because of
an electric current conducted through the person's arm, the "bending" muscles will win, clenching
the fingers into a fist. If the conductor delivering current to the victim faces the palm of his or her
hand, this clenching action will force the hand to grasp the wire firmly, thus worsening the situation
by securing excellent contact with the wire. The victim will be completely unable to let go of the
wire. This effect can only be stopped by stopping the current through the victim.
Even when the current is stopped, the victim may not regain voluntary control over their muscles for
a while, as the neurotransmitter chemistry has been thrown into disarray. Electric current is able to
affect more than just skeletal muscles in a shock victim, however. The diaphragm muscle controlling
the lungs, and the heart -- which is a muscle in itself -- can also be "frozen" by electric current. Even
relatively low currents can often scramble nerve cell signals enough that the heart cannot beat
properly, sending the heart into a condition known as fibrillation. A fibrillating heart flutters rather
than beats, and is ineffective at pumping blood to vital organs in the body. In any case, death from
asphyxiation and/or cardiac arrest will generally result from a strong enough electric current through
the body.
Effects of Amperages :
Following IS are most relevant:
IS:8437 Guide on effects of current passing through the human body :

Part -1 General aspects
Part -2 Special aspects
Effects of electric current on human body are summarised in Tables 11.1 to 11.3.
Table : Current Range and Effect on a 68 Kg man
Current (50 Hz Physiological Feeling or Lethal incidence

or c/s) Phenomenon
1 mA None Imperceptible
1 mA Perception threshold
1-3 mA Mild sensation
3-10 mA Painful sensation
10 mA Paralysis threshold of Cannot release hand grip, if no grip, victim may be

Page 158
thrown clear (may progress to higher current and
arm be
fatal).
30 mA Fibrillation threshold Stoppage of breathing (frequently fatal)
0.5 percent
75 mA Fibrillation threshold Heart action discoordinated (probably fatal)
99.5 percent (5 second
exposure)
Heart and blood circulation may stop (usually
250 mA Fibrillation threshold fatal)
99.5 percent (5 second
exposure)
4A Heart paralysis Heart stops for duration of current passage. For
short shocks, may re-start on interruption of
threshold (no fill current
fibrillation) (usually not fatal from heart dysfunction).
5A Tissue burning Not fatal unless vital organs are burned.
Table : Effects of DC and AC (current) on human body.
Current in mA
DC AC 50 Hz Ac 10000 Hz Effect
0-5 0-1 0-9 No sensation

6-55 1-8 10-55 Mild stock
Painful shock and hand unable to let go of live parts in
60-80 9-15 60-80 case
of AC
Some loss of muscular
80-100 16-20 80-100 control
110-350 20-45 Severe shock and loss of muscular control
Possible heart failure (ventricular
400-800 50-100 fibrillation)
>800 >100 Usually fatal
>1600 >200 Severe burns, severe fibrillation and death.
Table : Effect of Electric Current on Men and Women
Current in mA
DC 50 Hz AC 10000 Hz AC Effect
Men Women Men Women Men Women
Slight sensation on
1 0.6 0.4 0.3 7 5 hand
5.2 3.5 1.1 0.7 12 8 Perception threshold
9 6 1.8 1.2 17 11 Shock not painful, muscular

Page 159
control not lost
Shock-painful,
69 41 9 6 55 37 muscular
76 51 16 10.5 75 50 Shock-painful, let-go threshold
90 60 23 15 94 63 Shock painful and severe,
muscula
r contractions, breathing
difficult.
Shock, ventricular fibrillation
500 500 100 100 - - from
3 seconds
- - 165 t 165 t - - Short shock lasting ‘t’ seconds
50 50 13.6 13.6 - - High Voltage Surges
Energy in watt-seconds or joules
Note : The figures are indicative and not absolute.
If a person gets electric shock and heart beat is not found, immediate remedy is an artificial
respiration (see part-8 of Chapter-26) or resuscitation (CPR) to the person till he revives or death is
diagnosed by a doctor. Minimum time should be elapsed before starting such respiration for
possibility of success. This is indicated as under:
Time in Min Possibility of Success
0-1 Best
1-3 Good
3-5 Fair
5-20 Poor
Therefore it is always advisable to give first-aid training including that of artificial respiration,
to the maximum workers. Sec.45 & III-A under the Factories Act, require such training. See Part 8
of Chapter-26.
Effects of Voltages :
For our 50 c/s electric supply, main danger limits of voltage are :
24 volts for children, and

60 volts for adults
In wet condition', these values decrease and depend on other factors also.
At 50 c/s (Hz), dry condition, the calculated electrical characteristics of human body are given
in Table 11.4.

Page 160
Table : Electrical Parameters of Human body at 50 Hz, Dry Condition.
V volt R ohm I = V/R mA

12.5 16500 0.8
31.3 11000 2.84
62.5 6240 10
125 3530 35
250 2000 125
500 1130 443
1000 640 1560
2000 362 5525
This table indicates that as voltage increases, body resistance decreases and current increases.
Body resistance becomes practically zero at high voltages.
Approximate threshold shock voltages at 50 c/s are as under:
Threshold of feeling 10 to 12 V
Threshold of pain 15 V
Threshold of severe pain 20 V
Threshold of hold-on 20 to 25 V
Threshold of death 40 to 50 V
60 o 2000
Range of fibrillation V
Resistance of Skin :
Skin resistance for dry and wet condition are , shown in Table-11.5.
Table : Human Resistance for various skin-contact conditions
Resistance, ohms
Condition (Area to Suit)
Dry Wet
Skin 100-600 K 1K
Finger touch 40 K-1 M 4-15 K
Hand holding wire 15-50 K 3-6 K
Finger-thumb grasp 10-30 K 2-5 K
Hand holding pliers 5-10 K 1-3 K
Palm touch 3-8 K 1-2 K
Hand around 1.5 inch pipe (or drill handle) 1-3 K 0.5-1.5 K
Two hands around 1.5 inch pipe 0.5- 1.5 K 250-750
Hand to Foot 400-600
Hand immersed - 200-750
Foot immersed - 100-300

Page 161
Human body, internal, excluding skin ohms - 200-1000
Ear to Ear 100
K= Kilo ohms M=Megaohms
Courtesy : Konwenlioven & Milnor
For example, dry skin of 100 kilo ohms resistance allows for 230 V mains,
I=E = 230 x 1000 = 2.3 mA current

R 100000
But when it is wet, it offers I kilo ohms resistance and allows
I=E = 230 x 1000 = 230 mA current

R 1000
i.e. 100 times more current.
Body resistance varies considerably from dry skin (hand) to damp skin (hand) and from low
voltage (24 V) to mains voltage (230 V).
It is safe to assume a value of 500 ohms for dry work places and 200 ohms (or less) for
persons working in wet places. Body resistance is practically zero at high voltages.
For females an4 children, the value of body resistance should be taken as half of that given
in Table-11.5, and for DC the values of resistance should be considered 4 times that of AC for the
same voltages.
Resistance of Materials :
Resistance values for equal areas (130 cm2) c various materials are as under :
Materia
l Resistance, ohms
Rubber gloves or soles More than 20 M
Dry concrete above
grade 1-5 M
Dry concrete on grade 0.2-1 M
Leather sole, dry, including foot 0.1-0.5 M
Leather sole, damp, including foot 5 K- 20 K
Wet concrete on grade 1 K- 5 K
Note : K = Kilo ohms, M = Mega ohms.
Safe Distance from Electric Lines :

Page 162
It is obvious that overhead electric lines should not be allowed in a place where the public or
public vehicles have to pass through for most of the time and not at such a low or unsafe distance
(clearance above ground) so that chances of touching the lines may increase. Therefore some
minimum safe distance from lines are necessary.
Rules 77 to 80 of the Indian Electricity Rules, 1956 provide safety distances as given in Table
11.6.
Table : Safely Distances of Overhead Lines
Position of Lines Minimum

Distance
Ft Mt
Across the street :
Medium voltage lines 19 5.8
High Voltage lines 20 6.1
Along the Street :
Low & Medium voltage lines 18 5.5
High Voltage lines 19 5.8
Elsewhere :
Up to 11 KV lines, bare 15 4.6
Up to 11 KV lines, insulated 13 4.0
Above 11 KV lines, 17 5.2
Above 33 KV lines, 17+1 5.2+0.3
For every 35 KV For every 33
or part thereof KV or part
thereof
Above 33 KV lines but across or along the street 20 6.1
Crossing the tramway or trolley wires : Distance above
the trolley wire
Low & medium voltage lines 4 1.2
If the wire is insulated
Up to 11 KV lines 6 1.8
Above 11 KV lines 8 2.5
Extra high voltage lines 10 3.0
Passing above, adjacent or terminating on buildings :
(a) Low & medium voltage lines - 10 3.0
Vertical clearance 8 2.5
Horizontal clearance 4 1.2
For less clearance the wire should be insulated
High & extra high voltage lines
(b) -
Vertical clearance :
Up to 33 KV Lines 12 3.7
Above 33 KV Lines 12+1 3.7+0.3
Page 163
For every 33 KV
or path thereof
Horizontal clearance :
Up to 11 KV lines 4 1.2
Above 11 KV & up to 33 KV lines 6 2.0
Above 33 KV lines 6+1 2.0+0.3
For every 33 KV
or part thereof
Note : In above table, meaning of voltage range u/i 2fav) is as under :
Low voltage Up to 250 V

Medium voltage Up to 650 V
High voltage Up to 33 KV
Extra high voltage Above 33 KV
Where an overhead line crosses or is in proximity to another overhead line, minimum

clearances between them are prescribed u/r 87(3) and given in Table-11.7
Table : Clearances in metres between lines crossing each other
System 11-66 110-132 220 400 800

Voltage KV KV KV KV KV
Low & medium 2.44 3.05 4.58 5.49 7.94
11-66 KV 2.44 3.05 4.58 5.49 7.94
110-132 KV 3.05 3.05 4.58 5.49 7.94
220 KV 4.58 4.58 4.58 5.49 7.94
400 KV 5.49 5.49 5.49 5.49 7.94
800 KV 7.94 7.94 7.94 7.94 7.94
Minimum clearance should be maintained for are conductors or live parts or any apparatus
in Outdoor sub-station, excluding overhead lines as given in Table-11.8 [Rule 64(2)(a)(ii)].
Table : Minimum Clearance in meters
Highest System Voltage in KV Safety working clearance (mts.)

not exceeding Ground clearance
of 1000 mts.
12 2.6
36 2.8
72.58 3.1
145 3.7
245 4.3
420 6.4
800 10.3

Page 164
Note : A correction factor of 1.25% per 100 mtr. is to be applied for increasing clearance above
1000mtr. and upto 3000 mtr.
Guarding arrangement shall be provided to guard against the possibility of lines coming into
contact with each other. Every guard wire shall be earned at each point where electricity is broken.
Rules 79 to 88 of the Indian Electricity Rules, 1956 are also relevant.
Safety distances from high voltage lines are as under -
Line voltage - Horizontal distances on both the sides form the centre line of the tower or H
frame. 66 KV > 9.5 mt
132 KV > 13.5 mt
220 KV r 17.5 mt
(c) Capacity and Protection of Conductors, points and Connectors :
All apparatus and conductors should be of sufficient size and strength. They should be covered
with insulating material and placed or enclosed as to prevent danger, viz. (a) Conductors in conduit
(b) Conductors in flexible metallic tubing (c) Conductors in metal trunking (d) Conductors with metal
sheeting (e) Insulated cables like V.I.R. and C.S.T. Cables (f) cables in trench.
Overhead trolley wires of cranes should be (1) either protected by screen guards with suitable
opening for tapping, or (2) insulated cable self-winding drums should be used.
Screw cap lamp holders in which the screw position of the holder and the lamp cap are
conductive, should be fitted with suitable shrouds or skirts or protected in any other suitable way.
Electrical joints and connections should be ( proper construction as regards conductivity,

insulatiol mechanical strength and protection.
6.2.2 Overload and Short Circuit Protection
_I
Overload is a major cause of fi
Danger from exces I current due t< I overload or short I circuit should bi i prevented b7
providing (1) Fuses (2 Circuit-breakers or (3 ~ Thermal protection. ~

Protective
apparatu
shoul
., d be set at a lov
rent protection ar
introduced as in the case of motors etc., possible excessive temperature rise in equipment anc

Page 165
conductors should be considered. The number of item: collectively protected should be limited to
avoic overfusing to withstand .heavy switching currents anc to ensure subdivisions so that
inconvenience fron
operation of protective gear is not caused.
Fuses, relays and circuit-breakers should be of sufficient breaking capacity to operate safely at
short circuit currents. Arcing or scattering of hot metal of fuses may be prevented by the use of
improved fuses of cartridge or other type having special arrangements for extinction of arc at reduced
current values.
Safety in Renewal of Fuses or Fusing elements
1. Operation Without Switching Off : Here switchfuses are used. For heavy current circuits,
switches should be provided and operated before operating the fuses.
2. Operation After Switching Off : This is the safest and should be the general practice.
Requirements are : (a) Interlocking with switch (b) Independent switches to be accessible (c)
Combined switch and fuse boxes should have live parts shrouded or protected.
Circuit-breakers where short circuit current exceeds 10000 amperes or 150 MVA should not be
direct hand-operated.
Thermal Protection : Thermal fuses and relays, operating on temperature rise are suitable for use
with circuit or appliances where the fault current does not exceed the load current "or where small
overloads can cause burn out.
Examples are : (1) Choke coils of fluorescent tubes (2) Fractional horsepower motors (3) Radio
sets. Equipment such as motors which require heavy starting currents can be effectively protected
by
thermal relays.
EARTH FAULT PROTECTION :
Protective Earthing:
All non-current carrying metal parts of electrical equipment, should be earthed. Such parts are :
(1) Metal conduits, bus bar, steel trunking and cable sheets (2) Non-current carrying metal parts of
(a) Switchgear, fuse and starters (b) Generators and motors (c) Lighting fittings and (d) Other
electrical equipment or appliances.
To earth is to connect to the general mass of earth in such a manner as will ensure at all times an
immediate discharge of electrical energy without danger and to allow sufficient current to flow to
blow fuses or operate protective devices and thereby disconnect faulty apparatus.
Good earthing can be achieved by connecting earth continuity conductor to :
1. Sheath and armour of "supply" cable whenever available.
2. In the case of supply from own transformer to a heavy section copper wire running to the neutral
point of the transformers, and
3. Neutral wire where "protective multiple earthing" is allowed and adopted.

Page 166
In the absence of these, connection should be made to earth electrode or electrodes having low
resistance to earth.
Connection between earth lead and earth electrode should be made wherever possible above the
ground for facilitating inspection. Joints involving dissimilar metals should be avoided. All joints
should be treated with a conducting paint.
In all cases the earth continuity conductors should have sufficient current carrying capacity to take
the fault current safely till the fuse or the circuit breaker blows or trips. The total impedance from
any point in the system to the earthing point and through it to die general mass of -earth and then to
the neutral point of the supply substation transformer and back to the fault point through the line
conductor should be as small as possible (4 ohms for 15 A fuse and I ohm for 60 A fuse for voltage
240 V). Wherever conduits and sheaths are used as earth continuity conductors (without separate
earth wire) earth continuity should be ensured at joints and junctions by suitable connections.
Earthing of Electrically Driven Machine Tools :
The bed plates of all mad-lines should be earthed with copper conductor of adequate size. Each
control gear casing such as starters etc., should be connected to the bed plate. Where the motor is
movable on the machine and hence does not make proper contact with the bed plate, flexible copper
wire should be provided
Electrical joints and connections should be proper construction as regards conductivity,

insulation, mechanical strength and protection.
Overload and Short Circuit Protection :
Danger from excess current due to overload or short-circuit should be prevented by providing
(1) Fuses (2) Circuit-breakers or (3) Thermal protection.
Protective apparatus
should be set at a low current protection are introduced as in the case
of motors etc., possible excessive temperature rise in equipment and conductors should be
considered. The number of item: collectively protected should be limited to avoid overfusing to
withstand .heavy switching currents anc to ensure subdivisions so that inconvenience from operation
of protective gear is not caused.
Fuses, relays and circuit-breakers should be of sufficient breaking capacity to operate safely
at short circuit currents. Arcing or scattering of hot metal of fuses may be prevented by the use of
improved fuses of cartridge or other type having special arrangements for extinction of arc at reduced
current values.
EARTHING STANDARDS :
IS:3043, Code of Practice for Earthing and SP 30 National Elective Code must be referred for
details of earthing.
Earthing means a low impedance return path of the fault current. Actually the earth, now,
Page 167
rarely serves as a part of the return circuit but is being used mainly for fixing the voltage of system
neutrals. The earth connection improves service continuity and avoids damage to equipment and
danger to human lives.
Earthing of current carrying conductor is known as system earthing, while that of non-current
carrying conductor or metal work is known as equipment earthing. The former is essential to the
security of the system and the latter to the safety of persons, property and animals.
Following is the synopsis of earthing standards mentioned in Section 12, Part I of our National
Electric Code:
1. The purpose of system earthing is to preserve the security of the system. There should be two
separate and distinct connections with earth through an earth electrode.
2. The earth system resistance should be such that the fault should operate the protective gear
(fuses or circuit breaker) to isolate the faulty portion.
The purpose of equipment earthing is to protect the equipment from danger to life or risk of
3. fire
due to leakage of current through the metal work and through the person in contact. The
leaking
current operates the protective gear due to earthing.
In case of high and extra high voltages, the neutral points shall be earthed by two or more
4. separate
electrodes.
Earth electrodes shall be provided at generating stations, substations and consumer premises
5. as per requirements.
As far as possible all earth terminals should be visible. The connections should be adequate
6. and tight.
7. Normally the earth system resistance should be less than 1 ohm, unless otherwise specified.
Testing of earth electrode should be
possible.
8. The current carrying capacity of the system should not be increased so as to increase the earth
fault current or its duration to make the earthing in-capable of bearing new value.
9. All materials, fittings etc. used in earthing should conform to Indian Standard.
Design of earth electrode dimensions should consider electrical resistivity of the soil. The
10. earth
conductivity depends or moisture content of the soil, salts in the water, chemical composition,
grain size and distribution etc. These factors vary locally and some seasonally. Local values
should be verified by actual measurement.
11. The step potential and touch potential should be measured and kept within safe limits.

Page 168
The size of earth-continuity conductors should be correlated with the size of the current
12. carrying
conductors. The sizes of the earth-continuity conductors should be more than half of the
largest
current carrying conductors. The range of earth-continuity conductors should be as under:
Material Min Size Max Size

Copper 1.5 mm2 70 mm2
Aluminium 2.5 mm2 120 mm2
13. Earthing of electrically driven- machine tools should be as under :
Strip or Conductor size

Material (min)
6.5mm
2
Copper
10
Aluminium mm2
16
Steel or GI mm2
The bed plate should be securely fastened by a bolt.
2. Earthing of portable appliance and tools should be continuous i.e. no twisted or taped joint
should be used in earth wires. A single pole switch should not be connected in earth conductor.
Fixed wiring at appliance inlet terminals must be done correctly and as per IS Appliance
having double or reinforcement insulation need not be earthed.
G Following rules of the Indian Electricity Rule; 1956 are relevant on earthing standards :
Rule Subject
E Identification of earth conductors.
F Earthed terminal on consumer’s premises.
Provisions for power
51 installations.
61 Connections with earth.
61 A Earth leakage protective device.
62 System at medium voltage.
67 Connection with earth.
69 Pole type substations.
88 (2) Guarding.
90 Earthing.
Protection against Surges and Voltage Fluctuation:

Page 169
When equipment is switched on, momentarily initial excessive currents are known as current
surges or transient current.
Surges may be more in starting cold circuits than the hot circuit i.e. restarting of the previously
live circuit which was closed for a short while. For example, when large banks of filament lamps are
switched on, current surge arises, because they have, much lower resistance when cold than when
hot. If a live lamp circuit is made off and soon reenergised, it will face fewer surges. Therefore fuse
or circuit breaker rating should consider this surge phenomenon or its effect given as Pt where I =
current, t = time and [Ft] known as pre-arcing of a fuse or let through of a fuse or circuit breaker or
withstand of a component e.g. diode.
Current surges are also produced when large banks of condensers are switched on. For
example if the condensers have retained a charge of the reverse polarity and its circuit is energised
at the moment of maximum voltage, a very large charging current will flow. When condensers are
switched for power factor correction or tuning on high frequency furnace installations, high surge
current flows. To prevent damage, large HRC fuses are sometimes placed between sections.
Switching large power transformers or starting up motors driving high inertia loads, also cause
large current surges if closure occurs near maximum voltage. H is therefore important to ensure that
the motor and starter are both suited to the duty. Failure to do this may cause the motor to burn out
or the starter to explode.
During surge current, [Pt] denotes a measure of the damage or the specific energy of the
operation and can be defined as the energy dissipated as heat during a specified operation per ohm
of resistance. Therefore for protection against surges, values of the protecting device should
withstand [Pt] value. This can be dealt with in the light of experience by increasing settings and fuse
sizes. It does, however, militate or resist against close protection.
Voltage fluctuation from the electricity supply lines has become a common phenomenon at
many places. Supply voltage goes down resulting in reducing speeds of fans, motors, machines etc.
and reducing lamp lighting. Again it comes and stabilises the condition. Such voltage fluctuation, if
on higher side, may blow fuses or protection and if on lower side, reduces the productivity or effect
of equipment.
Automatic voltage regulator or voltage stabiliser, either built-in with the equipment (mostly
with household appliances like freeze, TV etc.) or external are readily available.
Voltage fluctuation on either side is harmful. It 'accelerates or decelerates speed of machine
or production. It damages furnaces by over or under heating. It increases or decreases lighting,
ventilation, voice etc. and many power dependent parameters. Change in temperature affects reaction
rate in chemical processes. It affects radio, TV, computer, hand tools and many home appliances.
Over voltage causes over current which may increase the intensity of shock and flashover. Electric
motors, fuses, starters, switches, wiring, insulation may burn due to over voltage and overheating.
Therefore over voltage or under voltage must be prevented by appropriate automatic voltage
regulators or by power cutting devices. See part 6 for overload and other protections.

Page 170
Travelling voltage surges may become weaker by surge absorbers which are designed to
dissipate energy by eddy currents and/or hysteresis loss or by a sufficient length of cable. Over-
voltages can be relieved by spark gaps or by various devices which are insulators at normal voltages
but breakdown at a prescribed over-voltage. They may or may not be 'self healing'.
Voltage spikes caused by current chopping may be avoided by a proper choice of cartridge
fuses and others suppressed by shunt connected silicon or other semi-conductors for power circuits
and zener diodes for light current circuits.
The possibility of flash over in high voltage trifurcating boxes on transformer, switchgear or
motors is prevented by better insulation, filling techniques and/or phase separation.
Disconnected overhead line in the proximity of other overhead lines, should also be kept
earthed, otherwise it may cause shock due to voltage induced in it.
Hazards of Borrowed Neutrals :
Now-a-days mostly the 4-wire, multi-grounded, common-neutral distribution system is used

exclusively because of their economic and operating advantages. In a star system the neutral point is
solidly grounded. Sometimes a small amount of impedence is inserted between the transformer
neutral and ground in order to limit line-to-ground short-circuit currents on the primary system to a
predetermined value.
The neutral circuit must be a continuous metallic path along the primary routes of the feeder
and to every user location. Where primary and secondary (single phase) systems are both present, the
same conductor is used as the common neutral for both systems.
The neutral is grounded at each distribution transformer, at frequent intervals where no

transformers are connected and to metallic water pipes or driven grounds at each user's service
entrance.
The neutral carries a portion of the unbalanced or residual load currents for both the primary
and secondary systems. The remainder of this current flows in the earth. Ground electrode should
have a resistance less than 25 ohms.
Where there is no secondary neutral and no distribution transformers, the primary neutral
should be grounded at intervals of 500 to 1000 ft. By a direct buried, concentric neutral cable, the
excellent grounding is obtained.
Hazard arises when there is a discontinuity in the neutral path. Therefore no disconnecting
devices should be installed in the common neutral. In no case, the earth or buried metallic piping
system should be used as the only path for the return of normal load current.
In borrowing of neutral by tapping or otherwise, hazards arise if the size of the neutral
conductor is changed in new line or any discontinuity is left somewhere or if that line becomes the
return path of normal load current.

Page 171
In a 3-phase balanced primary circuit, the neutral conductor can be of a smaller size than the
phase conductor, but in a single-phase primary circuit (phase and neutral), the neutral conductor
should be large enough to carry almost as much current as the phase conductor. Mostly the same
conductor size should be used for both, the phase and the neutral to avoid the hazard.
Flame proof Electrical Equipment :
The types of protection generally applicable to electric motors for use in hazardous areas are:
1. Flameproof or Explosion proof, Type-d
2. Increased Safety, Type-e
3. Intrinsic Safety, Type-i
4. Non-Sparking, Type-n
5. Pressurised, Type-
IS:5571 guides us for selection of electrical equipment (motors, transformers and capacitors,
lighting fittings, switchgear and control-gear) for hazardous areas. IS:2148 gives specification for
flameproof enclosures of electrical apparatus and IS:4691 for degrees of protection provided by
enclosures for rotating electrical machinery. IS 4012 for dustproof electrical lighting fitting, 2206
(Part I to 4) for flameproof electric lighting fittings, 8945 for electrical measuring instruments -for
explosive gas atmosphere, 7118 for direction of movement for control devices operating electrical
apparatus and 7689 for control of undesirable static electricity are also relevant.
In Zone-1 area flameproof or pressurised type motors whereas in Zone-2, increased safety
type motors are suitable. Table 11.9 gives summary :
Table : Types of motor protection in hazardous areas:
Type of Symbol Hazardous Advantages Disadvantages IS

Protection of Zone
Motor
Flame-proof d 1,2 Robust, Expensive in 2148
permits larger sizes. 3682
maintenance of Difficult to
internal weather proof.
equipment Careful
maintenance
Increased E 2 Cheaper, Requires 6381
Safety Suitable for all careful
gases Long installation
Life.
Non Sparking N 2 Cheap Some designs 8289
difficult to
maintain
Pressurised P 1,2 Safe, suitable Auxiliary 7389
Page 172
for all gases. equipment
Can be needed to
modified and provide dry air
maintained on inert gas
For flameproof enclosures, gases and vapours are classified according to their Maximum
Experimental Safe Group (MESG). The groups of apparatus are Group I for mining application
(methane) and Group II for application in other industries. Group II is subdivided as IIA, UB and
IIC. Similarly, gases and vapours are also classified in the same four groups according to the ratios
of their Minimum Ignition Currents (MIC) with that of laboratory methane. Table-3 in IS:2148
suggests these four groups for particular gas or vapour, for example, Group I for methane, IIA for
ammonia, benzene, acetone, methanoi etc., IIB for ethylene, ethylene oxide etc., and IIC for
hydrogen.
Testing of electrical equipment for use in explosive atmosphere is most essential.
Available flameproof equipment include motor, transformer, switch socket, switchgear,

limitswitches, push buttons, rotary cam operated switches (isolators), switch fuse unit with HRC
fuse links, electric bell, fluorescent tube light fixture, wall glass lighting fitting, flood light, control
gear box, bulkhead fittings, hand lamp, vessel lamp, safety torch, indicating lamp, ammeter,
measuring instrument enclosure, moulded case circuit breaker, distribution board, control station,
remote control panels, junction boxes, meter boxes, cable glands and accessories.
ISI mark must be preferred. Rules for installation and maintenance of transformer
substation, main switch boards, distribution boards, conduit wiring system, cable wiring, lighting
layout, earthing and lighting protection and inspection and testing should be strictly followed for
their safe working in flammable/explosive environment. This is statutory requirement also as stated
earlier.
1 Safety Measures with Low & High Risks Areas :
In low risk area, following Safety measures are necessary
(1) Segregation of equipment that may generate heat or spark. For example, fuses, switchboard,
transformers, motor, resistance, heater etc. should the segregated. For Rules of segregation,
see TAC booklet published by Bombay Regional Tarrif Advisiory Committee.
(2) Guarding, insulation and protection of conductors.
(3) Earthing of all metal work.
(4) Less operation of switches and starters to avoid spark.
(5) Covering heaters and resistance to prevent contact with hot surfaces.
(6) Interlock switch to ensure making and breaking of connectors with switch in off
position. In high risk area, following safety measures are necessary.
(2) Electrical equipment should be flameproof and of the approved type.

Page 173
(3) Pressurised electrical equipment.
(4) Intrinsically safe electrical equipment.
(5) Segregation of the electrical equipment to the extent possible.
(6) Overload, short circuit and leakage protection with close setting up of fuses or overload
protective devices.
Besides fire fighting equipment, following fire safety requirements are also recommended :
Automatic fire alarm

1. Area up to - system
750 m2
2. Area above - As above or automatic
750 m2 sprinkler
Refer Part 3.3. for TAC regulations
Hazards and Controls :
Static electricity is frequently generated but mostly it is not hazardous because it is too weak
or leaks off as fast as it is generated. For its fast leaking or bypassing, good conductor (antistatic
device) is required to connect the charged surfaces with the earth.
Hazards of Static Electricity :
As rubber is bad conductor (good insulator) of electricity, it accumulates static electricity to

a high degree. Fires in rubber industry are mostly due to discharge of such heavy static charges.
If equipment is not grounded, static charge will continue to accumulate on it till it will
discharge as a spark. Therefore grounding by a steel plate, copper wire or bronze brush is necessary.
Lightening from the sky is nothing but a discharge to the earth of enormous static charges
generated and accumulated between the layers of air and clouds in the atmosphere.
Some specific hazards are as under

Shock if spark is not generated and the charged surface (not grounded) is touched by human
body.
Fire or explosion if spark is generated due to discharge of static charge into flammable
atmosphere.
Readings are distorted or changed in sensitive instruments.
Dust deposition on charged surfaces.
Clogging or obstruction to free flow of powders in chutes, silos or hoppers.
Control of Static Electricity :

Page 174
Sequence to combat static electricity includes following steps

Prevent charge generation.
If this is not possible, prevent its accumulation.
If this is also not possible, prevent discharge from being hazardous, and
Prevent formation of flammable atmosphere near possibility of static electricity.
Mostly step-l is not possible but step -2 can be implemented effectively by ensuring earthing
and bonding. For step-3, diameter of pipe/hole is increased, flow rate is decreased etc.
When two unlike materials separate quickly, static charge is generated at the point of
separation. Ground wire should be attached where static charge is likely to occur. For proper ground
connection, spring type or screw type clamp is used. Ground clamps are made of materials like
stainless steel or beryllium copper alloy because they are good conductors of electricity and also non-
sparking. Clamps should have sharp points and enough pressure to hold it firmly.
Coating of paint, rust, corrosion, grease, oil, resin etc should be removed at a point where
ground connection is to be made. Thus grounding surfaces should be made clean if they are not.
Loose connection, broken clamp, broken wires and unclean metal surfaces should be checked
before starting the work. Ground wire must be attached last after making sure that all connections
are made properly.
It is important to note that it is more advisable and simpler to avoid having a flammable
atmosphere than to try 'for charge avoidance. For this purpose inert gas filling is first required. Some
specific control measures are as under:
(PP) Earthing (grounding) and bonding of equipment, pipe joints, flanges and parts.
(QQ) Increasing the conductance of floors, footwear, wheels and tyres for personnel and moving
equipment.
(RR) Increasing the conductivity of non-conductors by conductive additives, surface layers, films
and humidification of the atmosphere.
(SS) Increasing the conductivity of the atmosphere by ionisation.
(TT) Using antistatic and conductive materials and static eliminators.
(UU) Earthing of moving machinery.
(VV) Use of antistatic belts or antistatic dressing to non-conductive belts at regular intervals.
(WW) All tanks, vessels, pipelines containing solvents or flammable liquids or gases should be
separately earthed. Bonding of pipe lines at flange joints necessary unless metallic contact
(continuity) is in between the flanges. Thus bonding is not required for wholly metallic
connections having resistance to earth less than 10 ohm. However, bonding is necessary if
non metallic (e.g. plastic, rubber, asbestos) components are there in between the joint.
(XX) Tank wagons and road tankers should be earthed while loading or unloading with flammable
liquid or gas. Rail-track should be earthed and jumpers to be provided to connect rail to rail.
(YY) While pumping flammable liquids in tanks, the inlet pipe should extend and discharge at the
bottom of the tank. A long feed (inlet) pipe or inner limpet for this purpose is desirable. At
this time it is advisable to maintain an inert gas blanketing. Flow velocity should be restricted.
(ZZ) The pipe and nozzle of steam or water should be bonded while tank cleaning or steaming.

Page 175
(AAA) Liquid spillage and dust deposits should be removed as early as possible.
(BBB) Good ventilation and good housekeeping are necessary to prevent flammable concentration.
(CCC) Non-conducting plastic containers should be avoided to fill flammable liquids with flash
points below 30°C.
(DDD) Antistatic additives should be used to reduce the high resistance of liquids.
(EEE) Keep all synthetic material at least 6 inches away from charged surfaces or electronic
equipment.
While repairing or handling PCB or electronic equipment, use antistatic foam, antistatic
grounded wrist strap and antistatic floor mat.
Reduce pump or flow speed while beginning tank filling, .transferring light material on the
surface of heavy material of low conductivity, using water or air for cleaning purpose, while
transferring a product of two phases such as immiscible liquids etc.
The most relevant IS 7689 on control of undesirable static electricity should be referred for
44 topics given therein. They include definitions, electrostatic charge, their physiological effects,
discharges, electrostatics in liquids, powders, solids and gases, effect on personnel, earthing and
bonding, use of tanks - metallic & non-metallic, road/rail tanker, small containers, transfer of liquids,
pipelines, release of gases, spraying of paints and powders, handling of electro-explosive devices,
earthing of personnel and hazards from clothing.
For earthing and bonding maximum earth resistance recommended is 10 ohm. Antistatic or
conductive type materials can be used to avoid the retention of static electricity. Earth resistance for
static charge dissipation should be regularly checked.
See fig 11.6 for control measures for static electricity.
ENERGY CONSERVATION AND SAFETY
Energy conservation, particularly of electricity and heat, is itself a wide subject and has wide
applicability throughout the world. It does not only improve efficiency and economy, but also
improves safety and productivity. Thus its benefits are manifold.
See Part 3.1 of Chapter 2 for definition of accident, where it is also defined - in terms of
energy loss. Physiological energy loss or energy loss from material, process or unwanted transfer of
energy beyond the threshold limit is also called accident. Therefore from safety point of view energy
loss should be prevented or minimised.
Energy and safety has direct relationship. High energy may cause more damage in case of
accident.

Page 176

Page 177
OVERLOAD AND OTHER PROTECTIONS
In industrial buildings, appropriate protection at switch-boards and distribution boards for all
circuits and sub-circuits against over current and earth faults is necessary. The protective apparatus
should be capable of interrupting any short-circuit current that may occur, without danger. The
ratings and settings' of fuses and the protective devices shall be coordinated so as to afford selectivity
in
operation where necessary. Setting of HRC fuses should be proper. Supply of electric lighting and
emergency services should be through separate main service and distribution boards from the power
circuits.
Majority of electrical accidents can be avoided if (1) Live parts are insulated in effective and
durable manner and positioned safely (2) Conductive parts of the equipment or machines should be
earthed or double insulated and (3) All components must be so dimensioned as to withstand design
stresses
Power Cutting Devices (Means of Cutting of Power):
These are switches, switch with' fuses, isolating links or circuit breakers. Where rapid
operation is required, switch fuses and isolating links are not suitable. Separate switches should be
provided to transformers, motors and apparatus at convenient places. For motors, switches should
be close to the starters. Locking arrangement on switch or starter prevents accidental starting. If
locking is .not possible, fuses should be taken out while working on that line. Earthing of conductors,
particularly of high voltage or overhead lines, is necessary. Mechanical devices are clutches and
belt striking gears.
Restriction on use of Switch on Neutral Earthed Conductor:
A single pole switch should not be placed in the neutral conductor of a system which is
connected to earth (except for special purposes in generating stations).
If this conductor is bare, even double pole switch should not be placed in this conductor
except for the purpose of breaking connection with generators and transformers supplying the
power. But the connection with earth should not thereby be broken.
Important Safety Requirements in Design and Use of Switches, Switch-Fuses, Circuit-

Breakers and Isolating Links.
1. Sufficient capacity for making and breaking contacts.

