Ceramics

Ceramic materials posses h1gh chemical resistance and melting temperatures up

to 4000"C These properties result out of its very strong matrix bonding {covalent
and polar bonding), which holds the atoms in their position. This kind of atom1c
bonding has a crucial drawback: brittleness Th1s Is the reason why ceram1cs are
used as part of composite materials.
Some of the most used ceramics are:
A luminium Oxide (Alu mina): mosUy used for cladd.ng of aluminium alloyed
sheets or high temperature resistant pieces.
Silic on Dioxide (Glass): used as reinforcing fibers tor composites.
Graphite (Carbon): used as reinforcing fibers for compoSites.
Silicon Carbide and Nitrid e· used as heat shield in hot section of turbine en-
gines
Plastics
Just as plastic has become a major part of our everyday life. it also has become
an important element in the construction of aeroplanes. Plastic or resins falls into
two major classifications thermoplastic and thermosettmg.
Thermosets
Plastics which are not softened by heat are known as thermosets. Most of them
start as 11quld resins which are hardened by chemical cunng. So how does this
work?
If you could look at a polymer resin under a powerful enough microscope .. you
would see m111ions of very long mole~ules. They would be tangled up rather like a
Figure 2: Thermosets
plate of spaghetti. Th1s gives the resin its th1ck, syrupy consistency, but it can be
poured and shaped hke any other thick liquid.
During the curing process. chemical links. called crosslinks, fomn between the pol-
ymer molecules. and these have the effect of fixing them in one position
The polymer becomes rigid and stays in the same shape. Once this has hap-
pened, it can't be reversed and the polymer is fixed in a permanent shape.
Polyesters are the most widely used thermosets in composite mouldings. Most
boats. cars, water tanks and other everyday Fibre Reinforced Plastics articles are
based on polyesters. This Is because they are cheap and very. easy to use, but
when high properties are required, regardless of expense. epox1es. or epoxy res-
ins. produce much better composites. This is why they are preferred for the aero-
space industry.

r-.. liquid Molecules

- container Crosslinks

Uncured Cured
Thermoplastic
Are Polymers in which the molecules are held together by weak secondary bond-
ing forces soften when they are heated and so they are called thermoplastics.
Thermoplastic foils, sheets. plates can be formed into different shapes by applying
temperatures of about 1oo•c to 200'C. This can be done over and over aga1n.

Thermoplastic Resins
Thermoplastic resins are those that can be softened by heat and win again be-
come hard when they cool down. The most widely used application for thermoplas-
tic resins in modem aircraft construction is for windshields and side windows.
Many of the earlier thermoplastic resi1s were made of cellulose. a derivative of cot-
ton. Cellulose nitrate was one of the first thermoplastic resins, and it had the draw-
back of being highly flammable. Cellulose acetate has most of its characteristics
and is less flammable.
Cellulose acetate was used for windshields and side windows on many of the very
early lightplanes. V\lhen viewed along its edge, it has a slightly yellow tint, and
when it is exposed to sunlight it becomes brittle, discolours, and shrinks. It will bum
and when 11 ignites It produces a smoky, sputtering flame and an unpleasant
odour, Acetone will dissolve cellulose acetate material.
Acrylic resins sold under the trade names of Plexiglas, Lucile, and Perspex have
almost completely replaced cellulose acetate resins in aircraft construction. Acryl·
1cs are more transparent, and are cons1derably stiffer than cellulose acetate.
They are not damaged by repeated heaUng and cooling, so long as they are not
overheated.

Elas tomer
The third group of plastic materials is called elastomer. If the molecules in a poly-
mer are linked together by a small number of valency bonds so that a loose net-
work is formed then a nubber like material is formed called an elastomer. and this
will have more elastic properties than a simple thermosetting Once it is cured , it
can't be reversed and the polymer is fixed in a permanent shape.
For example:
Silicone Rubber
Tires
Seals
Sealing compounds
 Composite Materials
Just as metal replaced wood and fabric, new generabons of aircraft are being
made of materials dest1ned to replace much of the metal in aircraft structure.
These matenals are plastic resins reinforced wtth filaments of glass. carbon, Kev-
lar, and boron. Let's look first at the resins used as the matrtx for these reinforcing
fibers.
Plastic Resins
Plastics have replaced so many materials in our daily life that we take them for
granted, and we sometimes fail to appreciate this family of truly wonderful materi-
als. In this section we will consider tl1e resins used in aircraft construction and the
materials that are used to reinforce them. We can basically divide plastic resins
mto two groups: thermoplastic and thermosetting.
Thermosetting Resins
A thermosetting resin will not soften when it is heated, and it will char and burn be-
fore it melts. The most important application for thermosetting resins in aircraft
construction is as a matrix to hold filaments of glass, graphtte, aramid, and other
materials. These reinforced resins are widely used under the collective name of
composites.
Polymer Resins
The choice of polymer to use in the composite Is as Important as the choice of fi.
bre. The main features of a polymer for use in a composite are·
It must have the correct mechanical properties,
It must coat every s1ngle fibre and bond to each one,
It must be fatrly easy to use.
The type of polymer which can be fa-med into a composite most easily is a liquid
one, and this Is usually referred to as a resin. If you wanted to make a polymer into
a composite, you would have to mix the resin and fibres in the right proportions,
and then let the polymer harden. This can be done In several ways, which we will
look at later.
Polyester Resin
Polyester resins are popular for aircraft construction. Pure polyester is thick and
unworkable, so It is mixed with another form of resin called styrene. If a mixture of
* Plastics and composite materials are used in many aircraft parts because
they are lighter than other materials.
polyester and styrene resins IS allowed to sit for a t<me it will cure into a solid mass,
so inhibitors are added to prevent this unwanted hardening.
When you are ready to use the restn, add a catalyst that suppresses the inhibitors
and allows the polyester molecules to join together and cure, the curing time may
be decreased by adding a small amount of another chemical called an accelera-
tor.
Polyester resms cure when heat causes the individual molecules to JOin together
to form chains. Part of this heat is produced within the resin by the chemical action
between the catalyst and the accelerator It is this internal heat that causes a thick
layer of resin to cure more rapidly than a thin layer because the thick layer slows
the escape of the heat.
Polyester resins shrink as they cure. This is helpful when bonding metal fittings
into a fiberglass structure as the shrinkage tightens the gri~ on the metal Care
must be taken when applying long strips of fiberglass tape over a flat surface so
that the shrinkage does not distort the base surface. To prevent this distortion, sev-
eral short lengths of tape may be used rather than a single long piece.
Special care must be exercised when mixing polyester resins to use the exact pro-
cedure recommended by the resin manufacturer. Do not mix ingredients from dif·
ferent manufacturers. Use accurate scales and clean containers, and do not use
polyesters when the temperature is lower than 1a•c or higher than 3o•c Mix
enough extra resin to make a test leap. If this test lay up, made with identical resin
and using identical procedures, gives the results you want, you may proceed con-
fidently with the actual job.
Polyester restn alone is thtck and unmanageable, to overcome this a styrene mon-
ome• is added typically 36%. Polyester and styrene are very we<o~k when used
alone but when combined they produce a very strong resin. Polyester will cure on
its own eventually, so to prevent this happening an inhibitor is added. When we
want the resin to cure a catalyst must be added to overcome the inhlbttor, this is
usually Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide (MEKP). As the resin is slow to cure an ac·
celerator may be added to speed up the cure. The main disadvantage of polyester
Is its h1gh rate of shrinkage. Cure time can be varied by varying the amount of hard-
ener used
Epoxy Resin
Epoxy resms are strong, resistant to moisture and chemicals and have extremely
good adhesion charactenstics. There are many different types of epoxy resins,
and they are used as the matrix for many of the advanced composite materials.
* Epoxy resins are thermosets
Epoxy resins differ from polyester resins in that epoxy uses a cunng agent rather
than a catalyst A typical mix of polyester resin calls lor 64 ounces of resin and 1
ounce of catalyst to produce 64 ounces of catalyzed resin. A typical epoxy resin
calls for mixing 1 part of curing agent with 4 parts of resin to produce 5 parts of
material.
Epoxy Is the most popular resin used for laminated structures. It is available in
many colours and as a thin liQUid to a thick paste The main advantage of using
epoxy resins. are its low shrinkage and its high strength to weight ratio.
Epoxies will adhere to almost any other material
Epoxy does not use a catalyst to cure as does a Polyester Resin
The Hardener or curing agent combines with the Epoxy to cure it
Where as the polyester catalyst sets off a chemical reaction
Epoxies are cured with a ratio of about 2:1
As the hardener and curing agent are combined It is vital that the correct ratio is