2. Cover for switch.
3. Handle spindle should be a close fit in die hole in order to prevent injury from arcs inside.
Handle should be insulated.
4. "On" and "Off" position in switches and circuit breakers should be clearly marked.
5. Ample space between opposite poles of double and multi-pole air break switches and circuit-
breakers.
Page 178
6. They should make and maintain good contact on being operated without any special skill or
manipulation.
7. Switches and circuit-breakers should be of such construction that they cannot be left in partial
contact, that there is speedy breaking of contact, when operated to off position. There should
also be other extra means of controlling the arc where necessary.
8. Handle should be of sufficient size consistent with the effort required to operate. It should be
insulated and earthed.
9. Isolating links and switches without insulated handles should be operated by safe means such as
by insulated poles.
Lightninig Arrestor
A lightning arrester is a device used on electrical power systems and telecommunications systems to
protect the insulation and conductors of the system from the damaging effects of lightning. The typical
lightning arrester has a high-voltage terminal and a ground terminal. When a lightning surge (or
switching surge, which is very similar) travels along the power line to the arrester, the current from the
surge is diverted through the arrestor, in most cases to earth.
lightning strike
A lightning strike or lightning bolt is an electric discharge between the atmosphere and an Earth-bound
object.[citation needed] They mostly originate in a cumulonimbus cloud and terminate on the ground,
called cloud to ground (CG) lightning. A less common type of strike, called ground to cloud (GC), is
upward propagating lightning initiated from a tall grounded object and reaches into the clouds. About
25% of all lightning events worldwide are strikes between the atmosphere and earth-bound objects. The
bulk of lightning events are intra-cloud (IC) or cloud to cloud (CC), where discharges only occur high in
the atmosphere.
A single lightning event is a "flash", which is a complex, multi-stage process, some parts of which are not
fully understood. Most cloud to ground flashes only "strike" one physical location, referred to as a
"termination". The primary conducting channel, the bright coursing light that may be seen and is called a
"strike", is only about one inch in diameter, but because of its extreme brilliance, it often looks much
larger to the human eye and in photographs. Lightning discharges are typically miles long, but certain
types of horizontal discharges can be upwards of tens of miles in length. The entire flash lasts only a
fraction of a second. Most of the early formative and propagation stages are much dimmer and not visible
to the human eye.
Strikes
Lightning strikes can injure humans in several different ways:
1. Direct
 Direct strike – the person is part of the flash channel. Enormous quantities of energy pass
through the body very quickly and this can result in internal burns and organ damage,
explosions of flesh and bone, and a damaged nervous system. Depending on the flash strength
Page 179
and access to medical services, it may be instantaneously fatal or cause permanent injuries
and impairments.
 Contact injury – the person was touching an object, generally a conductor, that is
electrified by the strike.
 Side splash – branches form "jumping" from the primary flash channel, electrifying the
person.
 Blast injuries – being thrown and suffering blunt force trauma from the shock wave (if very
close) and possible hearing damage from the thunder.[4]
2. Indirect
 Ground current or "step potential" – Earth surface charges race towards the flash channel
during discharge. Because the ground has high impedance, the current "chooses" a better
conductor, often a person's legs, passing through the body. The near-instantaneous rate of
discharge causes a potential (difference) over distance, which may amount to several
thousand volts per linear foot. This phenomenon is responsible for more injuries and
deaths than the above three combined, with reports such as "hundreds of reindeer killed
by a lightning storm..." being a classic example.[5]
 EMPs – the discharge process produces an electromagnetic pulse (EMP) which may
damage an artificial pacemaker, or otherwise affect normal biological processes.
3. Secondary or resultant
 Explosions
 Fires
 Accidents
Injuries
Main article: Lightning injuries
Lightning strikes can produce severe injuries, and have a mortality rate of between 10% and 30%, with up
to 80% of survivors sustaining long-term injuries. These severe injuries are not usually caused by thermal
burns, since the current is too brief to greatly heat up tissues; instead, nerves and muscles may be directly
damaged by the high voltage producing holes in their cell membranes, a process called electroporation.[3]
In a direct strike, the electrical currents in the flash channel pass directly through the victim. The relatively
high voltage drop around poorer electrical conductors (such as a human being), causes the surrounding air
to ionize and break down, and the external flashover diverts most of the main discharge current so that it
passes "around" the body, reducing injury.
Metallic objects in contact with the skin may "concentrate" the lightning's energy, given it is a better natural
conductor and the preferred pathway, resulting in more serious injuries, such as burns from molten or
evaporating metal. At least two cases have been reported where a strike victim wearing an iPod suffered
more serious injuries as a result.[6]
However, during a flash, the current flowing through the channel and around the body will generate
large electromagnetic fields and EMPs, which may induce electrical transients (surges) within the nervous
system or pacemaker of the heart, upsetting normal operations. This effect might explain cases
where cardiac arrest or seizures followed a lightning strike that produced no external injuries. It may also
point to the victim not being directly struck at all, but just being very close to the strike termination. [3]

Page 180
Another effect of lightning on bystanders is to their hearing. The resulting shock wave of thunder can
damage the ears. Also, electrical interference to telephones or headphones may result in damaging acoustic
noise.
Epidemiology
One estimate is that 24,000 people are killed by lightning strikes around the world each year and about
240,000 are injured. [7]
Another estimate is that the annual global death toll is 6,000. [8]
According to the NOAA, over the last 20 years, the United States averaged 51 annual lightning strike
fatalities, placing it in the second position, just behind floods for deadly weather.[9][10] In the US, between
9% and 10% of those struck die,[11] for an average of 40 to 50 deaths per year (28 in 2008).[12]
In Kisii in western Kenya, some 30 people die each year from lightning strikes. Kisii's high rate of lightning
fatalities occurs because of the frequency of thunderstorms and because many of the area's structures have
metal roofs.[13]
These statistics do not reflect the difference between direct strikes, where the victim was part of the
lightning pathway, indirect effects of being close to the termination point, like ground currents, and
resultant, where the casualty arose from subsequent events, such as fires or explosions. Even the most
knowledgeable first responders may not recognize a lightning related injury, let alone particulars, which
a medical examiner, police investigator or on the rare occasion a trained lightning expert may have
difficulty identifying to record accurately. This ignores the reality that lightning, as the first event,
may assume responsibility for the overall and resulting accident.[citation needed]
Direct strike casualties could be much higher than reported numbers.[14]
Effect on nature
Impact on vegetation
A eucalyptus tree that was struck by lightning, while two nearby pine treeswere untouched, Darwin,
Northern Territory, Australia.
Trees are frequent conductors of lightning to the ground.[15] Since sap is a relatively poor conductor,
its electrical resistance causes it to be heated explosively into steam, which blows off the bark outside
the lightning's path. In following seasons trees overgrow the damaged area and may cover it
completely, leaving only a vertical scar. If the damage is severe, the tree may not be able to recover,
and decay sets in, eventually killing the tree.
In sparsely populated areas such as the Russian Far East and Siberia, lightning strikes are one of the
major causes of forest fires.[16] The smoke and mist expelled by a very large forest fire can cause
electric charges, starting additional fires many kilometers downwind.[16]
Shattering of rocks
When water in fractured rock is rapidly heated by a lightning strike, the resulting steam explosion can
cause rock disintegration and shift boulders. It may be a significant factor in erosion of tropical and
subtropical mountains that have never been glaciated. Evidence of lightning strikes includes erratic
magnetic fields.[17][18]

Page 181
Electrical and structural damage
The Eiffel Tower as a colossal lightning conductor. Photograph taken 1902-06-03 21:02
Telephones, modems, computers and other electronic devices can be damaged by lightning, as
harmful overcurrent can reach them through the phone jack, Ethernet cable, or electricity
outlet.[19] Close strikes can also generate electromagnetic pulses (EMPs) – especially
during "positive" lightning discharges.
Lightning currents have a very fast rise time, on the order of 40 kA per microsecond. Hence,
conductors of such currents exhibit marked skin effect, causing most of the currents to flow through
the outer surface of the conductor.[20]
In addition to electrical wiring damage, the other types of possible damage to consider include
structural, fire, and property damage.
Prevention and mitigations

The field of lightning protection systems is an enormous industry worldwide due to the impacts lightning
can have on the constructs and activities of humankind. Lightning, as varied in properties measured
across orders of magnitude as it is, can cause direct effects or have secondary impacts; lead to the
complete destruction of a facility or process or simply cause the failure of a remote electronic sensor; it
can result in outdoor activities being halted for safety concerns to employees as a thunderstorm nears an
area and until it has sufficiently passed; it can ignite volatile commodities stored in large quantities or
interfere with the normal operation of a piece of equipment at critical periods of time.
Most lightning protection devices and systems protect physical structures on the earth, aircraft in flight
being the notable exception. While some attention has been paid to attempting to control lightning in the
atmosphere, all attempts proved extremely limited in success. Chaff and silver iodide crystal concepts
were devised to deal directly with the cloud cells and were dispensed directly into the clouds from an
overflying aircraft. The chaff was devised to deal with the electrical manifestations of the storm from
within, while the silver iodide salting technique was devised to deal with the mechanical forces of the
storm.
Lightning protection systems

Main article: Lightning rod
See also: Lightning arrestor and Surge protector
Hundreds of devices, including lightning rods and charge transfer systems, are used to mitigate
lightning damage and influence the path of a lightning flash.
A lightning rod (or lightning protector) is a metal strip or rod connected to earth through conductors and
a grounding system, used to provide a preferred pathway to ground if lightning terminates on a structure.
The class of these products are often called a "finial" or "air terminal". A lightning rod or "Franklin rod"
in honor of its famous inventor, Benjamin Franklin, is simply a metal rod, and without being connected
to the lightning protection system, as was sometimes the case in the old days, will provide no added
protection to a structure. Other names include "lightning conductor", "arrester", and "discharger";
Page 182
however, over the years these names have been incorporated into other products or industries with a
stake in lightning protection. Lightning arrester, for example, often refers to fused links that explode
when a strike occurs to a high voltage overhead power line to protect the more expensive transformers
down the line by opening the circuit. In reality, it was an early form of a heavy duty surge protection
device (SPD). Modern arresters, constructed with metal oxides, are capable of safely shunting
abnormally high voltage surges to ground while preventing normal system voltages from being shorted
to ground.
Monitoring and warning systems

A Thor Guard lightning prediction system
The exact location of a lightning strike or when it will occur is still impossible to predict. However, products
and systems have been designed of varying complexities to alert people as the probability of a strike increases
above a set level determined by a risk assessment for the location's conditions and circumstances. One
significant improvement has been in the area of detection of flashes through both ground and satellite-based
observation devices. The strikes and atmospheric flashes are not predicted, however the level of detail
recorded by these technologies has vastly improved in the past 20 years.
Although commonly associated with thunderstorms at close range, lightning strikes can occur on a day that
seems devoid of clouds. This occurrence is known as "A Bolt From the Blue";[21] lightning can strike up to
10 miles from a cloud.
Lightning interferes with AM (amplitude modulation) radio signals much more than FM (frequency
modulation) signals, providing an easy way to gauge local lightning strike intensity. [22] To do so, one should
tune a standard AM medium wave receiver to a frequency with no transmitting stations, and listen for
crackles amongst the static. Stronger or nearby lightning strikes will also cause cracking if the receiver is
tuned to a station. As lower frequencies propagate further along the ground than higher ones, the lower
medium wave (MW) band frequencies (in the 500–600 kHz range) can detect lightning strikes at longer
distances; if the longwave band (153–279 kHz) is available, using it can increase this range even further.
Lightning detection systems have been developed and may be deployed in locations where lightning strikes
present special risks, such as public parks. Such systems are designed to detect the conditions which are
believed to favor lightning strikes and provide a warning to those in the vicinity to allow them to take
appropriate cover.
Personal safety
The U.S. National Lightning Safety Institute[23] advises American citizens to have a plan for their safety when
a thunderstorm occurs and to commence it as soon as the first lightning is seen or thunder heard. This is
important as lightning can strike without rain actually falling. If thunder can be heard at all, then there is a
risk of lightning. The safest place is inside a building or a vehicle. Risk remains for up to 30 minutes after
the last observed lightning or thunder.
The National Lightning Safety Institute recommends using the F-B (flash to boom) method to gauge distance
to a lightning strike. The flash of a lightning strike and resulting thunder occur at roughly the same time. But
light travels 300,000 kilometers in a second, almost a million times the speed of sound. Sound travels at the
slower speed of 344 m/s, so the flash of lightning is seen before thunder is heard. A method to determine the
distance between lightning strike and viewer, involves counting the seconds between the lightning flash and
thunder. Then, dividing by three to determine the distance in kilometers, or by five for miles. Immediate

Page 183
precautions against lightning should be taken if the F-B time is 25 seconds or less, that is, if the lightning is
closer than 8 km (5.0 mi).
Reports differ regarding what to do if caught outside during a storm. One study shows that prostration is
safer than lying down flat when there are no other alternatives. [24] A contrasting report suggested that it did
not matter whether a person was standing up, squatting, or lying down when outside during a thunderstorm,
because lightning can travel along the ground; this report suggested it was safest to be inside a solid structure
or vehicle.[25] In the United States, the average annual death toll from lightning is 51 deaths per year, although
there were only 23 deaths in 2013, which was a record low; the riskiest activities include fishing, boating,
camping, and golf.[25] A person injured by lightning does not carry an electrical charge, and can be safely
handled to apply first aid before emergency services arrive. Lightning can affect the brainstem, which
controls breathing.[26]
Several studies conducted in South Asia and Africa suggest that the dangers of lightning are not taken
sufficiently seriously there. A research team from the University of Colombofound that even in
neighborhoods which had experienced deaths from lightning, no precautions were taken against future
storms. An expert forum convened in 2007 to address how to raise awareness of lightning and improve
lightning protection standards, and expressed concern that many countries had no official standards for the
installation of lightning rods.[27]

Page 184
CHAPTER 5
NEED OF SAFETY IN ENGINEERING INDUSTRY
Man and Machine are two important ingredients of Industrial Safety. Man needs machines
which many times bring hazards and accidents. This has created the need of industrial safety. It is
most important to eliminate or minimise the contact between men and machines. Machines are the
product of engineering and therefore engineering occupies the pioneering place in industrial safety.
Without
engineering industries, no machine, no guard and no mass production is possible. The history of
machine is old and interesting. In Chapter-7, Part-1, old engineering branches of India are mentioned
and another historical part is given in Chapter-33. Weapons and vehicles expected by Yajurveda and
fixed and movable machines in Kautilya’s times were not possible without engineering industry.
Modern engineering technology is much advanced and many other industries are dependent on it.
In 1981 out of 72,40,000 workers employed in all factories in India, workers employed in
engineering factories (i.e. in NIC group No. 32 to 37) were 24,41,000 i.e. 33.71% Thus about 30%
labour force is employed in engineering industry in our country.
In USA, deaths due to machinery are reported, by Accidents Facts. 1997. as under :
Year 1992 1993 1994

Out of 86777 90523 91437
Deaths due to machinery 1037 999 970
Percentage 1.19% 1.10% 1.06%
4.1 Types of Hot and Cold Processes :
Metallurgical processes are of two types : Hot and Cold processes.
Hot processes are employed to melt ore to make metal, to refine metal and to mould metal in
therequired shape, section or grade, to make alloy, to weld or cut metal parts and to make tools,
equipment, building materials, machine parts, structural parts etc. Fuel- fired or electric furnaces are
used for these purposes. Chemical energy of fuel (gas, furnace oil, LDO, wood, coal, lignite, waste
etc.) or electric energy is converted into heat in such furnaces. Hot processes include melting,
refining, smelting, moulding, forging, hot rolling, welding and cutting, brazing and soldering
operations.
Cold processes are employed to further reduce or change the shape, size or section of the hot
rolled, forged or moulded metal parts, cut into pieces, drill, bore or grind surfaces, press, punch slot,
shear, cut, bend or shape the metal parts' A variety of machines and machine tools are used for these
purposes. Hand and foot operated presses, power presses, hydraulic or pneumatic presses, shearing
machines, press brakes, cold rolling mills, forming rolls, wire drawing machines and various machine
tools like lathe, boring m/c, grinding m/c and modern computerised controlled machines are used in
engineering industry.
Page 185
4.2 Types of Furnaces, Uses and Safety Measures :
They are classified as under-
(1) Classification based on Structure :
Technologically metallurgical furnaces are classified as melting or heating furnaces.
Melting furnaces are employed to make metals from ores and remelt metals for obtaining
thedesired properties. Materials processed in melting furnaces change their state of aggregation.
Heating furnaces are employed to heat materials for roasting (limestone, magnesite,
refractories,potteries etc.) or drying (foundry moulds, ore, sand etc.) and also for increasing the
plasticity of metals before plastic working. They are also used for heat treatment of metals to change
the metal structure. Materials processed in heating furnaces remain in the same state of aggregation.
Furnaces may be regenerative or recuperative according to the method the heat of waste gases
is utilised.
(2) Classification based on. Heat Generation :
Furnaces are also classified according to the principle of heat generation i.e. either fuel-fired
furnaces where heat is generated from chemical energy of fuel or electric furnaces where heat is
generated from electric energy.

Page 186
In fuel-fired furnaces heat is generated by burning fuel on the furnace hearth. They are of two
types : flame furnaces and shaft furnaces. In flame (reverberatory) furnaces, the material to be burnt
occupies only a small portion of the reaction chamber volume, the rest being occupied by flames and
combustion products. In shaft furnaces, all the space is filled with loose charge materials which
include lumpy solid fuel.
In steelmaking furnaces (converters), the chemical energy of molten metal is also converted
into heat through combustion of impurities present in them. The heat evolved is evenly distributed
over the whole mass of the molten metal.
Heat for refining the bath to produce steel is derived from the oxidation of carbon and other
elements and no external source of heat is required.
In oxygen process steelmaking furnace, initially oxygen is blown on to the surface of a bath
of molten pig iron and steel scrap.
Types of electric furnaces are : (a) Electric-arc 2. and plasma furnaces, single, two or three
phase 3. furnaces (b) Induction furnaces (c) Dielectric heating plants (d) Resistance furnaces and (e)
Electron-beam furnaces, i.e. micro-wave and infra-red.
(3) Classification based on Operating Mode :
Heat transfer from a heat carrier (flame, electric arc) to the surface of material is mainly
through thermal radiation and convection.
Heat transfer from the surface of material into the depth of material occurs predominantly by
conduction. But with heated liquids, convective heat transfer is also possible.
Convective mode is typical of low -temperature heat-treatment and drying furnaces. This
mode is also employed in heating baths in which a hot liquid is the heat carrier.
Layer wise mode is used in the processing of lumpy materials mostly in shaft furnaces. In
such layer wise mode, all three kinds of heat transfer - radiation, convection and conduction - are
interlinked so closely that practically cannot be separated from one another. There are three types of
layer - dense (filtering) layer, fluidised bed layer and suspended layer of the processed material.
Modern complex thermal plants are usually composed of furnace proper (reaction chamber,
burners, electrodes or resistors) and auxiliary equipment (waste gas heater, ventilator, exhauster,
stack, valves, gates etc.).
Others:
So far we have discussed the types and uses of furnaces. It is relevant to consider kiln used
for cement, lime, ceramic (brick, tile, refractory) and drying purposes and ovens for drying (moisture
removal), curing, baking, decorating and solvent evaporation (paint drying).

Page 187
Hazards and Safety Precautions :
Main hazards while working with furnaces, kilns and ovens are as under :
1. Burns due to contact with hot surfaces.
2. Burns due to contact with hot product, fuel or electricity.
3. Splashing or bubbling of molten metal.
4. Contact of cooling water with the molten metal or slag (e.g. induction furnace) and explosion
due to sudden steam generation.
5. Fire or explosion due to leakage of fuel.
6. Carbon monoxide from fuel gas or products of combustion.
7. Explosion due to hydrogen.
Precautions to be followed are as under :
1. Good insulation over hot metal surfaces.

2. Protective clothing for head, face, hands and feet.
3. Respirators, safety eye glass (plain or tinted) for protection against dust, fumes, toxic gases
and glare.
4. Exhaust hoods and fans to draw dusts, fumes, gases etc.
5. Good ventilation to vent off hazardous waste generated from scrap charged, alloys and fluxes.
6. Hot work permit before allowing any worker to enter any hot chamber. Ensurance of cooling,
fresh air ventilation and lighting necessary.
7. Interlocking to cut off fuel supply in case of flame failure.
8. Precautions while lighting fuel or burner to prevent flash back, fire or explosion.
9. Training and awareness programmes for workers.
10. Provisions of drinking water and shielding to avoid heat disorders.
11. Flameproof electric fitting with solvent drying ovens. PPE against eye and skin irritation or
respiratory disorders.
12. Precautions against free silica, asbestos etc., while cleaning and maintaining furnaces. Area
monitoring and medical surveillance of such hazardous exposures.
Steel Manufacture, Hazards and Safety Measures :
Iron occurs very abundantly constituting about 4.7% of the earth's crust. It is the fourth in
abundance (first three are oxygen, silicon and aluminium) amongst all the elements. Amongst metals,
its abundance is second only to aluminium.
The most important iron ores are iron oxides, carbonates and sulphides.
Three commercial varieties of iron are cast iron, wrought iron and steel. They differ in their
carbon and phosphorous content.
Cast iron is the least pure form of iron containing 2.5 to 4.5% carbon with some sulphur,
phosphorous, silicon and manganese.
Wrought iron is the purest form of iron containing less than 0.5% carbon and other impurities.

Page 188
Steel comes in between cast iron and wrought iron. It contains 0.02 to 1.5% carbon and some
manganese. Hardness of steel increases with increase in carbon content. Sometimes other elements
such as chromium, silicon, nickel, tungsten, vanadium and molybdenum are added to make special
steel. Main three grades of steel are as under :
Low carbon (mild) steel - 0.02 to 0.3 % carbon

Medium carbon steel - 0.3 to 0.7 % carbon
High carbon steel -0.7 to 1.5 % carbon
There are many special purpose types of steel in which one or more alloying metals are used,
with or without special heat treatment. Some special alloy steels are given in Table 20.1.
Table : Some Special Alloy Steels
Sr. No. Name Composition Properties Uses

1 Chrome steel 2-4% Chromium High tensile strength. Ball bearing, cutting
tools such as files.
10-20% Cuttin hig
2 Tungsten steel Tungsten Retains hardness even g tools for h
at high temperatures. speed lates.
Resists ornamenta
3. Stainless steel 18% Chromium & corrosion. Utensils, l
Nickel pieces.
Ver machinery
4. Manganese 10-18% y hard and Grinding ,
steel Manganese resistant to wear. safes
Resists corrosion,
5 Nickel steel 2.5-5% Nickel hard Wire cables, gears,
drive
and elastic shafts.
Retains corrosion
6 Molybdenum 0.3-3% even Cutting tools and axles.
steel Molybdenum at high temperatures.
7 Invar 36% Nickel Practically no Meter scales and
coefficient of pendulum rods.
expansion.
8. Silicon steel 15% Silicon Extremely hard and Pumps and pipes for
carrying
resistant to acids. acids.
Carbon steel is the most common, cheapest and most versatile metal used in industry. It has
excellent ductility, permitting many cold-forming operations. It is also very weldable. It's normal
tensile strength 345 to 485 MPa (50000 to 70000 Ibf/ in2) permits good ductility. Higher strength is
achieved by cold work, alloying and heat treatment.
The temperature at which steel begins to undergo creep, is important. The threshold
temperatures at which creep begins are :

Page 189
Mild steel - 400 °C
Low alloy steel - 500 °C
Austenitic stainless steel - 600 °C
Steel production is an index of national prosperity and the basis of mass production in many
other industries such as construction, engineering, automobiles, shipbuilding etc.
4.3.1 Manufacture of Steel :
Steelmaking started in 1855 with the invention of melting process (Bessemer), open hearth
process (1864) and the electric furnace (1900). Thereafter the LD (Linz-Donowitz) process by
oxygen lance, made it possible to manufacture high quality steel with low production cost.
For large scale production of steel three methods are employed:

3. The Bessemer Process.
4. The Open Hearth Process.
5. The Electric Furnace Process.
These methods are based on removing impurities from pig iron and then adding calculated
amounts of carbon, manganese, chromium and other elements.
Forth method, known as Cementation Process is used to manufacture steel in small quantities.
It is based on the addition of carbon to wrought iron.
(1) In Bessemer Process molten pig iron taken directly from the blast furnace is run into Bessemer
converter which a pear-shaped furnace is having holes to blow air at bottom and mouth at top. It can
be tilted on horizontal axis.
As the air passes upward through the molten metal, it oxidises the impurities (manganese,
silicon, carbon) present in the pig iron.
2Mn + O2 2MnO
Si + O2 SiO2
2C + O2 2CO
MnO and SiO2 combine to give manganous silicate slag
MnO + SiO2 MnSiO3 slag
CO burns with a blue flame at the mouth of the converter. When the whole of carbon is
oxidised, the blue flame dies out. The requisite amount of carbon is then added to convert iron into
steel. At the end, the converter is tilted to pour out the molten steel.
If cast iron, from which steel is to be obtained, contains much phosphorous, the converter is
lined with lime (CaO) and magnesia (MgO) instead of silica. Some lime is also added to the charge.
The P is oxidised to P2O5 which then forms a slag of calcium phosphate.
4P + 5O2 -> 2P2 O5

Page 190
3CaO + P2O5 -> Ca3 (PO4)2
The slag is ground and used as a fertiliser.
(2) In Open Hearth Process, a mixture of cast iron, scrap iron, iron ore and lime is melted in anOpen
Hearth furnace. The hearth is lined with silica (SiO 2) or calcined dolomite (CaO.MnO) depending
on the nature of the impurities (C, Si, S,P) present in cast iron. Heating upto about 1500 °C is
continued for 8 to 10 hours. Impurities get oxidised and then react with lime to form slag.
SiO2 + CaO -> CaSiO2 slag
P2O5 + 3CaO -> Ca3 (PO4)2 slag
Samples are taken from the hearth from time to time and analysed. The carbon content is
adjusted and other metals may be added if special steel is to be made. The finished batch of molten
steel is removed by tilling the hearth.
Advantages of the Open Hearth Process over the Bessemer Process are:
Steel obtained is of better quality.
Fuel economy by regenerative system of heat economy.
Product composition and temperature can be well controlled.
Scrap and iron ore can be directly changed into steel.
No loss due to air blast through the molten metal.
(3) The Electric Arc Furnace Process : This process involves the setting up a carbon arc.
Electrodesare held vertically and the charge of cast iron, scrap iron and iron ore (haematite), mixed
with fixed quantity of lime is added in between.
The furnace is usually lined with dolomite. Impurities (C, Si, S, P) are oxidised. Phosphate
and other slag (being lighter remain at die top) are poured off by tilting the furnace. After this a
charge of coke, lime and sand is added.
CaO + FeS -> FeO + CaS slag
FeO is reduced to metal by coke (carbon).

Page 191
As phosphorous and sulphur are almost completely removed, the steel obtained is of good
quality. High grade alloy steel can also be obtained by adding requisite alloying metal.
(4) Cementation Process : Bars of wrought iron surrounded by carbon, are heated in "fire brickboxes
over 1000 °C for about 10 days. The carbon from the iron surfaces diffuses towards interior and
converts iron into steel. Blister steel formed is melted in graphite crucibles till removal of blisters.
Other metals are added to confer hardness, tenacity and resistance to corrosion. The steel obtained is
known as Cementite Crucible Steel and used to make high grade tools such as razors, chisels etc.
5 Hazards and Safety Measures :
Main hazards in steel manufacture are as under:
5.1 Burns due to molten metal, its splashes while tapping, pouring, tilting, falling of ladle and
sparks or spatters.
5.2 Explosion in metal or slag due to water insertion and spattering of hot material over a wide
area.
5.3 Explosion risk in storage, transport and use of oxygen.
5.4 Accidents due to heavy transport of locomotives, wagons, bogies and rail mounted furnace
chargers.
5.5 Breakage or failure of lifting machines, tackles, ladles, ingots, overhead travelling cranes and
unsafe access.
5.6 Obstructed floors, platforms and stairs with materials and implements.
5.7 Accidents due to material handling.
5.8 Poisoning due to Carbon monoxide in fuel gases (converter gas 68-70%, blast furnace gas 20-
30% and coke oven gas 5-10%) or its leakage from the furnace, pipelines, water-seal valves,
repair work.
5.9 Excessive heat, heat-stroke and heat cramps (lack of salt due to excessive perspiration) to the
workers.
5.10 Dust generation e.g. sintering near furnaces and in ingot-making.
5.11 Dense fumes while using oxygen lances or its use in open hearth furnaces.
5.12 Risk of silicosis to men engaged in lining, relining and repairing furnaces or ladles with
refractory bricks which may contain 80% silica. Silicate content causes pneumoconiosis.
5.13 Eye and ear damage due to glare, high noise of blowers and electric furnaces.
To protect the workers from above hazards, following safety measures are necessary :
5.2 Engineering measures like guarding and fencing of dangerous machine parts, floors, stairs
and platforms, lifting machines, tackles, transport vehicles and safe work practices.
5.3 Good ventilation, lighting and housekeeping.
5.4 Efficient exhaust ventilation for removal of dusts, fumes, gases etc.
5.5 CO detectors should be used to ensure safety: Self breathing or air line respirators should be
worn while doing this manually. Fixed CO detectors with alarm are desirable at crucial points.
5.6 Cold drinking water and salt to worker' working in very hot environment.

Page 192
5.7 Rotation of workers after short duration work in hot processes.
5.8 Ergonomic design of man-machine-environment relationship.
5.9 Pre-employment medical examination to select suitable persons for hard or hot work, crane
work etc. TB disqualifies from work with refractory materials and heart diseases, obesity and
chronic gastroenteritis disqualify from work in hot environment.
5.10 Periodical medical examination of worker; exposed to heat stress, dust and high noise.
5.11 First-aid centre with necessary medical facilities
5.12 Safety organisation including safety committees accident investigation and discussion, safety
programmes and workers' training is essential
5.13 Use of personal protective equipment by workers exposed to excessive heat, noise, dust and
hot materials.
5 HOT WORKING OF METALS:
Hot working of metal includes foundry operations, forging operations and hot polling
operations. They are discussed below in brief.
Foundry Operations :
Flow Sheet;
Foundry process consists of melting metal, sand preparation, core making, pattern making,
mould making and then pouring molten metal into a moulding box which is made to the outside shape
of a pattern of the article required and contains, in some cases, a core which will determine the
dimensions of any internal cavity. A schematic flow chart is shown below:
In course of time foundry process is modemised and mechanised. Wooden patterns are
replaced by metal or plastic ones. A wide range of alloys are used as base metal castings. The
traditional cast metals, iron, steel, brass and bronze, now contain aluminium, titanium, chromium,
nickel, magnesium, beryllium, cadmium, and thorium. New techniques for mould and core making
are utilised. In die casting a light alloy is forced into a metal mould under pressure of 70-7000
kgf/cm2 In investment casting, wax pattern with refractory mould is used.

Page 193
The metal or alloys are melted and prepared in a furnace viz. Cupola, rotary, reverberatory,
crucible electric arc, channel or cordless induction type. After metallurgical or chemical analysis, the
molten metal is poured via a ladle or directly, into the assembled mould. When the metal has cooled,
the mould and core material, if present, are removed (stripping or knockout) and the casting is cleaned
and dressed (despruing, shot blasting, hydro - blasting and other abrasive technique). Certain castings
may require more finishing, heat treatment, welding, grinding or painting.
Generally an iron foundry comprises six sections:

Moulding.
Core making.
Metal melting and pouring.
Knock - out.
Fettling, dressing, finishing and
Miscellaneous.
The hazards and safety measures in these sections and others are explained below.
Health Hazards and Safety Measures :
They are given below in a Table.
S.No. Hazards Safety Measures

(1) Moulding (Preparation of sand, additives and mouldind boxes) :
1. Health hazard due to sand, free-silica, Good housekeeping, local exhaust
+ syste
silicones and zircon. Silicosis. Silica m on mechanised plant,
vacuum
dust in sand handling, shakeout and cleaning.
slinging
operation.
Washin
2. Irritation or dermatitis due to Phenolic g with hot water, medical
resins in thermosetting attention on
process ingestion.
Barrier creams.
3. Asthmatic symptoms due to Methylene Protective goggles, local exhaust
biphenyl isocyanate (MBI) used in cold ventilation while dealing with hot
self setting
process. sand resin mixture. Clean the
storage vessel
for 24 h with 5%
carbonate
sodium solution.
4. Skin and eye irritation due to sodium Emergenc shower eye wash
Page 194
y ,
silicate in the gas (CO2) hardened bottle, - barrier cream, precaution
against CO2
moulding process. cylinders.
Fire risks due to isopropyl alcohol protectiv

5. sprays Fire retardant e clothing,
hand protection, ventilated
on mould surface for better finish. booth to
preven
Dermatitis due to such solvent. t organic vapour exposure.
No smoking.
Strai
7. n due to lifting and shifting of Avoidance of excessive weight and
using mechanical lifting
heavy moulding boxes. device.
controls
8. Hazards of moulding machines and jolt. Two hand , dual safety
squeeze controls and knee valve jolt
control
.
(2) Coremaking (Inserting core of sand and binder into mould ) :
Well maintained
1. Harmful fumes form core baking oven. chimney.
2. Pneumoconiosis due to dusting in Dust mask and hand protection to
handling finishing cores. avoid abrasion.
3. Toxic and fire / explosion hazard where Ample water for washing, FFE,
amines are hood extractor to remove
used. fumes.
4. Core blowing machines, sand blows, Parting lines with dike seal, two
hand trapping between core box and ram hand controls for one operator and
four hand controls for two
operators, core boxes with handles.
(3) Melting and Pouring ( Furnace melted metal is poured into a moulding box
through ladle ) :
Work near Cupola Furnace-toxic effect
1 of Breathing apparatus to b kept ready,
carbon monoxide emergency work under supervision;
Natural and mechanical ventilation.
2 Repair work in furnace Safety helmet, safety belt while
working at height or depth.
Tapping i.e. transferring molten metal to
3 a Goggles and PPE, refractory or sand
floor, care in opening jammed
ladle, radiation doors,
spillag
e cleaning, mechanical

Page 195
material handling, dry sand to chill
hot run-outs.
4 Health hazards due to acrolein, Local exhaust ventilation \ air
Aluminium
, antimony, beryllium, dilution by general ventilation, FFE,
chromium, fluorides, iron oxide fumes respirators, aluminium screens
agains
and dust, lead, magnesium, manganese, t radiant heat, wetting agent,
precaution
phosphorus, SO2 resins, coal, silica s against lead poisoning,
dust explosion and fire, good
sanitary facilities, personal hygiene,
separate lunchroom and non-
contaminated drinking water.
Knock- out operation (Removal of
(4) rough casting, cores, runners and risers
from the moulding box) :
1. High noise over 90dB. Reduce the noise or use ear plugs or
muffs.
Hot sand, dust and metal being
2. separated. Eye protection and other PPE
necessary.
Safety. shoes, gloves, caps
3. Crushing or breaking of hands / feet etc.
etc.
4. Dust hazard near knock-out grill. Fine water spray (mist) over the
knock-out grill.
Fettling, Dressing & Finishing
(5) (Stripping away unwanted metal by grinding,
blasting, chipping) :
1. Noise of metal hammer for knocking. Replace metal hammer by rubber
covered hammer.
2. Throwing fragments of hot metal. Eye and face protection.
3. Noise of rumbling barrels. (this is Noise enclosure to barrel with local
prohibited) exhaust
. ventilation.
4. Pneumoconiosis due to sand blasting. Sand blasting should be replaced by
water or iron or steel shot blasting in
a fully closed system with dust
extraction system. Wear Blaster's
helmet. Warning notice, blasting in
separate room. Airless shot blasting
is also used.
Hazards of abrasive, polishing and
5. buffing Safe operation of machine tools,
equipment
. eye, face, hand and foot
Page 196
protection.
6. Dusting from dry abrasive wheels.
7. Flying objects from cleaning and
chipping.
(6) Miscellaneous (Pattern making, painting etc.) :
1. Noise in pattern making shop. Reduce noise or provide ear
protection.
2. Hazards of wood cutting and finishing Guarding and safe operation.
machines.
3. Wood dust from sawing. Local exhaust ventilation.
4. Electrical work Electrical equipment I must be
earthed and operated safely. Use
PPE. Training for respiratory
resuscitation.
5. Painting, Fire hazard from flammable Speedy fume removal. No smoking.
fumes. Use such paint in small quantity or
use water base paint.
Vacuu
6. General dusting. m cleaning, local exhaust
system at the point of origin. Water
and compressed air cleaning ( not
during or before melting and
pouring but after drying only ) No
misuse or playing of compressed
air hose. Vacuum methods are
preferred to compressed air
cleaning.
Schedule 26, Rule 102 of the Gu)arat Factories Rules, 1963:
Applicability:
This schedule is applicable to production of iron, steel or non-ferrous melting and casting by
moulds of different materials including the process of shall moulding, die-casting, pressure die-
casting, centrifugal casting, continuous casting and making ingots, billets, slabs etc. and the stripping
thereof.
It is not applicable to melting and manufacture of lead, electric accumulators, printing press,
smelting process, steel ingots, soldering, melting and casting of lead or lead-based alloy to make
ingots, billets, slabs etc.
Definitions:
Dressing or fettling operation includes stripping and other removal of adherent sand,

Page 197
cores,runners, risers, flash and other surplus metal from a casting to make the surface clean and
'smooth but does not include machining or knock-out operation.
Knock-out operation means removing castings from moulds and also stripping, coring-out
andremoval of runners and risers.
Pouring aisle means an aisle leading from a main gangway or directly from furnace to
wheremetal is poured into moulds.
Foundry is a place where production of iron, steel or non-ferrous casting (not the production
of pig iron or steel ingots) is carried out by. using moulds, including process of shell moulding,
centrifugal casting, die casting, preparation and mixing of materials, preparation of moulds and cores,
knock-out and dressing or fettling operations.
Parting Materials:
Material containing more than 5% silica and dust or matter deposited from fettling or blasting
process shall not be used as a parting material.
But natural sand, zirconium, calcined china clay, aluminuous fireclay, fused alumina,
sillimanite and divine can be used as parting material if free from silica.
Store, Floor and Cleanliness :
2. Moulding boxes, ladles, patterns, plates etc. shall be placed without unnecessary risk.
3. Racks, bins and suitable receptacles to be used to put heavy articles.
4. Floor of even and hard surface.
5. Wall height upto 4.2 mt or more should be effectively cleaned once in 14 months.
Safe and adequate space for manual work involving molten metal. It should be free ffom obstruction.
Gangways and Pouring Aisles :
Gangways should be of even surface, hard material and free from obstruction. Their
minimumwidth should be as under :
If not used to carry molten metal - 0.92 m.
If used to carry molten metal
Where truck ladles are used - 0.6 m wider than the overall width of the ladle.
Where hand shanks are carried by I or 2 men - 0.92 m.
Where hand shanks are carried by more than 2 men - 1.2 m.
Travel in both directions by men carrying hand shanks -1.8m.

Page 198
Pouring aisles should also be of even surface, hard material and free from obstruction.
Theirminimum Width should be as under -
B. Molten metal carried by I or 2 men per ladle - 0.46 m.

C. If mould remains at 0.51 m height from the floor - 0.6 m.
D. Molten metal carried by more than 2 men per ladle - 0.76 m.
E. Molten metal carried in crane trolley or truck ladle - safe width.
If the workroom or floor is made of sand, above width restriction is not applicable.
Work Near Cupolas & Furnaces :
Safety distances of 4 mts. from the delivery spout or 2.4 mts. from ladle are suggested to work
near molten metal.
Dust and Fumes :
Open coal, coke, wood or stoves may be used if their fumes have safe discharge.
Knock-out and fettling or dressing operations to be carried out in a separate room or under
effective local exhaust ventilation.
Ventilation plant should be properly maintained, examined weekly by a responsible person

and yearly by a competent person with its report in Form No. 26-A.
Protective Equipment:
Hand gloves suitable for hot work or rough work, approved respirators, suitable footwear or
gaiters for risk of burns and screens for safety against flying material shall be provided to the workers.
Storage accommodation shall also be provided.
Washing and Bathing Facilities :

Wash place under cover with 0.6 m length for every 10 persons, or stand pipes spaced
at least 1.2 mts. apart.
At least 50% of wash places should be in the form of bathrooms.
Sufficient supply of clean water, towels, nail brushes and soap.
Above facilities should be in charge of-a responsible person and in clean and orderly
conditions.
Medical Examination:
Appointment of a qualified doctor approved by the CIF, with medical facilities given
to him.
The Certifying Surgeon shall examine a worker within 15 days of his first employment.
Allotment of work only after fitness certificate in Form No. 27-A by the Certifying

Page 199
Surgeon (CS).The first test includes pulmonary function test and chest X-ray.
Re-examination by the CS every year. Record in Form No. 20.
Re-employment of unfit person if the CS declares him fit.
Other Provisions:
Knocked out burnt sand and other waste to be disposed off safely and quickly.
Dross and skimming removed from the furnace shall be placed forthwith in suitable
receptacles.
Material and equipment left out of doors should not cause risk. Safe means of access,
road ways and path ways should be properly maintained.
Material Handling in Foundries :
Ladles should have sufficient strength but not excess weight. Proper balance of hand ladle if
desirable. All crane, truck and trolley pouring ladle should have dog or gear mechanism and latch to
prevent over turning. Bottom pouring ladles should have stopper mechanism. Preventive
maintenance of hoists, monorail, cranes and conveyor to handle moulds eliminate manual handling
accidents
Floors, Pits, Gangways and Aisles :
Foundry floors should be kept clean and in good condition and level. Drainage near melting
unit is necessary. Water should be avoided here to avoid explosion hazard. To hold down dust, only
required water should be used. In molten metal are passageways at least 0.5 m above floor level is
safe Pit connected with oven or furnace and floor opening should have a cover or guard. Rail track
should be flushed with the floor. Gangways and aisles should have sufficient width depending upon
use of ladles crucibles, moulds and persons to travel.
Mechanised Foundry:
Here moulding is done by machine and casting cleaned by shot or hydro blasting. Built-in
dust control devices reduce dust hazard. Airborne dust from sand transfer by open belt conveyor
poses hazard for which exhaust hood over transfer point or conveyor are necessary. Conveying by
pneumatic system provides dust-free system. Die casting involves permanent metal moulds and
pattern making is replaced by engineering method such as die sinking wherein pattern making and
sand hazards are removed but use of refractory material to coat the die or mould provides some
degree or risk. Higher metal temperatures of steel foundry requires coloured lenses for eye protection,
dust exhaust system and respirators for dust and lungs protection from silicon dioxide. Alloy
founding may give off toxic fume of different metals. Furnace and flue cleaning may also provide
toxic exposure. Magnesium foundry poses fire hazard.
Fumes of zinc and copper may cause metal fume fever. Pressure die casting machines present hazard
similar to power presses. Mist of oils used as die lubricants and .toxic exposure of fire resistant fluid
used in presses are another hazards. All such hazards of alloy founding should be properly controlled.
Hot Rolling Mill Operations:
Rolling Mill Operations :

Page 200
Hot or cold rolling mills cover a variety operations with ferrous as well as non-ferrous metals
such as copper and aluminium.
In the rolling mill, the ingots from the soaking pits are first treated in the blooming or slabbing
mill to produce blooms, billets or slabs. Then sheet and strip steels are rolled from slab, structural
steel from blooms or billets and bars and rods from blooms or billets. In general, hot rolling is used
for heavy sections and cold rolling to give desired surface condition with only slight reduction of
section. After rolling and cooling if necessary, the product is cut to standard lengths and bundled for
dispatch in the finishing department.
Hazards and Controls :
Harmful Gases from lead alloy rolling or cutting, gas cutters, or butt welding (ozone effect),
pitfurnace and reheating furnace need effective exhaust. Lubricating oil mist, cooling emulsions,
degreasing agents for finishing operations, acids in pickling shops and ionising radiation in gauging
and examining (nondestructive testing) of metals pose many health hazards. Medical precautions are
desired.
In Hot Rolling, looping and lashing may cause burns and severing of lower limbs for
whichprotective posts or other safety devices are necessary. Bridges under roller conveyors are
required at crossing points. All hand tools and tongs to hold hot material should be well designed,
frequently inspected and well maintained. Ring spanners and impact wrenches should be given to
roll changing crews. Splash guards reduce the ejection of scale and hot water. Radiant heat levels
may go upto 1000 Kcal/ 2 in hot rolling mills. The infrared radiation may damage upper respiratory
tracts. Fans and blowers at hot working places should be so positioned as not to cause chills. Too
chilled (less than 10°C) drinks are also not good.
Forging Operations :
Hazards and Safety Measures in Forging Operations :
Forging Process is used for the plastic deformation of metals and alloys, either hot or cold by
applying the compressive forces. Hammer or impact forging exerts multiple forces while press or
roll forging excretes single force. Hammer and drop forging are carried out on hot metal only, while
press forging is also possible on cold metal. Forging may be carried out manually or mechanically.
Accidents in forge shops are generally due to hot and cold metal coming out, falls of the tup,
accidental starting of the machine, crushing hazards, radiant heat, burns, high noise etc. Forge
workers may suffer chronic rheumatism, digestive disorders (enteritis), inflammatory skin disease,
Page 201
respiratory trouble and hearing loss due to high noise and vibration.
General Safety Measures are : Good plant layout, uncongested machine and process
layout,good housekeeping and ventilation, good draft to furnace and efficient exhaust of gases, water
curtains and reflective or insulating screens for protection against radiant heat and hot air, local
exhaust systems at the furnaces, cold air showers at hot work places, noise absorbent panels and deep
and massive foundations to suppress vibrations. Rest rooms protected against radiant heat should be
provided and equipped with air and water showers etc. Comfortable conditions are 19° to 24°C (not
exceeding 27°C) air temperature, 30 to 50% relative humidity and 0.5 m/ s air velocity. Protective
heat-resistant armlets, gaiters, aprons, safety footwear, eye and face shield, ear muffs or plugs to
workers and their pre-employment and periodical medical examinations and safety training are also
necessary.
Specific safety measures in forging operations are as follows :
Raw Materials :
In the sequence of forging operations the fist stage is receiving, storing and preparation of
raw materials for actual forging process.
Receiving : Raw material, in bars of various lengths and shapes, is received by railway wagon
orautomobile truck. Unloading operations should be carried out safely under the experienced
supervision. Mechanical lifting and carrying should be preferred.
Storage : Adequate storage facilities should be provided with overhead crane or

hoistarrangement for safe mechanical handling. When piling is done in racks, retaining posts
separating the different types of material should be used to retain maximum load. The bundles should
be separated by
tie timber of sufficient strength to prevent being crushed or broken. Spacers should be placed between
bundles to facilitate the booking up of slings.
Handling : The handling of bar stock in storage areas creates specific hazards, which must
beprevented. Most storage areas have overhead cranes and either the electromagnet or the sling
suspension method to carry.
Electromagnet is permissible where the storage area is isolated from general manufacturing
area or separated by walls and fences which will control exposure to plant-personnel not assigned to
the handling operation. The magnet should be energised by a reliable constant power circuit, which
is separate from the crane control circuit. Controls should be equipped with a switch that can be
locked in position. The temperature of the magnet should be closely watched as its capacity drops as
temperature rises. The magnet must be lowered to rest and power to magnet must be-off at all tunes,
when the crane operator is not at the controls.
Shearing and Cutting : Most bar stock is reduced to forging multiples as per requirements
offorging. Some multiples are cut by metal saws. Saw tables for bar stock must be substantial and
should be provided with rollers or slides to assist in positioning for feed to the saw and for transferring