used otherwise the mixture will not cure fully Tools should be cleaned with Ace-
tone before any resin is allowed to cure on them otherwise the tools may have to
be dumped.
Reinforcing Materials
The resins just discussed are used only to bond fibers of various materials togeth-
er. It is the fibers themselves that produce the strength and rigidity that make com-
posite structures of such importance in aircraft construction. In th1s section we will
discuss the fibers most w1dely used in aircraft construct1on.
Tho following abreviations ere used for glass. aramid and carbon fibre reinforced
pals tics:
GFRP (Glass Fibre Remforced Plastic)
AFRP (Aramid Fibre Reinforced Plastic)
CFRP (Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic)
Glass Fibers
Glass fibers were one of the first reinforcing materials for aircraft composite con-
struction and they are still used for many applica~ons even though they weigh
more and have less strength than many of the other fibers
There are two types of fiberglass cloth for use in a~re«~ft construction: E glass 1s
the original glass labnc, and S glass, which is stronger. tougher. and stiffer. and
weighs slighUy less than E glass.
* Epoxy resin uses curing agent to cure
* Polyester uses catalyst to cure
Fiberglass is available in several forms. Fiberglass mat is a collection of fibers
pressed loosely together with just enough polyester resin to hold them in place.
Mat is used as a fill when tow cost is more important than strength
Roving is similar to yam, but the fibers are formed into a long loose strand
Bidirectional cloth ts woven of glass fibers with the major fiber bundles running in
both the length of the fabric (warp threads) and width of the fabric (fill threads). Uni-
directional cloth has all of the major fiber bundles runmng In the direction of the
length of the fabric, and they are woven together with small cross fibers that do not
carry any of the load.
Carbon Fibre (Graphite) , • , • •• ,
Carbon fibre was invented by scientists looking lor a stronger, stiffer fibre lor use
in composites. It Is made from man-made fibres (similar to the ones used for pro-
ducing sweaters) by a special heating process. They are black. similar in appear-
ance to black hair, but much finer Carbon fibres are made from two precursors,
polyacrynilrile (PAN) and pitch. Carbon fibres are strongest in compression.
In their early days, carbon fibres caused problems in manufacturing composites
because they are very fragile and difficult to use compared with glass fibres. but
when used property they produce very high performance composites.
Carbon fibres can be woven into cloths similar to glass fibre cloths Nowadays the
problem of handling the fibres is often overcome by impregnating the woven cloth
with the polymer before using it for moulding. This fibre and polymer combination
is known as a prepreg. All that has to be done to the prepreg is to cut it to shape,
and then cure the polymer to produce a solid composite.
Carbon fibres are more expensive than glass fibres.
Carbon fibres properties are:
High strength
High E-Modul
low specific gravity
Low breaking elongation and high temperature reststance
Low conductivity
An example of a carbon fibre Part Number would be;
3K-70-PW
=
3K 3000 filaments per bundle
70 =Thickness of each filament
P = Plain weave
 w =Worked The fibres are tougher than glass fibres even before they are made into composite,
Carbon/Carbon parts, e.g. brake discs are made by two different methods: so special cuttrng blades and techniques are used to cut the cloth to shape, and
machining the composite after it rs formed.
1. Uquid Impregnation
Kevlar is lighter than glass or graphite and considering loads it resits tension at
Where carbon fibre Is impregnated with pitch and cured under high pressure most
and high temperat\Jre.
It is likely that kevlar will become one of the most widely used fibres in the future.
2. Chemical Vapour Infiltration (CVI)
The aircraft structural grade of kevlar fibre is known as Kevlar 49 Kevtar 29 is used
Is used to increase the density of graphite fibres with a hydrocarbon gas tor boats and Kevlar 129 is bullet proof matenal.
(methane), this involves multiple cycles to achieve final densification.
Kevlar absorbs more moisture than any other fibre. Weacking will occur with a
Carbon fibres must not be brought into contact with aluminium, as this would badly drilled hole and will absorb moist\Jre and other liquids which may attack the
cause corrosion of the aluminium. A glass fibre barrier must be used. Carbon fi. resin system.
bres will also conduct electricity.
Boron
Aramid '1• ··~ '
Boron fibres are made by depositing boron (an element) onto a thin filament of
Aramid rs most commonly know by the name Kevlar which is trade name given to tungsten. The resulting fibre is aboul 004-inch in diameter. has excellent com-
Aramid by the Ou Pont Chemrcal Company of the U.S.A. pressive strength and stiffness, and is extremely hard. Because boron can be haz-
ardous to work with, along with its high expense, it is not commonly used in civil
Kevlar aviation.
Kevlar is one of the latest reinforcing fibres. It is itself a synthetic Polymer. Woven
Boron has been tested on civil aircraft to prevent cracks where they are known to
cloths and Prepregs are available in kevlar material, and these have even greater occur. It is applied in the form of a patch bonded to the arrcraft.
strength and stiffness than carbon fibres, but are even more expensive, so they
are only used in high performance applications where expense is less important
The Properties of kevlar.
Hrgh Tensile Strength at Low Weight
High Structural Rigidity
Low Electrical Conductivity
High Chemical Resistance * Kevlar is lighter than glass or graphite but when comparing the load
Low Thermal Shrinkage
High Toughness
it resists tension, kevlar is the best.
Excellent Dimensional Stabi ity
High Cut Resistance
Flame Resistant, Self-Extrngulshing
Kevlar can be used on its own or in a combination with glass or carbon fibre rein-
forcements.
Woven Products q ·•. •... ~ Figure 3: Plain Weave.