Page 202
cut multiples from the machine. Transmission parts should be adequately guarded. The wheels and
all moving parts of band saws should be metal encased. Sliding or adjustable guards should cover
the blade of circular saw and band saw with the exception of the point of operation.
Forging Furnaces:
Various types of furnaces are used to preheat metals before forging. The principal furnaces
used are the box, pusher, rotary and slot type.
When lighting the oil fired furnaces, a lighting torch should be provided and placed on the
furnace hearth near the burner opening where the mixture of oil and air will strike the torch flame.
The operator should stand clear of the furnace openings so as not be exposed to possible flash back.
With gas fired furnace, the charge and discharge doors should be opened and the furnace purged to
remove any concentration of gas. Pilots should then be lit after which the burner may be turned on
slowly, making sure that each burner is operating before proceeding lo the next. Furnace doors should
be left open until the walls of the heating zone becomes a cherry red. If the furnace is not equipped
with pilots, it should be ignited by means of a gas torch inserted through an opening in the furnace
wall or burner block near the burner opening. This should be done before the burner valve is opened.
Those assigned to light-up operations on either oil or gas fired furnaces should wear clothing that is
free from flammable greases or oils to prevent setting it on fire. He should wear proper eye and a
face protection (safety spectacle with side shades and a face shield ) and a safety hat.
Both gas and oil presents fire and explosion hazards. Whenever the odour of gas is detected,
checks should be made to locate the source. Only a gas detecting instrument or a solution of soap
and water should be used. The use of any type of ignition only adds to the hazard already present by
introducing the possibility of an explosion. Should a leak become ignited, do not attempt to
extinguish it until the fuel source has been shut off. This will extinguish the flame as the fuel becomes
exhausted. In addition to any safety valves which may be installed, all fuel lines should be equipped
with easily operated manual valves installed at the floor level. They must be readily accessible and
plainly identified. The floor area at the valve should be kept clear of stock or other material. Due to
vibration set up by the impact of forging equipment, leaks in the fuel lines are a common occurrence
in the forgeshop and should be repaired as soon as detected. Regular inspection schedules should be
set up by the maintenance staff to locate and repair fuel line leaks.
Forging furnace should be shielded as much as possible to protect employees from radiant
heat. This can be done by means of asbestos covered screens, metal shield backed by refractory
material and stainless steel or aluminium sheets having radiant heat reflective qualities. A water or
airline installed along the bottom of the furnace opening,, drilled with small holes in it, will help
curtain the heat. Movable plates suspended from a rod across the furnace opening will help control
radiant heat. These plates must be free to slide along the supporting rod so that operator as he needs,
may move them back and forth at the furnace opening.
Electrical hazards around forging furnace exist due to the breakdown of wiring insulation
because of exposure to heat and moisture. Prompt repair of defective wiring will reduce the hazard.
Electrical cables should never be permitted to lie on the floor where they may be run by trucks,
damaged by stock containers, dies or hot forging.
Furnaces should be equipped with safety disconnect switches that can be locked out when
Page 203
repairs are made. Carbon monoxide detectors with alarm, and other instruments which will reveal
the presence of harmful gases should be used to check out a furnace before employees are permitted
to enter. The fuel lines should be disconnected or sealed to prevent fuel running into the repair areas
inside the furnace. Permit-to-work system should be adopted. There should be main safety switch in
the primary power source ahead of fuses that can be. locked out.
Excess smoke from the oil fired furnaces should be exhausted by means of an exhaust-
ventilation system and furnace hood. Cooling fans are necessary equipment in the forge plant but can
be die cause of many serious accidents. The fan blades etc. should be adequately guarded with sturdy
wire mesh guards. Up right conduit extension for electrical cable should be provided which would
keep the cable off the floor. Fire extinguishers, suitable for oil fires, should be available for use in
areas where oil is used. Rigid house keeping standards should be set up and followed. Oil absorbent
compounds should be used on floors to reduce fire and slipping hazards.
Preventive Maintenance of Forging Machines :
Forging Hammers :
In most of the forge shops, drop hammers are used. These can be classified into board drop
and air or seam drop hammers depending on the means or method of power transmission.
Treadle Guard : The operating treadle should be guarded to prevent accidental depressing
of thetreadle. It is important that the treadle guard be well designed to provide complete coverage
and at the same time allow enough clearance for operator comfort and control of the treadle action.
Overhead Bolts : Because the steam or air drop hammer is a heavy impact machine , there
areseveral internal and external stresses occurring in the hammer structure during -the forging
process. Continued stress and vibration causes metal fatigue of the critical parts of the hammer. One
cannot predict the life of these parts, so it is important that protective safety measures be taken to
guard against the falling object hazard. Parts that frequently fail are head bolts, cylinder bolts, guide
bolts, cylinder bolt springs, column bolts and gland bolts. These parts should be retained and
prevented from falling by installing safety cables or chains.
Power Transmission Parts : In the case of board drop hammers, all exposed power
transmissionparts be well guarded. This includes the flywheel, drive belts, motor pulley and drive
coupling etc.
Scale Shields : Complete confinement of scale is necessary if serious burns and eye injuries
are tobe prevented. Portable shields should also be used when driving out die or some block keys to
prevent injuries by a die key flying out into the working area.
Safety Head : All steam or air drop hammers should be equipped with a safely type cylinder
headdesigned to cushion the impact blow if the piston breaks or pulls out of the ram.
Start up Precautions : In starting a steam driven hammer, the exhaust valve must always
beopened first and then die main steam valve. This must be done very slowly to prevent damage to

Page 204
the cylinder head. If it were opened rapidly, any water (condensate) in the cylinder could not escape
as rapidly as the steam. Therefore, driving the piston against this water would put undue shock on
the cylinder head. A full stroke of the piston must not be made until the water on both sides of the
piston has been blown away. This is accomplished by taking short partial strokes.
Other Precautions : Air or steam valve should be closed whenever the hammer will not be
usedfor considerable length of time. The ram, piston rod and dies are much more likely to be broken
when cold.
Maintenance and Inspection : For complete dismantling and overhaul of a hammer as well
asday-to-day maintenance, select tools and rigging equipment carefully. Because hammer parts are
extremely heavy and bulky, employees must be fully trained in heavy rigging and repair work. A
well planned inspection and preventive maintenance and accurate up-to-date records of replacement
parts are necessary. Hammer equipment is usually hot and slippery thus creating a hazardous
condition if proper facilities are not provided. Proper rigging equipment, hand tools, hoisting
equipment, ladder and platforms should be available. Permanent platforms at overhead for hammer
repair and adjustment areas are absolutely necessary.
Forging Press:
Due to its basic design, the forging press falls within the classification of power presses and
hence hazards involved are similar to those of power presses. Therefore its maintenance is also
similar to that of a power press. See part 6.2.2.
Trim Press:

Page 205
Some forging have a rim of excess metal called flash. It must be removed by trimming
(shearing) the metal either while it is still hot from forging operation or after it has cooled. This work
is done in Trim Presses. Hazards and precautions involved are similar to power presses. See part
6.2.2.
Horizontal Forging Machines:
Horizontal forging machines are also called headers or up setters. These machines are
designed for forging bolt heads etc.
Guarding : All parts of the machine except the feeding area should be entirely enclosed.
Accessdoors may be cut into the enclosure in order to serve or lubricate moving parts. Movable
section of guards should be interlocked so that the machine cannot be operated until every thing is
in proper place. To prevent accidental tripping of the operating pedal, it should be enclosed.
Die Setting and Repairs : When dies are changed, repaired or adjusted, all power should first
beshut off and locked out to prevent accidental starting. When the flywheel is completely stopped,
dies open, and the header slide is completely back, the dies should be removed. Dies for new set up
are usually lowered into the machine with a pry bar. It is good practice to make the set-up according
to die layout.
Safe Work Practices in Forging Operations:
Stuck Forging:
In the event of stuck forging, the proper knock out tools and techniques should be applied.
The tools should be made so that they are easy to handle and hook safely either around a die block
or on the back of the die to prevent kick-back. They should bemade from soft steel and receive proper
care, inspection and maintenance. Die liners, flash, wrenches or bars should never be used to remove
stuck forging. Cold steel should never be placed between dies to dislodge stuck forging--
Suspended Chains and Trolleys :
Because forging operations require a great deal of stock movement (such as from furnace to
hammer to press to conveyor ) overhead trolley with suspended chains or tongs and hoist for heavy
material are used to great advantage. Equipment including hoists, slings and chains should always be
kept in good working order by periodic inspection and preventive maintenance schedules.
Props and Catches:
Props mid catches used during productions : Loose props should not be used. To support the
ram between forging sequences on hammers, mechanical props or catches attached permanently to
the hammers should be used. There are two main types: counter balanced props and fork catches.
Fork catches have the merit of giving maximum engagement when supporting the ram, but they suffer
from
certain mechanical disadvantages and prone to failure, if not effectively maintained. Ends of the prop
Page 206
should be absolutely flat for better support.
Props used during die changing : With all types of hammers the ram has to be supported in a
raised position during die changing, and the usual method employed is to use a prop. Every hammer
should have its own die changing prop, which have an identifying mark on it and should be secured
to the hammer. Props should be used during die changing in hammers with automatic or pneumatic
hold-up gear. Accidents have occurred when the ram has been kept in raised position by held up gear
( in case of steam or pneumatic hammer, by pressure ). Inadvertent tripping of the hammer pedal has
caused the ram to fall and serious injury to the person setting. An additional and much safer
precaution is to switch off power or close securely all main supply valves on air and steam hammers
and support the ram by a properly designed and maintained prop.
Tongs:
Tongs are the basic handling tool of the forging trade and, because of their tremendous impact
force, they can cause serious accidents. How well the tongs are handled by the operator and how well
they fit to the forgings are factors which control this hazard. Light weight tongs, properly fitted to
stock or forging, are recommended. Tongs should be of sufficient length so that handles cannot kick
back and cause injury. They must be handled and held properly to prevent finger and hand injuries.
To help prevent forging or billets from being dropped during handling, the tongs bits must be properly
fitted to the tong hold. When riot in use, tongs should be stored on specially designed tong-stand.
Replacement tongs must be readily available to discourage employees from using worn out tongs.
Personal Protective Equipment:

Personal protective equipment for forge shop employees include safety shoes, leather leg
guards, safety helmets, hand and arm protection, leather aprons, etc. Goggles with coloured or clear
lenses, face shield or wire mesh face screen should be worn to help prevent face and eye injuries.
Aluminised asbestos cloth overalls should be provided to furnace men to protect them from radiant
heat. Ear muffs or ear plugs should be provided to forging crew to protect them from noise.
Safety in Use, Handling, Storage and Changing of Dies :

Die Design : Proper die design incorporates the safety needs of all operations. The size of
theblocks selected for a die is dependent on the size of the hammer and on the type and number of
impressions. Selection of too small a block increases the hazard of breakage and injury during
forging. Danger of loosening or breaking of dies increases, if the striking surface is not held to a total
area, which is in direct proportion to the size and stroke of the hammer in which it will be used.
Narrow areas of striking surface should be avoided to reduce the possibility of cutting the metal
which might overflow the gutter. Gutters should be adequate to completely contain the access metal,
or flash and prevent it from being forced on to the striking surface where it can be squirted like bullets
from the die.
Die Making and Die Sinking :

Probably the most important single factor for safety in die making is the establishment of
definite uniform standards. These reduce operational hazards and avoid unusual or makeshift
practices.
Die Making : Machine should be adequately guarded. Turntables are recommended for

Page 207
eachbench for easier manually turning of the die blocks.
Die Handling : Hooks, eye or other devices for handling should not be attached to forging
die asthey break off under constant forging impact. Holes in opposite sides of a die block into which
a pin is inserted for lifting with a sling is the desirable method. The pins should be of uniform size
and sufficient length to provide slings with pins built into the sling assembly to prevent use of make
shift pins in lifting blocks.
Die Storage : The storage of dies should provide a smooth and level base area with ample
spacebetween rows for mechanical handling equipment and easy access without undue die
movement. Compartments for die storage racks should provide space for the largest and heaviest dies
to be stored on the lower tiers and graduated with the smallest and lightest dies on the upper tiers.
Removal and Set up of Dies :
Key Driving : Extreme care should be taken when driving die key either in or out. Severe
injuriesas Well as strains and bruises can result from improper or careless handling. Correctly tapered
key made of medium carbon steel, properly heat treated, should be used. Regular inspection for
mushroom ends or other defects should be made both before driving and promptly after removal. Die
key should be designed to protrude only a safe distance to permit driving from both front and back.
When using a pneumatic key driver or suspended key ram, one man should direct operations. The
immediate area should always be clear of both unused equipment and unnecessary personnel, because
there must be sufficient clearance for necessary equipment and personnel for safe and efficient
driving.
Dowels : Dowels should be properly designed and maintained. Dowels should be driven in
tightmushroom head.
Die Repair : Die repairmen are subject to the hazards like burns from hot dies, danger of
flyingsparks, lacerations from die or tools, strains and bruises from improper handling of dies. To
ensure safe operations, adequate space and equipment should be provided. Safety glasses and safety
shoes must be worn at all times. Proper handling facilities should be installed. Repairing dies under
a hammer should be discouraged.
COLD WORKING OF METALS
General:
There are thousands of metal working machines, machine tools and methods for variety of
machine operations for general and special jobs which require individual guard design, treatment and
different principles. The safety aspect of all such machines cannot be covered in one chapter.
Therefore some common principles and methods of guarding are discussed below. An efficient
engineering design and application are most
The five functional methods of cold working of metals are pressing or punching, shearing or
cutting, rolling, bending and hammering.
Pressing or punching consists of forming, shaping, cutting or assembling metal by means of

Page 208
tools or dies attached to plungers or other moving parts. Various types of power presses,
hydraulic presses and pneumatic presses are included here.
Shearing consists of cutting metal by the shearing action of movable knives. They may have
straight or bevel edged blade. Shearing action may be of a guillotine knife, the sliding action
of scissors or the rolling action of rotating disks. Squaring shears, plate shears, guillotine
shears, alligator shears, rotary shears, circular shears, *disc shears and rotary slitters are
included here.
Rolling consists of forming or shaping, drawing or reducing the thickness of metal by bringing
it in contact with revolving power driven rolls. Bending rolls, straightening rolls, corrugating
rolls, heading rolls, flanging rolls, wire drawing and hot or cold rolling mills are included
here.
Bending (braking) consists of bending or forming sheet metal by means of a tool or die usually
actuated by a ram. Some brakes operate like press and some like a guillotine shear. Brakes are
known as press brakes or apron brakes and are also identified by their operation e.g. folders,
flanger, corrugators or crimpers.
Hammering consists of forming, shaping or breaking metal by means of gravity or power

operated plungers which may or may not be fitted with a die, the metal to be formed resting
on an anvil or a die. The plunger may be raised by mechanical, steam, hydraulic or pneumatic
power.
The most dangerous part or zone is the point of operation and the purpose of point of operation
guarding is to prevent injury to the operator at the part of the machine where above mentioned
operations are carried out. Seven principles of such guarding are :
Design and construct tools so that the guards may not be needed.
Provide enclosures/covers and barricades.
Provide mechanical feeding device.
Provide device that prevents or interrupts the movement of tools when the operator is in the danger
zone.
Provide remote control operating mechanism.
Provide device (guard) that removes the body part safely from the danger zone
Combination of these devices to achieve full protection.
For types and selection of guards see Part 4 of Chapter-14 on machine guarding. They indicate
the principles of safe machine design. Individual motor drive, elimination of manual operation in
hazardous zone, safe location, safe arrangement and position of machines and their dangerous parts,
guarding of prime mover and transmission mechanism, ergonomic design and follow-up of statutory
provisions and Indian standards are all useful to prevent machine accidents.
We saw that the point of operation is the dangerous zone which requires effective guarding.
The best course is to provide fully automatic feeding and ejecting device at such point so that the
man-machine contact is avoided. A hopper, magazine, feed roll or similar device should be designed

Page 209
and applied. If this is not possible, provide semiautomatic feeding device viz., a chute, slide, sliding
die, dial or similar device which feeds to the point of operation. If this is also not possible, a manual
feeding may be permitted with appropriate guarding and precaution. Automatic feeding and
automatic ejection of the material will allow the danger zone to be fully enclosed (as the operator
does not need to place his hands there) and full concentration on production (as no fear of injury),
lhus increasing safety and productivity both.
Safe Operations and Maintenance of Machines:
See Chapter-14 for general principles of machine guarding. They are equally applicable to
cold working of metals including machine tools. Some instructions for safe operation and
maintenance are as under :
Safe Operation of Machines :
Operators should be well trained for machine operation.

Trained supervision should be provided.
Safe work procedures should be followed to avoid short-cuts and chance taking.
Dangerous parts must be properly guarded.
New machine, equipment or tool should be inspected before use.
Running machine should not be left unattended. It should be shut down in a safe mode. Off
switch should have locking device. Machine under repair should have tagging and warning
notice.
Operators should not wear loose-fitting clothing, loose sleeves, neckties and metal jewellery.
They should not lean over rotating parts.
Operators should wear eye and head protection. They should run the machine at proper speed.
Gagging, callipering and manual adjustment should not be carried out while machine in
motion.
Open hands should not be used to clean scraps and chips. Brushes, vacuum cleaner or special
equipment should be used for that purpose.
Proper hand tool should be used and job should be properly fitted in the machine. Constant
watch for proper machining is necessary.
Compressed air should not be used to blow chips from machine or clothing. If it is to be used,
nozzle air pressure should be less than 20 psig.
Planned maintenance system (PMS) includes post inspection repairs, routine servicing and
overhauling, periodical inspections and scheduled repairs. A widely used PMS cycle is
GIRIRIMIRIRIMIRIRIG where G, I, R & M indicate general overhaul, inspection, routine repairs
and medium repairs.
Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) :
It is a philosophy which brings results when practiced. Motivates people to come together,
builds team sprit with pride of ownership. A person strategy for achieving excellence in business
through complete cultural age.".
Dr. Doming gave birth to concept of TQM in 1970 after World War II, which had a great
influence on Japanese Industry. TPM is evolved from TQM.
Page 210
It becomes popular in manufacturing industries.
TPM was brought to India in 90's and successfully implemented in many industries.
Objectives:
To maximize Overall Equipment Effectiveness through total employee involvement.
To improve the Equipment Reliability and Maintainability &: this will improve Quality &
Productivity.
To cultivate the equipment related expertise among operating personnel.
To create anenthusiastic & lively work Environment and culture.
Benefits:
TPM encompasses a powerful Structured Approach to change mind set amongst people
marking a visible change in the Work Culture of the Company.
Zero Defects.
Zero Breakdowns.
Zero Customers Complaints and,
Zero Accident.
Purpose of TPM:
It involves everyone from top to bottom to make the Organization Efficient & Effective with
Lowest Cost.
Zero Waste, and
Excellent Quality with,
Zero Accidents.
It guarantees improved results, visibly transforms the work place, and raises the level of
knowledge and skills of the employees.
TPM Parameters:
Effectiveness of TPM in industry is reflected by improvement in following

parameters: P - Productivity of Enhancement.
Q - Quality
Improvement. C - Cost
Control.
D - Delivery in
time. S - Safety.
M - Morale.
Pillars of TPM are -

Autonomous Maintenance (Jishu-Hozen)
Focused Maintenance (Kobestu-Kaizen).
Planned Maintenance. .
Quality Maintenance.

Page 211
Development Maintenance.
TPM in administrative & support departments.
Education and training.
Safety and environment Management.
Mechanical Hazard
Mechanical Hazards
In general, safety can be increased by ensuring that equipment is well maintained.

Turn off all equipment before leaving the area.
Students must only use equipment with teacher supervision.
Rotating Machinery
Machinery with rotating parts can catch loose clothing, hands, or hair, potentially causing serious
injuries. Uncovered parts may also fly off, thereby creating additional risk, especially for eye
injuries.
To minimize risks, do the following wherever possible:

Ensure rotating shafts, belts, and pulleys are covered by guards, lids, or covers.
Check devices attached to a rotor before use to ensure that they are tightly fastened.
Wear (and have students wear) eye protection when using uncovered, rapidly rotating parts, as in the
demonstration of centripetal force and circular motion.
Have students stand back as much as possible.
Have a safety shield available in the science area.
Mechanical Hazards
In general, safety can be increased by ensuring that equipment is well maintained.

Turn off all equipment before leaving the area.
Students must only use equipment with teacher supervision.
Rotating Machinery
Machinery with rotating parts can catch loose clothing, hands, or hair, potentially causing serious
injuries. Uncovered parts may also fly off, thereby creating additional risk, especially for eye
injuries.
To minimize risks, do the following wherever possible:

Ensure rotating shafts, belts, and pulleys are covered by guards, lids, or covers.
Check devices attached to a rotor before use to ensure that they are tightly fastened.

Page 212
Wear (and have students wear) eye protection when using uncovered, rapidly rotating parts, as in the
demonstration of centripetal force and circular motion.
Have students stand back as much as possible.
Have a safety shield available in the science area.
Tools
Careless use of tools or use of tools in poor condition can cause injuries to the hands, eyes, head,
and limbs.
To minimize risks:
Regularly check tools for defects or damage.
Damaged tools should be immediately removed from student use.
Provide students with clear instructions on safe use before they have access to tools.
Cutting Tools (Scalpels, Razor Blades)

By design, these instruments are very sharp. Careless use can quickly result in deep cuts.
To minimize risks:
Use extreme caution in handling cutting tools, and ensure that students do the same.
Replacement of blades is best done by teachers or technicians.
Wear eye protection when using cutting tools in case a blade breaks.
Magnets
Large, powerful magnets or electromagnets can attract other magnets or iron/ nickel objects with
surprising force, which can cause painful pinching of fingers or hands.
To minimize risks:
Inform students of this hazard before such magnets are used.
Glassware
Any kind of glassware has the potential to break, creating the risk for cuts or spilled materials.
To minimize risks:
Wear goggles for eye protection.
Use heat-resistant glassware, which is less likely to crack when heated.
Avoid using glass containers that are cracked or chipped, since they may crack further during the
experiment.
Clean up any broken glass immediately and dispose of in a special waste bin dedicated to broken
glass.
Do not pick up glass with your hands—use a dustpan and brush or broom.

Page 213
Fire Hazard
Storage of Waste and Combustible Material
Build-up of waste such as paper, cardboard and other combustible materials can be a problem in
many workplace sites, in particular offices. Regular disposal of such materials reduces the risk of it
acting as a fuel for potential fires should they break out. A simple source of ignition, for example a
discarded cigarette, can set this alight resulting in a fire that burns rapidly.
Avoiding storing rubbish on-site is the best solution, or if this isn’t possible make sure it is in a
designated area away from main buildings and any possible sources of ignition.
Flammable Liquids and Vapours

Workplaces particularly at risk may include industrial warehouses and factories, where large amounts
of flammable liquids may be stored. Flammable liquids are at risk of igniting instantly when they
come into contact with a spark or naked flame. Vapours are also equally dangerous as they risk
exploding with devastating consequences.
To reduce the risk of a fire from liquids or vapours, always ensure that containers of flammable
liquids and solvents are properly sealed, and in the event of any spillage, they are cleaned up
immediately.
Dust

Page 214
Dust and powder build up from wood, plastic and metal operations can cause explosions in enclosed
spaces if there is no proper ventilation. Where there is a risk of dust in the air, for example in factories,
extraction fans should be installed. Equipment and machinery that heats up when used should also
be kept clean and free of grease and dust.
Blocked Fire Exits
Ensure all fire exits are free from clutter and easily accessible. Blockages or obstructions prevent
safe and speedy escape if a fire breaks out, posing a major hazard as it endangers lives.
Fire Doors Left Open

The purpose of a fire door is to prevent the further spread of fire throughout a building. Often, fire
doors are propped open which renders the door useless in the event of a fire.
Objects that Generate Heat

As one of the three elements required to start a fire, heat generated from electrical equipment and
machinery can pose a real threat. Ensure combustible materials such as paper are kept away from
such heat sources and unplug any equipment that is not being used if possible. Electrical equipment
or machinery should never be left on overnight unless absolutely necessary.
Faulty Electrical Equipment

Fires caused by faulty electrical equipment are one of the most common fire types in the workplace.
Keep an eye out for any signs of loose cabling or damaged plugs and replace any faulty equipment.
All electrical equipment should be regularly checked and PAT tested by an expert.
Untested Fire Alarms

Page 215
Having a fire alarm system installed is great, but is no use whatsoever if they don’t work or the
batteries have run out. Having a maintenance schedule and contract in place for your fire alarm
system will ensure it works when you need it most.
Overloading Power Sockets

Whilst this is a common cause of electrical fires, it is one that is easily avoided too. Too many
appliances plugged into the same socket or using faulty extension leads can result in overheating and
potentially a fire. Using one plug in each socket and not using appliances that total more than 13amps
or 3000 watts across the whole socket can lessen the fire risk from power sockets.
Smoking
If not put out and disposed of properly, discarded cigarettes can very easily cause fires. If smoking
is allowed to take place near areas where flammable materials are present, it is particularly hazardous.
Designated smoking areas should be allocated away from main buildings and flammables.
Encouraging staff to make sure their cigarettes are properly put out and using specially provided bins
helps to minimise risk.
Heat Hazards
Heating devices create fire and injury hazards. The potential risks posed by these devices vary with
the heating device used and the way in which it is used.
To minimize risks:
Provide test tube holders or tongs to handle hot equipment and containers.
Provide heat-resistant gloves for handling heated objects or containers.
Warn students about the dangers of reaching over an exposed flame or heat source.
Provide heat-resistance glassware to prevent cracking and spilling of hot contents.
Ensure students allow ample time for heated objects to cool before touching them.

Page 216
Additional precautions for specific heat sources are described below.
Bunsen burners provide a direct and very efficient source of heat for laboratory purposes: however,
there is a risk of burns, particularly to student fingers and hands. If the burner is used to heat water
or a solution, the rapid heating can cause hot liquid to bubble out as it reaches its boiling point. In
general, Bunsen burners would not be the preferred source of heat in Early Years settings and might
also be avoided in Middle Years.
To minimize risks:
Use Bunsen burners only if the activity requires high heat and if the maturity of the students is
sufficient.
Provide students with training on the use of Bunsen burners, particularly the routine of lighting and
regulating flame intensity and air flow to produce a smokeless flame.
To reduce the chance of ”bumping,” which is the superheating of some of the liquid being heated,
boiling chips or glass beads should be used.
Heating liquids in test tubes can be the most dangerous. First, the flame should be as low as possible
and the test tube must be held firmly with a test tube clamp. For gentle heating, the test tube should
be quickly rotated in and out of the flame and the contents swirled for even heating. If the liquid is
not evenly heated, it may super-heat and bump out of the test tube.
Point the test tube mouth away from anyone nearby when using Bunsen burners to heat a solution or
water in a test tube.
Never heat a stoppered test tube.
Use hot plates when flammable liquids are being used anywhere in the laboratory.
Toxic and chemical handling hazard:
What are hazardous chemicals?
Under the WHS Regulations, a hazardous chemical is any substance, mixture or article that satisfies
the criteria of one or more Globally Harmonised System of Classification and Labelling of
Chemicals (GHS) hazard classes, including a classification in Schedule 6 of the WHS Regulations.
However, some hazard classes and categories of the GHS are excluded by the WHS Regulations.
See Appendix A for the definition of ‘hazardous chemical’ and other terms used in this Code.
Most substances and mixtures that are dangerous goods under the ADG Code are hazardous
chemicals, except those that have only radioactive hazards (class 7 dangerous goods), infectious
substances (division 6.2) and most class 9 (miscellaneous) dangerous goods.
A comparison of dangerous goods classifications under the ADG code with those under the GHS
is provided in Appendix B.

Page 217
In relation to chemicals, a hazard is a set of inherent properties of the substance, mixture, article or
process that may cause adverse effects to organisms or the environment. There are two broad types
of hazards associated with hazardous chemicals which may present an immediate or long term
injury or illness to people. These are:
Health hazards – These are properties of a chemical that have the potential to cause adverse health
effects. Exposure usually occurs through inhalation, skin contact or ingestion. Adverse health effects
can be acute (short term) or chronic (long term). Typical acute health effects include headaches,
nausea or vomiting and skin corrosion, while chronic health effects include asthma, dermatitis, nerve
damage or cancer.
Physicochemical hazards – These are physical or chemical properties of the substance, mixture or
article that pose risks to workers other than health risks, as they do not occur as a consequence of the
biological interaction of the chemical with people. They arise through inappropriate handling or use
and can often result in injury to people and/or damage to property as a result of the intrinsic physical
hazard. Examples of physicochemical hazards include flammable, corrosive, explosive, chemically
reactive zand oxidising chemicals.
Many chemicals have both health and physicochemical hazards.

Who has health and safety duties in relation to hazardous chemicals?
Under the WHS Act, a person conducting a business or undertaking has the primary duty to ensure,
so far as is reasonably practicable, that the health and safety of workers and other persons are not
put at risk from work carried out as part of the conduct of the business or undertaking. This includes
ensuring the safe use, handling and storage of substances.
The WHS Regulations include specific duties for a person conducting a business or undertaking to
manage the risks to health and safety associated with using, handling, generating and storing
hazardous chemicals at a workplace. The duties include:
correct labelling of containers and pipework, using warning placards and outer warning placards and
displaying of safety signs
maintaining a register and manifest (where relevant) of hazardous chemicals and providing
notification to the regulator of manifest quantities if required
. identifying risk of physical or chemical reaction of hazardous chemicals and ensuring the stability
of hazardous chemicals
. ensuring that exposure standards are not exceeded
. provision of health monitoring to workers
. provision of information, training, instruction and supervision to workers
. provision of spill containment system for hazardous chemicals if necessary
. obtaining the current Safety Data Sheet (SDS) from the manufacturer, importer or supplier of the
chemical
. controlling ignition sources and accumulation of flammable and combustible substances

Page 218
. provision and availability of fire protection, fire fighting equipment and emergency and safety
equipment
. preparing an emergency plan if the quantity of a class of hazardous chemical at a workplace
exceeds the manifest quantity for that hazardous chemical
. stability and support of containers for bulk hazardous chemicals including pipework and
attachments
. decommissioning of underground storage and handling systems
. notifying the regulator as soon as practicable of abandoned tanks in certain circumstances
The WHS Regulations contain prohibitions or restrictions on certain hazardous chemicals (e.g.
certain carcinogens) except in specified circumstances and a restriction on the age of a person who
can supply hazardous chemicals.
There are also duties relating to the building, operation and management of pipelines used for the
transfer of hazardous chemicals.
Designers, manufacturers, importers and suppliers of substances must also ensure, so far as is
reasonably practicable, that the substance they design, manufacture, import or supply is without risks
to health and safety. Under the WHS Regulations, manufacturers and importers must correctly
classify hazardous chemicals.
The WHS Regulations also impose duties on importers, manufacturers and suppliers relating to the
preparation of safety data sheets (SDS), the disclosure of ingredients, packing, labelling and supply
of hazardous chemicals.
Officers, such as company directors, have a duty to exercise due diligence to ensure that the business
or undertaking complies with the WHS Act and Regulations. This includes taking reasonable steps
to ensure that the business or undertaking has and uses appropriate resources and processes to
eliminate or minimise risks that arise from hazardous chemicals at the workplace.
Workers have a duty to take reasonable care for their own health and safety and must not adversely
affect the health and safety of other persons. Workers must comply with any reasonable instruction
and cooperate with any reasonable policy or procedure relating to the use, handling and storage of
hazardous chemicals at the workplace
What is required to manage the risks associated with hazardous chemicals?
A person conducting a business or undertaking must manage risks associated with using, handling,
generating or storing of hazardous chemicals at a workplace. In order to manage risk under the WHS
Regulations, a duty holder must:
a) identify reasonably foreseeable hazards that could give rise to the risk
b) eliminate the risk so far as is reasonably practicable
c) if it is not reasonably practicable to eliminate the risk – minimise the risk so far as is reasonably
practicable by implementing control measures in accordance with the hierarchy of risk control

Page 219
d) maintain the implemented control measure so that it remains effective
e) review, and if necessary revise all risk control measures so as to maintain, so far as is reasonably
practicable, a work environment that is without risks to health and safety.
Prohibited and restricted hazardous chemicals
The WHS Regulations prohibit or restrict the use, storage or handling of certain hazardous
chemicals in certain situations. For example, substances containing arsenic must not be used in
spray painting or abrasive blasting, while a number of carcinogens such as 4-nitrodiphenyls are
prohibited from all uses except for genuine research or analysis authorised by the regulator. Certain
chemicals can be used, handled or stored in the workplace after receiving approval from the
regulator. Schedule 10 of the WHS Regulations provides further information on the hazardous
chemicals that are restricted or prohibited for use (see Appendix C of this Code).
Exposure standards
A person conducting a business or undertaking must ensure that no person at the

workplace is exposed to a substance or mixture in an airborne concentration that
exceeds the relevant exposure standard for the substance or mixture.
HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS GENERATED OR MANUFACTURED IN THE

WORKPLACE
Some processes will produce hazardous chemicals as by-products or waste. These hazards may not
be easily identified when generated at the workplace, for example hydrogen sulphide in a sewer or
diesel exhaust fume from truck engines. Information on by-products may be available from a SDS,
but not always. You should find out what hazardous chemicals may be produced from work
activities, for example: use of welding rods may liberate toxic fumes and vapours, grinding metals
release toxic metal dust or fumes, off-gassing of solvent vapours from glues used to manufacture
timber products such as Medium Density Fibre (MDF), and dusts released from machining timbers
are hazardous to health or can present a dust explosion risk.
If you produce or generate hazardous chemicals in the workplace, you must manage the risks
associated with those chemicals.
Once you have identified which chemicals are hazardous, you must prepare, maintain and keep a
register of hazardous chemicals at the workplace, and a manifest if any Schedule 11 hazardous
chemicals are above the prescribed limits (see Section 1.6 of this Code)
Hazard classification This information will be present on

the SDS in the form of hazard
statements, for example “may cause
cancer” or “flammable liquid”.

Page 220
The route of entry This information is important as it lets
you assess the health risks to your
workers. Routes of entry can include
inhalation (breathing it in), skin
contact, ingestion (swallowing it), eye
contact and injection through high
pressure equipment.
Depending on the substance, the
severity of the harm could range from
minor to major, for example, from
minor skin irritation to chronic
respiratory disease. Some chemicals
may not be hazardous by all routes of
entry. For example, silica is hazardous
only by inhalation so the risk
assessment needs to consider how
inhalation could occur in the
workplace.
Advice or warnings for at-risk The SDS may also include summaries
workers of toxicological data, or advice or
warnings for people that might be at
risk, such as people who are sensitised
to particular chemicals warnings for
pregnant women people with existing
medical conditions such as asthma.
Instructions on storage This may include advice on not to

store with certain incompatible
materials, or advice on potential
hazardous degradation products.
Examples include – storage of acids
and bases, or storage instructions to
avoid formation of explosive
peroxides in ether during extended
storage.
Physicochemical properties Physicochemical properties can have
a significant effect on the hazard.
Some key properties to note include:
physical state: is it solid, liquid or gas?
if solid – what is the potential for dust
explosion?

Page 221
if liquid – is it
mobile/viscous/volatile/miscible?
if gas (and vapours) – is it
lighter/heavier than air?
flashpoint, fire point and explosive
limits
viscosity
density
particle size
vapour pressure
solubility and pH
reactivity
boiling and/or freezing point or range
electrical and/or heat conductivity
the nature and concentration of
combustion products.
Use situations that may generate Examples may include:

hazardous chemicals
use of welding rods which may
liberate hazardous fumes and vapours
directions for use of chlorine bleach,
warning that harmful levels of
chlorine gas may be generated if the
substance is mixed with incompatible
chemicals
warnings that some metals, including
alkali metals, in contact with water or
acids, liberate flammable gas
information on by-products or
breakdown products like formation of
explosive peroxides in ether
Environmental hazards The SDS should contain information

on environmental hazards and risks.
An awareness of this information will
assist you to meet any environmental
laws in your state or territory.
5 Understandingvibration
Nature ofvibration
Vibration consists of oscillatory movements of particles (molecules) around their
equilibrium in a solid body, liquid or gas, in the area of infrasound (i.e. < 20 Hz), and

Page 222
partially also in the audible sound frequency range (up to 1500 Hz). Because in
industrial situations vibration usually occurs in air – in the audible frequency range –
it is normally also experience it as sound. (Groothoff, 2007) Understanding the source
and mode of transmission of vibration and so the appropriate control measures can be
complex and it is appropriate to seek specialist advice.
Health effects of vibration

The main health effect from whole-body vibration is damage to the lower spine area;
however, damage to internal organs also may occur (CCOHS, 2008; Comcare, 2008;
HSE, 2011). Research has demonstrated that whole-body vibration “can increase heart
rate, oxygen uptake and respiratory rate, and can produce changes in blood and
urine…[and] produce an overall ill feeling…[and] decreased performance in workers”
(CCOHS, 2008). Motion sickness, which affects the centres for orientation and posture
and the vestibular cortex (balancing mechanism in the ear), may occur with vibration
exposure in the 0.1–1 Hz frequency range (e.g. as experienced on ships). 6
The main health effect from hand-arm vibration is caused by the disruption of blood
and oxygen supply to the fingers from prolonged vibration exposure, resulting in
damage to blood vessels and nervous systems that initially are reversible, but with
continued exposures eventually become irreversible. Vibrations from hand-held power
tools transmit to the operator’s fingers and may cause tingling and numbness after a
relatively short period of time. Vibrations caused by hand-held power tools are usually
found in the higher frequencies (e.g. 40–300 Hz). With prolonged exposures, structural
changes and damage to the peripheral blood supply and nervous systems in the fingers
occur. In addition, damage to bones, tendons and joints may occur as a result of long-
term regular exposure to hand- arm vibration from hand-held power tools. Also, there
is evidence (e.g. Miyakita, Miura & Futatsuka, 1991) that a reflex sympathetic
vasoconstriction action of the cochlea blood vessels is caused by exposure to hand-arm
vibration and noise, thus producing a synergistic effect in the likelihood of hearing loss
caused by noise exposure.7
5 Control of noise hazards

Generally, workplaces contain various noise sources that are not always used at the
same time, or consistently, throughout shifts. Therefore noise levels will vary with
time. Also, worker movement around machines and work areas may result in variations
in noise exposure. In production areas, it may be costly or not possible to stop
production to measure individual noise sources. However, effective noise control
requires identification and analysis of noise sources to determine the priority sources

Page 223
for attention (see Safe Work Australia, 2010a). Where noise sources have been
identified that are likely to produce excessive noise, the next step is to prioritise noise
control by determining the duration of use of each machine or item of equipment
during a typical shift and the time the operator spends using them or working near
them. For instance, a machine or equipment item with a high noise level, but with short
usage per shift may well have a lower priority for noise reduction than a machine or
equipment item with a low noise level, but long usage per shift. For example, a milling
machine operated for six hours per day at 88 dB(A) at the operator’s ears, needs more
urgent noise reduction than an auger operating for 15 minutes per day at 94 dB(A).
The Ready Reckoner of Table C1 of the draft Noise Code of Practice shows clearly
that at 88dB(A) the exposure can be up to 4 hours before the red (danger) area has been
reached. It also shows that at 94db(A) it only takes one hour to reach the red area.
Therefore the auger needs more urgent treatment than the millingmachine.
Composite (Textile Mill) Flowchart:
It is essential to understand a textile process flow chart before proceeding towards the textile
machines.
Ginning : The fibres and the cotton seeds are separated by 'gin' machines in a ginning factory.
Pressing & Baling : The ginned cotton is compressed and packed into bales by cotton
presses(mostly hydraulic) in a pressing factory. Generally ginning and pressing factories are
combined and situated in villages where cotton is collected. The cotton bales are transported to a
spinning mill or a
composite textile mill. The cotton-seeds are separately collected. They are used to extract oil
therefrom and also for cattle-food.
Schedule-2, rule 54, GFR is applicable to ginning and pressing factories while Sch-l is
applicable to following processes.
Bale Opening and Scutching: In a blow room the bales are opened by bale openers,
sometimestinted in a tinting room for quality separation and mixed with cotton from other bales or
man-made fibres through a hopper feeder. By a moving spiked lattice, beaters and a series of rolls
the fibres are thoroughly mixed, cleaned and further opened by revolving beaters and air currents
against a grid through which the dirt is separated. A cotton lap is formed and lap-rolls are sent to the
carding machines
Carding : The fibres are made parallel to each other, remaining hard tuffs are broken and
shortthin fibres and impurities are removed. A sliver (flat untwisted rope) is formed and it is collected
in cans.

Page 224
Spinning : Through pre-comb drawing frames, sliver lap machines, comber machines,
drawingframes and inter frames the sliver is converted into inter-end by drawing, drafting, combing
and twisting processes. More slivers are passed through pairs of suitably spaced rollers, each pair
revolving at a higher speed than the preceding pair. Further attenuation of the yam is accompanied
by ring frames and doubling frames. Inter roving ends are converted into yarn of required count by
drafting and twisting in the ring frame machines. A new method known as open-end or rotor spinning
is most suitable for spinning coarse yarns and can replace not only the ring frame but some other
initial processes as well. Texturising is done to synthetic yarn to reduce its denier.
Weaving Preparatory : In winding department yarn defect is removed and cheese and beam
(bywarping machine) are produced. Pirn bobbins are filled to put them in shuttles. Yarn singeing is
carried out to burn off the projected fibres (hairs). Sizing (starch) process is carried out in sizing
machines.
Weaving : After the weaving .preparatory processes, the warp threads (beams) and weft
threads(pirn bobbins) are fed to looms to weave cloth. Various types of looms are used. New
alternations to the shuttle for weft insertion are - rapier, water jet, air jet and ripple or wave shedding.
The cloth is sent to the grey folding department for cleaning, mending, inspection and folding
(plaiting) purposes.
Artificial humidification is employed in carding, spinning and weaving departments to reduce

yarn breakage, because moist thread has relatively higher breaking strength than a dry thread. But
high humidity causes discomfort. Therefore its regulation is required by hygrometers and by rules
19 to 29 under the GFR.
Finishing Processes : Here shearing - cropping, cloth singeing, piling, mercerising,

drying,washing, desizing (removing starch by enzymes solution), scouring (removing fats and waxes
by hydroxide solution), bleaching (by H,O, or Cl,>, dyeing (wide range of dyes available) and
printing (screen or multicolour rotary printing) processes are carried out in sequence. The dyed or
printed cloth is dried, smoothed and pressed. It may also be subjected to other treatments to improve
its appearance or wearing qualities. It may be made waterproof, flame repellent or rotproof. Synthetic
resins are used for these purposes. The finished cloth (fabric) is sent to finish folding department, for
checking, sample cutting, folding and baling purposes.
Now we shall see the flowcharts of different types of fabrics.
Other Flowcharts:
To understand flowcharts of fabric manufacturing it is necessary to understand sequence or

stages of manufacture from fibres to fabrics and then bleaching, dyeing, printing and other finishing
processes on the fabrics.
The first stage in the production of a fabric is to clean and mix fibres thoroughly. The fibres
are then generally straightened, but for the production of certain types of fabric they must be brought
into a condition in which they are all parallel. The fibres are next drawn out into the form of sliver,
which resembles a flat rope but with the fibres having no twist. Repeated drawing (extenuating) and
Page 225
twisting follow. This twisting is to give the resulting roving i.e. just sufficient strength to prevent
breakage in its manipulation (extenuation). Thus a fine roving is produced which is finally twisted
into yarn. The yarn is used to produce fabrics by either knitting or weaving.
It will be realised that for the carrying out of these manufacturing processes a wide range of
different types of complicated machines and a great variety of methods are used. Such processes
have taken more than two centuries to perfect and even now, partly owing to the increasing use of
rayon and synthetic fibres, modifications are constantly being introduced.
Fibres are of two types - staple fibre and continuous fibre. Staple fibres are of certain lengths
while continuous fibre is a very long filament made from chemicals. Continuous fibre can be cut to
required lengths which may be short or long, for the purpose of mixing with other short or long staple
fibres.
Short and Long staple Fibres :
Staple fibres are classified as short, medium or long. Normally less than 2 inch (5 cm) long
are short staple fibres and longer than that are called long staple fibres. Wool is called short staple if
less than 2.5 inch long and called long staple or worsted if more than 2.5 inch long. In short staple
spinning process, gilling machine (gill box) is not used. In long staple process 'gilling' machinery is
used to straighten the sliver. Carding is an excellent method for straightening and attenuating short
fibres. Gilling is not satisfactory if the fibres are short. Therefore in the preparation of wool fibres
for combing, it is preferred to straighten diem by carding if the fibres are less than about 9 inch (230
mm) in length and to gill if the fibres are longer, say up to 15 inch (380 mm) in length.
Long staple worsted wool, jute, coir and flex can be classified as long staple fibres, cotton as
short staple fibre and man-made synthetic filament including -stretchable 'textured' yarn as
continuous fibre.
Process Flowchart of Short Staple i.e. Cotton Spinning and Finishing :

Page 226
Fig.: Cotton Processing Flowchart
Process Flowchart of Long Staple (i.e. Worsted Wool) Spinning :

Page 227
Raw greasy wool
Sorting, selection and blending to suit type of yarn required
Opening-out and loosening of fibre packages

·
1 Scouring to remove grease and suint (sheep's dried
perspiration)
and carbonisation (if necessary) to remove
cellulose impurities (in
lap form)
(in sliver Cardin

form) g (in sliver
form)
Cond
Backwashing ensin
(scouring) g
(in
(in sliver roving
form) form)
Gill Spinning on
ing mule
machine into
(in sliver form) woollen
yarn
Backwashin
g
(in sliver form)
Gilling
(in sliver form)
Combing
(in sliver form)
Gilling
(in roving
form)

Page 228
Wool tops
(in roving
form)
Drawing and
doubling
(several stages)
(in roving form)
Spinning by flyer,
cap, ring or mule
machine into worsted
yarn
Fig. : Process Flowchart of Wool spinning.
A complete flowchart of wool processing - spinning, weaving & finishing is shown below in Fig
21.6.