These are produced from threads formed by twisting together glass fibre strands,
just as other fibres are twisted when they are to be woven Like other woven fab-
!Warp
rics, a vanety of different weaves can be produced from the threads, but in this
case they have important differences in properties rather than bemg made for their
appearance.
The nature of the woven cloth produced depends on the number of threads which
run along the length of the fabric, called the warp, and the number running across
it, called the weft, as well as the way they cross each other.

Plain Weave
Weft
In this type of cloth, each warp and weft passes over one thread and under the
next. This is a good general purpose cloth.

* Plain weave - Strength will be greater in both direction

* Twill weave - Good tensile strength
* Satin weave - More good strength
Twill Weave Satin Weave
In this type of cloth. the number of warp and weft threads passed over is vaned. A In t~is type of cloth . each weft passes over all but one of the warps. Th1s g1ves a
typ1ca1 weave is 2 x 2 twill Th1s means that each weft passes over two warps and smooth surface. and even higher tensile strength
under two Th1s g1ves good tens1le strength
Figure 5: Satin Weave
Figure 4: Twill Weave

j Warp

Weft Weft
 Unidirectional Weave
In this type of cloth, the warp threads are straight and parallel. The weft threads
are occasionally added to keep them in place. Th1s gives very high strength in
warp direction, but It is weak in the weft direction
Figure 6: Unidirectional Weave
Chopped Strand Mat
The rovlngs are chopped into short lengths. say 5 em, and bonded together in ran-
dom directions to form a mat You may have seen it In car re,atr kits. These mats
are available in a range of weights, for instance, one square metre of mat may
weigh between 250 g and 600 g depending on the depth of fbres used.
The mat g1ves equal properties In all directions and IS easy to use. It 1s not as
stmng as woven cloths because the fibres are short

jwarp Figure 7: Chopped Strand Mat.

•
•
•
Weft
•

* Unidirectional weave - Very high strength in one direction (warp direction)