Page 229
Fig. : Wool Processing Flowchart
Process Flowchart of Viscose Rayon and Synthetic Fibre Manufacture :

Page 230
Fig. : Process Flowchart of Viscose Rayon Manufacture
Process Flowchart of Spun and Filament Yarn :
2. Manufacture of Nylon - 6.

Page 231
Fig : Process Flowchart of Filament Yarn (Nylon-6)
Manufacture of Spun or Oriented Yarn (LOY, POY, HOY & FOY) :
Polyesters:
Polyesters were initially discovered and evaluated in 1929 by W.H. Carothers, who used
linear aliphatic polyester materials to develop the fundamental understanding of condensation
polymerisation, to study the reaction kinetics, and demonstrate that high molecular weight
materials were obtainable and could be melt-spun into fibres.
Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) is a fibre of great commercial significance, useful in

cordage, apparel fabrics, industrial fabrics, conveyor belts, laminated and coated substrates, and
numerous other areas. However, to engineer specific properties for special uses, many product
variants have been developed and commercialised. These variants include alternative cross
sections, controlling polymer molecular weight, modifying polymer composition by using co-
monomers and using additive including delusterants, pigments and optical brightners.
High molecular weight polymer is used for high strength fibres in tyres, ropes, and belts.
High strength and toughness are achieved by increasing the polymer molecular weight from 20000
to 30000 or higher by extended melt polymerisation or solid-phase polymerisation. Special
spinning processes are required to spin the high viscosity polymer to high strength fibre. Low
molecular weight fibres are weak but have a low propensity to form and retain pills, i.e. fuzz balls,
which can be formed by abrasion and wear on a fabric surface. Most pill-resistant fibres are made
by spinning low molecular weight fibres in combination with a melt viscosity booster.
Most of the textile fibres are delustered with 0.13.0% wt TiO, to reduce the glitter and
plastic appearance. Many PET fibres also contain optical brighteners.
Manufacturing and Processing:

Terephthalic Acid (TA) or dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) reacts with ethylene glycol (EG)
to form bis (2-hydroxyethyl) terephthalate [959-26-2] (BHET) which is condensation polymerised
to PET with the elimination of EG. Molten polymer is extruded through a die (spinneret) forming
filaments that are solidified by air cooling. Combinations of stress, strain and thermal treatments
are applied to the filaments to orient and crystalize the molecular chains. These steps develop the
fiber properties required for specific uses. The two general physical forms of PET fibers are
continuous filament and cut staple.
Raw Materials :
For the first decade of PET manufacture, only DMT could be made sufficiently pure to
produce high molecular weight PET. After about 1965, processes to purify crude TA by
hydrogenation and crystallisation became commercial. In Japan, oxidation conditions are modified
to give a medium purity TA suitable to manufacture PET, provided colour toners such as bluing
agents or optical brighteners are added during polymerisation. Compared to DMT, advantages of

Page 232
TA as an ingredient are lower cost, no methanoi by-product, lower investment and energy costs,
higher unit productivity, and more pure polymer because less catalyst is used. Catalysts are used
in the transesterification reaction of DMT with EG and in polycondensation. Many compounds
have catalytic activity. Divalent zinc and manganese are the prevalent transesterification catalysts.
Antimony, titanium and germanium are the predominant polycondensation catalysts. Up to 3%
delusterant is added to many PET fibre products to make them more opaque and scatter light;
titanium dioxide is the most common delusterant. PET fibre blended with cotton for apparel
frequently contains small amounts of fluorescent optical brighteners added during polymerisation.
Commercial production of PET polymer is a two-step process carried out through a series
of continuous staged reaction vessels. First, monomer is formed by transesterification of DMT or
by direct esterification of TA with EG.
In general, esterification is conducted in one or two vessels forming low molecular weight
oligomers with a degree of polymerisation of about I to 7. The oligomer is pumped to one or two
pre-polymerisation vessels where higher temperatures and lower pressures help remove water and
EG; the degree of polymerisation increases to 15 to 20 repeat units. The temperatures are further
increased and pressures decreased in the final one or two vessels to form polymer ready to spin
into fibre. For most products, the final degree of polymerisation is about 70 to 100 repeat units.
Average molecular weight is about 22,000; weight average molecular weight is about 44,000.
Spinning:
PET fibres are made either by directly spinning molten polymer or by melting and spinning
polymer chips. A special, precise metering pump forces the molten polymer heated to about 290°C
through a spinneret consisting a number of small capillaries, typically 0.2 to 0.8 mm in diameter
and 0.3 to 1.5 mm long, under pressures up to 35 MPa (5000 psi). After exiting the capillary,
filaments are uniformly cooled by forced convection heat transfer with laminar-flow air.
Following solidification, the threadline is passed over a finish applicator and collected. A
spin finish is applied to reduce friction and eliminate static change.
It is convenient to classify commercial PET spinning processes according to the degree of

molecular orientation developed in the spun fiber. Generally, the classification is a function of
spinning speed. Low oriented yarn (LOY) is spun at speeds from 500 to 2500 m/min; partially
oriented yarn (POY) is spun at 2500 to 4000 m/min; highly oriented yarn (HOY) is spun at 4000
to 6500 m/min; and fully oriented yarn (FOY) is spun at greater than 6500 m/min.
Drawing and Stabilisation:
Drawing is the stretching of low orientation, amorphous spun yarn {LOY) to several times
their initial length. This is done to increase their orientation and tensile strength. Drawing in two
or more stages is useful to optimise te'nsile properties and process continuity. Stabilisation is
heating the fiber to release stress within the molecular chains melt and reform crystals and increase
the level of crystallinity in order to stabilise the fibre structure.

Page 233
Staple Processes:
In staple processing, the containers of combined spun ends are further combined to form a
tow band and fed to a large drawline. The tow band is spread out into a flat band tracking over
multiple feed and draw rolls. Crimping is the process by which two dimensional configuration and
cohesive energy is imparted to synthetic fibres so they may be carded and converted to spun yarns.
The tow band is cut to precise lengths using a radial multiblade cutter, normally 30 to 40 mm for
blending with cotton, 50 to 100 mm for blending with wool and up to 150 mm for making carpets.
Cut staple is packaged in up to 500 kg. bales at densities greater than 0.5g/ m3.
Safety and Environmental Factors :
Health & Safety : PET Fibres pose no health risk to humans or animals. Fibres have been
usedextensively in textiles with no adverse physiological effects from prolonged skin contact. PET
has been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for food packaging and bottles. PET
is considered biologically inert and has been widely used in medical inserts such as vascular
implants and artificial blood vessels, artificial bone arid eye sutures.
Environmental Factors : PET materials are no dangerous to the environment and

cannotcontamination surface or ground water. During polymerisation, non condensible organic
by-products are stripped from this process outflow streams and burned. Glycol and water are
separated by refining. The water is treated in standard water spray facility. The glycol is reused
The method from the DMT transesterification is refined and reused. Like all materials, polyesters
should be
Fig: Block Diagram for Polyester Manufacturing by Continuous Polymerisation Process
Jute manufacture :
The jute plant flourishes in hot and damp regions of Asia, mainly in India, Bangladesh,
Page 234
Pakistan, Burma and Thiland. Jute is a natural fibre and is used to make sack cloth, jute ropes,
bags, camp beds, filter cloths etc.,
In 1820, jute was sent to England from India and was spun experimentally at Abingdon
near Oxford. In 1822 Dundee mills in Scotland began spinning of jute. By 1850 the jute industry
was well established.
In India and Bangladesh, the jute plants (Corchorus) are harvested with a hand sickle. Jute
plant grows to 5 mt with a stalk diameter of 2 cm. The fibres are separated from the stem. The
strands of fibre, as much as 2 mt long, are washed and hung up in the sun to dry. They are
compressed into bales and sent off to the mills for spinning disposed of properly to avoid litter and
can bi disposed of by landfill or incineration.
A key environmental advantage for PE" materials is the ability to recycle. Polyester
materials especially bottles, can be separated from contammated materials such as aluminium caps
and paper label and remanufactured by direct remelt extrusion into fibres for filling products or
carpets or into layered constructions for good-grade bottles.
A block diagram of above mentioned process i «ihnwn in Pip- 21 9.
Small amount of mineral spindle oil is added into the fibre during conversion into yarn.
Normal jute goods may contain upto 5% oil, but so-called 'stainless' yarns to be used for special
purposes like wall coverings, cables etc., contain I % or less oil.
Jute Processes:
Raw jute is first passed through the softening machine. Oil and water emulsion is sprayed
on to the jute. Sometimes sodium alkyl phosphate (Teepol) is also used. This process is known as
'batching'.
After preparation, the fibres are carded or combed, drawn and spun. Then cop and spool
winding, weaving, finishing, croppong, cutting and lapping complete the processing.
Bleaching and dyeing of jute is also possible. Dyestuffs used for cotton, are also useful for
jute. The fibre has a special affinity for basic dyes, which provide brilliant effects even on
unbleached base. The increased demand for rugs, mats and carpets require dyed jute yarns and
fabrics suitable for these applications. Azoic and vat dyes give very bright and fast results but their
high cost limits their use with jute. The tendency of jute to turn brown in sunlight is a permanent
disadvantage. Hazards and Controls:
HAZARDS AND SAFETY MEASURES OF SPINNING PREPARATORY AND

SPINNING PROCESSES
Opening and Blow Room Machines:
Purpose is to open cotton bales, to open and beat cotton to remove dirt/dust from it and to

Page 235
make it loose for the next process of spinning.
Types of machines used are :
Bale opener or breaker. Hard waste breaker, step cleaner. Super cleaner. Cotton opener -
Porcupine or Chrighton opener. Roving waste opener. Scutcher, Combined opener and
Scutcher Scutcher and Lap machine, Axi-flo, hoppel feeder etc. Tinting room is used to
colour the cotton or synthetic fibres for their mixing.
Each machine should be driven by separate motor or by separate counter-shaft with fast
and loose pulleys and efficient belt shifting device All main drives, counter drives and
reductior gears shall be securely guarded.
All beater covers or doors giving access to any dangerous part of the machine should be
interlocked or be securely fenced. Dirt door or desk door should have hinged or fixed grill
as a guard and door for dirt/dust removal.
Dust chamber opening should be so fenced that while admitting light, prevents contact
between any portion of a worker's body and the beater grid bars.
All belt and chain drives should be guarded.
In Roving waste opener, cage-wheel and side shaft wheel should be guarded.
In opener machine, door giving access to the nip between the lattice and the fluted guide
roller of the lattice and evener rolls etc, be interlocked.
Inspection doors (covers) on trunkings should be properly situated and closed. If their
location is dangerous, it should be changed or interlocked.
Spiked or fluted rollers which feed the materials from conveyors should be guarded. In-
running nips of Feed and Calendar rollers must be guarded or interlocked.
Safe means of access i.e. catwalk, guard-rails, steps, ladders, hand-rails etc., should be
provided on top of the machine where a worker has to work.
Lap rods - Lap stand should be proper. Lap rods should not fall out of it. Stacking of lap-
rods should be proper
Knock-off lever - Its design or placement should be proper and the knock-off wheel should
not hit a person.

Page 236
Unsafe actions : The interlocks (micro-switches) on machines should not be tempered
with. Thesupervision should he-proper for loading dead weight on a buckley opener,
handling a guard, cleaning the inside of a buckley cage or bottom dust chamber collecting
cotton or waste from near any revolving part, placing spiked lattice on a bale breaker,
removing jam med material from rack and rack wheel, climbing the opener, feeding the lap
on a scutcher and removing choked cotton through anopening in a pneumatic pipe.
Carding Machines :
Purpose is to spin and open cotton fibres.
Spacing between the cards should be sufficent. All dangerous parts such as belts, ropes,
pulleys, gears etc., should be securely guarded. Main drive shall be guarded.
The cylinder-doors must be interlocked (R. 54, Sch. 1) and effective. Stripping (cleaning
cylinder) operation with open doors should be done by a trained man. The newer machines
have safer stripping attachment.
The belt shifting devices for fast and loose pulleys should be properly maintained.
The nip between the plate-wheel and the side shaft wheel should be guarded.
Coiler : (i) Coiler head should not fall down (ii) Gears of the coiler box be guarded, (iii)
The nipbetween the calendar roller wheel and the coiler back shaft wheel should be guarded
or fenced.
Licker-in : (i) The access to the underside of the licker-in should be properly guarded by a
hingedswing door or flap guard swinging back upwards to prevent contact while collecting
dust (ii) The checking of the clearance between the licker-in and its casing while the licker-
in is in motion must be prohibited (it may be done while the licker-in is stationary).
Doffer & Comb Blade : (i) Covers on doffer wheels should be closed, (ii) Work at or near
thedoffer cover and doffer comb blade must be done with care and properly supervised.
High Speed Carding machine : The in running nip between cross rolls should be
securelyguarded.
Page 237
Mounting or dismounting of belt or rope and stripping and grinding operations should be
done with care and should be properly supervised. It should be checked that while such
stripping or grinding, the stripping brush is properly positioned so that it may not be
loosened, the idler wheel and the umbrella wheel are properly fitted (so that they may not
get loosed and fell down) (ii) Gauging the clearance between the flats and the card-cylinder
should 130 done with the cylinder stationary (not rotated even manually) and by a standard
angular gauge for this operation. It should be so supervised.
Local Exhaust Ventilation : Modern card machines have built-in local exhaust system
with dustcollection chamber to extract the cotton dust generating in the machine and to
prevent its exposure in the work environment. This system should be efficiently maintained
Sliver and Ribbon Lap Machines:
Purpose is to make a sliver and lap from spinned cotton.
Types of these machines are : Sliver lap, lap m/c or lap-former, Derby doubler. Ribbon
lap m/cetc. The main and counter drive shall be securely guarded.
Nip between the lap forming rollers (lap roller and fluted roller) should be guarded. It is
desirableif it is interlocked (R. 54, Sch. 1).
Ribbon lap m/c : The lap drum and calendar drum gap should be interlocked.
Sliver lap m/c : Nip guard at the intake end of the calendar rollers necessary.
The carding slivers should be made parallel and combined to form a lap sheet suitable for
feeding to a combing m/c.
Unsafe actions : Care must be taken during operations such as cleaning cap bars of a lap
m/c,placing laps on lap rack, putting a lap rod on a lap stand, removing the chain drive from
lap forming m/c, cleaning the ribbon of lap m/c and putting a lap end around a spool.
Combers and Drawing Frames :
Purpose is to comb (to make fibres parallel), pull and draw the fibres of lap of cotton.
Comber Machine : (i) The main drive shall have fixed guard (ii) The moving spiked
cylindershould be interlocked, (iii) The cylinder covers i.e. hood of the comb near comber cylinder
and the coiler covers should be fixed so as not to fall down and hit (iv) Hinged transparent guard

Page 238
to prevent contact with rotating segment i.e. nipper or gripper (v) Guard on top comb and detaching
rolls (vi) Guard on calendar rollers and gears (vii) Interlock guard on coiler and draw-box gears.
Drawing frames : (i) Guards be provided on moving calendar rollers and gears (Nip
betweenrollers should be covered), (ii) The gear wheels should be guarded or fenced, (iii) The
head stock gearing must be guarded, (iv) The mango vacuum box of the top roller should be
securely fixed, (so as not to fall down) (v) Sharp projections on the coiler bottom plate should be
removed or rounded (vi) Off-end gear cover should be guarded.
1. Roving (Speed) Frames :
Roving means drawing of the first thread from the sliver. Purpose is drawing and twisting
of fibres (thread).
Types of these m/cs are : Slubbing frames, inter frames etc. The main drive shall be
securelyguarded.
The head stock gearing (jack box wheels) should be interlocked. (R. 54, Sch I GFR).
Slubber Frames : (i) The driving bevel and bevel wheel should be guarded, (ii) The spindle
shaftwheel should be guarded, (iii) Bobbin and spindle bevel gears should be guarded, (iv)
The ratchet wheel should be guarded, (v) Work close to revolving flyers should be done
only after stopping the flyers. It should be supervised so. (vi) Care should be exercised
while handling of rollers and weights.
Inter (Speed) Frames : (i) The guard of the head stock gearing should be adequate or
interlocked(ii) The stacking of bobbins on creel top should be done in safe manner, (so that
the bobbins may not fall down) (iii) The height of creel top should be proper, (so as to reach
easily). If not suitable, foot boards and hand holds should be provided (iv) Work close to
rotating flyers should be done after stopping them (v) Draft rolls, draft gears, inter gears
(jack box), cone drive and main drive should have guards.
The new open end or rotor spinning system eliminates some steps of the spinning
preparatory operation and reduces many accidents.
Ring (Spinning) Frames :
Main process is twisting (rotating) and winding thread on bobbins.
Return-air system with humid air suppliers (diffusers) is used for better ventilation
andhumidification. Purpose of humidifiction is to prevent thread breaking. It provides large duct
area through floor openings, air cleaning, rapid air changes, more humidification and more
reduction in flying fluffs.
Transmission parts : (i) The main drive and the other driving belts and ropes should be
guarded,
Mounting of taps on jockey pulleys should be done after stopping the pulley by cutting
of power, (iii) The headstock gears should be interlocked. Tieing ribbon on limitswitches
and making interlocking ineffective is noticed many

Page 239
times. By frequent checking such unsafe
practice must be discouraged, (iv) Drafting gear
and drafting rollers, warm and warm wheel
should be guarded.
Damaged Bobbin Shields : Sharp edges of
thebroken metal shields of bobbins cause many
injuries on fingers while piecing or doffing
operations. Following remedies should be
provided, (i) Inspection and rejection of
damaged shields, (ii) Use of plastic bobbins
instead of wooden with metal shields, (iii)
Suitable kneebrake or hand brake as
shown in the figure for each spindle to stop it. The .height of this brake should coincide with the
knee of the worker. This is the design (ergonomic) aspect.
Struck against various m/c parts : (i) The sharp edge of a protruding metal sheet on the
frameand broken edge of a ring frame may cause struck injury. Such damaged components
should be replaced, (ii) Care should be taken while creeling, de-creeling, piecing, cleaning
rollers, cleaning cotton fluff, stopping bobbins for piecing, fixing bobbins on spindles,
doffing and adjusting arbor so as not to be struck against rollers, their supporting brackets
or roller beams; work near lappet rail, filter-box, lappet middlerollers, top arm and cradle
and middle arbor and cradle assembly, pocker rod, tube bracket and dashing against the
frame of the machine while attending to different jobs. Proper supervision necessary.
Fall of bobbins from creel top : (i) Stacking of bobbins on creel top should not be
haphazard.Only one row of bobbins should be stacked, (ii) Safe means of access i.e. suitable
foot-boards and hand-holds should be provided for climbing up.
Fall of rollers : (i) Fall of clearer rollers and dead weight rollers occur in the course of
operationssuch as releasing auto-lever, piecing, removing the rollers or holding them for
cleaning. Care is necessary, (ii) Mechanism holding the rollers in position should be
maintained in good condition.
Auto-lever : (i) Care should be taken while releasing or replacing the auto-lever, (ii)
Condition ofthe saddle should not be defective.
Ring travellers : These can fly and injure persons unless there is an effective system of
periodicalreplacement. Also the travellers should be of good quality and properly fitted.
Dotting boxes : (i) The hook on the doffing boxes for placing them on the rail should be
proper.
Splintered condition of the boxes and the protruding metal band may cause accident.
Their periodical inspection and repair is necessary.
Suction pipes : Sharp or broken edge of a suction pipe may cause injury. It should be
checkedand required or replaced. Suction fan with duct is provided to collect broken ends.
Others : (i) Side plate of a frame may get loose and fall down. It should be
periodicallyinspected, (ii) All motor fans should be closed by the covers.
Doubling Machines (frames) :
Two or more threads are joined, twisted and wound on bobbin.

Page 240
(1) Drives : Main drive pulley belt and head stock gearing should have guards. Delivery roll
gearsshould be guarded.
(2) Knee-brakes : They should be provided to stop bobbin for piecing operation and
maintainedproperly. They should be at proper knee height.
(3) Cans : (i) The edges of cans for storing bobbins should not be broken or sharp, (ii) They
shouldbe inspected and repaired or replaced, (iii) Plastic cans are desirable.
(4) Ring Travellers : (i) They should be of good quality and properly fitted, (ii) They should
beperiodically inspected and replaced.
(5) Machine Parts : The creel tops to store bobbins should be within the arms reach. Foot
railsshould be provided.
(6) Unsafe actions : Striking against knee-brakes, ring travellers, top roller, tap on a spindle,
roughedge of jockey pulley etc., may cause accidents. Care should be exercised and
supervised.
HAZARDS AND SAFETY MEASURES OF WEAVING PREPARATORY AND

WEAVING PROCESSES
Winding Machines :
Purpose is to wind weft on bobbins.
Types of machines used are : Barber-Coleman ITI/C, Auto-coner, pirn winder etc.
(C) Guards should be provided on main drive, revolving drum, drum drive motor, timer drive,
cam drive, traveller pulley and track nip and conveyor drive. Knotter-carriage assembly &
spindle assembly should have cover.
(D) The gap between the moving parts of conveyor and fixed parts should be checked all along
its length and reduced to the minimum by suitable covers/guards.
(E) Bobbins/sleeves used on the m/cs should be inspected for broken edges, burrs etc. as also
for their proper fitment on driving spindles.
(F) Haste in loading spindles with empty bobbins should be avoided. Also, dust and other
extraneous materials on spindle and moving yarn should not be removed while they are in
motion. Dust collecting blower and bag are useful.
(G) Automatic winders like cone winder and spoolers prevent hands reaching near the rotating
drum and are preferable.

Page 241
1. Warping Machines :
Purpose is to wind warp on warp beam. Different types of warping m/cs are available.
2. The flanges of rotating beam should be properly guarded. Aluminium flange beam without
metal flange ring is safer. Metal flange ring may open, fly out and hit.
3. The main drive, gear wheels, motor pulley, clutch pulley-belt and other parts should be
properly guarded.
4. The nip between the driving roll and warp beam should be guarded. Trip cum distance
guard should be provided for protection from rotating beam.
5. Beam side distance guard (rod) should be interlocked (contact switch) with drum which
drives the beam-.
3. Multiple photo-electric device is more safe.

4. Hydraulic braking system should be provided to stop the beam within shortest possible
time.
5. Stop motion indicator lamp is useful.
6. Wheels of moveable stands should have guards.
7. Drum drive motor pulley, beam drive chain, beam ends and section warping gears should
be guarded.
8. Unsafe actions : Dashing against rotating beam, leading the thread from the creel to the
drum (atthis time the m/c should be stopped), removing ball bearing from the shaft of the
warp roll, stepping on the slopping platforms of the m/c, removing empty pegs from
bobbins on creels and loading and unloading the beams can cause injuries.
(3) Sizing Machines :
Purpose is to apply starch on yarn or cloth.

(D) Nips : Nip guards should be provided on in running nips between the driving rolls and other
revolving rolls at the front of the m/c. Guards on drag rolls and squeeze rolls are essential.
(E) The main drive, beam drive chain, size box drive chain and speedometer chain should be
guarded.
(F) Suction hood necessary to arrest steam vapour.
(G) Gears : The gears of the marking mechanism of the m/c should be guarded. Other m/c parts
beguarded.
(H) Beam weights : The counter weights of a beam should be properly placed so that they may

Page 242
notfall down while touching.
(I) Loading and unloading of beams can cause accidents. Care should be exercised.
(J) Rule 61(8) GFR : (i) These provisions should be followed for thin wall cylinders, (ii) Form
No.11- test report - should be available for each sizing cylinder, (iii) Pressure reducing
valve, safety valve, pressure gauge, steam trap and drain-cock for condenset, steam stop
valve etc., should be properly provided, set and maintained for ensuring safety, (iv)
Maximum permissible working pressure shall be reduced 5% every vear (v) Maximum life
20 vears. (vi) New and second hand pressure vessel shall be tested at 1.5 times 'its
Maximum Permissible Working Pressure.
(B) Looms (power looms) :
Purpose is to weave cloth by using weft (pirn) bobbins and warp beam by a machine known
as
loom.
8. Types of looms are : Ordinary power looms, automated jacquard looms, drop-box, dobby,
air-jet,water-jet, rapier etc. Loom sizes are 46", 52", 56", 60" and 64".
9. Flying Shuttles : (i) Shuttle flight may be caused by warp breakage, broken or improper
heald

Page 243
(heddle) wires, slackness in picking mechanism and other causes. Shuttle less looms (auto
looms) is the best remedy for shuttle flights, but it is not economical. Therefore, the
practical remedy is the shuttle guard. The shuttle guards be properly provided. It should
extent sufficiently forward and the gap below it should not be too much. Because of
possibility of change in this gap and despite the guard the shuttle car fly and hit Certainly
they protect the upper body of a worker from hitting, (ii) To protect from injury due to
shuttle flying from the adjacent loom, every loom must be equipped with barrier guard
placed close to each end of the slay beam Such guards of strong wire netting or similar
material are advisable, (iii) Reasons for shuttle flights should be properly recorded,
investigated and removed.
2. Shuttles : (i) Shuttle receptacle should be provided near each end of the slay to place the
shuttleproperly, (ii) Removing empty pirn (bobbin in shuttle) 'and loading wound pirn into
the shuttle may cause injury. Also care should be exercised while placing shuttle on the
slay. (iii) Automation of process of filling up the empty shuttle can reduce these hazards
where a pirn battery loads the shuttle as soon as the weft yarn on it is exhausted. This device
of modern looms is advisable.
3. Picking stick assembly : (i) Vertical picking stick is less dangerous than horizontal one.
Worknear the proximity of the stick should be done carefully, (ii) Spacing between two
looms should be at least 55 cm measured from the farthest projecting point of an adjacent
loom or wall. The aisles (alleys) should atleast be one meter wide. It is so desirable for safe
movement, (iii) Picking stick (arm) should be securely guarded along its fixed path of
movement so that hitting by it can be avoided, (iv) The loom spindle on which the picker
moves may crack or fly out and hit. Defective spindle should be found out and replaced,
(v) Picking spring should be inserted in position carefully (vi) The picking wheel should be
guarded, (vii) All parts of picking mechanism and heald frame should be sound for proper
fitment, wear and tear.
4. Beam Weighing : (i) Compound lever should be adopted for beam weighing wherever
possible.The shape of the weights should be such that they would not come off the lever
and hit. Weights of shape '8' should be preferred to those of shape 'C'. Weights must be
harnessed to the beam by strings or straps of adequate strength (ii) Spring loaded
mechanism used for beam weighing should be inspected at least once in a week and defects,
if any, rectified. Defects of spring, lever handle, threads used if any, should be found and
removed.
5. Cloth and Emery rolls : (i) The support brackets of the cloth roll should be examined once
aweek for any defects to ensure that the cloth roll sits tight in the brackets, (ii) Care should
be taken from hitting the cloth or emery rolls while walking near them (iii) Heavy cloth
rolls should be handled mechanically or by more workers, (iv) Guards should be provided
on emery roll and guide roll, crank tappet gears, take-up gears, bottom cam drive gears,
motor drive, shedding motion etc.
3. Slay beam : (i) The slay moving towards and away from the weaver may hit the hand and
fingersmay get trapped between the moving slay and the front rest head frame, temples etc.

Page 244
Hands should not be placed on the slay or at places near its path. (ii) Clearance between
the slay bolts of two adjacent looms should be adequate, (iii) Setting of die weft fork holder
and hammer should be proper, (iv) Removing fluff or wastes and attending to minor
adjustment on the loom must be done only after stopping the loom.
4. Duck bill and Hitter : The duck bill and hitter should be guarded on every loom to
preventcontact with sharp edges of these moving parts or being trapped between them. Such
guards can be in the form of close pitched springs surrounding the duck bill and extending
3 to 5 cm beyond so that approach to the sharp edges from the sides is prevented.
5. Others : (i) Driving pulley-belts (main drive) of the loom must be securely guarded by a
fixedguard. (ii) Ratchet and pawl or crank and tappet mechanism (including gears) should
be guarded. The edges of the guards should not be sharp so that it may injure, (iii) The
tuning of the loom should be checked once in every shift and adjusted wherever necessary
(iv) Spare pirns and their boxes should be examined for their broken edges etc., and should
be rectified, (v) The operators must be alert to join the broken ends. They should be joined
only after stopping the loom. (vi) Pall of various improperly fitted loom parts on workers
while cleaning, oiling etc., dashing against loom parts, getting caught between loom parts
due to accidental starting, striking weft box while loading or unloading pirns, striking heald
wire while drawing ends or doing adjustments nearby etc., may cause accidents. Care
should be exercised and supervised in such operations, (vii) Suction device for pirn-battery
return air system, diffusers, sprinklers, hydrants, fire extinguishers etc. should be in good
working order.
6. Noise : Hearing loss is possible due to high noise in loom shed. Noise level should be below
90dBA. Shuttle less loom gives less noise. Good lubrication and maintenance, proper
tuning, quick replacement of damaged parts of picking mechanism and stroke resistors help
to reduce noise. Workers should wear ear protection.
HAZARDS AND SAFETY MEASURES OF PROCESSING (FINISHING) AND FOLDING

MACHINES
General Precautions :
Types of machines in use are : Shearing, singing, washing, bleaching, kiers, yarn and
clothdyeing, printing, polymerising, sanforising, stentering, padding, finishing, folding,
bale (cloth) pressing machine etc.
The in-running nips between rollers and similar parts, unless the nips are inaccessible,
should be securely guarded with nip guards (bars) along the whole length on the intake side
(Rule 54, Sch II, GFR).
In dryers and similar machines where there is a risk of access from the sides to nips referred
to in item (2) above and driving gears should-be guarded to prevent such access.
Other machine parts such as main and counter drive, belts, pulleys, shafts, gears and
flappers should be guarded.
Removing crease from die cloth on rollers should never be done when the machine is in
motion.

Page 245
Oiling, greasing, adjustment or repairing near dangerous parts should not be done with the
machine running.
Entanglement with the cloth in process is a serious hazard in some of die machines. While
working here, care should be exercised and supervised.
To the extent possible, splash guards should be provided for containing the likely splashes
of chemicals and hot liquids at those parts of machine where- splashes generally occur.
These would also facilitate keeping the floor free from spillage.
Wherever risk of splashes from chemical or hot solutions exists, operators should be
provided with PPE such as face shields or goggles, hand gloves, aprons and gum-boots.
Wherever persons have to reach and work at parts of machine situated at heights, suitable
means of access in the form of catwalks and platforms should be provided. Wherever these
are not provided due to infrequency of the operations or any other reason, alternative
arrangements such as scaffolding or safe ladder should be provided and the operations
carried out confirming to standard safe practices.
Dismantling and fitting of heavy parts of machine should be done with care. To the extent
possible, mechanical handling devices should be used for the purpose.
Acids, alkalis, bleach liquors or whitening agents, dyestuffs and solvents are used for
process or cleaning purpose. Their storage should be kept away in a separate room. They
should be handled in small containers with lids. Their spillage or leakage should be avoided
and cleaned immediately. Cleaning by solvent is risky. Source of ignition must be avoided
while using solvent to clean printing machine, vessel, container etc. Then nearby electric
fitting should be flameproof or switched off. Ordinary short circuit has caused many
accidents.
Schedule 12 and .19 u/r 102, GFR should be followed while handling acids, alkalis
and other chemicals. Rule 68D should be followed for using hot oil circulation in stenter
etc. through thermic fluid heaters.
Bleaching Process :
Purpose is to whiten the cloth or yarn (threads). Normally chlorine, sodium hypochlorite or
hydrogen peroxide are used as bleach liquors. Their concentration should be within safe limits.
They should be stored in minimum quantities. Transfer from bulk storage to small containers
should be safe. Flexible connections must be checked for safety. Emergency kit to handle chlorine
leak should be kept ready. Proper respirator, eye goggles and gloves should be worn while working
near chlorine gas or hydrogen peroxide fumes. Addition of chlorine in caustic solution to make
sodium hypochlorite should be in closed and safe system. See Part 8.6.1 of Chapter-18 for chlorine
safety.
Open bleaching tanks should have fencing to prevent fall inside.
Bleaching machine should have fume exhaust device. Bleaching range should have nip
guard on rolls.
Processing Machines (Dyeing, Printing etc) :

Purpose is to wash, dye (colour), print, dry, heat, press, stretch, carbonise, mercerise,
sunforise and fold the cloth etc.
Water is used in large quantities in processing machines. Reverse Osmosis (RO) Plant
should be used to remove hardness as well as total dissolved solids (TDS) if the water available is
hard and saline (salty). Such soft and salt less water decreases rate of corrosion and increases life
Page 246
of the vessels/ machines.Safety measures for some processing machines are stated below.
Washing machine : Purpose is to wash the cloth in open tub (i.e. no pressure) (i) Nip Guards
onrollers (ii) Catwalk and platforms to reach and work at the required places with sufficient
handhold and foothold (iii) Guard on moving flappers, (iv) Distance guard, belt and chain guard
(v) FRP and acid-proof lining if acid/alkali is used. (vi) Clean overflow "pipe with water
tank (vii) Nip guard on draw nip (viii) Air regulator for pneumatic loading of rolls (ix)
Guards on chain drives of nip rolls (x) Doors on soap tanks (xi) safely of steam lines and
(xii) Guard on chain drive of a plaiter. (xiii) Nif guard on padding mangle.
Washing Tanks : Purpose is to wash the cloth (i) Railing near hot water tanks to preventfalling
into it (ii) Drain pipes and valves to drain hot water from the tank. Simple hole, cotton plug
(stopper) and bamboo use is an unsafe practice.
Hydroextractor : Purpose is to remove water from wet cloth, (i) Interlock basket cover (ii)
Fixedguard on pulley-belts (iii) Brake to stop basket.
(a) (b)
Hydro extractor - (a) Hazard due to no basket cover (b) Basket cover with electrical
enterlocking.
Jigger machine : Purpose is to colour the cloth in open tub (i.e. no pressure), (i) Nip guards
onrollers and gears (ii) Splash guards should be provided on each of such machines to
minimise chances of chemicals and colour solutions splashing on persons, (iii) Aprons and
chemical goggles should be given to workers (iv) Periodic inspection and maintenance of
the floors. They should be free from water and solution so as not to keep it slippery, (v)
Pneumatic valve to control steani flow (vi) Cover on motor pulley belt drive and gearbox
(vi) Roll motion controller.
Calendar machine : Its function is to give fine finish (ironing) by passing the cloth
throughcalendar rolls or bowls, (i) Auto temperature control to prevent over heating (ii) Nip

Page 247
guards on in-running nips (iii) Guards on main motor drive and reduction gears, (iv) Heavy
rolls should be handled mechanically (v) Contact with hot rolls may cause burn injury. Care
should be taken while working at heights (vi) When steam pressure is above atmospheric
pressure. Rule 61 GFR should be complied with. All safety devices should be properly
maintained.
Drying machines : Purpose is to dry cloth, (i) Nip guards on rotating rolls and mangle
rolls.Guards on chain, bevel gears, winch drive and stack drive, (ii) Platform, foothold and
handhold to work at heights (iii) Hot cylinders of drying range may cause burn injury. Care
and effective supervision (iv) For pressure control, follow Rule 61, GFR.
Kiers and Agers : Purpose is heating by steam pressure, (i) While tightening the eye bolts
of kier,bars used should be of such construction that they hold the eye bolt securely and do
not slip off.
Catwalks and platforms to work on the top of the Kier (iii) Care form coming into
contact with the hot parts of the kier (iv) Pressure reducing valve, safety valve, pressure
gauge, stop valve etc. should be properly maintained for the safe working pressure inside.
Safety valve and pressure gauge should be provided on jacket also (v) Hydraulic pressure
test at every two years (vi) Chain pulley block or hoist to lift heavy parts.
Stenter machine : Purpose is to dry cloth by passing it through heat chambers. Padding
mangle,feeding zone, heating zone (chambers), batching and plaiting are main divisions (i) Nip
guard between in-running rolls and rollers of the padding mangle, guard on
uncurler nip, main drive and bevel gears (ii) Catwalks or
platforms for working at heights, (iii) Temperature
control devices (iv) Effective exhaust hood and chimney
for removal of fumes from the machine, (v) Effective
and sufficient exhaust fans in the workroom (vi)
Scouring process i.e. oil removal from fabric before
feeding it to the stenter machine to reduce the oil fumes,
(vii) Textometer to detect moisture content, (viii)
Covers on roll drive chain box, overfeed chain drive,
batching and plaiter drive (ix) 3-way pneumatic oil flow
control valve where oil heaters are used.
Pladding machine : (i) Nip guard on in-running rolls and padding mangle (ii) Guard on
maindrive, roll chain drive and gear drive (iii) Pressure regulator for pneumatic loading of rolls.
drive, roll chain drive and gear drive, (iii) Pressure regulator for pneumatic loading of rolls.