* Chopped strand mat - Equal properties in all direction ( that is why it is considering as a good general purpose mat).
Roving Based Products but seldom along the warp or weft Thts 1S Important to keep in m1nd If it is neces-
sary to wrap a fabric around a contoured shape
A rove or rov1ng Is formed by comb11ing strands of fibre without tw1sting them. A
typical roving may contain 2000 glass fibres. In aircraft applications. roving may be Fibre Orientation
used 11'1 three ways 1 A compos1te with most fibres In the dtrecbon of the load would be the strong-
est. In the case or a load In one dtreclton only a umdtrectional weave would
Fibre Orientation be best Although th•s would be weak In any other dtrect on.
SOme or the terms which are used to descnbe fibre orientabon are listed as fol- 2 When a compos1te is 1mpacted the cracks spread out in all directions
lows Chopped strand mat, w1th 1ts random fibres, would cope bes~ if only a SlfiQie
layer or fibre IS used A somilar effect can be produced b1 bulld1ng up several
Warp layers of woven fibre wtth the fibres 1n d1fferent direcbons.
The threads whiCh run the length of the fabnc as 1t comes off the bolt are referred
to as the warp The warp dtrediOil IS des~gnated at 0 degrees
In a woven appiiCabon, there are typcally more threads woven •nto the warp than
the fill dtrecbon. Thts matenal will be stronger •n the warp dtrecbon than the fill dl-
recbon . S1nce the warp d1recl101ltS often cnbCal ln fabricaMg Of' repa1ring COI'Opos-
ltes. 1t may be Klenhfied by lnsertJng another type of thread at periodiC Intervals.
The plas~c backmg on the underside of prepregs may also be mar1<ed to identify
warp threads

Weft (Fill)
Are those threads that run perpendiCUlar to the warp fibres They are des1gnated
as 90 degrees.
The fill Of' weft threads are the threads whtch Interweave with the warp threads.
Selvage Edge
A tightly woven edge produced by the weaver to prevent the edges from ravelling
is referred to as the selvage edge.
It Is parallel to the warp threads.
The selvage edge Is removed lor all fabrication and repa•r work because the
weave is different than the body of the fabric and would not g1ve the same strength
as the rest of the labnc
Bias
The bias is at a 45 degree angle to the warp threads Fabric can be formed into
contoured shapes by us•ng the bias Fabrics can often be stretched along the bias
Figure 8: Fibre Orientation
90"Layer

45" Layer

o· Layer
----------z:------~-
----------- ------
--------- ---~---
_-_-;_,-:.:,~---~---~---------
--.,-- .---~----- ---
-~·~::.:~--~~~----r: ..-
I ----------~---~-;:e­
1 --------------
----------~------
, ,. ' -
/
Weft
Curing Systems
Curing the polymer rrom a thick liquid to a strong solid is a chem1cal process. Th1s
can be brought about in two possible ways:
cold curing,
hot curing.
The choice of which method to use depends on what you are making and which
polymer you are using.
Cold Curing Systems
Cold curing systems relate to the resin being at room temperature. It is done like
this. Before the resin is combined w1th the fibres. a carefully measured quantity of
a catalyst or hardener is added to the resin and mixed thoroughly. A catalyst is a
substance which produces the crosslinks which will finally set the resin. It is cho-
Resin/Fibre Ratio
We already know that the properties of a compos1te depend on the types of resin
and fibre used, and the direction of the fibres. Another important feature of a com·
posite structure 1s the proportions of fibre and resin used. or the resin/fibre ratio.
If too much resin is used, the fibres will have little effect and the composite will be
weak If too little resin is used Ihere will not be enough to coat each fibre and once
again the composite will be weak.
There is an optimum resm/fibre ratio to produce the best composite The value will
vary depending on the fibre and resin used. but is usually about 1:1, one part resin
to one part of fibre by weight. So a composite containing 100 g of fibre will need
100 g of resin for the best performance.Precise resin/fibre ratios are given by fibre
and resin manufacturers and in aircraft manuals and maintenance schedules.
The approl imale resin fibre ratio for different fibres is as follows:

.....
sen so that the resin hardens slowly, over say half an hour. giving lime for the fi. Glass fibre: 1:1.
bres to be added while the resin is still liquid. Remember though, that once the Clliliort. . "=
catalyst is added the curing process starts, and if the resm Is not used It will set in
the mixing pot. ~it -
Calculations Knowing the Final Weight
Hot Curing Systems
Hot curing systems cure the resin at high temperatures, say 80-20o•c It ls done Question:
like this: As with cold curing systems, the crosslinks are formed by a catalyst or If you are going to produce a laminate using, say, 35g of woven glass fibres you
hardener, but in this case the catalyst won't work at room temperature. It has to be know that the final weight after the resin and hardener are mixed should be 35g.
heated before it becomes active. This system has several advantages over the So how much of that 35g is resin, and how much is hardener?
cold curinq system: The catalyst only becomes active when It is heated. so it can
be mixed with resin quite a long time before it is used. The properties of the final Answer:
composite depend on the curing temperature, and how quickly the resin is heated
up. These can be controlled quite accurately by the curing equipment Resin/hardener ratio =100:90
Hot cured composites tend to behave better in service than cold cured composites. Weight of resin needed =100/190 X 35 = 18 4g
There is a drawback. Special curing equipment is needed. Common sense sug-
gests that 1000 g of resin will cure more slowly than, 100 g, but in fact the opposite Weight of hardener needed = 90/190 X 35 = 16.6g
is true. As the resin cures it produces heat which speeds up the curing process.
The large amount produces more heat, and also insulates the heat better.
The moral is, do not mix up more resin than you need.
In extreme cases so much heat is produced that the resin can catch fire this is
called an exotherm.
Figure 9: Cured Epoxy Resin System
'-I I '

{""' f"" c. ~ ~-Epoxy Resin molecules

""\. ''- J-:"'-
r
" ' \ l 1.. ~ Hardener Molecules-

}~~"\ J

"'' s "

Pot Life
The Clmount of t1me that the res1n remains usable arter the catalyst Is added Is
called the pot life. This is an important factor in producing good composites. If the
resin starts to harden too much it will not mix w1th the fibres well enough.
Eg:- In a cold cure resin increasing temperature will decrease pot life
Shelf life
Not only do prep regs crossnnks slcw;ly when stored, but polyesters which have no
catalyst added. also solidify over a period of time. The ma10 problem IS that the
properties of the resin deteriorate long before any change in appearance takes
place, so you cannot see when a resin Is off. The only answer Is to store resins in
an even, cool temperature and to use them before they have been stored for too
long. The changes usually take place within a few months of manufacture of the
resin . You cannot use a resin which is two years old even if •t looks OK.
The length of time that a resin can be stored before it is used is known as its shelf
life.
Prepregs Figure 10: Prepreg Manufacturing
A prepreg is a sheet of fibre remforcement impregnated with the resin/hardener
system. The res1n is chosen so that it is fa~rly solid at room temperature in its un·
cured state. It initially softens Into a liquid when it is heated, and then crosslinks to
form a cured solid.
The advantages of a prep reg are that the resin/catalyst ratio and the fibre/resin ra-
tio are carefully controlled by the manufacturer. Each batch of prepreg is identical.
Also the resin Is already spread evenly throughout the fibres.
Of course prepregs can only be used for hot curing systems because they must
not cure during storage.
All that remains for the operator to do to produce a good laminate from prepregs
is to cut them to shape. stack them properly on the mould and cure them correctly
in the autoclave.
Prepregs are usually bonded with a film adhesive. Consistently good composites
can be produced from prepregs.
Resins are cured in 3 stages:
A STAGE: Wet resin,
B STAGE: Gelled resin (prepreg).
C STAGE· Cured resin.
Film Adhesives Figure 11: Film Adhesives
Film adhesives are similar to prepregs They are used for bonding metal to metal,
sandwich core to skin and
GFRP (Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic)
AFRP (Aramid Fibre Re1nforced Plastic)
CFRP (Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic)
Adhesives are available as unsuppo1ed and supported films. Supported films con-
tain a knitted nylon carrier.
Film adhesives are supplied on a release paper backing, in rolls with Polythene in-
terleaving to protect the adhesive in storage and when being handled; these cov-
erings must be removed before the adhesive can be used. Heavy rolls should be
stored on a horizontal mandrel passed thnough the tube core on which the noll Is Adhesive
wound. This Will avo1d the risk of local thinning of the film under the full weight of
the roll. The film adhesive has to be cured under a cunng cycle. 1n accordance with Film
the Structural Repair Manual. The fi m adhesive has to be stored under refngera-
tion at -18' C.