Page 248
Jet Dyeing machines -.Purpose is to colour the cloth under steam pressure, (i) PRV or pressure
regulator in pressure feed line (ii) Adequate safety
valve and rupture disc - both of at least .1.5 inch
(dia) size and in parallel on the top of the vapour
cell (iii) High pressure alarm and automatic or
manual depressure (venting) device to operate at
that alarm (iv) Use of heatexchanger for indirect
heating and cooling (v) Periodical hydraulic tests
and NDT for corrosion effects
(vi) Non-corrosive metal, joints and body parts (vii) Flap guard near filter cover at the
bottom and internal disc to restrict outflow (viii) Temperature gauge near the pressure
gauge on the vessel (ix) Water, steam and air control valves (x) Manhole cover interlocked
with depressure device (xi) Maximum pressure indicator and automatic pressure controller
(xii) Trained operator (xiii) Effective supervision and auto programming.
Drum washer : It is a washing machine under steam pressure, (i) Fixed guards on belt and
chaindrive (ii) Pressure Reducing Valve, Safety Valve, rupture disc, proper nut bolts and fitting or
welding, proper material of construction and Pressure Gauge on steam supply line (iii) Drum
motion fixing device (locking) while loading and unloading. Internal drum should not rotate while
loading or unloading it. It should be mechanically locked. Power should also be deenergised at
that time.
Expander machine : (i) Nip guard on rollers and between the cloth in process and the
rollers (ii)Parts of machine should be periodically examined to detect defective conditions
such as protruding nails.
Stitching and sewing machine : (i) Gap between the needle and the machine table should
beguarded to 'prevent access to this zone. (ii) Electric earthing should be proper and ELCB
should be provided in power supply line.
Printing machine : Purpose is to print the cloth by machine. Various types of machines
are inuse. (i) Nip guards on the printing roller, cloth roller and on the lapping and a roller
(ii) While removing a heavy roll from the machine, care should be taken' or the mechanical
handling should be used. (iii) Care should be exercised while changing a design roller
otherwise a hand may be caught between the design roller and control roller (iv) Care
Page 249
should be taken while turning a handle to apply pressure to the printing rollers otherwise a
worker may slip and fall from height
(v) The doctor blade of the machine should be removed carefully otherwise it may slip and
its sharp edge may cause injury. (vi) Fixed guards on pulley-belt drive, sector, connecting
(eccentric) rod, repeat-setting device and under table rollers (vi) Safety while cleaning
blanket.
Stretching machine : Nip guard between running cloth and roller.
Polymerising or curing machine : See part 3.3 and 9 of this Chapter.
Gas/Electrical Singeing machine : See part 9 of this Chapter.
Shearing and Cropping machine : (i) Rotating cutters should be interlocked by a
transparentcover, (ii) Guards on main drive, suction blower and dust chamber and (iii)
Metal detector are necessary.
Sanforizing and Palmer machine : Its function is to give final finish (ironing) to the cloth.
(i) Nip guards and side guards on in-running rolls and trip wire near cylinder (height < 1.7 mt)
to
stop the motion (ii) Pneumatic controls and roll drives guards (iii) Steamline safety (iv) Plaiter
drive guard.
Mercerising machine : Nip guard on mangle rolls, guards on main drive coupling, chain
drive,
bevel gears, mangle roll gears, chain return wheel, squeeze roll belt drive, squeeze rolls,
impregnator nip between float roll and top roll, stabilizer-tension roll and top roll nip and
splash
guard on caustic tank are necessary.
Carbonising unit : Its function is carbonising i.e. acid burning of cotton fibre of the
blendedcloth. (i) Acid bath (70% H,SO„) should have safe overflow device and splash,
guards on both sides (ii) Nip guard on squeeze rolls (iii) FRP tray and acid-proof flooring,
PVC valves for acid use and use of PPE and safety shower by workers.
Folding machine : (i) The crank-wheel and reciprocating arm should be guarded to prevent
hitinjury, (ii) Fixed guard on main drive.
Towel cutting machine : Cutting edge should be guarded at the feeding end of towel.
In addition to above textile machine guarding, general safety measures for metal working
machinery, lifting machines, material handling, hand tools, hand trucks, chemicals, flooring, fire

Page 250
and health hazards, must also be provided and maintained. Welfare facilities of canteens,
lunch/rest room, ambulance room, creche, welfare and safety officers should also be provided. See
Part-3 for statutory provisions.
SUGAR INDUSTRY
In the process, sugar canes are put on feed (rolling) carrier, pushed ahead by steel beaters
and crushed in two to three sets of heavy rollers. The initial juice contains bagass fibres, clay, grit,
albumen, pectin etc. Bagass fibres cause lung disease known as Bagassosis. The juice is then
heated and chemical agents are added to remove impurities and to get saccharose. After
clarification (through heating) the juice is concentrated in vacuum evaporators till it precipitates
in the form of greyish crystals. The concentrated juice (molasses) contains 45% water. By
centrifuging the water is separated and brownish granulated sugar (brown sugar) is filtered. White
sugar is made by refining (Sulpher) process. The filtered syrup is evaporated in quadruple effect
evaporators, vacuum pans and crystallisers till it crystallises. Centrifugation is again applied to get
white crystalline sugar. Vibrating screens are used to separate sugar crystals in different sizes
(grades). It is then weighed, begged and sent to the sugar godowns.
The safety measures include -
I Cane Milling Plant :
1. Cane handling platform with gantry and gantry columns (not more than 10 m. apart)
attendance platform, approach staircase, sling bar and grab attachment, mechanical/
electrical controls from crane operator's cabin.
2. Fixed sound guards on motor and gear drives of feeder tables, steel structure to withstand
heavy shocks, inclined tail end to feed into the main carrier.
3. Cane carrier (1800 mm wide), 3 strands chain (150 mm pitch) and sprockets with heavy
guards, hood 'to cover cane knives with inspection door and head-shaft and gears with
guards.
4. The cane carrier motors be interlocked with the cane leveller and cutter motors so that the
cane carrier stops when either of these motors trips.
5. Cane feeding chute from cane carrier to the crusher at an angle of 50° from the horizontal.
The chute length should be more than 3.5 m.
6. Guards on gear and motor drives of cane kicker - a rotating shaft (dia > 125 mm) mounted
with more than 20 blades or arms.
7. Totally enclosed reinforced steel hood with suitable swing flaps and bolted top covers on
cane leveller with more than 42 knives and cane cutter with more than 52 knives. The knives
should be
of specially shock resisting steel with carbide tips or stellited cutting edges. Guard on flywheel of
the shaft.
8. Crushing mills may be of following types
: Based on sugar cane crushing capacity
per day-For 2500 tonnes-12 rollers-4
steam turbines For 3500 tonnes-18 rollers-
6 steam turbines
Page 251
Fixed guards on mill gearing, flexible couplings and mill rollers (max. speed 18 mt/min).
9. The juice gutter under the mills shall be made of brass or copper lined MS plates or
aluminium plates of sufficient strength.
10. Cylindrical whirler type pumps of 75 m3/h at 10 m head, non corrosive, non choking type,
and with bronze impellers.
11. Vertical guard or fencing on bagass elevator and conveyor and also surrounding floor or
feed opening and horizontal guards or grills on moving slats and bagass scrappers.
A gangway of open flooring with hand railing alongside the whole length of the
conveyor with access ladders at different platforms including boiler control platform.
12. Testing and maintenance of all cranes and lifting machinery as per Rule 60 of the GFR.
II Clarification Plant:
1. Juice heaters with necessary valves, venting and condensate extraction device with
collection tanks and safety for steam use. Solid drawn brass tubes for heaters with 42 mm
ID, 45 mm OD and total length of tubes not exceeding 4.5 mt
2. Continuous juice sulphitation unit, with lime milk proportioning arrangement, guards on
lime slacker motors, couplings and gear drives and stirres drives. SO2 absorption tower
with safe vent, effective stirrer, sulphur furnace with cooling water jacket for vertical gas
pipes and scrubbers made of cast iron.
3. Clarifier with flash tank, juice overflow box, scrapper drive, mud overflow box, liquidating
pump etc.
4. Vacuum rotary mud filter with bagacillo sifter, recirculation pump, juice trough, filtrate
pumps and receivers, mud conveyor belt, juice separator, air blower, cyclone separator for
vacuum filters, cake washing hot water pumps and guards for pump couplings and motor
drives.
III Evaporation and Boiling Plant :
1. A quadruple effect evaporator with four bodies (vertical tanks) with two syrup extraction
pumps (one standby), safety valve in the vapour space to open at 0.2 kg/ m2, pressure and
vacuum (compound) gauges, thermometers, condensate extraction pumps, grit catchers,
vapour space height more than twice the calandria height, calandria (bottom heating zone)
height not exceeding 2 mt, domes and fittings of suitable save-all design, the calandria tubes
should be solid drawn with 42 mm ID, 45 mm OD, tubes spacing more than 10 mm. and
vapour condenser at the end.
2. Syrup and molasses tanks (13 to 15 tanks), bund or dyke, heating coil to molasses tanks,
wash out connection to each tank, wash out gutter with suitable valves, working platform
with handrails and approach stairs along the storage tanks. One molasses dilution tank with
stirrer, water and steam connection is also necessary.
3. Vacuum pans, condensers and injection water pumps requirement is as under :
For plant of Vacuum pans Condensers Water pumps

2500 T 5 6 6
3500 T 7 8 8
Page 252
Vacuum pans are calandria of low head rapid boiling type with steam tubes (brass),
compound gauges, thermometers, various pipelines and fittings, connections with crystallisers and
multi-jet condensers, heavy molasses and hot water connection through nonreturn valves, guards
on stirrer drives and gears, the injection water pumps - centrifugal and directly coupled, are all
necessary.
IV Cooling, Curing and Grading Plant :
Heavy U -type air cooled and water cooled crystallisers are required with stirring
arrangement, guards on stirrer and gear drives and centrifugal machines (15 for 2500 T plant and
20 for 3500 T plant). Superheated wash water or steam connection, timer controlled automatic
brakes, solenoid and pneuma,tic valves, ploughing speed not exceeding 60 rpm, connection with
magma mixtures, guards on magma mixture drives, guards on pug mill drives, reduction gears and
air-compressor drives, steam connections with NRV for magma and molasses lines, sugar melter,
grass hoppers and conveyors, hot and cold air blowing, sugar elevators and graders (vibrators)
with dust catching arrangement, sugar weighing machines, bag stitching machines, molasses
weighing scale and final molasses storage tank (3 to 4) each of 4000 m" capacity as per IS
specification.
Other plants viz. Boiler and steam generating plant. Power generating plant and
Miscellaneous e.g. reducing valves, pipelines, supporting structure, service tanks, water pumps
etc. also need due consideration.
Dust, fume and gas extractors, noise and vibration dampers and medical examination of
workers are also required.
IS : Sugar laboratories 1679, 5527, godown construction 4772, vacuum pan grading 498, filter
cloth1178, inter-carrier chains 9069, sprockets 12198, effluent treatment 4903, crusher 1973,
6983, 6997, juice hygienic code for sale 8124, stripper 7789.
Sugar confectionery- hard boiled 1008, sampling and analysis 6287, cube 1168.
ELECTRONICS INDUSTRY
The use of electronic items is day by day increasing in industry, at homes and at many places.
Their manufacturing should include:
1. Exhaust ventilation for fumes of lead, zinc, rosin etc. and also for molten-solder tanks.
2. Eye protection for organic peroxide hardeners and respirators for quartz flour, epoxies with
phenol compound and airborne concentrations.
3. Prevention of flammable or explosive mixtures of solvents and source of ignition.
4. Exhaust ventilation for printing process.
5. Acid resistant and non-slip flooring, exhaust ventilation, eye bath and PPE in etching processes.
Use closed containers for etching liquids.
6. Good industrial hygiene.
IS : Electronic apparatus, safety requirements 616, climatic and durability tests 589, .gas
Page 253
lighters 9000, equipment - environmental tests 2106, reliability testing 8161, 7354, safety in use ,
maintenance, manufacture 11743, measuring apparatus, safety requirements 9858, weighing systems
9281, 11547, buzzers 12825, flash apparatus safety 12274, flashers 13135.
Electronic ear protectors 9167, assessment of noise exposure 7194, radiation protection for X-ray tube,
radio transmitting equipment, safety requirement 10437,6970, 6567, safety code for radiographic
practice 2598, safety of data processing equipment 10422, Hand/foot contamination monitors 11869,
Fire hazard testing 11000, protection against ionising radiation 11868
DOCK WORKERS (SAFETY, HEALTH AND WELFARE) RULES, 1990
DOCK WORKERS (SAFETY, HEALTH AND WELFARE) REGULATIONS, 1990
2. Definitions.-In these regulations unless the context otherwise requires.-

a) "Act" means the Dock Workers (Safety, Health and Welfare) Act, 1986 (54 of 1986);
(b) "access" includes egress;
(c) "authorised person" means a person authorised by the employer, the master of the ship or a
responsible person to undertake a specific task or tasks and possessing necessary technical
knowledge and experience for undertaking
the task or tasks;
(d) "competent person" means.-
(i) a person belonging to a testing establishment in India who is approved by the Chief Inspector
for the purpose of testing, examination or annealing and certification of lifting appliances, loose
gears or wire ropes;
(ii) any other person who is recognised under the relevant regulations in force in other countries
as competent for issuing certificates for any of the purposes mentioned in sub-clause (1) for the
implementation of the Protection
against Accidents (Dockers) Convention (Revised), 1932 (No. 32) and the Convention concerning
Occupational Safety and Health in Dock Work (No. 152), 1979, adopted by International Labour
Conference;
(e) "container" means an article of transport equipment of a permanent character and accordingly
strong enough to be suitable for repeated use and as specified under national or international
standards;
(f) "container terminal" means the area where the operations of receiving, storage, dispatch and
interchange of
containers, between transport made is carried out primarily with the help of lifting appliances and
transportequipment, and includes associated road vehicles, waiting places, control inter-change
grid, stacking areas and associated road vehicle, departure, but shall not include.-
(i) terminals which handle significant volumes of containerized cargo and break-bulk cargo
together using the same operational areas;
(ii) all railway terminals and all in-land depots;
(iii) the stuffing and stripping of the contents of containers; and
(iv) ship-board and ship-side operations LQ/LO and RO/RO vessels;
(g) "conveyer" means a mechanical device used In dock work for the transport of single packages
or solid bulk cargo from one point to another point;

Page 254
(h) "dangerous goods" means any cargo which due to its explosiveness, inflammability,
radioactivity, toxic or corrosive properties, or other similar characteristics, may cause injury,
adversely affect the human system, loss of
life or property while handling, transporting, shipping or storing and which is classified as such by
any international or national standards;
(i) "dock" means any dock, wharf, quay or shore and shall include any warehouse or store place
belonging to owners, trustees or conservators of, and situated in or in the vicinity of the dock,
wharf, quay or shore and any railway line or siding on or used in connection with the dock, wharf
quay or shore but not forming part of Indian
railways;
(j) "form" means a form appended to these regulations;
(k) "hatch" means on opening in a dock used for purposes of dock work or for trimming or for
ventilation or for cleaning;
(l) "hatchway" means the whole space within the square of the hatches from the top dock to the
bottom of the bold;
(m) "Inspector" me ns person ppointed by the Centr l Government under Sec3 of the Act nd
includes the ( ) I spector ea s a perso appo ted by the Ce tral Gover e t u der ec. 3 of the ct a d
cludes the Chief Inspector;
(n)"lifting appliance" means all stationary or mobile cargo handling appliances including their
permanent attachments, such as cranes, derricks shore based power operated ramps used on shore
or on board ship for suspending, raising or lowering, cargo or moving them from one position to
another while suspended or supported, in connection with the dock work and includes lifting
machinery;
(o) "loose gear" means hook, shackle, swivel, chain, sling, lifting beam, container speader, tray
and any other such gear, by means of which the load can be attached to a lifting appliance and
includes lifting device;
(p) "port" means a port as defined under the Indian Ports Act, 1908 (15 of 1908);
(q) "port authority" means the person having the general management and control of dock:
Provided that if any other person has, by exclusive right to occupation of any part of the dock
acquired the general management and control of such part, he shall be deemed to be the "port
Authority" in respect of that part;
(r) "premises" means any dock, wharf, quay, warehouse, store place or landing place where the
dock work is carried on;
(s) "prescribed" means prescribed by the Central Government;
(t) "pulley block" means pulley block, gin and similar gear, other than a crane block specially
constructed for use with a crane to which it is permanently attached;
(u) "responsible person" means a person appointed by the employer, the master of the ship, the
owner of the gear or port authorities, as the case may be, to be responsible for the performance of
a specific duty or duties and who has sufficient knowledge and experience and the requisite
authority for the proper performance of the duty or duties;
(v) "safe working load" in relation to an article of loose gear or lifting appliance means the load
which is the maximum load that may be imposed with safety in the normal working conditions
and as assessed and certified by the competent person;
(w) "schedule" means a schedule appended to these regulations;

Page 255
(x) "ship" means any kind of ship, vessel barge, lighter or hover-craft excluding ships of war and
country craft;
(y) "testing establishment" means an establishment with testing and examination facilities, as
approved by the Chief Inspector for carrying out testing, examination, annealing or certification,
etc. of lifting appliance or loose gear or wire rope as required under the regulations;
(z) "transport equipment" means all powered and hand truck, for lift truck, tractor, trailer,
locomotive, prime mover and any other such equipment used in dock work;
(zz) words and expressions not defined in these regulations but defined or used in the Act shall
have the same meaning as assigned to them in the Act
PART III
Safety
A.-Working Places
9. Surfaces. -
(1) Every regular approach over a dock which the working place and every such working place
inside the dock which workers have to use for going to or from a dock shall be,-
(a) kept clean and free from objects that can cause slipping, stumbling or falling,
(b) maintained in good repair with due regard to the safety of the dock workers.
(2) All areas of a dock shall be kept properly drained and graded In order to facilitate safe access
to sheds, warehouses and store places and safe handling of cargo and equipment.
(3) Drain pools and catch basins shall be properly covered or enclosed.
(4) All areas of a dock and all approaches on which lifting appliances and transport equipment are
used shall be soundly constructed, surfaced with good wearing material and sufficiently even and
free from holes and cracks to afford safe transport of cargo and shall be properly maintained.
(5) Any working area in a dock which is damaged or under repair shall be effectively blocked off
from other areas and when necessary,, warning lights shall be provided at night.
(6) All landing places used by dock workers for embarking or disembarking from crafts meant for
transport by water,shall be maintained in good repair with due regard to the safety of the persons
using them.
10. Fencing of dangerous places. -
(1) The following parts of a dock and approaches as far as practicable having regard to the traffic
and working be securely fenced so that the height of the fence shall be in no place less than one
meter and the fencing shall be maintained in good condition:
(a) all breaks, dangerous comers, and other dangerous parts or edges of a dock;
(b) both sides of such foot ways, over bridges, caissons, and dock gates as are in general use by
dock workers and each side of the entrance at each end of such foot way for sufficient distance
not exceeding, 4.5 meters:Provided that in case of fences which were constructed before the date
of commencement of this regulation, it shall be sufficient if the height of the fence is in no place
less than 75 cm.
(2) The ditches, pits, trenches for pipes and cables and other hazardous openings and excavations
shall be securely covered or adequately fenced.
(3) Where wharves or quays slope steeply towards the water, the outer edge shall be protected as
far as practicable.
11. Passages to be kept clear.-

Page 256
(1) Cargo shall not be so stored or transport equipment or lifting appliances so placed on any areas
of a dock where dock workers are employed so as to obstruct access to ships, cranes, life saving
appliances, fire fighting equipment and welfare facilities provi ded under these regulations.
(2) Where any place is left along the edge of any wharf or quay, it shall be at least 90 cms, wide
and shall be kept clear of all obstructions other than fixed structures, plant and appliances in use.
(3) Where working areas of a dock are enclosed and the traffic warrants, a separate gate or passage
shall be provided for pedestrians.
12. Railings and fencings. -
(1) All railings for the fencing of hatchways, accommodation ladders, grangways, stainway for
embarking,disembarking, and any other dangerous place shall be of sound material, good
construction and possess adequate strength and unless specified in these regulations;
(a) be at least one metre in height; and
(b) consist of two rails or two taut ropes or chains supporting stanchions and toe boards.
(2) Intermediate rails, ropes or chain shall be 50 centimetre high.
(3) Stanchions shall not be more than two metre apart and shall be secured against inadvertent
lifting out.
(4) The toe board shall be at least 15 centimetre high.
(5) Railings shall be free from sharp edges.
(6) Temporary fencing of hatchways elevated platforms, etc. shall be as far as reasonably practical,
extend to a height of one metre and consist of either:
(a) two taut ropes or chains with stanchions; or
(b) a properly rigged and securely fastened safety net.
(7) Stairs giving access to transport vessel shall be equipped with wooden or rubber fenders so that
the gap of more than 30 centimetre is maintained between the side of the steps and side of the
vessel.
13. Staging construction and maintenance.-
(1) Sufficient supply of sound and substantial material shall be available at convenient place or
places for the construction of staging.
(2) All staging shall be:
(a) securely constructed of sound and substantial material and shall be maintained in such
condition so as to ensure the safety of all dock workers; and
(b) inspected at regular and frequent intervals by a responsible person.
(3) All planks and ropes intended to be used for a staging shall be:
(a) carefully examined before being taken into use; and
(b) re-examined by a responsible person before they are used again after the stages have been
dismantled.
(4) All planks forming stages shall be securely fastened to prevent slipping.
(5) All stages shall be of sufficient width to secure the safety of the dock workers working therein.
In particular, on stage at a height of two metres or more above R. 17] Dock Worker (Safety,Health
& Welfare) RegulatIons, 1990 the ground level deck bottom, deck or tank top, shall be less than
30 centimetre wide.
(6) Planks supported as the rungs of ladders shall not be used to support stages.
(7) (a) Stage suspended by ropes or chains shall be secured as far as possible so as to prevent their
swinging; and

Page 257
(b) no rope or chain shall be used in suspending stages unless it Is of suitable quality, adequate
strength and free from patent defects. Fibre rope shall not pass over sharp edges.
(8) Safe means of access shall be provided for the use of dock workers to and from stages and
ropes used for suspending stages shall not be used as means of access.
14. Work on staging.-
(1) More than two men shall not be allowed to work at any one time on a staging plank.
(2) When dock workers are employed on staging more than 2.5 metres high, they shall be protected
by safety belts equipped with lifelines which shall be secured with a minimum of flask to a fixed
structure.
(3) Prior to each use, belts and lifelines shall be inspected for dry rot, chemical damage or other
defects which may affect their strength. Defective belts shall not be used.
(4) Work on a staging shall not be carried on when loaded slings have to pass over the stagings
and there is danger from falling objects.
15. Lifesaving appliances. -
Provision for the rescue from drowning of dock workers shall be made and maintained, and shall
include;
(a) a supply of life-saving appliances, kept in readiness on the wharf or quay, which shall be
reasonably adequate having regard to all the circumstances; and
(b) means at or near the surface of the water at reasonable intervals for enabling a person in water
to support himself or escape from the water which shall be reasonably adequate having regard to
all the circumstances.
16. Illumination.-
(1) All areas in a dock and on a ship where the dock work is carried on and all approaches to such
areas and to places to which dock workers may be required to go in the course of their employment,
shall be safely and efficiently lighted in an appropriate way.
(2) The general illumination, in areas on the dock where dock workers have to pass, shall be at
least 10 lux and at places where dock workers are employed the illumination shall be at least 25
lux without prejudice to the provision of any additional illumination needed at particularly
dangerous places.
(3) The means of artificial lighting shall, so far as is practicable, be such and so placed as to prevent
glare or formation of shadows to such an extent as to cause risk of accident to any dock worker.
(4) The portable lights shall be maintained in good condition and shall:
(a) be equipped with substantial reflectors and guards; and
(b) be equipped with heavy duty electric cords with connection and insulation maintained in safe
condition.
17. Fire protection.-
(1) Place where dock workers are employed shall, be provided with-
(a) sufficient and suitable fire-extinguishing equipment; and Dock Workers (Safety, Health &
Welfare) regulation.,1990 [R. 18
(b) an adequate water supply at ample pressure as per national standards.
(2) Persons trained to use the fire-extinguishing equipment shall be readily available during all
working hours.
(3) Fire-extinguishing equipment shall be properly maintained and Inspected at regular intervals
and a record maintained to that effect.

Page 258
(4) A portable fire-extinguishing equipment of suitable type shall be provided in every launch or
boat or other craft used for transport of dock workers and also in the crane cabins including mobile
cranes.
(5) Smoking shall not be allowed in the hold of a ship, on wharf, in warehouses and transit sheds
and "No Smoking" or other cautionary notices shall be displayed at such places.
18. Excessive noise, etc.-
Adequate precautions shall be taken to protect dock workers against the harmful effects of
excessive noise, vibrations and air pollution at the work place. In no case the noise levels shall
exceed the limits laid down in Schedule VII.
19. Construction.-
(1) All floors, walls, steps, stairs, passages; chutes and gangways of warehouses and storeplaces
shall be of sound construction and properly maintained.
(2) The slope of ramps shall be such that the stability of transport equipment or vehicles using
them is not endangered.
20. Floor loading.-
(1) The maximum load per square metre to be carried by any floor of a warehouse or store place
and maximum load of any lifting appliance and transport equipment used on such floor shall be
displayed at conspicuous places.
(2) The maximum loads referred to in sub-regulation (1) shall not be exceeded.
21. Stairs. -
(1) For every staircase in a warehouse or store place, a substantial handrail of a height of at least
one metre shall be provided and maintained, which if the staircase has an open side shall be on
that side, and in the case of a staircase having two open sides, such a handrail shall be provided
and maintained on both sides.
(2) Any open side of staircase shall also be guarded by the provision and maintenance of lower
rail or other effective means.
22. Openings. -
AII openings in floors and walls shall in so far as they prevent danger, be effectively protected.
23. Means of escape In case of fire.-
(1) All warehouses and store places shall be provided with sufficient means of escape in case of
fire for the dock workers employed therein and all the means of escape, other than the means exit
in ordinary use, shall be distinctively marked in a language understood by the majority of the dock
workers.
(2) A free passageway giving access of each means of escape in case of fire shall be maintained
for the use of all dock workers.
(3) In every dock there shall be provided effective and clearly audible means of giving warning in
case of fire to every dock worker employed therein.
C Means of Access
24. Access between shore and ship.-

(1) When a ship is lying at a wharf or quay for the purpose of dock work, adequate and safe means
of access to the ship, properly installed and secured, shall be provided.
(2) Safe means, required by sub-regulation (1) shall be as follows:
Where practicable, the ship, accommodation ladder or a gangway or a similar construction, shall
be-

Page 259
(i) not less than 55 cms, wide at the steps and of adequate depth with steps having permanent non-
skid surface;
(ii) properly secured and securely fenced throughout its length on each side to a clear height of one
metre by means of upper and lower rails, taut ropes or chains or by other equally safe means except
that in the case of ship's accommodation ladder such fencing shall be necessary one side only
provided that the other side is properly protected by the ship's side;
(iii) constructed of suitable material and maintained in good condition and suitable for the purpose;
(iv) maintained in a condition as to prevent slipping;
(v) fitted with a platform at either end of the ladder and the lower platform or the treads resting on
the dock;
(vi) an angle maintained not exceeding 40 degrees to the horizontal irrespective of resting on the
dock.
(3) When a fixed tread ladder is used and the angle is low enough to require dock workers to walk
on the edge of the treads, cleated duck boards shall be laid over and secured to the ladder.
(4) Whenever there is danger of dock workers falling between the ship and the shore, a safety knot
or other suitable protection shall be rigged below the accommodation ladder in such a manner as
to prevent dock workers from falling.
(5) If it is not possible to rest the accommodation ladder or gangway and the foot of the same is
more than 30 cms.away from the edge of the wharf or quay, the space between them shall be
bridged by a firm walkway equipped with railing on both the sides with a minimum height of one
metre with the mid-rails.
(6) Access to the ship shall not be within the swinging radius of the load.
(7) When the upper end of the means of access rests on or is in flush with the top of the bulwark
substantial steps properly secured and equipped with at least one substantial handrail one metre in
height shall be provided between the top of the bulwark and the deck and the steps provided shall
be, as far as practicable, in line with the gangway.
(8) The use of swinging derricks or rope ladders for the access shall be prohibited.
25. Access between ship and another vessel.-
(l) When a ship is alongside another ship, and dock workers have to pass from one to the other,
adequate and safe means of access shall be provided for their use, unless the conditions are such
that it is possible to pass from one to
the other without undue risk and without the aid of any special appliance.
(2) If the other ship is sailing barge, flat, keel, lighter or other similar vessel of relatively low free
board, the means of access shall be provided by the ship which has the higher tree board.
(3) Rope ladders used as a means of access between ship and another vessel shall,-
a) be of good construction, made up of suitable and sound material with adequate strength and
properly maintained for the purpose for which it is used;
(b) be adequately secured at Its upper and in such a manner that It Is firmly and safely held in order
to prevent any possible ship-down of its spare rolled up portion when the ladder is used;
(c) have treads which are flat and of a width and depth of not less than 30 centimetres and 15
centimetres respectively and so constructed as to prevent slipping;
(d) have suitable provisions as far as practicable, for preventing the ladder from twisting; and
(e) have bottom tread within the safe distance of the lower landing place.
26. Access between deck and hold.-

Page 260
(1) If the depth from the level of the deck to the bottom of the hold exceed 1.5 metres there shall
be maintained safe means of access from the deck to the hold In which work Is being carried on.
(2) Where practicable, access to the hold shall be by separate man-hatches 60 centimetre by 60
centimetre clear in size, with a sloping ladder and hand rail through each deck to the lower hold
and hinged cover for a man-hatch shall,
while in the open position, be effectively secured.
(3) When the length of the hatchway exceeds 7 metres, a fixed hold ladder shall be fitted both on
or near the fore and aft side of the hatchway.
(4) Fixed hold ladders shall be maintained in good repair and shall comply with the following
provisions:
a) the ladders shall be at least 30 centimetres between their up-rights and leave free foot-room of
at least 12 centimetres behind the ladder:
(b) the rungs shall be so fastened that they cannot tilt, and the intervals between rungs shall not
exceed 30 centimetres;
(c) the rungs shall afford an adequate hand-hold;
(d) the ladders shall be sufficiently long; and
(e) a suitable landing platform shall be provided for every six metres length or fraction thereof.
(5) Fixed hold ladders connecting decks shall lie in the same straight line, unless measures are
taken at each tween deck for safe ascent and descent from the ladders.
(6) (a) If the fixed holds ladders cannot extend upwards on to the coamings, strong cleats shall be
fitted to the coamings in the same line as the ladders at intervals not exceeding 30 centimetres
having a clear internal width of at least 30 centimetres while affording free footroom of at least 12
centimeters and so constructed as to prevent the foot from slipping sideways:
(b) Coamings which are higher than 90 centimeters above the deck shall also be provided with the
necessary cleats referred to in this sub-regulation on the outside.
(7) Shaft tunnels shall be provided with adequate hand-hold and boot-hold on each side.
(8) The approaches to hold ladders and stairs shall be at least 4-0 centimeters wide and shall not
be obstructed, and if on one or both sides there are dangerous moving parts it shall be at least 50
centimeters wide.
(9) Cargo shall be stacked sufficiently far from the ladder to leave at each rung of the ladder foot-
hold of a depth including any space behind the ladder of not less than 12 cms. for a width of 25
centimeters.
27. Fencing of and means of access to lifting appliances. -
(1) Safe means of access to every part of a lifting appliance shall be provided.
(2) The operator's platform on every crane or tip driven by mechanical power shall be securely
fenced and shall be provided with safe means of access. In particular, where access is by a ladder,-
a) the sides of the ladder shall extend to a reasonable distance beyond the platform or some other
suitable handhold shall be provided;
(b) the landing place on the platform shall be maintained free from obstruction and slipping; and
(c) in case where the ladder is vertical and exceeds six metres in height, a resting place shall be
provided, after every six metres and part thereof.
28. Ladders. -

Page 261
(1) All metal, wooden, rope or other ladders, that are used by dock workers shall be of sound
material, good construction and adequate strength for the purpose for which they are intended and
shall be properly maintained and kept free from oil or other slippery material.
(2) Wooden ladders, shall not be painted, but covered with clear varnish or other transparent
preservative.
(3) No ladder shall be used which hasa)
a missing or defective rung; or
(b) any rung which depends for its support on nails, spikes or other similar fixings.
(4) Every ladder shall be inspected at suitable intervals by a responsible person, and if any defects
are found in any ladder, the ladder shall be immediately taken out of service.
29. Bulwarks or rails. -
(l) All upper decks to which dock workers may have access for the purpose of carrying on dock
work shall be provided on the outer edge upto a height of one metre above the deck with a bulwark
or guard rails so designed, constructed and placed, as to prevent any dock worker from accidentally
falling overboard.
(2) The bulwark or guard rails shall be continuous except where sections have to be removed for
the purpose of dock work and such sections shall not extend beyond the minimum distance
necessary.
30. Deck ladders. -
Ladders leading from upper deck or bridge deck or which deck to main deck shall be so situated
as to reduce, as far as practicable, the risk of dock workers,-
a) being struck by cargo during loading or unloading; and
(b) falling direct into an open hold if they fall from the ladder.
31. Skeleton decks. -
(1) When dock work is proceeding at any skeleton deck, adequate staging with suitable railings
shall be provided to ensure a safe working surface unless the space beneath the deck is filled with
cargo to within a distance of 60 centimetres of such deck.
(2) When skeleton decks are not accessible from hold ladders, safe means of access such as
portable ladders shall be provided.
32. Working spaces. -
( 1) Dock cargoes shall be stowed, or effective measures taken, so that,-
a) safe access is provided to the winches, hold ladders and to the signaller's stand; and
(b) winches and cranes used during loading or unloading can be safely operated.
(2) Safe access to the deck cargo, hold ladders and winches shall be ensured by securely installed
steps or ladders.
(3) When a signaller has to move from the square of the hatch to the ship's side, a space at least 90
centimetres wide shall be kept clear.
(4) If the surface of the deck cargo is uneven, suitable measures shall be provided for the safe
movement of dock workers.
(5) When deck cargo is stoved against ship's bulwark or hatch coamings and at such a height that
there is a danger to the dock worker from falling overboard or into the open hold, suitable fencing
shall be provided to prevent such fall.
(6) When there is a cargo on dock, it shall be ensured that the visibility between the signaller and
crane or winch operator is not obstructed by making suitable arrangements.

Page 262
(7) All places, such as decks, stages, etc. shall be properly cleaned and kept free from objects
which can cause slipping, stumbling and falling.
(8) When the coaming is so high that signaller cannot see properly in the hold, a suitable step or
platform shall be provided in such a manner that the distance between the top of the platform and
the upper edge of the coaming Is not less than one metre.
(9) A clear an unobstructed space at least 90 centimetres wide and where this is not practicable as
wide as is reasonably practicable shall be provided around every hatch.
(10) Any part of the ship used in connection with the dock work shall be free from patent defect
and maintained in good working order.
33. Fencing around hatchways. -
(1) Every hatchway of a hold exceeding 1.5 metres in depth, which is not protected by coaming to
a clear height of 75 centimetres shall, when not in use either be effectively fenced to a height of
one metre or be securely covered to prevent dock workers from falling into the hold.
(2) If in any hatch dock work is carried on simultaneously at two decks, the open end of the hatch
in the higher deck shall be protected to a height of one metre by means of planks or nets or in some
other suitable manner to prevent fall of dock workers or cargo and the safety nets when rigged
shall not be secured to the hatch covers.
(3) When an edge of a hatch section or of stowed cargo more than 2.5 metre high is so exposed
that it presents a danger to dock workers falling the edge shall be guarded by a taut rope, safety
net or railing to a height of one metre.
(4) Dock workers employed in a hold on a partly covered hatch or on a stack shall be protected by
spreading a net or in some other suitable way, against the danger of falling down.
34. Hatch coverings, hatch beams, etc.-
(1) All fore and aft beams and thwartship beams used for hatch coverings shall have suitable gear
for lifting them on and off without it being necessary for any dock worker to go upon them to
adjust such gear.
(2) All hatch coverings and beams shall be kept plainly marked to indicate the deck and hatch to
which they belong and their position therein.
(3) All hatch coverings and beams shall be replaced according to their markings:
Provided that this regulation shall not apply in cases where all the hatch coverings and beams of a
ship are interchangeable or, in respect of marking of position, where all hatch coverings of a hatch
are interchangeable.
(4) All fore and aft beams and thwartship beams including sliding beams and the tracks used for
hatch coverings and all hatch coverings shall be maintained in good condition.
(5) Adequate handgrips shall be provided on all hatch coverings, having regard to their size and
weight, unless construction of the hatch or the hatch covering is of a character rendering the
provision of handgrips unnecessary.
(6) Hatch coverings shall not be used in the construction of stages or for any other purpose which
may expose them to damage.
(7) Hatch covers and beams shall not be removed and replaced while dock work is in progress in
the hold under the hatchway. Before loading or unloading take place, any hatch cover or beam that
is not adequately secured against displacement shall be removed.
(8) Only an authorised person shall be permitted to open or close power operated hatch covers.
(9) Folding hatch covers shall be fitted with locking devices to prevent covers from folding back.

Page 263
(10) Hatch covers shall not be opened or closed in such manner as is likely to cause injury to any
dock worker.
35. Opening and closing of hatches. -
(1) Hatchways shall be opened sufficiently to allow loads to be safely hoisted or lowered.
(2) No hatch cover or hatch beam shall be removed from or replaced on any hatch unless there is
around the hatch coaming an unobstructed working space at least 60 centimetre wide or where this
is not reasonably practicable, as wide as is reasonably practicable.
(3) Before covering hatch with tarpaulin it shall be ensured that there is no opening left uncovered
by hatch covers and that all the hatch covers are resting securely.
36. handling of hatch coverings and beams. -
(1) All hatch cover exceeding 55 kilogram in weight and all beams of any hatch shall be removed
or replaced only with a which or other suitable mechanical means.
(2) When being replaced, hatch covers and beams shall be placed on the hatches in the position
indicated by the markings thereon and shall be adequately secured.
(3) Hatch covers and beams shall not be removed or replaced while dock worker is below the level
of the hatch in a position in which he is liable to be struck by a falling hatch covering or hatch
beam.
(4) Hatch covers, tarpaulins, fore-and-aft beams and thwartship beams which have been removed
shall be so laid down, stacked or secured that they cannot fall into the hold or otherwise cause
danger.
(5) Hatch covers and beams shall be so placed as to leave a safe walkway from bulwark to hatch
coaming or foreand- aft.
(6) Hatch covers shall be either arranged in neat piles not higher than the coaming and away from
it or spread one high between coaming and rail with no space between them. The height of the
stack shall be regulated so that, if accidentally struck by a sling, they will not endanger a dock
worker below or overside.
37. Securing of hatch covering and hatch beams. -
(1) Where any hatch beam is fitted with a permanent device for securing it in position in the hatch,
that device and its corresponding fitting in the coaming shall be effectively and properly
maintained.
(2) The beams of any hatch in use for the dock work shall, if not removed be adequately secured
to prevent their displacement.
(3) Any sliding or rolling hatch beams supporting hatch coverings which are left In position in a
partly opened hatch shall be adequately secured to prevent any horizontal movement of the hatch
beams.
(4) Every sliding or rolling hatch beams and its guides shall be so constructed and maintained that
the hatch beam is not liable to be accidentally displaced from Its guides.
(5) Mechanically operated hatch coverings shall, when stowed be adequately secured to prevent
movement,
38. Escape from holds. -
Precautions shall be taken to facilitate the escape of dock workers when handling coal or other
bulk cargo in a hold or in tween decks or bin or hooper.
39. Dangerous and harmful environment.-

Page 264
(1) When internal combustion engines exhaust into a hold or intermediate deck or any other
working place where neither natural ventilation nor the ship's ventilation system is adequate to
keep the carbon monoxide content of the
atmosphere, below 50 parts per million adequate and suitable measures shall be taken at such
places in order to avoid exposure of dock workers to health hazards.
(2) No dock worker shall be allowed to enter any hold or tank of a vessel wherein there is given
off any dust, fumes or other impurities of such a nature and to such an extent as is likely to be
injurious or offensive to the dock workers or n which explosives, poisonous, noxious or gaseus
cargoes have been carried or stored or in which dry ice has been used as a refrigerant or which has
been fumigated, or in which there is possibility of oxygen deficiency, unless all practical steps
have been taken to remove the dust, fumes or other impurities and dangers which may be present
and
to prevent any further ingress thereof, and such holds or tanks are certified to be safe and fit for
dock workers to enter the same by the competent authority.
(3) When dock workers are exposed to any dust in substantial quantities as in handling bulk grains
fertilizers,cements and other similar cargoes, they shall be protected by suitable respiratory
protective equipment.
40. Construction and maintenance of lifting appliances
(1) General.
All lifting appliance, including all parts and working gear thereof, whether fixed or moveable, and
any plant or gear used in anchoring of fixing such appliance, shall be:
(a) of good construction, sound material, adequate strength for the purpose for which it is used and
free from patent defect; and
(b) maintained in good repair and working order.
(2) Drums.
(a) Every drum or pulley round which the rope of any lifting appliances is carried, shall be of
adequate diameter and construction In relation to the rope used.
(b) Any rope which terminates at the winding drum of a lifting appliances shall be securely
attached to the drum and at least three dead turns of the rope shall remain on the drum in every
operating position of the lifting appliance.
(c) The flange of the drum should project twice the rope diameter beyond the last layer and if this
height is not available, other measures such as anti-slackness guards shall be provided to prevent
the rope from coming off the drum.
(3) Brakes. Every lifting appliances shall be provided with an efficient brake or brakes which shall-
(a) be capable of preventing fall of a suspended lead (Including any test load applied in accordance
with these regulations) and of effectively controlling a load while it is being lowered;
(b) act without shock;
(c) have shoes that can be easily removed for relining; and
(d) be provided with simple and easily accessible means of adjustment:
Provided that this regulation shall not apply to steam winch which, can be so operated that the
winch is as safe as it would be if a brake or brakes were provided in accordance with this regulation.
(4) Controls.
Controls of lifting appliance shall,-

Page 265
(a) be so situated that the driver at his stand or seat has ample room for operating and has an
unrestricted view of dock work, as far as practicable, and remains clear of the load and ropes, and
that no load passes over him;
(b) be positioned with due regard to ergonometric considerations for easy operation;
(c) be so located that the driver does not have to remain in the bright of the heel block;
(d) have upon them or adjacent to them clear markings to Indicate their purpose and mode of
operation;
(e) be provided, where necessary, with a suitable locking device to prevent accidental movement
or displacement;
(f) as far as practicable, move in the direction of the resultant load movement; and
(g) automatically come to a neutral position in case of power failure wherever automatic brakes
are provided.
41. Test and periodical examination of lifting appliances. -

(1) Before being taken into use for the first time or after It has undergone any alternations or repairs
liable to affect its strength or stability and also once at least in every five years, all lifting appliances
including all parts and gears thereof, whether fixed or moveable, shall be tested and examined by
a competent person in the manner set out In
Schedule I.
(2) All lifting appliances shall be thoroughly examined by a competent person once at least In
every 12 months.Where the competent person making this examination forms the opinion that the
lifting appliance cannot continue to function safely, he shall forthwith give notice in writing of his
opinion to the owner of the lifting appliance or in case of lifting appliance carried on board a ship
not registered in India, to the Master or officer-in-charge of the ship.
(3) Thorough examination for the purpose of this regulation shall mean a visual examination,
supplemented if necessary by other means such as hammer test, carried out as carefully as the
conditions permit, in order to arrive at a reliable conclusion as to the safety of the parts examined;
and if necessary for this purpose, parts of the lifting appliance and gear, shall be dismantled.
42. Automatic safe load indicators. -
(1) Every crane, if so constructed that the safe working load may be varied by raising or lowering
of the jib or otherwise, shall have attached to it an automatic indicator of safe working loads which
shall also give a warning to the operator wherever the safe working load is exceeded.
(2) Cut-out shall be provided which automatically arrests the movement of the lifting parts of the
crane in the event of the load exceeding the safe working load wherever possible.
(3)The provisions of sub-regulation (1) shall not apply where it is not possible to instal an
automatic safe load indicator, in which case, provision on the crane of a table showing the safe
working loads at the corresponding inclinations or radii of the jib shall be considered sufficient
compliance.
43. Rigging of ship's derricks. -

(l) Every ship shall carry the current and relevant rigging plans and any other relevant information
necessary for the safe rigging of its derricks and necessary gear.
(2) All such rigging plans shall be certified by a competent person.
44. Securing of derrick foot.-

Page 266
Appropriate measures shall be taken to prevent the foot of a derrick being lifted out of its socket
or supports.
45. Winches. -
(1) General
(a) Winches shall not be used if control levers to operate with excessive friction or excessive play.
(b) Double gear winches shall not be used unless a positive means of locking the gear shift is
provided.
(c) When changing gears on a two gear winch, there shall be no load other than the fall and the
cargo hock assembly on the winch.
(d) Adequate protection shall be provided to winch operator against the weather, where necessary.
(e) Temporary seats and shelters for winch operators which create a hazard to the winch operator
or other dock workers shall not be allowed to be used.
(f) When winchs are left unattended, control levers shall be secured in the neutral position and
whenever possible, the power shall be shut off.
(2) Steam winches In every steam winch used in dock work,-
(a) measures shall be taken to prevent escaping steam, from obscuring any part of the decks or
other work places or from otherwise hindering or injuring any dock worker;
(b) extension control levers which tend to fall of their own weight shall be counter-balanced;
(c) except for short handles on wheel type controls, winch operations shall not be permitted to use
the winch control extension levers unless they are provided by either the ship or the employer and
such levers shall be of adequate strength and secure and fastened with metal connections at the
fulcrum and at the permanent control lever.
(3) Electric winches
(a) In case of any defect, dock workers shall not be permitted to transfer with or adjust electric
control circuits.
(b) Electric wireless shall be used for dock work in case where,-
(i) the electro-magnetic brake is unable to hold the load; and
(ii) one or more control points, either hoisting or lowering is not operating properly.
46. construction and maintenance of loose gears. -
(1) Every loose ge r sh ll be
(a) of good design and construction, sound material and adequate strength for the purpose for
which it is used and free from patent defects and,
(b) properly maintained in good repair and working order.
(2) Components of the loose gear shall be renewed if one of the dimensions at any point has
decreased by 10 per cent. or more by user.
(3) (a) Chains shall be withdrawn from use when stretched and increased in length exceeds five
per cent, or when a link of the chain deformed or otherwise damaged or raised scarfs of defective
welds appeared. (b) Rings hooks, swivels and end links attached to chains shall be of the same
material as that of the chains.
(4) The voltage of electric supply to any magnetic lifting device shall not fluctuate by more than
+ 10 per cent.
47. Test and periodical examination of loose gears. -
(1) All loose gears shall be initially tested for the manufacturer by a competent person, in a manner
set-out in Schedule-I before taking into use or after undergoing any substantial alternations or
renders to any part liable to affect

Page 267
its safety and shall subsequently be retested for the owner of the gear, at least in every five years.
(2) All loose gears shall be thoroughly examined once at least in every twelve months by a
competent person. In addition chains shall be thoroughly examined once at least every month by
a responsible person.
48. Ropes.-
(1) No rope shall be used for dock work unless:-
(a) it is of suitable quality and free from patent defect, and
(b) in the case of wire rope, it has been tested and examined by a competent person in the manner
set out in Schedule I.
(2) Every wire rope of lifting appliance or loose gear used in dock work shall be inspected by a
responsible person once at least in every three months, provided that after any wire has broken in
such rope, it shall be inspected once at least in every month.
(3) No wire rope shall be used in dock work if in any length of eight diameters the total number of
visible broken wires exceed 10 per cent. of the total number of wires or the rope shows sign of
excessive wear, corrosion or other defects which in the opinion of the person who inspects it or
Inspector, renders it as unfit for use.
(4) Eye splices and loops for the attachment of hooks, rings and other such parts to wire ropes shall
be made with suitable thimble.
(5) A thimble or loop splice made in any wire rope shall conform to the following standard,-
(a) wire rope or rope sling shall have at least three tucks with full strand of rope and two tucks
with one-half of the wires cut out of each strand and strands in all cases shall be tucked against the
lay of the rope;
(b) protruding ends of strands in any salice on wire rope and rope slings shall be covered or treated
so as to leave no sharp points;
(c) fibre rope or rope sling shall have at least four tucks tail of such tuck being whipped in a suitable
manner; and
(d) synthetic fibre rope or rope sling shall have at least four tucks with full strand followed by
further tuck with one-half filaments cut-out of each strand and final tuck with one-half of the
remaining filaments, cut-out from trends. The portion of the splices containing the tucks with the
reduced number of filaments shall be securely covered with suitable tape or other materials:
Provided that this sub-regulation shall not operate to prevent the use of another form of splice
which can be shown to be as efficient as that laid down in this regulation.
49. Heat treatment of loose gears. -
(1) All chains other than briddle chains attached to derricks on mass and all rings, hooks, shackles
and swivels used in hoisting or lowering shall, unless they have been subjected to such treatment
as an Inspector may, subject to confirmation by the Chief Inspector approve, be effectively
annealed under supervision of a competent person and at the following intervals:
(a) 12.5 milimetre and smaller chains, rings, hooks, shackles and swivels in general use, once at
least in every six months; and
(b) all other chains, rings, hooks, shackles and swivels in general use, once at least in every twelve
months:Provided that in the case of such gear used solely on cranes and other hoisting appliances
worked by hand twelve months shall be submitted for six months in sub-clause (a) and two years
for twelve months in sub-clause (b): Provided further that where an Inspector is of the opinion that
owing, to the size, design material or frequency of use of any such gear or class of such gear, the

Page 268
requirements of this regulation as to annealing is not necessary for the protection of dock workers,
he may by certificate in writing (which he may at his discretion revoke) and subject to
confirmation by the Chief Inspector exempt such gear or class of gear from such requirement
subject to such conditions as may be specified in such certificate.
(2) Sub-regulation (1) shall not apply to;
(i) pitched chains, working on sprocket of sprocketed wheels;
(ii) rings, hooks and swivels permanently attached to pirched chain, pulley blocks or weighing
machines; and (iii) hooks and swivels having ball bearings or other case hardened parts.
(3) All chains and loose gears made from high tensile steel or alloy steel be plainly marked with
an approved mark indicating that they are so made. No chain or loose gear made from high tensile
steel or alloy steel shall be subject to any form of heat treatment except where necessary for the
purpose of repair and under the direction of a competent person.
(4) If the past history of wrought iron gear is not known or if it is suspected that the gear has been
heat treated at incorrect temperature, it shall be normalised before using the same for dock work.
50. Certificate to be issued after actual testing, examination, etc.-
A competent person shall issue a certificate for the purpose of regulation 41, 47, 48 or 49 only
after actual testing or,as the case may be, examination of the apparatus specified in the said
regulation.
51. Register of periodical test and examination and certificates thereof.-
(1) A register in Form II shall be maintained and particulars of test and examination of lifting
appliances and loose gears and heat treatment, as required by regulations 41, 47 and 49 shall be
entered in it,(2) Certificates shall be obtained from competent person and attached to the register
in Form II, in respect of the following, in the forms shown against each:
(a) initial and periodical test and examination under regulations 41 and 47, for-
(i) winches, derricks and their accessory gear in Form III.
(ii) cranes or hoists and their accessory gear in Form IV;
(b) test, examination and re-examination of loose gears under regulation 47 in Form V;
(c) test and examination of wire ropes under regulation 48 in Form VI;
(d) heat treatment and examination of loose gears under sub-regulation (1) of regulation 49, in
Form VII;
(e) annual thorough examination of the loose gears under sub-regulation (2) of regulation 47 in
Form VIII, unless required particulars have been entered in the register in Form II.
(3) The register and the certificates attached to the register shall be,-
(a) kept on board the ship in case of ship's lifting appliances, loose gears and wire ropes;
(b) kept at premises of the owner in respect of other lifting appliances, loose gear and wire ropes;
(c) produced on demand before an Inspector; and
(d) retained for at least five years after the date of the last entry.
(4) No lifting appliance and loose gear in respect of which an entry is required to be made and
certificates of test and examination are required to be attached in the register in Form II, shall be
used for dock work unless and until the
required entry has been made in the register and the required certificates have been so attached.
52. Marking of safe working load.-
(1) Every lifting appliance and every item of loose gear shall be clearly marked with its safe
working load and
identification mark by stamping or where this is impracticable, by other suitable means.