Foaming Adhesive Film

A foaming adhesive film is an adhesive in sheet form which expands during the
curing cycle, to fill gaps and adhere strongly to all parts of the structure with wh1ch
it comes into contact ll1s mainly used for the repair of honeycomb sandwich pan-
els as a honeycomb core splice and as an edge fillmg. The foaming adhesive Is
designed for use In conjunction with structural adhes1ve films and prepregs. There-
fore it ha,; to hP. cured under a curing cycle, in accordance wtth the Structural Re-
pair Manual. Foaming adhesive films have a limited shelf at room temperature
Therefore they should be kept under refrigeration at -18'C.
Core Materials
Aluminium alloy has a high enough tensile strength that a very thin sheet may be
strong enough for a given application, but this th1n sheet does not have enough
stiffness to make it a totally adequate structural matenal. One of the early Incur-
sions mto the field of compos1te materials was done by bond1ng end-grain balsa
wood between two thin sheets of aluminium alloy. The metal provided the strength,
and the balsa wood provided the thickness and thus the stiffness Without adding
too much weight. This type of composite is called sandwich construction.
Sandwich construction In which a lightweight core material (honeycomb, foam,
etc.) Is bonded between face plies of metal or resin-reinforced fabric is used today
for all types of aircraft from home built machines to high-speed, state-<~f-the-art mil-
itary aircraft.
Figure 12: Honeycomb
N~es Cell Edge
'\
I
\
f1
The Styrofoam used for a1rcratt construction is not the same material used for cof-
fee cups and picn1c ice chests. It is closed--cell foam whose cell s1ze and density
are carefully controlled. Styrofoam is cut with a hot w1re. and 1! must be used with
epoxy resin, as polyester resin will dissolve it
Urethane foam has an advantage over Styrofoam in that, unlike Styrofoam, it is
fuel proof. It must not be cut with a hot wire as it gives off noxous fumes, but it can
be cut and shaped with a sharp knife. Either epoxy or polyeste• resins can be used
with urethane loam.
Honeycomb
While foam finds most of its applications in lightweight aircra~ construction, hon-
eycomb is used as the sandw1ch core for most of the high-performance applica-
tions. Honeycomb lor aircraft structural applications is made of aluminium, paper,
fiber glass. stainless steel, and Nomex, which is gaining a h1gh degree of popular-
ity. Honeycomb is made by forming the core material into a ribbon which contains
a series of crimps, then jo1ning them together. Honeycomb core material is normal-
ly loaded in such a way that compressive stresses are imposed perpendicular to
the cells, in the thickness direction. The core has little strength in its width direc-
tion, and it is important when replacing a piece of honeycomb core to be sure that
the cells are properly onented so that the length. or the ribbcn. of the new p1ece
runs in the same direction as the length of the core in the damaged area.

Types of Honeycomb Core Material

There are lour main types of honeycomb used in aircraft manufacture
Th!!se are:
Materials used in aircraft honeycomb construction are
Aluminium
.... Glass fibre
* Aluminium
.... 1..
Nom ex
* Glass Fibre
L- * Nomex paper
Kevlar
L- 1- * Kevlar.
Aluminium honeycomb is very light. but 1t can corrode If corrosiVe liquids penetrate
1.. f-- the skin of the sandwich
,_
Nomex honeycomb is made from synthetic fibres impregnated with a thermoset-
hog res1n. It is strong and relatively cheap.
Foam Kevlar honeycomb IS the best, but is extremely expensive and difficult to cut
Many of the composile-construction 10mebuilt aircraft are made by laying resin- Honeycomb is available in a range of sizes, with cells from 3 mm in diameter up to
impregnated fiberglass or Kevlar fabric over a loam form. There are two basic about 20 mm In diameter.
types of foam used for this purpose, Styrofoam and urethane foam
They can be bcnded to fibre reinforced plastic sheets which have ready been Honeycombs can also be machrned to produce tapered sections, and can be
made. or laminated between sheets of prepreg in an autoclave formed into complex double curves for fuselage panels and radomes.
Figure 13: Core Materials

Rectangular Core (Ox Core) Hexagonal Core Flexible Core (Flex Core)

/• (l J,1
~ -
!> y
'
Damage to Sandwich Structures Figure 14: Damage Inspection

1/Vhen honeycomb sandWICh structures are damaged. the effec11S usually separa-
bon of the honeyoomb from the FRP skins The honeyoomb IS bonded to the skms
by very fine bond hnes along the edges of the honeycomb walls. and these ane fair-
ly easily broken. As the structure relies on the oone for support, the whole compos-
lie Is weakened. If the sandwich is hil very hard, the core may be crushed, but this
degree or damage is rare.