Page 269
(2) (a) Every ship's derrick (other than derrick crane) shall be clearly marked with its safe working
load when the
derrick is used,-
(i) in single purchase,
(ii) with a lower cargo block, and
(iii) in union purchases in all possible block positions;
(b) The lowest angle to the horizontal, that the derrick may be used, shall also be legibly marked.
(3) Every lifting appliance (other than ship's derricks) having more than one safe working load
shall be fitted with
effective means enabling the operator to determine the safe working load under each condition of
use.
(4) Means shall be provided to enable any dock worker using loose gears to ascertain the safe
working load for such
loose gears under such conditions as it may be used and such means shall consists,-
(a) as regards chain slings, of marking the safe working load in plain figures or letter: upon the
sling or upon a tablet
or ring of durable material attached securely thereto; and
(b) as regards wire rope slings, either the means specified in CL (a) above or a notice or notices so
exhibited as can
be easily read by any concerned, dock worker stating the safe working load for the various sizes
of the wire rope
slings used.
Page 26
(5) No lifting appliance or loose gear shall be used unless marked in accordance with the provisions
of this regulation.
53. Loading of lifting appliances and loose gears. -
(1) No lifting appliance, loose gear and wire rope shall be used in an unsafe way and in such a
manner as to involve
risk to life of dock workers, and, in particular, shall be loaded beyond its safe working load or
loads, except for testing
purposes as given in Schedule I and under the direction of a competent person.
(2) No lifting appliance and loose gears or any other cargo handling appliances shall be used, if-
(a) the Inspector is not satisfied by reference to a certificate of test or examination or to an
authenticated record
maintained as provided under the regulations; and
(b) in the view of the Inspector, the lifting appliance, loose gear or any other cargo handling
appliance is not safe for
use in dock work.
54. Pulley blocks. -
No pulley blocks shall be used in dock work unless the safe working load and its identification
marks are clearly
stamped upon it.
55. Vacuum and magnetic lifting device.-
(1) No vacuum or any other lifting device where the load is held by adhesive power only, be used
while workers are

Page 270
performing operations in the holds.
(2) Any magnetic lifting device used in connection with dock work shall be provided with an
alternative supply of
power, such as batteries, that come into operation immediately in the event of failure of the main
power supply:
Provided that the provisions under this sub-regulation shall not apply to magnetic lifting device
that is being used to
load or unload scrap metal or to other cargo handling operations of such a nature that there is no
dock worker within
the swinging zone of the load.
56. Knotting of chains and wire ropes. -
No claim or wire rope shall be used in dock work with a knot in it.
57. Power trucks and hand trucks. -
(1) All trucks/trailers and tractor equipments shall be of good material, sound construction,
sufficiently strong for the
purpose for which it is used and maintained in good state of repair:
Provided that trucks and trailer employed for transporting freight containers shall be of the size to
carry the containers
without overhanging and provided with twist locks conforming to national standards at all the four
corners and these
shall be:
(i) approved by a competent person; and
(ii) inspected, by a responsible person once at least in every month and record maintained.
(2) All trucks and other equipments shall be inspected at least once a week by a responsible person
and when any
dangerous defect is noticed in an equipment it shall be immediately taken out of use.
(3) Power trucks nd tr ctors sh ll be equipped with effective br kes he d lights nd t il l mps nd m
int ined in
Page 27
(3) Power trucks a d tractors shall be equipped with effective brakes, head lights a d tail lamps a d
mai tai ed i
good repairs and working order.
(4) Side stanchions on power trucks and trailers for carrying heavy and long objects shall be.
(a) of substantial construction and free from defects;
(b) provided with tie chains attached to the top across the loads for preventing the stanchions from
spreading out; and
(c) wherever necessary the stanchions shall be in position while loading and, unloading.
(5) Safe gangways shall be provided for to and for movement of dock workers engaged in loading
and unloading in
lorries, trucks, trailers and wagons.
(6) Trucks and other equipment; shall not be loaded beyond their safe carrying capacity which
shall be clearly and
plainly marked on them.
(7) Handles of hand trucks shall be so designed as to protect the hands of the dock workers or else
be provided with

Page 271
knuckle guards.
(8) (a) Unauthorised persons shall not ride on transport equipment employed in connection with
the dock work.
(b) Driver of the transport equipment shall manoeuvre the equipment under the direction of
signaller only:
Provided that this sub-regulation shall not apply in case vision of the driver is not obstructed.
58. Use of internal combustion engines in the holds. -
(1) Internal combustion engines shall not be used in connection with the dock work In the holds
or cargo spaces
unless,-
(a) adequate means of ventilation and, where necessary mechanical ventilation is provided;
(b) suitable fire fighting equipment Is readily available;
(c) exhaust pipes, connections and mufflers are kept tight;
(d) exhaust is so directed as not to cause inconvenience to the operator and dock workers;
(e) it is ensured that no explosives, inflammable liquids, gases or similar dangerous cargo are
present;
(f) a spark arrestor is fitted on the exhaust of the engine and the bare heated surfaces of the engine,
that are liable to
ignite spilled fuel, are suitably protected;
(g) the engine is refuelled above deck; and
(h) the exhaust does not contain the carbon monoxide above the prescribed in the national
standards.
(2) The internal combustion engine shall be switched off when not In use in connection with the
dock work.
(3) Operators of internal combustion engines in cargo spaces or cargo holds shall not work alone.
(4) Whenever internal combustion engines for use in dock work are to be brought on board, the
Master or the Officerin-
charge of the ship shall be notified.
59. Use of forklifts, electric trucks or cars. -

(l) Electrically driven trucks or cars, fork-lifts, etc. shall be fitted with at least one effective
mechanical braking device
and mechanically operated current cut-off that comes into operation automatically when the
operator leaves the
vehicle.
(2)Fork-lift trucks shall be fitted with overhead guard to protect the operator from falling objects.
(3)Fork-lift trucks or electric cars shall have their gross weight conspicuously marked upon them.
(4) When a fork-lift truck or electric car is operated in intermediate deck, steps shall be taken to
ensure that the
working surface can support the load and the hatch covers cannot be dislodged by the movement
of the truck.
60. Stability test.-
AII fork-life trucks and electric cars shall have been tested for stability as per national standards.
61. Dock railways. -

Page 272
(1) Sufficient clearance to ensure safety shall be allowed between structures or piles of cargo and
railway track.
(2) Locomotive drivers shall act only on signals given by an authorised person:Provided that stop
signals shall always
be acted upon, irrespective of their source.
(3) Locomotives pulling or pushing wagons shall move dead slow and shall be preceded by a man
on foot when
passing through an area where dock workers are employed.
(4) No locomotive or wagon shall be moved on a railway line until an efficient sound signal as a
warning has been
given by the man preceding it on foot where dock workers are working and whose safety is likely
to be endangered, or
on approaching any curve where sight is intercepted, or any other point of danger to dock workers.
(5) When a railway wagon or a group of wagons not directly connected to a locomotive is being
moved, a person shall
be appointed to control each wagon or a group of wagons.
(6)Cranes, ship's winches and derricks shall not be used to move railway wagons.
(7) Fly shunting in premises where dock workers are engaged in dock work shall be prohibited
and all trains shall be
brought to a full stop before any wagons are cut loose.
(8)As far as practicable, idle wagons shall not be left standing on quays with short distances
between them.
(9)When dock workers are required to work between or beneath railway wagons, they shall be
provided with a lookout
man responsible for giving them necessary warning.
(10) Dock workers shall not be employed inside open wagon when-
(a) bulk cargo is being handled by means of grabs; or
(b) steel cargo is being handled by means of electro-magnets.
(11) Locomotive used for pulling or pushing wagons shall be maintained in good repairs and
working order.
(12) Before moving railway wagons, train crews shall make sure that all dock workers are out of
the wagons and the
danger zone.
62. Conveyers. -
(1) Conveyers shall be of sound material, good construction and sufficient strength to support
safely the loads for
which they are intended, and shall be kept in good repair.
(2) (a) Conveying machinery shall be so constructed and installed as to avoid hazardous points
between moving and
stationary parts or objects.
(b) When a passage way is adjacent to an open conveyer a clearance of at least 90 centimetre shall
be provided
between the inner edge of the walkway and the conveyer.
(3) When dock workers have to cross over conveyers, regular crossing facilities affording safe and
adequately lighted

Page 273
passage shall be provided.
(4) When conveyers that are not entirely enclosed cross over places where dock workers are
employed or might pass
beneath them, sheet or screen guards shall be provided to catch any material which might fall from
the conveyers.
(5) Power driven conveyers shall be provided at loading and unloading stations, at drive and take-
up ends, and at other
convenient places, with devices for stopping the conveyer machinery in an emergency.
(6) Adequate fencing shall be provided at transfer point.
(7) Conveyers which carry loads up-inclines shall be provided with mechanical devices that will
prevent machinery
from reversing and carrying the loads back towards the loading point in the event of the power
being cut off.
(8) Where two or more conveyers are operated together, the controlling devices shall be so
arranged that no conveyer
can feed on to a stopped conveyer.
(9) Where the tops of hoppers for feeding conveyers are less than 90 centimetres above the floors
the openings shall be adequately guarded.
(10) (a) Where conveyers extend to points not visible from the control stations they shall be
equipped with gongs,whistles or signal lights, to be used by the operators before starting the
machinery so as to warn dock workers who might be in positions of danger;
(b) Similar provisions shall be made where necessary to enable the dock workers to communicate
with the operator.
(11) Conveyers shall be provided with automatic and continuous lubrication systems, or with
lubricating facilities so
arranged that oiling and greasing can be performed without the oilers coming within dangerous
proximity to moving
parts.
(12) Conveyers shall be thoroughly inspected once in every three months by a responsible person.
(13) Dock workers shall not ride on conveyers.
(14) Belt conveyers shall be provided with guards at the nips of the belts and drums.
(15) Intake openings of blower or exhaust fans for pneumatic conveyers shall be protected with
substantial metal screens or gratings.
(16) Frames of gravity roller and chutes shall be kept free of splinters, sharp edges and roughs
surfaces.
(17) Gravity roller and chutes shall not be used for the passage of dock workers.
(18) Sideboards of chutes shall be of sufficient height to prevent cargo from falling off.
(19) Suitable provision shall be made for the cleaning of conveyers and for clearing obstructions
in a safe way.
63. Transport equipment operators. -
No person shall be employed to operate transport equipment unless he is above 18 years of age
and is sufficiently competent and reliable.
64. Qualification for mobile crane drivers, signaller., etc.-

Page 274
No person shall be employed to drive or operate lifting appliances whether driven by mechanical
power or otherwise or to give signals to driver or operator of such lifting appliances or to work as
rigger for ship's derricks unless he is above
18 years of age and is sufficiently competent and reliable.
65. Loading and unloading operations. -
(1) No cargo shall be loaded or unloaded by a fall or sling at any intermediate deck unless either
the hatch at that
deck is securely covered or a secure landing platform of a width not less than that of one section
of hatch coverings has been placed across it: Provided that this regulation shall not apply to any
loading or unloading work the whole of which may be completed within a period of half an hour.
(2) No loose gear or any other object shall be thrown in or out of the holds.
(3) During the loading and unloading of bulk cargo a record of all dock workers employed in the
hold shall be maintained and produced on demand to the Inspector.
(4) Where necessary cargo shall be secured or blocked to prevent its shifting or falling. In breaking
down, precautions shall be taken where necessary to prevent the remaining cargo from falling.
(5) (a) Dragging of cargo shall be done with the ship's winches only when the runner is led directly
from the derrick heel block; and
(b) Pulley blocks shall be used to provide a fair lead for the runner so as to prevent it from dragging
against obstructions.
(6) If the head room in the hold of a ship for the purpose of stacking and unstaking is less than 1.5
metres, suitable measure shall be taken to guard against accident.
(7) Loads shall be safely slung before being hoisted. Loose dunnage or debris hanging or
protruding from loads shall be removed and suitable means shall be adopted to prevent cargo from
falling out.
(8) Cargo handling bridles, such as pallet bridles, which are to remain attached to the lifting
appliance while hoisting successive sling loads, shall be attached by shackles, or other positive
means shall be taken to prevent them from
becoming accidentally disengaged from the hook of the lifting appliance.
(9) When lifting appliance is operating without a load on the slings:
(a) slings or chains shall be hooked securely to the appliances before the operators are given signal
to move;
(b) sharp hooks, multiple hooks and claws shall not hang at one end but shall be reeved through
slings; and
(c) the operators shall raise the appliance sufficiently to keep clear off dock workers and objects.
(10) Effective measures shall be taken, by the use of suitable packing or otherwise, to prevent
edges of any load from
coming in contact with any rope or chain sling which is likely to cause any damage to the rope or
chain sling.
(11) Buckets, tubs and similar appliances shall not be loaded above their rims.
Page 31
(12) No loads shall be lifted at strappings unless such strappings are approved as proper and safe
slinging points.
Movement of such loads is allowed only if everybody has left the danger zone.
(13) When working with lifting appliances, slope-pulling, horizontal dragging and intentional
swing of loads and lifting devices are prohibited.

Page 275
66. Stacking and unstacking.-
(1) Where stacking, unstacking, stowing or unstowing, stuffing or destuffing of cargo or handling
in connection therewith cannot be safely carried out unaided, reasonable measures to guard against
accidents shall be taken by horing or otherwise.
(2) Stacking of cargo shall be made on firm foundation not liable to settle and the weight of the
cargo shall be such as not overload the floors.
(3) Cargo shall not be stacked against partition or walls of warehouses or store places unless it is
known that the partition or the wall is of sufficient strength to withstand the pressure.
(4) Cargo shall not be stacked to such a height and in such a manner as would render the pile
unstable.
(5) Where the dock workers are working on stacks exceeding 1.5 metre in height, safe means of
access to the stack
shall be provided.
(6) Stacking and unstacking work shall be performed under the supervision of an authorised
person.
67. Handling objects having sharp and projecting parts. -
Dock workers handling objects with sharp edges, fins, slivers, splinters or similar dangerous
projecting parts shall be provided with suitable protective equipment.
68. Hooks for bales, etc.-
When the working space in a hold is confined to the square of the hatch, hooks shall not be made
fast In the bands or fastenings of bales of cotton, wool, cork, gunny bags, or other similar goods,
nor shall can hooks be used for raising or lowering a barrel when owing to the construction or
condition of the barrel or of the hooks, their use is likely to be unsafe.
69. Cargo platforms. -
(l) Cargo platforms (except those formed by cargo itself) shall be made of sound material,
substantially and firmly constructed, adequately supported and maintained in good repair.
(2) Cargo platforms shall-
(a) be of sufficient size to receive cargo and to ensure the safety of dock workers working on them;
(b) if of a height exceeding 1.5 metres, in addition to the requirements of (a) above, be protected
on any side, which is
not being used for receiving or delivering cargo, by substantial fencing to a height of one metre;
and
(c) be provided with safe means of access, such as ladders or starts.
(3) Cargo platforms shall not be overloaded.
(4) Portable trestles shall be so placed as to be steady.
70 Restrictions on loading and unloading operations -
Page 32
70. Restrictions on lo ding nd unlo ding oper tions.
(1) No other work, for example, maintenance or repair work such as sand blasting or welding shall
be performed at
places where dock work is in progress if it is likely to endanger or obstruct the person carrying out
dock work.
(2) When more than one gang of dock workers are employed in dock work simultaneously in a
hold, it shall be
ensured that,--

Page 276
(a) the operation of loading or unloading is harmonised to avoid dangers to the working gangs
from one another;
(b) the slung cargo of one gang will not endanger the dock workers of the other gang;
(c) where gangs are working at different levels, a net shall be rigged and securely fastened to
prevent dock workers
from falling down or cargo falling on to dock workers below;
(d) over crowding of gangs in a section of the hold is avoided.
71. Dock work and midstream.-
No dock worker shall be employed to handle cargo on any ship anchored in midstream whenever,
the working
conditions are considered to be dangerous.
72. Work during berthing and shifting of ships. -
(1) While ships are being berthed or shifted, no dock work shall be carried out by dock workers in
the holds or
hatches and on docks.
(2) When ships are being moored, dock workers shall be kept clear of the mooring ropes and in
particular, shall not
be allowed to stand in the height of ropes being hauled by capstans.
73. Protective equipment.-
(1) Where other means of protection against harmful agents are impracticable or insufficient, dock
workers shall be
provided with adequate protective clothing and personal protective equipment to shield them from
the effects of such
agents.
(2) Protective clothing personal protective equipment shall be of suitable quality and maintained
in good condition and
shall be cleaned and disinfected at suitable intervals.
(3) Where protective equipment and clothing may be contaminated by poisonous or other
dangerous goods, it shall
be stored in a separate accommodation where it will not contaminate the dock workers clothing
and other belongings.
(4) Suitable protection equipment shall be issued to the dock workers employed in the reefer holds
or chambers or
reefer containers for affording complete body protection:
74. Winch and crane operators. -
There shall be one winch or crane operator for each single or pair of loading winches or cranes
which can be operated
from the same point and he shall,-
(a) be not less than 18 years of age;
(b) be competent and reliable;
(c) possess the knowledge of the inherent risks of the winch/crane operation; and
(d) be medically examined periodically as per the Schedule XI.
Page 33
(d) be medic lly ex mi ed periodic lly s per the chedule XI.
75. Signaller.-

Page 277
(1) When cargo is being loaded or unloaded by a fall at a hatchway, a signaller shall be employed,
and where more
than one fall is being worked at a hatchway, a separate signaller shall be employed to attend to
each fall: Provided
that:
(a) this regulation shall not apply, in cases where a barge, lighter or other similar vessel is being
loaded or unloaded,
if the operator of the crane or winch, working the fall has a clear and unrestricted view of those
parts of the hold where
dock work is being carried on; and
(b) where the Inspector is of the opinion that owing to the nature of the crane or winch or other
appliance in use or by
reason of any special arrangements, the requirements of this regulation are not necessary for the
safety of dock
workers, he may by certificate In writing (which he may at his discretion revoke) suspend such
requirements subject
to such conditions as may be specified in such certificate.
77. General precautions. -
(1) Dangerous goods shall be loaded, unloaded handled and stored under the supervision of a
responsible person who
is familiar with the risks and the precautions to be taken. In case of doubt as to the nature of the
risk or the precautions to be taken, necessary instructions shall be obtained from the Safety Officer
appointed under these
regulations.
(2) Dangerous goods shall not be loaded, unloaded or stored unless they are suitably packed and
labelled showing
the danger therefrom. The dock workers shall be given adequate information concerning the nature
of the cargo and special precautions to be observed in handling them.
(3) Special precautions, such as provision of mats, sling nets, boxes and high sided pallets shall be
taken to prevent breakage or damage to containers of the dangerous goods.
(4) Dock workers employed in loading or unloading or otherwise handling dangerous goods shall
be provided with suitable protective equipments.
(5) Dock workers handling dangerous goods shall thoroughly wash their hands and faces with soap
or some other cleaning agent before taking any food, drink, pan and supari or tobacco.
(6) Only specially trained dock workers shall be employed for cleaning, sweeping or handling
spillages or sweeping of dangerous goods.
78. Explosive and inflammable cargo.-
(1) Where there is a risk of explosion from electrical equipment, the circuit shall be made dead
and kept dead as long as the risk lasts unless such equipment and circuits are safe for use in the
explosive atmosphere and non-sparking tools sh ll be provided nd used in such atmosphere
tools shall be provided a d used i such atmosphere.
(2) When inflammable cargo is being loaded or unloaded, special measures shall be taken to ensure
that an incipient
fire can be controlled immediately.
79. Other dangerous goods. -

Page 278
(1) Before furnigated cargo such as grain is loaded or unloaded, adequate measures shall be taken
to ensure that the cargo is safe to handle.
(2) Where caustic and corrosive substances are handled or stored, special precautions shall be taken
to prevent damage to the containers and to render any spillage harmless.
(3) If skins, wool, hair, bones, or other animal parts have not been certified by competent authority
as having been disinfected, especially against anthrax, the dock workers concerned shall be:-
(a) instructed about the risk of infection and the precautions to be taken;
(b) provided with suitable type of personal protective equipment; and
(c) subjected to special medical supervision.
80. Handling of tetraethyl lead compound-
(1) Tetraethyl lead compound shall not be unloaded from a ship unless:
(a) it is packed in specially constructed steel drums of substantial construction, sealed with an inner
and outer bung,
and fitted with rolling roops on to the shell as an added precaution;
(b) all receptacles containing tetraethyl lead compound are distinctively and durably marked with
the words
"Tetraethyl Lead Compound- Poison"; and
(c) two sets of protective equipment comprising the following are provided and kept readily
available for use in the
event of any leakage of tetraethyl lead compound:
(i) rubber gloves.
(ii) rubber boots,
(iii) rubber apron or oilskin suit, and
(iv) suitable respirator, which should be either of cannister type containing minimum of 50 cc. of
activated charcoal or
an airline respirator with an independent fresh air supply.
(2) Following measures shall be taken while unloading tetraethyl lead compound:
(a) no receptacle containing tetraethyl lead compound shall be opened within the limits of the port;
(b) before commencement of the unloading operations, the consignment of tetraethyl lead
compound shall be
inspected on board the vessel by a responsible person. No tetraethyl lead compound drums
showing any sign of
leakage shall be unloaded until suitably repaired or placed in a larger receptacle or container
offering sufficient
precautions from leakage;
(c) drums containing tetraethyl lead compound shall be discharged under the supervision of a
responsible person;
(d) drums containing tetraethyl lead compound shall be loaded discharged in rope slings with a
maximum of two
drums t sep r te sling for e ch drum Hooks sh ll on no ccount be used;
Page 35
drums at a separate sli g for each drum. Hooks shall o o accou t be used
(e) dock workers handling drums containing tetraethyl lead compound shall be provided with
heavy gloves of canvas or
leather and shall use such gloves; and

Page 279
(f) adequate quantities of non-inflammable solvent or kerosene a. soap and water to deal with any
leakages of
tetraethyl lead compound shall be kept readily available where the work of handling of the
tetraethyl lead compound is
carried on.
(3) Following measures shall be taken In the event of leakage of tetraethyl lead compound:
(a) the area on which the leakage of tetraethyl lead compound has occurred (including the outside
of a drum) shall be
treated as follows:
(i) flush with kerosene or some other light oil solvent followed by water. If the surface permits,
wash thoroughly with
soap working-up as much lather as possible, and again flush with water;
(ii) if it is possible to obtain quickly a supply of common bleaching line (Ca O Cl2) the area should
first be treated
generously with a mixture of bleaching lime and water in the form of thin slurry (NEVER use the
dry powder)
alternatively a five per cent solution of sulphuryl chloride (S02 Cl2) in kerosene may be used;
(b) if contamination of absorbent material such as wooden flooring, dunbage, or other packing
material has taken
place, then such material shall, after treatment as above, be removed from the place where
tetraethyl lead compound
is being handled;
(c) any clothing which becomes contaminated by tetraethyl lead compound shall be removed
immediately and
cleaned by repeated rinsing in a non-inflammable dry cleaning fluid;
(d) if tetraethyl lead compound can be smelled, dock workers not assigned to deal with the leakage
of tetraethyl lead
compound shall be removed from that place; and
(e) dock workers assigned to deal with leakage of tetraethyl lead compound shall wear the
protective equipment
described under sub-regulation 1 (c).
(4) Suitable protective clothing shall be provided for handling of tetraethyl lead compound in
refrigerated spaces.
81. Broken or leaking containers. -
(1) When there is danger from broken or leaking containers of dangerous goods dock workers shall
be evacuated from
the area involved and the following steps taken before dock work is resumed:
(a) if the cargo produces dangerous gases or vapour:
(i) suitable respiratory protective equipment shall be made available for dock workers who are to
remove the defective
containers;
(ii) the area shall be ventilated if necessary and tested to ensure that the concentration of gases or
vapours In the
atmosphere is safe for dock work;
(b) if the cargo is a corrosive substance-

Page 280
(i) suitable personal protective equipment shall be made available to the dock workers engaged in
the removal of
damaged containers; and
(ii) suitable absorbent or neutralizing materials shall be used in cleaning the spillage.
82. Toxic solvents. -
Before any solvents are used, the toxic properties of such solvents shall be ascertained and
adequate means to
Page 36
safeguard the health of the dock workers exposed to toxic solvents shall be provided.
84. Lifting appliances and other equipment.-
(1) Container terminals shall be equipped with suitable lifting appliances and transport equipment
which shall be
maintained in good repair and working order.
(2) (a) In the case of fork lift trucks employed for handling empty containers, the length of the
forks shall be equal to
the full width of the container and the capacity of the fork lift shall be matching with the weight
of the container.
(b) No fork-lift trucks shall be employed for handling container which do not have fork pockets.
85. Container operation.-
(1) Prior to the use of container spreader, the work supervisor, foreman or any authorised person
shall ensure that it is
in good working order and has been tested as per the provisions under regulation 47 (1).
(2) Single or multi-legged slings shall not be used for lifting of containers.
(3) The weight of the container and the spreader used shall be noted in relation to the safe working
load of the lifting
appliance or transport equipment used.
(4) When loading or discharging, the container shall be hoisted squarely under the plumb to avoid
swinging of the
container.
(5) The special lifting appliances employed in container handling shall be operated only by the
operators possessing
adequate knowledge and skill for these operations.
(6) Lifting appliances employed in container handling shall be operated under the guidance of a
signaller who shall be
properly trained. When the signaller is not in a position to communicate effectively with the
operator of the crane,
other effective means of signalling like walkie-talkie, short wave radio, etc. shall be employed.
(7) When a container is being lowered or hoisted from a chassis, no person shall remain in the
cabin of its prime
mover.
(8) No person shall be standing on a container while-
(a) it is being lifted or lowered; and
(b) another container is being lifted or lowered adjacent to it.
(9) No person shall be lifted to the top of a container by a container spreader which is being lifted
by a crane or any

Page 281
other appliance
(10) When a ladder is used to climb to the top of a container the ladder shall be of sound
construction provided with
anti-skid devices or suitable securing arrangements and there shall be someone to hold the bottom
of the ladder
wherever necessary.
(11) When workers have to work on top of the containers-
(a) it shall be ensured that the surface is dry and clean to avoid slipping; and
(b) suitable and safe means shall be provided to the workers for going on top of containers and
attending to lashing
and unlashing of containers.
(12) Pedestrians shall not be allowed in any part of the container terminal other than the passages
marked for their use.
(13) The container shall be firmly secured to the chassis of truck by means of twist locks before it
is transported.
(14) All containers employed in dock work shall be tested, maintained, Inspected and approved by
a competent
authority.
86. Stuffing and destuffing.-
(1) The containers used for stuffing shall be clean, dry and free from odour.
(2) Proper lighting arrangements shall be provided for the stuffing of the containers and light
fittings shall be safely located.
(3) Containers mounted on chassis shall be properly secured and supported and proper bridge
plates shall be used while the stuffing or destuffing operation is on.
(4) Dangerous goods which are not recommended for grouping together shall not be stuffed in the
same container.
(5) Containers stuffed with dangerous goods shall be labelled with internationally approved levels.
(6) When fork lift is employed for stuffing or destuffing no other person shall be inside container.
(7) No container shall be stuffed beyond its capacity which is marked on It and containers shall be
stuffed in such a manner that weight distribution is uniform as far as possible, throughout the floor
area of containers.
(8) No smoking shall be permitted during stuffing or destuffing operations inside the container.
(9) Upon completion of the stuffing, the container door shall be properly secured with a lock or
container seals.
(10) When a container is to be destuffed, only one door shall be opened carefully at a time to
prevent possibility of
any cargo collapsing.
(11) Dock workers employed in stuffing and destuffing of reefer containers shall be provided with
proper protective clothing.
87. Fencing of motors, etc.-
(1) All motors, cogwheels, chains and friction gearing, flywheels, shaftings, every dangerous and
moving parts of machinery (whether or not driven by mechanical power) and steam pipes shall be
securely fenced or lagged.

Page 282
(2) The fencing of dangerous parts of machinery shall not be removed while the machinery is in
motion or in use, but if removed, shall be replaced before the machinery is taken into normal use
again.
(3) No part of any machinery which is in motion and which is not securely fenced shall be
examined, lubricated,
adjusted or repaired except by persons duly authorised.
(4) Machine parts shall only be cleaned when the machine is stopped.
(5) When machinery is stopped for servicing or repairs, adequate means shall be taken to ensure
that it cannot inadvertently be restarted.
88. Electrical equipment.-
(1) Only duly authorised person shall be permitted to install, adjust, examine, repair, displace or
remove electrical equipment or circuits.
(2) Efficient and suitably located means shall be provided for cutting off all pressure from every
part of the system, as
may be necessary to prevent danger.
(3) All portable electrical equipment shall be maintained in good working order and inspected by
a responsible person
at least once in every day before It is taken into use.
(4) Portable electric light or equipment used in a confined space shall be of twenty-four volts or
less.
(5) Only flame proof electrical equipment shall be used in a confined space where inflammable
gas, fume or dust is likely to be present.
(6) All non-current carrying metal parts of electrical equipment shall be earthed or other suitable
measures shall be taken to prevent them from becoming live.
(7) Portable or flexible electric conductors shall be of heavy duty type and shall be kept clear of
loads, running gear and moving equipment.
(8) All live conductors shall be adequately insulated or fenced to prevent danger by accidental
contact of dock workers or non-current carrying parts of lifting appliances, conveyors, transport
equipment and machinery.
89. Transport of dock workers on land.-
Suitable means of safe transport shall be provided for the dock workers for their movement from
their place of booking to the working area or between the two working areas when the distance
between the points exceeds two kilometres.
90. Transport of dock workers by water.-

(1) When any dock worker has to proceed to or from a ship by water for the purposes of carrying
on a dock work,proper measures shall be taken to provide for his safe transportation. Vessels used
for this purpose shall be in charge of a responsible person, and shall be properly equipped for safe
navigation and maintained in good condition.
(2) The means of transport referred to in sub-regulation (1) shall conform to the following:
(a) adequate protection is provided to the dock workers from inclement weather;
(b) the vessel shall be manned by adequate and experienced crew, duly authorised by competent
authority;

Page 283
(c) if the bulwarks of the vessel are lower than 60 centimetres, the open edges shall be fitted with
suitable fencing to a height of at least one metre above the deck. The posts, stanchions and similar
parts used in the fencing shall not be
spaced more than two metres apart;
(d) the number of life buoys on deck shall be at least equal to the number of persons in the crew
and shall not be less than two;
(e) all life buoys shall be kept in good state of maintenance and be so placed that if the vessel sinks
they remain afloat, one of the said buoys shall be within the immediate reach of the steerman and
another shall, be situated far apart; and
(f) the position of the steerman of the vessel shall be such that he has a reasonably free view of all
sides.
(3) Maximum number of persons that can be safely carried In the vessel shall be certified by a
competent authority and marked plainly and conspicuously on the vessel and such number shall
not be exceeded.
91. Reporting of accidents. -
(1) Notice of any accident in a dock which either
(1) Notice of a y accide t i a dock which either,
(a) causes loss of life; or
(b) disables a person from work on which he was employed for the rest of the day or shift in which
the accident occurred; shall forthwith be sent by telegram, telephone or special messenger within
four hours of the occurrence to,-
(i) the Inspector:
(ii) the relatives of the workers when the accident causes loss of life to the dock worker or is likely
to disable the dock worker from work for more than ten days; and
(iii) in the case of fatal accidents also to:
(a) the officer-in-charge of the nearest Police Station, and,
(b) the District Magistrate or if the District Magistrate by order so directs, the Sub-Divisional
Magistrate.
(2) In the case of accidents falling under Cl. (b) of sub- regulation (1) the injured person shall be
given first-aid and thereafter immediately transferred to a hospital or other place of treatment.
(3) Where any accident causing disablement subsequently results In the death of dock worker,
notice in writing of the death shall be submitted to the authorities mentioned in sub-regulation (1)
within 72 hours after the death occurs.
(4) The following classes of dangerous occurrences shall be reported to the Inspector, whether
death or disablement is caused or not, in the manner prescribed in sub-regulation (1):
(a) collapse or failure of lifting appliances or conveyors or breakage or failure of rope, chains or
other loose gears and lifting devices or overturning of cranes, used in dock work, falling of
hatchboards or cargo from sling, displacement of hatch beams or coverings;
(b) collapse or subsidence of any wall, floor, gallery, roof, platform, staging or means of access;
(c) explosion of a receiver or vessel used for the storage, at a pressure greater than atmosphere
pressure of any gas or gases (Including air) or any liquid or solid resulting from the compression
of gas;
(d) explosion or fire causing damage to any place in the dock in which dock workers are employed;
(e) collapse, capsizing, toppling or collision of the transport equipment,
(f) spillage or leakage of dangerous goods and damage to their containers; and

Page 284
(g) breakage, buckling or damage of freight containers.
(5) If a failure of lifting appliance, loose gear and transport equipment has occurred, the concerned
appliance, gear or equipment and the site shall, as far as practicable, be kept undisturbed until
inspected by the Inspector.
(6) Every notice given under sub-regulation (1) and sub-regulation (4), shall be confirmed within
seventy-two hours of the occurrence by submitting a written report to the inspector in Form XII
and a proper acknowledgment obtained provided that in case of an accident under Cl. (b) of sub-
regulation (1), such written report need be submitted only when the dock worker is disabled from
work on which he was employed for more than forty-eight hours from the time of accident.
92. Notification of certain diseases. -
(1) When a dock worker contracts any disease specified in Schedule IV, a notice in Form XIV
shall be sent by the employer forthwith to the Inspector.
(2) If any medical practitioner attends on a dock worker suffering from any disease specified in
the aforesaid Schedule, the medical practitioner shall without delay send addressed to the Director
General, Directorate General Factory Advice Service and Labour Institutes, Central Labour
Institute Building, Sion, Bombay- 400022, a notice stating the name and full particulars of the
patient and the disease.
93. Safety Officers. -
(1) Every Port Authority and dock labour board shall employ safety officers as per the scale laid
down in Schedule III.
(2) Every other employer of dock worker shall employ at least one safety officer, provided that the
employers may form a group and appoint safety officer for the group as per the scale laid down in
Schedule I with the written permission of the Chief Inspector.
(3) The duties, qualifications and conditions of service of the safety officer shall be as provided in
Schedule III.
(4) The safety officer shall be assisted by suitable assistants and staff which shall be got approved
from the Chief Inspector.
94. Renewal of licences.-
The Port Authorities before issue of renewal of the licences of employers of dock workers shall
obtain a report from the Chief Inspector or the Inspector, regarding the safety performance and
compliance of the regulations and take into consideration the report while granting the renewal of
the licence.
95. Cleanliness. -
(1) Every place in the ship, dock and all areas which are in proximity to the place in the dock,
where dock workers are employed, shall be kept clean and free from rubbish or eflluvia arising
from any drain, privy or other nuisance.
(2) All the accumulated garbages from the ships and the dock area shall be disposed off by burning
in an incenerator or by other suitable means.
(3) All the damaged or deteriorated cargo posing hazards to safety or health or nuisance shall be
removed or disposed off from the work place where the dock workers are employed.
96. Drinking water.-
(1) (a) On board every ship and in every dock, effective arrangement shall be made to provide and
maintain at suitable points conveniently situated for all dock workers employed therein, sufficient
supply of wholesome drinking water:

Page 285
Provided that the drinking water point is available within 100 metres of the place where dock
workers are employed.
(b) Effective arrangement shall be made to provide and maintain adequate supply of wholesome
drinking water on board every ship in mid-stream for all dock workers employed thereon.
(c) The water provided for drinking shall be supplied from the public water supply system or
otherwise from any other source approved in writing by the Health Officer of the Port.
(2) All such points shall be legibly marked "Drinking Water" in a language understood by a
majority of the dock workers and no such point shall be situated within six metres of any washing
place urinal or latrine unless a shorter distance is approved in writing by the Chief Inspector.
(3) In every dock, the drinking water supplied to the dock workers shall during hot weather, be
cooled by ice or other effective means: Provided that if ice is placed, in the drinking water, the ice
shall be clean and wholesome and shall be obtained only from a source approved in writing by the
Health Officer at the Port.
(4) Every drinking water centre shall be maintained in a clean and ordinary condition and if
necessary shall be in charge of a person who shall distribute the water. Such a person shall be
provided with clean clothes while on duty.
(5) The drinking water centres shall be sheltered from the weather and adequately drained.
(6) Storage tanks or containers for drinking water shall always be kept in clean and hygienic
condition.
(7) The Inspector may, by order in writing, direct the Port Authority to obtain at such time or at
such intervals as he may direct a report from the Health Officer of the Port as to the fitness for
human consumption of the water supplied to the dock workers, and in every case to submit to the
Inspector a copy of such report as soon as it is received from the Health Officer.
97. Latrines and urinals. -
(1) In every dock, latrine and urinal accommodation shall be provided on the scale given in
Schedule VIII and shall be conveniently situated and accessible to dock workers at all times while
they are at work. Such accommodation and access to it shall be adequately lighted and ventilated.
(2) Separate latrines shall be provided where female dock workers are employed.
(3) The floors and internal walls of the latrines and urinals and the sanitary blocks shall be laid in
glazed tiles or otherwise finished to provide a smooth polished impervious surface upto height of
at least 90 centimetre.
(4) All such accommodation shall be maintained in a clean and sanitary condition at all times. The
floors, side walls and the sanitary pans of latrines and urinals shall be thoroughly swept and cleaned
at least once in a day with suitable detergents or disinfectants or with both.
(5) Every latrine shall be under cover and so partitioned off as to secure privacy and shall have a
proper door and fastenings.
(6) The walls, ceilings and partitions of every latrine and urinal shall be whitewashed or colour-
washed and the whitewashing or colour-washing shall be repeated at least once in four months
and record maintained.
(7) Where piped water supply is available sufficient number of water taps, conveniently accessible
shall be provided in or near such latrine accommodation.
(8) Where piped water supply is not available provision shall be made to store adequate quantity
of water near the latrine.
98. Spittons.-

Page 286
(1) In every portion of a dock including warehouses and store places, sufficient number o spittons
shall be provided in convenient places and they shall be maintained in a clean and hygienic
condition.
(2) No person shall spit in the dock area except in the spittons provided for the purpose and a notice
containing this provision shall be prominently displayed at suitable places.
(3) Whoever spits in contravention of sub-regulation (2) shall be punishable with a fine not
exceeding one hundred rupees.
(4) The spittons shall be of an approved type.
(5) The spittons shall be emptied, cleaned and disinfected at least once in every day.
99. Ventilation and temperature in dock area including reefer holds on ships. -
Effective and suitable provision shall be made in every dock for securing and maintaining in every
building or an enclosure or a reefer hold or chamber or reefer container where dock workers are
employed adequate ventilation by the circulation of fresh air and such temperature and air
movement as will secure to dock workers therein reasonable conditions of comfort and prevent
injury to health.
100. Washing facilities. -
(1) In every dock, rest shed, call stand and canteen, adequate and suitable facilities for washing
shall be provided and maintained for the use of the dock workers and such facilities shall be
conveniently accessible and shall be kept in clean and orderly condition. Washing facilities shall
include glazed wash basins with taps attached thereto.
(2) Where dock workers are exposed to skin contamination by poisonous, infection or irritation
substances or oil grease or dust, adequate number of shower-baths enclosed in individual
compartments, with entrances suitably screened shall be provided.
(3) These facilities shall be provided in every dock on the scale laid down in Schedule VIII.
(4) The floor or ground under and in the immediate vicinity of every wash basin, stand pipe and
shower shall be so laid or finished as to provide a smooth impervious surface and shall be
adequately drained.
(5) The water supply of the washing facilities shall be adequate having regard to the number of
dock workers employed in the dock, and shall be from a source approved in writing by the Health
Officer of the Port.
101. First-aid boxes. -
(1) In every dock and on board every ship there shall be provided and maintained so as to be readily
accessible during all working hours, sufficient number of first-aid boxes or cupboards:
Provided that the distance of the nearest first-aid box or cupboard shall not be more than 200
metres from any working place.
(2) Nothing except appliances or requisites for first-aid shall be kept in the boxes and cupboards.
All such boxes and cupboards shall be so kept that they are protected against contamination by
dust or other foreign matters and against penetration of moisture. They shall be kept in the charge
of a responsible person who is trained in first-aid treatment and who shall always be readily
available during working hours.
(3) Each first-aid box or cupboard shall be distinctly marked "First-Aid" and shall be equipped
with the articles specified in Schedule VI.
102. Ambulance room.-
(1) In every dock or in any part of a dock where dock workers are ordinarily employed, there, shall
be provided and maintained an ambulance room with effective communication system and shall

Page 287
be in the charge of a qualified nurse who shall always be readily available during all working hours
and the ambulance room shall be in overall charge of a ualified medical practitioner.
(2) The ambulance room shall be a separate room used only for the purpose of first-aid treatment
and rest. It shall have a floor area of at least ten square metre and smooth, hard and impervious
walls and flooring and shall be adequately ventilated and lighted by both natural and artificial
means. An adequate supply of wholesome drinking water shall be provided and the room shall be
equipped with the articles specified in Schedule V.
(3) A record of all cases of accidents and sickness treated at the ambulance room shall be kept and
produced to the Inspector on demand.
103. Ambulance carriage.-
There shall be provided for use at every dock a suitably constructed motor ambulance carriage and
launch which shall There shall be provided for use t every dock suit bly co structed motor mbul ce
c rri ge d l u ch which shall be maintained in good condition for the purpose of removal of serious
cases of accident and sickness.
104. Stretchers. -
A sufficient number of suitable stretchers including a Neil Robertson Stretcher or any other
suitable sling stretcher, shall be provided at every dock at convenient places so as to be readily
available in an emergency.
105. Shelters or rest sheds and lunch rooms. -
(1) In every dock wherein more than 150 dock workers are ordinarily employed, adequate and
suitable shelters or rest sheds and suitable lunch rooms with provision for drinking water and
washing facilities, where dock workers can eat meals brought by them, shall be provided at
convenient places and maintained for their use:
Provided that any canteen maintained in accordance with regulation 106 shall be regarded as part
of the requirement of this regulation: Provided further that, where a lunch room is provided no
dock worker shall eat any food in the precincts of the dock except in such lunch rooms.
(2) Covered receptacles shall be provided and used for disposal of food and litter in every rest
shed. These receptacles shall be emptied at least once in every shift.
(3) The shelters or rest rooms and lunch rooms to be provided under sub-regulation (1) shall be
sufficiently lighted and ventilated and shall be maintained in a cool and clean condition.
106. Canteens. -
(1) In any dock or in any part of dock wherein more than 250 dock workers are ordinarily
employed, or are waiting to be employed, adequate canteen facilities in or near the work area shall
be provided and maintained by the Port Authorities and dock labour boards for the use of all dock
workers. The canteen shall function at all times when wenty-five or more dock workers are
employed at a time.
(2) The canteens shall conform to the requirements laid down in Schedule IX.
(3) An adequate number of mobile canteens shall be provided at every dock with provision for
serving tea and light refreshments.
107. Medical examination of dock workers. -
(1) It shall be ensured that all dock workers undergo medical examination.-
(a) before he is employed for the first time; or is being selected or trained for the operation of
lifting appliances and transport equipment;
(b) periodically, at such intervals as may be considered necessary by the Chief Inspector in view
of the risks inherent In the dock work and the conditions under which the dock work is performed.

Page 288
(2) (a) Wherever considered necessary the medical examination shall also, include X-ray and
pathological laboratory xamination and
(b) the medical examinations prescribed under sub-regulation 1 (a), (b) and 2 (a) shall be in
accordance with Schedule XI and no dock worker shall be charged for the same.
(3) In the case of dock workers exposed to special occupational health hazards, the periodical
medical examination shall include any special investigation deemed necessary for the diagnosis of
occupational diseases.
(4) The details of the medical examination shall be suitably recorded and shall be made available
to the Inspector on demand.
(5) If the medical officer is of the opinion that the dock worker so examined is required to be taken
away from the dock work for health protection he may direct the Port Authorities or Dock Labour
Board or the other employers of dock workers accordingly, as the case may be. However, the dock
worker so taken away shall be provided with alternate placement unless he is in the opinion of the
medical officer, fully incapacitated in which case the worker affected may be suitably rehabilitated.
108. Notices. -
Notices shall be exhibited in prominent positions at every dock stating.-
(a) the position of nearest first-aid box or cupboard and the place where the person-in-charge
thereof can be found.
(b) the position of the ambulance room, the stretchers or other appliances; and
(c) the position of the ambulance carriage and launch, the location of the nearest telephone and the
name and telephone number of the hospital or other place from where such carriage or launch can
be obtained.
109. Welfare Officers. -
(1) Every Post Authority and Dock Labour Board shall employ a number of welfare officers with
duties, qualifications and conditions of service as laid down in Schedule X.
(2) Every other employer of dock worker shall employ at least one welfare officer, provided that
the employers may form a group and appoint welfare officer for the group as specified in Schedule
X with the written permission of the Chief Inspector.
110. Statement of accidents, etc.-
The Port Authorities, the dock labour boards and other employers of dock workers shall furnish to
the Inspector the monthly statement of reportable accidents under these regulations in Form XIII.
111. Training of dock workers, responsible persons, etc.-
(1) Initial and periodic training shall be imparted to all categories of dock workers, responsible
and authorised persons depending upon their nature of work and skill required for performing their
duties. Safety aspects and precautions to be taken in pursuance of the provisions under the Act and
the regulations shall be covered in the training.
(2) All first-aid personnel shall be imparted training including refresher courses by a qualified
medical officer authorised for the purpose.
112. Emergency action plans. -
AII the ports shall have an approved emergency action plan acceptable to the Chief Inspector to
handle the emergencies like,-
(a) fires and explosions;
(b) collapse of lifting appliances, buildings, sheds, etc;
(c) gas leakages and spillage of dangerous goods;

Page 289
(d) drowning of dock workers, sinking of vessels, retrieval of transport equipment from dock
basins; and
(e) floods, storms and other natural calamities.
113 Displ y of bstr cts
113. Display o abstracts. -
The abstracts of the Act and of the regulations made thereunder in Form X and XI shall be
displayed in every dock.
114. Safety Committee.-
(1) At every port there shall be constituted a safety committee which shall be headed by an officer
not below the rank of Deputy Chairman of the Port. The main functions of the safety committee
shall be-
(a) to investigate into the causes of accidents and unsafe practices in dock work and to suggest
remedial measures;
(b) to stimulate interest, of employers and workers in safety by organising safety weeks, safety
competitions, talks and film shows on safety, preparing posters or taking similar other measures;
(c) to go round the dock with a view to check unsafe practices and detect unsafe conditions and to
recommend remedial measures for their rectification;
(d) to organise training programmes for the supervisory staff and workers;
(e) to look into the health hazards associated with handling different types of cargoes and to suggest
remedial measures Including use of proper personal protective equipment; and
(f) to suggest measures for improving welfare amenities inside the docks and other miscellaneous
aspects of safety, health and welfare in dock work.
(2) The safety committee shall be constituted by the Chairman of the port and shall include besides
port officials, representatives of port users, the recognised labour unions and the Chief Inspector.
(3) The safety committee shall meet at regular intervals at least once in every quarter, and minutes
of the meetings shall be circulated to the concerned departments of the Port, agencies and
organisations.
(4) The decisions and recommendations of the safety committee shall be complied with by the port
authorities, port users and the employers of dock workers.
115. Occupational health services for dock workers. -
(1) In every Port there shall be either a special medical service or an occupational health service
available all times,and it shall have the following functions,-
a) provision of first-aid and emergency treatment;
(b) conducting pre-employment, periodical and special medical examinations of dock workers;
(c) periodical training of first-aid personnel;
(d) surveillance and rendering advice on conditions at work-places and facilities that can affect the
health of dock workers;
(e) promotion of health education including family welfare among dock workers; and
(f) co-operation with the competent authority or Inspector in the detection, measurement and
evaluation of chemical, physical or biological factors suspected of being harmful to the dock
workers.
(2) The medical service shall collaborate with the labour department or any other concerned
department or service of the port in matters of treatment, job placement, accident, prevention and
welfare of dock workers.

Page 290
(3) The medic l service sh ll be he ded by doctor speci lised in occup tion l he lth nd sh ll be
provided with (3) The medical service shall be headed by a doctor specialised i occupatio al health
a d shall be provided with
adequate staff, laboratory and other personnel
(4) The medical services shall be located at ground level, be conveniently accessible from all
workplaces of the port or dock, be so designed as to allow stretcher cases to be handled easily and
so far as practicable, shall not be exposed
to excessive noise, dust or other nuisance.
(5) The premises of the medical service shall comprise at least a waiting room, a consulting room,
a treatment room and laboratory, apart from suitable accommodation for nurses and other
personnel.
(6) Rooms for waiting, consultation and treatment shall:
(a) be spacious, suitably lighted and ventilated and wherever necessary heated or air cooled; and
(b) have washable walls, floor and fixtures.
(7) The medical service shall be provided with appropriate medical and laboratory facilities and
such documentation as it may require for its work.
(8) The medical service shall keep and maintain records pertaining to medical examination of dock
workers and other activities and shall provide adequate information on.-
(a) the dock workers state of health; and
(b) the nature, circumstances and outcome of occupational injuries.
116. The employer's general obligations. --
(1) The employer shall take all necessary steps, which, considering the kind of work, working
conditions and the worker's age, sex, professional skill and other qualifications, are reasonably
necessary for protecting the worker from being exposed to risks of accidents or injury to health at
work.
(2) The employer shall make sure that the work place, its approaches and means of access conform
to these regulations and are also otherwise in a safe condition.
(3) The employer shall take into account the workers training skill and experience when workers
are set to work. A worker shall not be assigned a work for which he has not received sufficient
instructions regarding possible dangers and precautions in the work, taking into account his
training, skill and experience.
117. General Safety.-
No employer or dock worker shall negligently or wilfully do anything likely to endanger life,
safety and health of dock workers, or negligently or wilfully omit to do anything necessary for the
safety and health for the dock worker employed in dock work.
118. Repeal and Saving.-
The Indian Dock Labourers Regulations, 1948 and Dock Workers (Safety, Health and Welfare)
Scheme, 1961 are hereby repealed:
Provided that any action taken or order issued under the said Regulations or the Scheme, shall as
the case may bein so far as it is not inconsistent with these regulations, be deemed to have been
taken or issued under the corresponding provisions of these regulations.

Page 291
CHAPTER 6
Brake Test of DC Machine
DC Machines can be tested by three different methods namely Direct Method, Indirect Method
and Regenerative Method. Direct Method of testing of DC Machine, also known as Brake Test (if
carried out for a DC Motor) will be discussed in this post.
Direct method is suitable for small DC machines. In Direct Method, the DC machine is subjected
to rated load and the entire output power is wasted. The ratio of output power to the input power
gives the Efficiency of DC Machine. For a DC Generator the output power is wasted in resistor.
Direct Method of testing when conducted on a motor is also known as Brake Test. Brake Test of
DC Motor is carried out as shown in figure below.
A belt around the air cooled pulley has its end attached to the spring balance S1 and S2. Using belt
tightening hand wheels H1 and H2, the load of motor is adjusted to its rated value. Assuming the
spring balance to be calibrated in kilogram, then rated load on the DC motor is given as

Page 292
Motor Output Power = Torque x Angular Speed
= (Force x Radius) x Angular Speed
As the torque because of force F1 and F2 are opposing each other, therefore net torque will be
subtraction of torque because of F1 and F2.
Therefore,
Motor Output = ω (S1 – S2) x r x9.8 Watt
Now assuming the terminal voltage of DC Motor to be Vt and IL to be the load current then,
Power input to the DC Motor = VtIL
Thus the efficiency of DC Motor can be calculated as below.
Efficiency = Output / Input
= [ω (S1 – S2) x r x9.8 Watt] / VtIL
For conducting Brake Test on DC Series Motor, it must be ensured that belt is sufficiently tight
before the motor is switched on to the sully as DC Series Motor shall not be started at no load.
Disadvantages of Brake Test:
1) The Spring Balance Readings are not stable rather it fluctuates.

2) Output power is wasted.
3) The frictional torque at a particular setting of Hand wheel H1 and H2 do not remain constant.

Page 293
Tensile stress load testing:
The process creates a stress/strain curve showing how the material reacts throughout the tensile
test. ... Tensile strength, also known as Ultimate TensileStrength (UTS), is the maximum tensile
stress carried by the specimen, defined as the maximum load divided by the original cross-
sectional area of the test sample.
THE TENSILE TEST PROCESS

Material strength testing, using the tensile or tension test method, involves applying an ever-
increasing load to a test sample up to the point of failure. The process creates a stress/strain curve
showing how the material reacts throughout the tensile test. The data generated during tensile
testing is used to determine mechanical properties of materials and provides the following
quantitative measurements:
 Tensile strength, also known as Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS), is the maximum tensile
stress carried by the specimen, defined as the maximum load divided by the original cross-
sectional area of the test sample.
 Yield strength is the stress at which time permanent (plastic) deformation or yielding is
observed to begin.
 Ductility measurements are typically elongation, defined as the strain at, or after, the point of
fracture, and reduction of area after the fracture of the test sample.
The test sample is securely held by top and bottom grips attached to the tensile or universal testing
machine. During the tension test, the grips are moved apart at a constant rate to pull and stretch
the specimen. The force on the specimen and its displacement is continuously monitored and
plotted on a stress-strain curve until failure.
The measurements, tensile strength, yield strength and ductility, are calculated by the technician
after the tensile test specimen has broken. The test specimen is put back together to measure the
final length, then this measurement is compared to the pre-test or original length to obtain
elongation. The original cross section measurement is also compared to the final cross section to
obtain reduction in area.
Elevated Temperature Tensile Testing is a proven

method of evaluating the behavior of materials under a combination of heat and tension. When
performing an elevated temperature tensile test, the specimen is placed inside a furnace on our test
carousel, which is capable of processing up to three specimens at a time. Our computer-controlled
system heats the specimen to the required temperature, then allows it to soak. Next, the specimen
is loaded into the test frame, where an extensometer in the latest design measures the strain on the
specimen as the load is increased.
Watch how the test is performed.
Page 294
Thermography, also called thermal imaging, uses a special camera to measure the temperature of
the skin on the breast's surface. It is non-invasive test that involves no radiation
NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTS (NDT) :
Significance and Limitations :
Rule 61 of the Gujarat Factories Rules says that if external, internal or hydro test is not
possible, NDT in-service test shall be carried out for metal thickness and other defects.
By visual inspection, external or internal, it is impossible to see under surface or inner

defects, cracks, porosity, thickness reduction etc. Hydraulic test can check the overall integrity
(soundness) of the vessel but it. cannot show the above defects. A way of finding the weakest part
by hydraulic bursting, or a test piece cutting is a destructive test. Therefore non-destructive tests
are developed to test boilers, pressure vessels and nuclear components.
NDT can detect (1) Inherent metal defects like porosity, shrinkage, non-metallic inclusions
(2) Processing defects like residual stresses, cracks caused by grinding of casting and forging,
spruing and
(3) In-service defects like corrosion, erosion, change in section etc.
Limitations of NDT are : They can measure thickness, cracks, flaws, porosity,
discontinuities, soundness etc.. but not the overall integrity of the material against permissible
pressure as a proof test. From the measured thickness, permissible pressure can be calculated.
Overall integrity of a vessel can be tested by pressure (hydraulic) test only.
Radiography:
IS 2478, 2595 and 2598 should be referred for Code of practice and safety for radiographic
testing. IS:2825, Section III, Part 8.7 also explains radiographic examination.
No radiographic examination is required where the thickness of butt welds is less than 6
mm. It is also not required where thickness may be up to 12 mm but the outside diameter is less
than 102 mm. For thickness between 12 to 19 mm and diameter between 102 to 170 mm, 5 to
10%- of the total length of welds shall be radiographically examined. For thickness more than .19
mm and diameter more than 170 mm all the welded Joints shall be examined.
Radiography is a process of detecting discontinuities (defects) in test objects by passing

ionising (short wavelength) radiation through them and recording the transmitted radiation pattern
on X or Gamma ray films.
A simple radiography set-up consists of radiation source (shielded), test object and X-ray
film between a pair of lead screens enclosed in a light proof cassette. The image on the film is
converted into black or white pattern which indicates the structure of the test object.

Page 295
An air bubble inside a steel plate shows black spot as more radiation passes through air
bubble than the rest of the part and gives more blackening on the film.
A tungsten inclusion in steel plate would appear as white patch compared to rest of the
parts as tungsten absorbs more radiation than steel of the same thickness.
Radiographic examination should be conducted before final heat treatment. At least two
penetrameters shall be used for each radiograph. A viewing device of suitable illuminating power
should be used to see the radiographs on the original films. Each radiograph should be identified
with the portion
of seam represented. At least 2 % thickness difference should be detected. The width of the
radiograph should be at least equal to the total width of the welded joints plus an allowance of
about 10 mm on each side of the welded joint.
Where the required quality is not shown by the test, welded joints or parts shall be repaired
and reexamined radiographically.
All workers exposed to X or Gamma rays and engaged in radiographic work shall be
shielded against direct and scattered radiation.
Follow IS:2598 for Code of safety for industrial radiographic practice.
Nature of personnel exposure is due to external or internal radiation. External radiation

arises from radiographic sources, radioactive contamination on inanimate sources and on the skin
or clothing of personnel. Internal exposure arises from radio-nuclides within the body. They may
enter by inhalation, ingestion through skin wounds or be absorbed through intact skin. Effects of
exposure may be somatic and genetic (to descendants) both. Exposure should not be more than
the permissible dose.
Personnel monitoring should be done with film badges, pocket dosimeters, pocket
ionisation chambers. Workplace monitoring i.e. radiation survey and site monitoring should be
carried out by radiation survey instruments - Geiger-Muller tubes and Ion chamber instruments.
External exposure can be prevented or reduced by (1) Reducing time of exposure (2)
Increasing working distance from the source of radiation and (3) Interposing attenuating
(protective) barriers between the source and the workers. Radiation source should be shielded and
located in a room with lead or concrete walls and the controls being outside the room. Until the
room door is not closed the control should not start (interlock).
Where more than 20 radiation workers work, Radiation Safety Officer is recommended.
Personnel exposure and health (medical exam) records should be maintained. Radioactive waste
(leaking sources, contaminated equipment or decayed sources) should be stored and disposed in
the prescribed manner.

Page 296
Ultrasonic:
IS 2417, 9346 & 11630 are on this subject.
Ultrasonic is an inspection technique to test both metallic and non-metallic products such
as welds, castings, forging, sheet, tubing, plastics and ceramics by using sound waves (vibrations).
It discloses the soundness, thickness or physical property of the material or nature of

discontinuities without impairing the material and by exposing its one side only. Ultrasonic waves
i.e. vibrations are created by an electronic generator and passed through a material due to its elastic
properties. Vibrations above the human hearing range (20000 Hz) are called ultrasonic vibrations.
An ultrasonic testing unit uses vibrations of about 5x10666 Hz (5 megahertz).
Electrical energy is applied to a piezoelectric crystal also called transducer which causes
material displacement within the specimen. The transducer converts electrical energy into
mechanical and vice versa. Thus transducer can transmits or receives the energy. Transmission of
energy can be pulsed or continuous. Steel, water and oil can transmit ultrasound very well but air
is a poor transmitter because of
its low particle density. Velocity of sound in steel, water and air are 5.9, 1.48 and 0.33 km/sec
respectively. Therefore water, oil (grease) or steel is used as a couplant between the transducer
and the test specimen. The pulses (waves) return back (reflect) from discontinuities in their path
or from any boundary (end) that they strike. The received reflections are displayed on a cathode
ray tube (CRT). The quality of the material is measured in terms of energy lost by a sound beam
as it travels through the material.
Normally two methods are used. In 'Contact testing' method the transducer is coupled to
the material through a thin layer of couplant. In ‘Immersion testing' method, both the material and
the transducer are immersed in a tank of couplant (usually water). Immersion technique is
commonly used to inspect tubing; pipe and butt welds.
There are two types of test systems - Pulse - echo reflection and Through transmission as
shown in Fig. 19. A third system known as 'Resonant frequency' is rarely used because its functions
of 'thickness measurement' and 'bond or lamination inspection' are also performed by the pulse-
echo system.
High speed ultrasonic scanning generally utilises the C-scan presentations (there are A, B
and C-scan, three types of visual displays).
Three types of discontinuities can be detected (1) Inherent wrought and inherent cast (2)
Processing and (3) Inservice discontinuities.
A discontinuity is not necessarily a defect until the inspector-identifies and evaluates its
negative effect on the service of the part or to the requirement of the specification.

Page 297
Biological effects have been noticed on workers. Shielding of electrical connection causing
electromagnetic fields, sound isolated booth, use of cotton lined rubber gloves, absorbent lining to
tools, ear muffs, noise & vibration control, and periodic medical examinations are necessary.
Magnetic Particle Methods :
Mostly forgings are tested by this method. Finely ground ferromagnetic particles of
different forms and colours are available. Depending on the condition of surface to be inspected
and type of indication to be located, form of particles and type of method - dry, wet or fluorescent
- are selected. Colour is selected to have full contrast with the surface.
Then magnetic field is applied by DC or AC (low volts) current. This attracts and holds
magnetic particles right on the surface. Defects if any, interrupt the magnetic field and are clearly
shown by the pattern formed by the particles. Nature of discontinuities (defects) is disclosed and
acceptable and unacceptable material can be separated in accordance with predetermined
standards. After the test is over, the part should be demagnetised by reversing and reducing the
magnetic field.
Local exhaust is necessary to control dust particles. If it is not possible, dust mask
(respirator) and eye and skin protective equipment should be worn by the workers.
Smoking should not be permitted near wet bath process. Electrical arcing (caused by loose
contact, excessive current or slipping of prods) can cause sparks or fire. Filters should be used on
the black light while testing with fluorescent particles, to protect skin or eyes.
Burns can be caused due to resistance heating in the part or in the prods. Therefore these
parts should not immediately be touched after the test.
IS 3415, 3703, 7743, 10724 and 10543 should be referred for details.
Eddy-current or Electromagnetic Method:
Eddy current, magneto-inductive and radar frequency - three types of methods are used.
In eddy current method, an eddy current is induced in the part to be tested by passing
alternating current in a coil or probe. Defects cause changes in the strength and distribution of the
eddy current. Readout is presented on a cathode ray tube, on a meter or by audio-visual alarm.
IS'.12965 should be referred for details.
In magneto-inductive method, variations in the permeability of magnetic materials are used

to create variations in a probe or pickup coil.
In radar frequency method, high frequency radar waves are used to measure
electromagnetic properties of thin coatings and surface layer of material. Workers should not pass
in between the object being tested and the testing device otherwise they may burn internally.
Barriers should be provided to the area.

Page 298
Dye Penetration Test :
Organic compounds or dyes are used as a penetrant which is applied on the surface after
cleaning it. By capillary action (Capillilarity) the penetrant is drawn into discontinuities or defects
and flaws (cracks, pores, leaks). Time is allowed for penetrant to seep into the opening. The excess
penetrant is removed from the surface by cleaner and the developer is applied in the form of a thin
uniform white layer, which absorbs the entrapped penetrant from the surface flaws and brings it
up as a visible indication. It remains visible in defects until removed by cleaner like water, solvent
or an emulsifier followed by a water wash. A coloured dye penetrant contracts with the surface
colour in white light while a fluorescent penetrant shows defects under ultraviolet (black) light.
The penetrant should be non-corrosive, non-toxic non-destructive and having low halogen
and sulphui contents.
Skin contact should be avoided. Skin should be washed just after exposure and before
eating, drinking or smoking.
IS 3658 and 12889 should be referred for liquid penetrants for flaw detection.
Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) are injuries or pain in the human musculoskeletal system,
including the joints, ligaments, muscles, nerves, tendons, and structures that support limbs, neck
and back. MSDs can arise from a sudden exertion (e.g., lifting a heavy object), or they can arise
from making the same motions repeatedly repetitive strain, or from repeated exposure to force,
vibration, or awkward posture.[2] Injuries and pain in the musculoskeletal system caused by acute
traumatic events like a car accident or fall are not considered musculoskeletal disorders.MSDs can
affect many different parts of the body including upper and lower back, neck, shoulders and
extremities (arms, legs, feet, and hands).[4] Examples of MSDs include carpal tunnel
syndrome, epicondylitis, tendinitis, back pain, tension neck syndrome, and hand-arm vibration
syndrome.
MSDs can arise from the interaction of physical factors with ergonomic, psychological, social, and
occupational factors.
Biomechanical
MSDs are caused by biomechanical load which is the force that must be applied to do tasks, the
duration of the force applied, and the frequency with which tasks are performed.Activities
involving heavy loads can result in acute injury, but most occupation-related MSDs are from
motions that are repetitive, or from maintaining a static position. Even activities that do not require
a lot of force can result in muscle damage if the activity is repeated often enough at short
intervals. MSD risk factors involve doing tasks with heavy force, repetition, or maintaining a
nonneutral posture. Of particular concern is the combination of heavy load with
repetition. Although awkward posture is often blamed for lower back pain, a systematic review of
the literature failed to find a consistent connection.[8]

Page 299
Individual differences
People vary in their tendency to get MSDs. Gender is a factor with a higher rate in women than
men. Obesity is also a factor, with overweight individuals having a higher risk of some MSDs,
specifically lower back.
Psychosocial
There is a growing consensus that psychosocial factors are another cause of some MSDs.Some
theories for this causal relationship found by many researchers include increased muscle tension,
increased blood and fluid pressure, reduction of growth functions, pain sensitivity reduction, pupil
dilation, body remaining at heightened state of sensitivity. Although research findings are
inconsistent at this stage, some of the workplace stressors found to be associated with MSDs in
the workplace include high job demands, low social support, and overall job strain. Researchers
have consistently identified causal relationships between job dissatisfaction and MSDs. For
example, improving job satisfaction can reduce 17-69 per cent of work-related back disorders and
improving job control can reduce 37-84 per cent of work-related wrist disorders.
Occupational
Because workers maintain the same posture over long work days and often several years, even
natural postures like standing can lead to MSDs like low back pain, but postures which are less
natural like twisting or tension in the upper body are typically contributors to the development of
MSDs because of the unnatural biomechanical load of these postures.There is evidence that
posture contributes to MSDs of the neck, shoulder, and back.[2] Repeated motion is another risk
factor for MSDs of occupational origin because workers can perform the same movements
repeatedly over long periods of time (e.g. typing leading to carpal tunnel syndrome), which can
wear on the joints and muscles involved in the motion in question. Workers doing repetitive
motions at a high pace of work with little recovery time and workers with little to no control over
the timing of motions (e.g. workers on assembly lines) are also prone to MSDs due to the motion
of their work. Force needed to perform actions on the job can also be associated with higher MSD
risk in workers, because movements which require more force can fatigue muscles quicker which
can lead to injury and/or pain. Additionally, exposure to vibration (as in truck
drivers or construction workers, for example) and extreme hot or cold temperatures can affect a
worker's ability to judge force and strength, which can lead to development of MSDs.Vibration
exposure is also associated with hand-arm vibration syndrome, which has symptoms of lack of
blood circulation to the fingers, nerve compression, tingling, and/or numbness.
Diagnosis
Assessment of MSDs are based on self-reports of symptoms and pain as well as physical
examination by a doctor.Doctors rely on medical history, recreational and occupational hazards,
intensity of pain, a physical exam to locate the source of the pain, and sometimes lab tests, x-rays,
or an MRI Doctors look for specific criteria to diagnose each different musculoskeletal disorder,
based on location, type, and intensity of pain, as well as what kind of restricted or painful
movement a patient is experiencing. A popular measure of MSDs is the Nordic Questionnaire that
has a picture of the body with various areas labeled and asks the individual to indicate in which
areas they have experienced pain, and in which areas has the pain interfered with normal activity.

Page 300
Prevention
Prevention of MSDs relies upon identification of risk factors, either by self-report, observation on
the job, or measurement of posture which could lead to MSDs. Once risk factors have been
determined, there are several intervention methods which could be used to prevent the
development of MSDs. The target of MSD prevention efforts is often the workplace in order to
identify incidence rates of both disorders and exposure to unsafe conditions.
Workplace controls
Groups who are at particular risk can be identified, and modifications to the physical and
psychosocial environment can be made. Approaches to prevention in workplace settings include
matching the person's physical abilities to the tasks, increasing the person's capabilities, changing
how tasks are performed, or changing the tasks.Employers can also utilize engineering
controls and administrative controls to prevent injury happening on the job. Implementation of
engineering controls is the process of designing or redesigning the workplace to account for
strengths, weaknesses, and needs of the working population- examples would be workstation
layout changes to be more efficient or reducing bending over, or moving necessary tools within
shorter reach of the worker's station. Employers may also utilize administrative controls like
reducing number of hours in a certain position, limiting overtime, or including more breaks during
shifts in order to reduce amount of time at risk for each worker.
Ergonomics
Encouraging the use of proper ergonomics not only includes matching the physical ability of the
worker with the correct job, but it deals with designing equipment that is correct for the
task. Limiting heavy lifting, training, and reporting early signs of injury are examples that can
prevent MSD. Employers can provide support for employees in order to prevent MSD in the
workplace by involving the employees in planning, assessing, and developing standards of
procedures that will support proper ergonomics and prevent injury.
One focus of ergonomic principles is maintaining neutral postures, which are postures in which
muscles are at their normal length and able to generate the most force, while reducing stress and
possible injury to muscles, tendons, nerves, and bones- therefore, in the workplace or in everyday
life, it is ideal for muscles and joints to maintain neutral positions.Additionally, to prevent hand,
wrist, and finger injuries, understanding when to use pinch grips (best for fine motor control and
precise movements with low force) and power grips (best for high-force movements done
repeatedly) is important for employees and general tasks outside the workplace. The choice of
tools should match that of the proper grip and be conducive to neutral postures, which is important
for employers to consider when purchasing equipment. In order to reduce injuries to the low back
and spine, it is recommended to reduce weight and frequency of lifting cycles as well as decreasing
the distance between the body and the load to reduce the torque force on the back for workers and
individuals doing repeated lifting to avoid fatigue failure of the spine.The shape of objects being
lifted should also be considered, especially by employers, because objects which are easier to grip,
lift, and access present less stress on the spine and back muscles than objects which are awkwardly
shaped and difficult to access.

Page 301
The National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has published
ergonomic recommendations for several industries, including construction, mining, agriculture,
healthcare, and retail, among others.
Epidemiology
General population
MSDs are an increasing healthcare issue globally, being the second leading cause of disability. For
example, in the U.S. there were more than 16 million strains and sprains treated in 2004, and the
total cost for treating MSDs is estimated to be more than $125 billion per year.In 2006
approximately 14.3% of the Canadian population was living with a disability, with nearly half due
to MSDs.Neck pain is one of the most common complaints, with about one fifth of adults
worldwide reporting pain annually.
Workplace
Most workplace MSD episodes involve multiple parts of the body. MSDs are the most frequent
health complaint by European, United States and Asian Pacific workers. and the third leading
reason for disability and early retirement in the U.S. The incidence rate for MSDs among the
working population in 2014 was 31.9 newly diagnosed MSDs per 10,000 full-time workers.In
2014, the median days away from work due to MSDs was 13, and there were 10.4 cases per 10,000
full-time workers in which an MSD caused a worker to be away from work for 31 or more
days. MSDs are widespread in many occupations, including those with heavy biomechanical load
like construction and factory work, and those with lighter loads like office work. [12] The
transportation and warehousing industries have the highest incidence rate of musculoskeletal
disorders, with an incidence rate of 89.9 cases per 10,000 full-time
workers.Healthcare, manufacturing, agriculture, wholesale trade, retail, and recreation industries
all have incidence rates above 35 per 10,000 full-time workers. For example, a national survey of
U.S. nurses found that 38% reported an MSD in the prior year, mainly lower back injury. The neck
and back are the most common sites of MSDs in workers, followed by the upper limbs and lower
limbs. The Bureau of Labor Statistics reports that 31.8 new cases of MSDs per 10,000 full-time
workers per year are due to overexertion, bodily reaction, or repetitive motions.
Computer vision syndrome (CVS) is a condition resulting from focusing the eyes on
a computer or other display device for protracted, uninterrupted periods of time.
Some symptoms of CVS include headaches, blurred vision, neck pain, fatigue, eye strain, dry
eyes, irritated eyes, double vision, vertigo/dizziness, polyopia, and difficulty refocusing the eyes.

Page 302
These symptoms can be further aggravated by improper lighting conditions (i.e. glare[1] or bright
overhead lighting) or air moving past the eyes (e.g. overhead vents, direct air from a fan).
Therapy
Dry eye is a major symptom that is targeted in the therapy of CVS. The use of over-the-counter
artificial-tear solutions can reduce the effects of dry eye in CVS.
Asthenopic symptoms in the eye are responsible for much of the severity in CVS. Proper rest to
the eye and its muscles is recommended to relieve the associated eye strain. Various catch-phrases
have been used to spread awareness about giving rest to the eyes while working on computers. A
routinely recommended approach is to consciously blink the eyes every now and then (this helps
replenish the tear film) and to look out the window to a distant object or to the sky—doing so
provides rest to the ciliary muscles. One of the catch phrases is the "20 20 20 rule": every
20 minutes, focus the eyes on an object 20 feet (6 meters) away for 20 seconds. This basically
gives a convenient distance and timeframe for a person to follow the advice from
the optometrist and ophthalmologist. Otherwise, the patient is advised to close his/her eyes (which
has a similar effect) for 20 seconds, at least every half-hour.
Decreased focusing capability is mitigated by wearing a small plus-powered (+1.00 to +1.50) over-
the-counter pair of eyeglasses. Wearing these eyeglasses helps such patients regain their ability to
focus on near objects. People who are engaged in other occupations—such as tailors engaged
in embroidery—can experience similar symptoms and can be helped by these glasses.
A Pacific University research study of 36 participants found significant differences in irritation or
burning of the eyes, tearing, or watery eyes, dry eyes, and tired eyes, that were each improved by
filtering lenses versus placebo lenses, but in a follow-up study in 2008, the same team was not able
to reproduce the results of the first study.
Competing research has shown blue light-filtering lenses decrease specific aspects of light
emissions. Theoretical reductions in phototoxicity were 10.6% to
23.6%.Additionally, melatonin suppression was reduced by 5.8% to 15.0% and scotopic
sensitivity by 2.4% to 9.6%. Over 70% of the participants in this testing were unable to detect
these changes. The expansion of technology has led to more individuals utilizing computers and
televisions which increase the overall exposure to blue light. This has opened up opportunities for
companies such as Gunnar Optiks and Razer Inc. to create glasses focused on reducing the
exposure to blue light.
Blue light can also be filtered from the computer screen, eliminating the need for blue-light
blocking glasses. Companies such as flux have applications that filter the amount of blue light
based on user preferences and the time of the day.
Dry eyes because of CVS can also be treated using moisture chamber glasses or humidifier
machines. Office spaces with artificially dry air can worsen CVS syndromes, in which case, a
desktop or a room humidifier can help the eyes keep a healthy moisture level.
At night, CVS can become worse. It is recommended to use a dark user interface while working
at night on the computer. Several browser / OS add-ons exist to darken the user interface
(www.turnoffthelights.com).

Page 303
When working on computer screens people tend to blink less which leads to the eyes drying out
faster. Reminding people to blink or do blinking exercises is achieved via static reminders (such
as eyeleo).
Real-time feedback based blink reminders (such as VisionProtect )actively measure the blinking
rate of the user and notify the user via visual / audible alert. The effectiveness of real-time feedback
based blink reminder systems is proven in a study by Osamu Fukushima and Masao Saito
Prevalence
According to the US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, computer vision
syndrome affects about 90% of the people who spend three hours or more a day at a
computer. Another study in Malaysia was conducted on 795 university students aged between 18
and 25. The students experienced headaches along with eyestrain, with 89.9% of the students
surveyed feeling any type of symptom of CVS. Americans spend an average of 8 hours a day in
front of a screen, whether that be a television screen, phone/tablet, or a computer screen[9][10]. This
has increased the prevalence of individuals affected by computer vision syndrom
Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) is a medical condition due to compression of the median nerve as
it travels through the wrist at the carpal tunnel. The main symptoms are pain, numbness,
and tingling, in the thumb, index finger, middle finger, and the thumb side of the ring
fingers. Symptoms typically start gradually and during the night.Pain may extend up the
arm. Weak grip strength may occur and after a long period of time the muscles at the base of the
thumb may waste away. In more than half of cases both sides are affected.
Risk factors include obesity, repetitive wrist work, pregnancy, and rheumatoid arthritis. There is
tentative evidence that hypothyroidism increases the risk. Diabetes mellitus is weakly associated
with CTS. The use of birth control pills does not affect the risk. Types of work that are associated
include computer work, work with vibrating tools, and work that requires a strong grip.Diagnosis
is suspected based on signs, symptoms, and specific physical tests and may be confirmed
with electrodiagnostic tests.If muscle wasting at the base of the thumb is present, the diagnosis is
likely.
Being physically active can decrease the risk of developing CTS. Symptoms can be improved by
wearing a wrist splint or with corticosteroid injections. Taking NSAIDs or gabapentin does not
appear to be useful. Surgery to cut the transverse carpal ligament is effective with better results at
a year compared to non surgical options. Further splinting after surgery is not needed. Evidence
does not support magnet therapy.
About 5% of people in the United States have carpal tunnel syndrome.[5] It usually begins in
adulthood and women are more commonly affected than men.[2] Up to 33% of people may improve
without specific treatment over approximately a year.[1]Carpal tunnel syndrome was first fully
described after World War II.
Untreated carpal tunnel syndrome, showing how the muscles at the base of the thumb have wasted
away (atrophied).

Page 304
People with CTS experience numbness, tingling, or burning sensations in the thumb and fingers,
in particular the index and middle fingers and radial half of the ring finger, because these receive
their sensory and motor function (muscle control) from the median nerve. Ache and discomfort
can possibly be felt more proximally in the forearm or even the upper arm. Less-specific
symptoms may include pain in the wrists or hands, loss of grip strength,[10] and loss of manual
dexterity.
Some suggest that median nerve symptoms can arise from compression at the level of the thoracic
outlet or the area where the median nerve passes between the two heads of the pronator teres in
the forearm, although this is debated.
Numbness and paresthesias in the median nerve distribution are the hallmark neuropathic
symptoms (NS) of carpal tunnel entrapment syndrome.[6] Weakness and atrophy of the thumb
muscles may occur if the condition remains untreated, because the muscles are not receiving
sufficient nerve stimulation. Discomfort is usually worse at night and in the morning.
Anatomy of the carpal tunnel showing the median nerve passing through the tight space it shares
with the finger tendons.
Most cases of CTS are of unknown cause. Carpal tunnel syndrome can be associated with any
condition that causes pressure on the median nerve at the wrist. Some common conditions that can
lead to CTS include obesity, hypothyroidism, arthritis, diabetes, prediabetes (impaired glucose
tolerance), and trauma. Genetics play a role.The use of birth control pills does not affect the
risk.Carpal tunnel is a feature of a form of Charcot-Marie-Tooth syndrome type 1 called hereditary
neuropathy with susceptibility to pressure palsies.
Other causes of this condition include intrinsic factors that exert pressure within the tunnel, and
extrinsic factors (pressure exerted from outside the tunnel), which include benign tumors such
as lipomas, ganglion, and vascular malformation. Carpal tunnel syndrome often is a symptom of
transthyretin amyloidosis-associated polyneuropathy and prior carpal tunnel syndrome surgery is
very common in individuals who later present with transthyretin amyloid-
associated cardiomyopathy, suggesting that transthyretin amyloid deposition may cause carpal
tunnel syndrome.
The median nerve can usually move up to 9.6 mm to allow the wrist to flex, and to a lesser extent
during extension. Long-term compression of the median nerve can inhibit nerve gliding, which
may lead to injury and scarring. When scarring occurs, the nerve will adhere to the tissue around
it and become locked into a fixed position, so that less movement is apparent.
Normal pressure of the carpal tunnel has been defined as a range of 2–10 mm, and wrist flexion
increases this pressure 8-fold, while extension increases it 10-fold. Repetitive flexion and
extension in the wrist significantly increase the fluid pressure in the tunnel through thickening of
the synovial tissue that lines the tendons within the carpal tunnel.
Work related
The international debate regarding the relationship between CTS and repetitive motion in work is
ongoing. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has adopted rules and

Page 305
regulations regarding cumulative trauma disorders. Occupational risk factors of repetitive tasks,
force, posture, and vibration have been cited. The relationship between work and CTS is
controversial; in many locations, workers diagnosed with carpal tunnel syndrome are entitled to
time off and compensation.
Some speculate that carpal tunnel syndrome is provoked by repetitive movement and manipulating
activities and that the exposure can be cumulative. It has also been stated that symptoms are
commonly exacerbated by forceful and repetitive use of the hand and wrists in industrial
occupations, but it is unclear as to whether this refers to pain (which may not be due to carpal
tunnel syndrome) or the more typical numbness symptoms.
A review of available scientific data by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH) indicated that job tasks that involve highly repetitive manual acts or specific wrist
postures were associated with incidents of CTS, but causation was not established, and the
distinction from work-related arm pains that are not carpal tunnel syndrome was not clear. It has
been proposed that repetitive use of the arm can affect the biomechanics of the upper limb or cause
damage to tissues. It has also been proposed that postural and spinal assessment along with
ergonomic assessments should be included in the overall determination of the condition.
Addressing these factors has been found to improve comfort in some studies. A 2010 survey by
NIOSH showed that 2/3 of the 5 million carpal tunnel cases in the US that year were related to
work.Women have more work-related carpal tunnel syndrome than men.
Speculation that CTS is work-related is based on claims such as CTS being found mostly in the
working adult population, though evidence is lacking for this. For instance, in one recent
representative series of a consecutive experience, most patients were older and not working. Based
on the claimed increased incidence in the workplace, arm use is implicated, but the weight of
evidence suggests that this is an inherent, genetic, slowly but inevitably progressive idiopathic
peripheral mononeuropathy.
Associated conditions
A variety of patient factors can lead to CTS, including heredity, size of the carpal tunnel, associated
local and systematic diseases, and certain habits. Non-traumatic causes generally happen over a
period of time, and are not triggered by one certain event. Many of these factors are manifestations
of physiologic aging.
Examples include:
 Rheumatoid arthritis and other diseases that cause inflammation of the flexor tendons.
 With hypothyroidism, generalized myxedema causes deposition
of mucopolysaccharides within both the perineurium of the median nerve, as well as the
tendons passing through the carpal tunnel.
 During pregnancy women experience CTS due to hormonal changes (high progesterone levels)
and water retention (which swells the synovium), which are common during pregnancy.
 Previous injuries including fractures of the wrist.
 Medical disorders that lead to fluid retention or are associated with inflammation such as:
inflammatory arthritis, Colles' fracture, amyloidosis, hypothyroidism, diabetes mellitus,
acromegaly, and use of corticosteroids and estrogens.

Page 306
 Carpal tunnel syndrome is also associated with repetitive activities of the hand and wrist, in
particular with a combination of forceful and repetitive activities
 Acromegaly causes excessive secretion of growth hormones. This causes the soft tissues and
bones around the carpel tunnel to grow and compress the median nerve.
 Tumors (usually benign), such as a ganglion or a lipoma, can protrude into the carpal tunnel,
reducing the amount of space. This is exceedingly rare (less than 1%).
 Obesity also increases the risk of CTS: individuals classified as obese (BMI > 29) are 2.5 times
more likely than slender individuals (BMI < 20) to be diagnosed with CTS.
 Double-crush syndrome is a debated hypothesis that compression or irritation of nerve
branches contributing to the median nerve in the neck, or anywhere above the wrist, increases
sensitivity of the nerve to compression in the wrist. There is little evidence, however, that this
syndrome really exists.
 Heterozygous mutations in the gene SH3TC2, associated with Charcot-Marie-Tooth, confer
susceptibility to neuropathy, including the carpal tunnel syndrome.
Pathophysiology
The carpal tunnel is an anatomical compartment located at the base of the palm. Nine flexor
tendons and the median nerve pass through the carpal tunnel that is surrounded on three sides by
the carpal bones that form an arch. The median nerve provides feeling or sensation to the thumb,
index finger, long finger, and half of the ring finger. At the level of the wrist, the median nerve
supplies the muscles at the base of the thumb that allow it to abduct, move away from the other
four fingers, as well as move out of the plane of the palm. The carpal tunnel is located at the middle
third of the base of the palm, bounded by the bony prominence of the scaphoid tubercle and
trapezium at the base of the thumb, and the hamate hook that can be palpated along the axis of the
ring finger. From the anatomical position, the carpal tunnel is bordered on the anterior surface by
the transverse carpal ligament, also known as the flexor retinaculum. The flexor retinaculum is a
strong, fibrous band that attaches to the pisiform and the hamulus of the hamate. The proximal
boundary is the distal wrist skin crease, and the distal boundary is approximated by a line known
as Kaplan's cardinal line. This line uses surface landmarks, and is drawn between the apex of the
skin fold between the thumb and index finger to the palpated hamate hook. The median nerve can
be compressed by a decrease in the size of the canal, an increase in the size of the contents (such
as the swelling of lubrication tissue around the flexor tendons), or both.Since the carpal tunnel is
bordered by carpal bones on one side and a ligament on the other, when the pressure builds up
inside the tunnel, there is nowhere for it to escape and thus it ends up pressing up against and
damaging the median nerve. Simply flexing the wrist to 90 degrees will decrease the size of the
canal.
Compression of the median nerve as it runs deep to the transverse carpal ligament (TCL) causes
atrophy of the thenar eminence, weakness of the flexor pollicis brevis, opponens pollicis, abductor
pollicis brevis, as well as sensory loss in the digits supplied by the median nerve. The superficial
sensory branch of the median nerve, which provides sensation to the base of the palm, branches
proximal to the TCL and travels superficial to it. Thus, this branch spared in carpal tunnel
syndrome, and there is no loss of palmar sensation.

Page 307
Diagnosis
There is no consensus reference standard for the diagnosis of carpal tunnel syndrome. A
combination of described symptoms, clinical findings, and electrophysiological testing may be
used. CTS work up is the most common referral to the electrodiagnostic lab. Historically, diagnosis
has been made with the combination of a thorough history and physical examination in conjunction
with the use of electrodiagnostic (EDX) testing for confirmation. Additionally, evolving
technology has included the use of ultrasonography in the diagnosis of CTS. However, it is well
established that physical exam provocative maneuvers lack both sensitivity and specificity.
Furthermore, EDX cannot fully exclude the diagnosis of CTS due to the lack of sensitivity. A Joint
report published by the American Association of Neuromuscular and Electrodiagostic Medicine
(AANEM), the American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation (AAPM&R) and the
American Academy of Neurology defines practice parameters, standards and guidelines for EDX
studies of CTS based on an extensive critical literature review. This joint review concluded median
and sensory nerve conduction studies are valid and reproducible in a clinical laboratory setting and
a clinical diagnosis of CTS can be made with a sensitivity greater than 85% and specificity greater
than 95%. Given the key role of electrodiagnostic testing in the diagnosis of CTS, The American
Association of Neuromuscular & Electrodiagnostic Medicine has issued evidence-based practice
guidelines, both for the diagnosis of carpal tunnel syndrome.
Numbness in the distribution of the median nerve, nocturnal symptoms, thenar muscle
weakness/atrophy, positive Tinel's sign at the carpal tunnel, and abnormal sensory testing such as
two-point discrimination have been standardized as clinical diagnostic criteria by consensus panels
of experts. Pain may also be a presenting symptom, although less common than sensory
disturbances.
Electrodiagnostic testing (electromyography and nerve conduction velocity) can objectively verify
the median nerve dysfunction. Normal nerve conduction studies, however, do not exclude the
diagnosis of CTS. Clinical assessment by history taking and physical examination can support a
diagnosis of CTS. If clinical suspicion of CTS is high, treatment should be initiated despite normal
electrodiagnostic testing.
Physical exam
Although widely used, the presence of a positive Phalen test, Tinel sign, Flick sign, or upper limb
nerve test alone is not sufficient for diagnosis.
 Phalen's maneuver is performed by flexing the wrist gently as far as possible, then holding this
position and awaiting symptoms. A positive test is one that results in numbness in the median
nerve distribution when holding the wrist in acute flexion position within 60 seconds. The
quicker the numbness starts, the more advanced the condition. Phalen's sign is defined as pain
and/or paresthesias in the median-innervated fingers with one minute of wrist flexion. Only
this test has been shown to correlate with CTS severity when studied prospectively. The test
characteristics of Phalen's maneuver have varied across studies ranging from 42–85%
sensitivity and 54–98% specificity.
 Tinel's sign is a classic test to detect median nerve irritation. Tinel's sign is performed by
lightly tapping the skin over the flexor retinaculum to elicit a sensation of tingling or "pins and
needles" in the median nerve distribution. Tinel's sign (pain and/or paresthesias of the median-

Page 308
innervated fingers with percussion over the median nerve), depending on the study, has 38–
100% sensitivity and 55–100% specificity for the diagnosis of CTS.
 Durkan test, carpal compression test, or applying firm pressure to the palm over the nerve for
up to 30 seconds to elicit symptoms has also been proposed.
 Hand elevation test The hand elevation test is performed by lifting both hands above the head,
and if symptoms are reproduced in the median nerve distribution within 2 minutes, considered
positive. The hand elevation test has higher sensitivity and specificity than Tinel's test, Phalen's
test, and carpal compression test. Chi-square statistical analysis has shown the hand elevation
test to be as effective, if not better than, Tinel's test, Phalen's test, and carpal compression test.
As a note, a patient with true carpal tunnel syndrome (entrapment of the median nerve within the
carpal tunnel) will not have any sensory loss over the thenar eminence (bulge of muscles in the
palm of hand and at the base of the thumb). This is because the palmar branch of the median nerve,
which innervates that area of the palm, branches off of the median nerve and passes over the carpal
tunnel. This feature of the median nerve can help separate carpal tunnel syndrome from thoracic
outlet syndrome, or pronator teres syndrome.
Other conditions may also be misdiagnosed as carpal tunnel syndrome. Thus, if history and
physical examination suggest CTS, patients will sometimes be tested electrodiagnostically
with nerve conduction studies and electromyography. The role of confirmatory nerve conduction
studies is controversial. The goal of electrodiagnostic testing is to compare the speed of conduction
in the median nerve with conduction in other nerves supplying the hand. When the median nerve
is compressed, as in CTS, it will conduct more slowly than normal and more slowly than other
nerves. There are many electrodiagnostic tests used to make a diagnosis of CTS, but the most
sensitive, specific, and reliable test is the Combined Sensory Index (also known as the Robinson
index). Electrodiagnosis rests upon demonstrating impaired median nerve conduction across the
carpal tunnel in context of normal conduction elsewhere. Compression results in damage to the
myelin sheath and manifests as delayed latencies and slowed conduction velocities However,
normal electrodiagnostic studies do not preclude the presence of carpal tunnel syndrome, as a
threshold of nerve injury must be reached before study results become abnormal and cut-off values
for abnormality are variable. Carpal tunnel syndrome with normal electrodiagnostic tests is very,
very mild at worst.
The role of MRI or ultrasound imaging in the diagnosis of carpal tunnel syndrome is unclear. Their
routine use is not recommended.
Differential diagnosis
There are few disorders on the differential diagnosis for carpal tunnel syndrome. Cervical
radiculopathy can be mistaken for carpal tunnel syndrome since it can also cause abnormal or
painful sensations in the hands and wrist. In contrast to carpal tunnel syndrome, the symptoms of
cervical radiculopathy usually begins in the neck and travels down the affected arm and may be
worsened by neck movement. Electromyography and imaging of the cervical spine can help to
differentiate cervical radiculopathy from carpal tunnel syndrome if the diagnosis is unclear. Carpal
tunnel syndrome is sometimes applied as a label to anyone with pain, numbness, swelling, and/or
burning in the radial side of the hands and/or wrists. When pain is the primary symptom, carpal
tunnel syndrome is unlikely to be the source of the symptoms. As a whole, the medical community

Page 309
is not currently embracing or accepting trigger point theories due to lack of scientific evidence
supporting their effectiveness.
Prevention[edit]
Carpal tunnel prevention stretch[citation needed]

Suggested healthy habits such as avoiding repetitive stress, work modification through use
of ergonomic equipment (mouse pad, taking proper breaks, using keyboard alternatives (digital
pen, voice recognition, and dictation), and have been proposed as methods to help prevent carpal
tunnel syndrome. The potential role of B-vitamins in preventing or treating carpal tunnel syndrome
has not been proven.
There is little or no data to support the concept that activity adjustment prevents carpal tunnel
syndrome.[59] The evidence for wrist rest is debated
Stretches and isometric exercises will aid in prevention for persons at risk. Stretching before the
activity and during breaks will aid in alleviating tension at the wrist. Place the hand firmly on a
flat surface and gently press for a few seconds to stretch the wrist and fingers. An example for an
isometric exercise of the wrist is done by clenching the fist tightly, releasing and fanning out
fingers. None of these stretches or exercises should cause pain or discomfort.
Biological factors such as genetic predisposition and anthropometric features had significantly
stronger causal association with carpal tunnel syndrome than occupational/environmental factors
such as repetitive hand use and stressful manual work.[59] This suggests that carpal tunnel
syndrome might not be preventable simply by avoiding certain activities or types of
work/activities.
Treatment
Generally accepted treatments include: physiotherapy, steroids either orally or injected
locally, splinting, and surgical release of the transverse carpal ligament. Limited evidence suggests
Page 310
that gabapentin is no more effective than placebo for CTS treatment. There is insufficient
evidence for therapeutic ultrasound, yoga, acupuncture, low level laser therapy, vitamin B6, and
exercise. Change in activity may include avoiding activities that worsen symptoms.
The American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons recommends proceeding conservatively with a
course of nonsurgical therapies tried before release surgery is considered. A different treatment
should be tried if the current treatment fails to resolve the symptoms within 2 to 7 weeks. Early
surgery with carpal tunnel release is indicated where there is evidence of median nerve denervation
or a person elects to proceed directly to surgical treatment. Recommendations may differ when
carpal tunnel syndrome is found in association with the following conditions: diabetes mellitus,
coexistent cervical radiculopathy, hypothyroidism, polyneuropathy, pregnancy, rheumatoid
arthritis, and carpal tunnel syndrome in the workplace.[63]
A different type of rigid splint used in carpal tunnel syndrome.

The importance of wrist braces and splints in the carpal tunnel syndrome therapy is known, but
many people are unwilling to use braces. In 1993, The American Academy of
Neurology recommend a non-invasive treatment for the CTS at the beginning (except for sensitive
or motor deficit or grave report at EMG/ENG): a therapy using splints was indicated for light and
moderate pathology. Current recommendations generally don't suggest immobilizing braces, but
instead activity modification and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs as initial therapy,
followed by more aggressive options or specialist referral if symptoms do not improve.
Many health professionals suggest that, for the best results, one should wear braces at night and,
if possible, during the activity primarily causing stress on the wrists.[67][68]
Corticosteroids
Corticosteroid injections can be effective for temporary relief from symptoms while a person
develops a long-term strategy that fits their lifestyle.This form of treatment is thought to reduce
discomfort in those with CTS due to its ability to decrease median nerve swelling.The use of
ultrasound while performing the injection is more expensive but leads to faster resolution of CTS
symptoms. The injections are done under local anesthesia.This treatment is not appropriate for
extended periods, however. In general, local steroid injections are only used until more definitive
treatment options can be used. Corticosteroid injections do not appear to be very effective for
slowing disease progression.
Surgery
Carpal tunnel syndrome operation

Release of the transverse carpal ligament is known as "carpal tunnel release" surgery. It is
recommended when there is static (constant, not just intermittent) numbness, muscle weakness, or
atrophy, and when night-splinting or other conservative interventions no longer control
intermittent symptoms. The surgery may be done with local or regional anesthesia with or
without sedation, or under general anesthesia. In general, milder cases can be controlled for

Page 311
months to years, but severe cases are unrelenting symptomatically and are likely to result in
surgical treatment.
Surgery is more beneficial in the short term to alleviate symptoms (up to six months) than wearing
an orthosis for a minimum of 6 weeks. However, surgery and wearing a brace resulted in similar
symptom relief in the long term (12–18 month outcomes).
Physical therapy
A recent evidence based guideline produced by the American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons
assigned various grades of recommendation to physiotherapy (also called physical therapy) and
other nonsurgical treatments. One of the primary issues with physiotherapy is that it attempts to
reverse (often) years of pathology inside the carpal tunnel. Practitioners caution that any
physiotherapy such as myofascial release may take weeks of persistent application to effectively
manage carpal tunnel syndrome.[
Again, some claim that pro-active ways to reduce stress on the wrists, which alleviates wrist pain
and strain, involve adopting a more ergonomic work and life environment. For example, some
have claimed that switching from a QWERTY computer keyboard layout to a more optimised
ergonomic layout such as Dvorak was commonly cited as beneficial in early CTS studies;
however, some meta-analyses of these studies claim that the evidence that they present is limited.
Prognosis
Scars from carpal tunnel release surgery. Two different techniques were used. The left scar is 6
weeks old, the right scar is 2 weeks old. Also note the muscular atrophy of the thenar eminence in
the left hand, a common sign of advanced CTS
Most people relieved of their carpal tunnel symptoms with conservative or surgical management
find minimal residual or "nerve damage".Long-term chronic carpal tunnel syndrome (typically
seen in the elderly) can result in permanent "nerve damage", i.e. irreversible numbness, muscle
wasting, and weakness. Those that undergo a carpal tunnel release are nearly twice as likely as
those not having surgery to develop trigger thumb in the months following the procedure.
While outcomes are generally good, certain factors can contribute to poorer results that have little
to do with nerves, anatomy, or surgery type. One study showed that mental status parameters or
alcohol use yields much poorer overall results of treatment.
Recurrence of carpal tunnel syndrome after successful surgery is rare.
Epidemiology
Rates of carpal tunnel syndrome by ethnicity. CTS is much more common in Caucasians.
Carpal tunnel syndrome is estimated to affect one out of ten people during their lifetime and is the
most common nerve compression syndrome.[6] It accounts for about 90% of all nerve compression

Page 312
syndromes.[90] In the U.S., 5% of people have the effects of carpal tunnel syndrome. Caucasians
have the highest risk of CTS compared with other races such as non-white South Africans. Women
suffer more from CTS than men with a ratio of 3:1 between the ages of 45–60 years. Only 10% of
reported cases of CTS are younger than 30 years.Increasing age is a risk factor. CTS is also
common in pregnancy.
A repetitive strain injury (RSI) is an "injury to the musculoskeletal and nervous systems that
may be caused by repetitive tasks, forceful exertions, vibrations, mechanical compression, or
sustained or awkward positions".
Signs and symptoms

Some examples of symptoms experienced by patients with RSI are aching, pulsing pain, tingling
and extremity weakness, initially presenting with intermittent discomfort and then, with a higher
degree of frequency.
Definition
Repetitive strain injury (RSI) and associative trauma orders are umbrella terms used to refer to
several discrete conditions that can be associated with repetitive tasks, forceful exertions,
vibrations, mechanical compression, or sustained/awkward positions. Examples of conditions that
may sometimes be attributed to such causes include edema, tendinosis (or less
often tendinitis), carpal tunnel syndrome, cubital tunnel syndrome, De Quervain
syndrome, thoracic outlet syndrome, intersection syndrome, golfer's elbow (medial
epicondylitis), tennis elbow (lateral epicondylitis), trigger finger (so-called stenosing
tenosynovitis), radial tunnel syndrome, ulnar tunnel syndrome, and focal dystonia.
Since the 1970s there has been a worldwide increase in RSIs of the arms, hands, neck, and shoulder
attributed to the widespread use of typewriters/computers in the workplace that require long
periods of repetitive motions in a fixed posture.
Risk factors
Workers in certain fields are at risk of repetitive strains. Most occupational injuries
are musculoskeletal disorders, and many of these are caused by cumulative trauma rather than a
single event Miners and poultry workers, for example, must make repeated motions which can
cause tendon, muscular, and skeletal injuries.
Diagnosis
RSIs are assessed using a number of objective clinical measures. These include effort-based tests
such as grip and pinch strength, diagnostic tests such as Finkelstein's test for De Quervain's
tendinitis, Phalen's Contortion, Tinel's Percussion for carpal tunnel syndrome, and nerve
conduction velocity tests that show nerve compression in the wrist. Various imaging techniques
can also be used to show nerve compression such as x-ray for the wrist, and MRI for the thoracic
outlet and cervico-brachial areas.

Page 313
Treatment
Ergonomics: the science of designing the job, equipment, and workplace

The most-often prescribed treatments for early-stage RSIs
include analgesics, myofeedback, biofeedback, physical therapy, relaxation,
and ultrasound therapy. Low-grade RSIs can sometimes resolve themselves if treatments begin
shortly after the onset of symptoms. However, some RSIs may require more aggressive
intervention including surgery and can persist for years.
General exercise has been shown to decrease the risk of developing RSI. Doctors sometimes
recommend that RSI sufferers engage in specific strengthening exercises, for example to improve
sitting posture, reduce excessive kyphosis, and potentially thoracic outlet
syndrome. Modifications of posture and arm use (human factors and ergonomics) are often
recommended
History
Although seemingly a modern phenomenon, RSIs have long been documented in the medical
literature. In 1700, the Italian physician Bernardino Ramazzini first described RSI in more than 20
categories of industrial workers in Italy, including musicians and clerks.Carpal tunnel
syndrome was first identified by the British surgeon James Paget in 1854.
Lee Jackson's 2006 work "A Dictionary of Victorian London", quotes a paragraph from the April
1875 issue of The Graphic describing "telegraphic paralysis".
The Swiss surgeon Fritz de Quervain first identified De Quervain’s tendinitis in Swiss factory
workers in 1895. The French neurologist Jules Tinel (1879–1952) developed his percussion
Page 314
test for compression of the median nerve in 1900. The American surgeon George Phalen improved
the understanding of the aetiology of carpal tunnel syndrome with his clinical experience of
several hundred patients during the 1950s and 1960s.
FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARDS IN OPERATING Cimena hall

The normal risks of anaesthesia and surgery are notthe only ones which patients face in operating
theatres. The possibility of fire or explosion is everpresent and constitutes almost as much risk to
staff as to patients. In recent years the incidence of serious explosions has been very low; this has
been achieved principally by regulations governing the building and maintenance of premises and
apparatus rather than by knowledgeable decisions by medical and nursing staff. To try and obviate
human fallibility and ignorance, some of .these regulations have led to expensive expedients
which have been quite disproportionate to the magnitude of the risks. For example,it was estimated
in 1969 that, since the inception of the National Health Service, a quarter of a million pounds had
been spent on spark-proof switches in locations where sparks in fact presented no hazard and in
which no instance could be cited of an explosion having been caused. THE COMPONENTS OF
EXPLOSIONS Fires and explosions can only occur when three components are assembled
simultaneously: a gaswhich supports combustion (usually oxygen, but also nitrous oxide in
anaesthetic practice), a flammable material and a source of ignition. The elimination of any one of
these is the aim of safety precautions in this field.
Oxygen
Not only can this not be eliminated, but it is frequently present in concentrations above the normal
atmospheric value, thus making any conflagrationmuch more violent than otherwise and in some
circumstances rendering some otherwise safematerials a hazard. Particularly dangerous are
stoichiometric mixtures in which the proportions ofoxygen and a flammable agent are exactly
thoseneeded to produce complete combustion. In the circumstances of anaesthetic practice,
flammable mixtures of an aesthetics with air will burn but not detonate. Oxygen enrichment has
two effects: the range of concentrations of an aesthetic agents whichwill ignite is increased and,
when they are ignited, the speed of propagation, allied to the rapid increase in pressure leads to a
chain reaction so rapid that detonation of all the mixture occurs. Mixtures ofnitrous oxide with
oxygen support combustion even more strongly than oxygen alone and even purenitrous oxide
mixed with flammable an aesthetic agents will
Flammable agents
The abolition of the use of flammable an aestheticagents has sometimes been proposed on safety
grounds and has been brought about by voluntaryaction in some places. Whilst this will certainly
eliminate the risk of anaesthetic explosions, it does noteliminate the possibility of anaesthetic
techniques being a critical factor in promoting a fire. It is not aremedy which it has been thought
prudent to try and introduce compulsorily. Not only would it beregarded as an infringement of
professionaJ freedom but, on a global view, the use of flammable agents isstill extensive and
training in their use must continue. There are, however, circumstances in which, bycustom,
anaesthetists have accepted a restriction on

Page 315
the use of flammable agents. In some x-ray departments, the possibility of sparks cannot be
eliminated and in such circumstances flammable agents areusually avoided completely.
It must not be overlooked that anaesthetic vapoursare not the only flammable agents in the danger
area.Alcoholic solutions for skin cleansing cause burns when ignited and such happenings are
regularlyreported by the Defence societies. Ether may beused to de-grease the skin or remove zinc
oxide strapping adhesive; flammable solutions are sometimespoured on to and wiped over surfaces
to sterilize them, or introduced into suction bottles tode-bubble them. As long as such materials
are to hand, inventive people will think of ways to employthem and constant vigilance is necessary.
In most instances a non-flammable alternative can be found.
Ignition sources
Mixtures of flammable gases in oxygen can beignited by sparks which have an energy as little as
1 (jj (Macintosh, Mushin and Epstein, 1963). The prevention of fires and explosions has
concentrated predominantly on ensuring that sources of ignitionand flammable agents are not in
proximity. Following recommendations of a Ministry Working Party(Ministry of Health, 1956) a
Zone of Risk was established. Vickers (1970) showed that this was denned unnecessarily widely
and that, even in highly unfavourable circumstances of ventilation and vapourproduction,
flammable concentrations are found in very limited areas. Present regulations allow socketsof
normal construction at a height of 45 cm from the floor in operating theatres (Department of
Healthand Social Security, 1971a). The Zone of Risk in the U.K. is now defined as extending for
25 cm aroundthe breathing circuit; only switches in apparatus which can be moved into this region
must be ofsparkless construction or enclosed in a gas-tight container.It is likely that this will be
the subject of international agreement and a draft Standard (International Electrotechnical
Commission, 1975) is inexistence. It is noteworthy that this introduces two levels of risk. An
anaesthetic breathing circuit which encloses a mixture containing oxygen, nitrous oxideor
flammable anaesthetic is described as an "enclosed medical gas system". For the purpose of this
code,the enclosed system is assumed to extend for adistance of 2 cm around it to allow for leaks.
Equipment for use in an enclosed medical gas system mustnot be capable of producing sparks
having an energy greater than 1 y.], nor a surface with a temperature exceeding 150 °C. Such
equipment will be termed
"Anaesthetic proof, Category G" and marked APG.An outer zone, extending from 2 cm to 25 cm
(theexisting Zone of Risk limit), is assumed to be intrinsically safer because the gases will be
diluted with air;equipment for use in this zone will be allowed to generate sparks up to 200 [xj and
be described as"Anaesthetic proof" (AP). Any equipment outside the 25 cm limit (most operating
theatre equipment, infact) can be of the freely ventilated type of construction.
Thus foot-switches would not need to be gastightor "explosion proof".Since the free spread of
flammable concentrationsof anaesthetic agents outside breathing circuits is verylimited, it is clear
that it is within the breathing circuitand air passages that most hazards arise and wherethe more
spectacular explosions must have originated.
The obvious dangers of using cautery and diathermyin the airway need no stressing; bulbs in
endoscopes must in any event have "cool" surfaces, to avoidtissue damage, and are likely to be
much less than 150 °C, which is the minimum temperature for autoignitionof an ether-oxygen
mixture. They should be powered by controlled low-voltage sources. Batteriesare to be preferred
to transformers on other safety grounds also.The most unpredictable source of ignition is aspark

Page 316
associated with the discharge of a static electrical charge. Static sparks can be avoided by
preventing the build up of the electrical charges;
this depends on applying a group of related precautions. Like a chain, the omission of any link is
equally disastrous. The patient, the breathing circuit, the machine and any individual who can
touch them must all be at the same electrical potential, which is achieved in practice by ensuring
that none of them are electrically insulated from ground.
ANTISTATIC PRECAUTIONS
The floor
Although antistatic floors are, by definition,electrically conductive, they have quite a highelectrical
resistance in order to reduce electrocutionrisks. The average resistance of the floor should
notexceed 20 MQ. between two electrodes 4 in2 insurface area and placed 61 cm apart (Department
ofHealth and Social Security, 1971b). The maximumlikely electrical capacity of a person or
clothing is ofthe order of 200 pF. If fully charged, 95% of the
charge stored on such a "capacitor" would bedissipated in approximately 0.01 s through a
resistance
of20MQ.
The patient
Cotton clothing and bedding should be used andthe metal table covered with an antistatic rubber
mattress. Only a cotton sheet should be interposedThe table should have metal feet, and any rubber
pedals or stabilizing feet must be of antistatic rubber.Clothing and footwear of staffProvided that
cotton theatre clothing is worn, theonly matter of apparent importance is footwear.The situation
with regard to this matter is confusing.
FIRES AND EXPLOSIONS 661HTM1 (Department of Health and Social Security,1971a)

recommends that theatre footwear and overshoesshould comply with BS 2506. This, however,is
concerned only with rubber footwear and is notapplicable to Dunlop antistatic shoes or to
woodenclogs, in both of which rubber is not the relevant material. The former are manufactured
to satisfy themethod of testing of antistatic footwear which is specified in another Standard
(BS2050) to whichBS 2506 refers. Tests conducted in the Department
of Medical Physics at the University Hospital ofWales have shown them to be satisfactory (P. L.
Jones, personal communication, 1976) and it is a pitythat they are not marked in the manner
recommended by BS 2506.Clogs, however, are another matter. No Standard exists and because of
their construction they fall outside the terms of both BS 2506 and BS 2050 and therefore outside
the recommendation of HTML Clogs are rendered conductive by the inclusion of a. conductive
pathway between insole and sole, either of metal or conductive rubber plug: testing of clogsafter
a period of use has shown that in many instances
the plug shrinks and fails to make contact with the floor (P. L. Jones, personal communication,
1976).
Because of the small area of the antistatic surface, clogs also present an insuperable problem in
antistatic esting since BS 2050 requires measurement over one square inch, and not per square
inch. This is a point which, on the face of it, is of some importance since, on testing, large numbers
of clogs in regular use are not found to be antistatic at all. At the sametime it has to be admitted
that no unfavourable consequences seem to have ensued from their wide spread use and attempts

Page 317
to produce a spark from insulated personnel in theatres have failed, no doubtas a result of the
control of humidity. In theory,
however, antistatic footwear is an essential link in the safety chain and in the absence of adequate
humidity and appropriate clothing could be important. Similar strictures apply to overshoes; plastic
ones are relevant
to cleanliness but, if sound, defeat the aims ofantistatic precautions. Cotton overshoes are to be
preferred. The anaesthetic machine and circuits These are undoubtedly the most critical part of the
whole exercise. Within the breathing circuit are drygases, often highly oxygen-enriched and
enclosed in volumes which, if ignited, produce detonations ofsufficient power not only to rupture
the patient's
lungs, but to injure other people in the vicinity. Allnon-metal parts of the apparatus and breathing
circuit, including the castors, should be of anti staticrubber to BS 2050 (an exception is the
endotracheal tube, but as this is always moist it is unable to holda static charge). If the floor is of
recommended construction this will ensure that no part of theapparatus can be at a difiFerent
potential from that of the patient or anyone able to touch the circuit. It isrecommended by HTM2
(Department of Health and
Social Security, 1971b) that the conductivity of thefloors should be tested every 3 months.
Other materials
There has been a steady increase in the use ofinsulating plastic materials in operating theatres,
and questions are sometimes raised concerning theirsafety from an antistatic point of view. They
include
pillow covers, bowls, catheters, cannulae and syringes,themselves wrapped in plastic, and special
draping
materials. Plastic pillow covers should always becovered with a sheet of cotton or linen. Particular
concern is often expressed about plastic endotrachealsuction catheters, which are removed from a
plastic
packet and can be introduced directly into the airpassages during the administration of an explosive
anaesthetic. Consideration of the circumstances ofuse suggest that the risk of static sparks is
infinitesimal. Certainly there are no recordedinstances of incidents which could be related to such
articles (Dobbie, personal, communication, 1972).
The objects themselves have an electrical capacitywhich is too small to hold sufficient charge; it
would require either friction or rapid separation to generatethe charge, and these factors are not
usually found in these circumstances. An even greater measure ofsafety can be achieved if the
materials are wetted before bringing them into the Zone of Risk.
Extent of antistatic precautions
Although there is a general consensus that it must be possible for flammable agents to be used, the
cost of these precautions cannot be overlooked. Antistatic floors are somewhat more expensive
than someotherwise acceptable alternatives; antistatic rubber has a somewhat limited life and is
less convenientin other ways. It is important to have a clear policy,
therefore, as to the locations in which this additionalexpense is justified. Restriction of antistatic
precautions to a limited number of operating theatresand anaesthetic rooms within a suite is a
policyfraught with difficulties; it would prevent the safeinterchangeability of equipment within
this areaand would require a degree of flexibility in the use oftheatres which is not usually
achievable. The wholeof all main theatre suites should, therefore, be

Page 318
uniformly protected.In maternity departments with a designatedoperative delivery room, only this
area need have full precautions: if any of several rooms may be usedindiscriminately, the problems
of interchangeability re-emerge.X-ray departments have already been referred toas areas in which
antistatic precautions may be unnecessary because other sources of ignition cannotbe eliminated.
There remain areas which are relatively infrequently used for operative work involving
generalanaesthesia, and even less frequently for the administration
of flammable agents. These areas includecasualty theatres, fracture clinics, electro-convulsive
therapy wards, etc. In these locations the expense offull antistatic precautions is difficult to
justify,particularly as a very acceptable degree of safety canbe assured with a few simple
precautions. Nonconductive materials can be rendered temporarilyconductive by wetting them;
thus as long as theanaesthetic machine conforms to the recommendationsoutlined above, and staff
and patients areappropriately shod and clothed, a high degree of
safety can be assured if the floor is wetted over thearea in which anyone can touch the breathing
circuit whilst a flammable agent is being employed. Thiscan be mcst reliably achieved by
spreading a dampsheet. Recovery areas are not a practical problem because of the rapidity with
which expired gasesbecome non-flammable after administration ceases
OTHER FIRE HAZARDS

Drapes and packs
Leakage of oxygen-enriched gases can render somesurgical materials much more flammable than
expected. Gupte (1972) reported the ignition of apharyngeal gauze pack during intra-oral
diathermy attributable to leakage of oxygen-nitrous oxidemixture around the endotracheal tube
during positive pressure ventilation. Cameron and Ingram (1971)reported the vigorous ignition of
surgical drapes when oxygen-enriched gases were being vented beneaththem.
Nebulizers
Two fires have been reported in connection withnebulizers of different kinds. A venturi jet through
which dry oxygen was flowing was inadvertentlynot earthed because of a design fault. The jet was
shown to be able to hold charges of up to 20 000 V(Webre, Leon and Lawson, 1973). The plastic
venturi nozzle melted, but as Bruner (1973) pointed out, it isdifficult to see how static electric
discharges could provide sufficient energy for this. No better explanationwas forthcoming despite
considerable experimental investigation.A fire arising in an ultrasonic nebulizer has alsobeen
reported (El-Naggar, Collins and Francis, 1973). These devices convert electrical energy intohigh
frequency acoustic energy at powers which constitute a potential fire hazard. The energy fromthe
ultrasonic crystal is coupled by water and a flexible cup to the liquid to be nebulized. In
thisinstance, because of a design fault, the polyethylene cup of a Bendix nebulizer was of a greater
thicknessthan one-quarter of the wavelength of the acoustic wave; this caused the plastic to heat
up excessively,and in the presence of 60% oxygen it ignited.
Laparoscopy
Some concern has been raised about the use ofnitrous oxide for laparoscopy on the grounds of
explosion risk (Robinson, Thompson and Wood,1975). No explosion has actually been reported
and what few measurements of i.p. hydrogen andmethane concentrations have been made have
been far below the flammable limit (Drummond andScott, 1976). The credibility of the risk thus

Page 319
depends on the credibility of the theory which postulates it.In essence, Robinson and colleagues
argue as follows: approximately 0.5 litre of hydrogen isproduced in the gut in 24 h, and in one-
third of individuals a few hundred millilitres of methane areproduced also. Since hydrogen is very
diffusible, high concentrations must also exist in the peritonealcavity. Nitrous oxide supports
combustion and therefor a flammable mixture may occur during laparoscopy.There are several
weaknesses in this line of argument First, whatever the theoretical tension, it is aroutine rinding
on x-ray that there is normally no ree gas in the peritoneal cavity and that the presenceof even
small quantities indicates serious pathology.
Only when a gas is introduced into the peritoneumwill hydrogen and methane start to diffuse into
it.Second, although hydrogen may be highly diffusible,its passage across the bowel wall will
depend on its solubility, which is low. Professor Mapleson, in anAppendix to this paper, shows
that, taking "worst

Page 320

Safety in Engineering Industries 05102018

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Safety in Engineering Industries 05102018

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Safety in Engineering Industries( 23109)

1.1 PRINCIPLES OF MACHINE GUARDING

The prime mover.

Prepared by P.M.Pathak, Advanced Diploma In Industrial Safety ,K.K .Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

3. Safety by Position or Location: It is a guarding as a result of the physical inaccessibility of

Ingoing (in-running) Nips: A hazard area created by two or more mechanical

Safety by Construction : It indicates parts so constructed as to cause no hazard, viz. shaft,

1.2 ERGONOMICS OF MACHINE GUARDING

Prepared by P.M.Pathak, Advanced Diploma In Industrial Safety ,K.K .Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

Prepared by P.M.Pathak, Advanced Diploma In Industrial Safety ,K.K .Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

As a science, ergonomics studies anatomy, physiology and psychology. Anatomy includes

Physiology includes work physiology & environmental physiology. Work Physiology is

Prepared by P.M.Pathak, Advanced Diploma In Industrial Safety ,K.K .Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

4. To solve human problems of work performance by considering human factors in design of

3. Human Factors in Design of Machine and Work:

Prepared by P.M.Pathak, Advanced Diploma In Industrial Safety ,K.K .Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

REQUIREMENTS OF MACHINE GUARDING

Machine guarding is required as a basic need as well as statutory requirement.

1. Basic Need and Importance :

2.1 Statutory Requirement:

Definitions : The Factories Act defines as under:

Employment of young persons on dangerous machines : On power presses except

Prepared by P.M.Pathak, Advanced Diploma In Industrial Safety ,K.K .Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

Further Safety Precautions: Rule 54 prescribes machine guarding details in respect of

Hazards from machinery are generally of following types:

Crushing, shearing, cutting or severing, entanglement, drawing-in or trapping, impact,

The basic steps to prevent accidents are :

Prepared by P.M.Pathak, Advanced Diploma In Industrial Safety ,K.K .Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

Such built-in-care in construction principles of a machine or equipment should also ensure

Groups of Dangerous Parts :

Prepared by P.M.Pathak, Advanced Diploma In Industrial Safety ,K.K .Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

According lo H.A. Hepburn

25 groups of intrinsically dangerous parts of machinery as classified by H.A. Hepburn are as

Single Revolving Units - Risk of entanglement

Single Revolving Units - Risk of cutting or abrading

In-running Parts - Risk of nipping and tearing

Prepared by P.M.Pathak, Advanced Diploma In Industrial Safety ,K.K .Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

1. Running Edges - Risk of cutting

Prepared by P.M.Pathak, Advanced Diploma In Industrial Safety ,K.K .Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

Prepared by P.M.Pathak, Advanced Diploma In Industrial Safety ,K.K .Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

Prepared by P.M.Pathak, Advanced Diploma In Industrial Safety ,K.K .Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

1.3 Requisite Characteristics (Design principles) of Guards:

Twelve characteristics, design principles, specifications, basic requirements or good guarding

Prepared by P.M.Pathak, Advanced Diploma In Industrial Safety ,K.K .Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

1.4 Types And Guards Selection

Prepared by P.M.Pathak, Advanced Diploma In Industrial Safety ,K.K .Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

Built-in-safety should not be understood as safety by construction. The dangerous moving

Types of Guards and Selection:

Prepared by P.M.Pathak, Advanced Diploma In Industrial Safety ,K.K .Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

Prepared by P.M.Pathak, Advanced Diploma In Industrial Safety ,K.K .Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

Prepared by P.M.Pathak, Advanced Diploma In Industrial Safety ,K.K .Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

Criteria for Guard Selection : Selection of a guard depends on following factors :

1 Its physical dimensions, weight etc.

Built-in-safety can be designed for point of operation, transmission parts, controls,

Benefits of Built-in Safety Devices :

They are more safe from accident prevention point of view.

The disadvantage of built-in guards is that slight modification or unanticipated circumstances,

I. Incidental Safety Devices and Methods :

Prepared by P.M.Pathak, Advanced Diploma In Industrial Safety ,K.K .Wagh Polytechnic,Nashik

Definitions : 31 types of textile machines or their dangerous parts are defined. It

Machine Guarding : It is summarised in Table, 14.2

Table : Guarding of textiles machines.

Name of the Machine Guard / Device Suggested