Damage Inspection
One of the greatest problems caused by replac1ng alullllmum Wllh sandwich struc-
tures, 1s Inspection for damage. Unfortunately, when a oompostte IS hit. most of the
damage takes place at the back, so tt is possible for the oomponent to look OK.
but be badly damaged tnstde. This applies to sandwich structures even more be-
cause the oore is much softer than the skin, and you cannot see the back of the
panels
Damage or this kind IS often referred to as Barely Visible Damage (BVD).

~ Minimum dislanoe lor inspection area depending on

........:..; material measured from longest axis or IllSible damage
Visual Inspection Figu re 15: Coin Tap Test
Visual inspection is the simplest and most economical inspection method and is
routinely used for process control and final part inspection.
Adequate, controlled lighting is necessary and visual aids, such as mirrors. bore-
scope. magnitymg glasses. microscopes and other optical devices are used to in-
spect for defects and missing components.

Coin Tap Test

To detect Internal flaws, or areas suspected of delamination. a coin tap test is
used. Coin tap lightly along a bond line or area suspected or having delamination.
Listen ror variations in the tapping sound. A sharp solid sound indicates a good
bond. A dull thud indicates bond separation.
However, changes in the thickness of the part. reinforcements. fasteners and pre-
vious repairs may give false readings. Whenever damage is found visually, coin
tap around the area to find damage such as a delamination that cannot be seen
visually Much of the time 1f there is a hole. crack or other damage, there is also
delamination around the area

After a honeycomb structure repair

* NDT which can be done
* coin tap test
* x-ray inspection Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
* ultrasonic inspection Radiographic (X-Ray) Inspection
* NDT which can not be done Rad1ography is a useful tool for the inspection o f composite parts. Radiography
* Dye penetrant test provides an excellent means to examme the ante nor of honeycomb parts for con-
ditions such as m1sahgnment. m1ssing parts. core damage, inclusions. foam poros-
* Eddy current inspection Ity, foreign obj!lcts, moisture, etc.

Ultrasonic Inspection
Ultrasonic mspection has beoome the most Widely used method for detectmg in-
ternal flaws in compos1te laminates and honeycomb assemblies. In this method,
high frequency sound energy is introduced into the test part, and anterpretat1on of
the returned signals determines the presence of porosity, voids, delamination, dis-
bonds. but not moisture
Repair of Composite Structure
Compos.te construCIJOn of arrcralt 1nspecbon and repa1r have not yet been stand-
ardiZed Each damaged area must be mdivldually assessed and the repa1r de-
stgned so that 1t will meet the reqUirements spec1fted by the manulacture(s
eng~neenng department and described In the structural repair manual (SRM) No
general text can describe all types of repalfs, but some fundamental considera-
tions are common to most repairs, and these are deSCflbed here
Cutting and Sanding Composite Materials
You can cut uncured reinforcing materials with conventional heavy-duty Industrial
Iabrie shears, but there are speCial ceramic-blade shears w1th serrated edges that
are better lor cutting Kevlar The set.rabons hold the fibers. allowmg the cut to be
made With a mimmum of pulling and fraymg
Cured composite matenals may be cut. dolled, and otherwiSe machined
Some of the tools used for wooong w1th composites are drlferent from those used
wrth metal
Kevlar generates special problems dunng drilling because of the fibers' tendency
to pull and stretch. This leaves the fuzzy ends of the fabric inside the hole. Special
drills are available for Kevlar, Including the brad-point drill When drilling, use a
h1gh speed and little pressure, especially as the dnll cuts through the back of the
matenal
Hole cutters desrgned to cut fuzz-free holes in Kevtar are available They have car-
bide cuttrng edges and diameters from 7/16-lnch (11cm) up to J1nch (7 6cm).
Dnll graphrte With a spade doll Ths drill has Dnll graphrte With a spade dnll
Th1s dnll has ample space for the dnll dust to leave the hole. so 11 Will not enlarge
the hole
Graphite, like Kevlar, should be drilled at a high speed w1th only a little pressure
on the doll
Figure 16: Drills for Composites
Side View End View
&ad-Point Orin lor Drimng Kevlar
Side View
C>® End View
Spade Drill lor OriMng GrapMe Material
Glass and graphite fibers Will dull ordinary steel saw blades, so be sure to use car-
bide-lipped saws or saws wrth diamond dust tor the If cutt1ng edges when you are
cuttrng cured composite matenals
The best way to scarf tam1nated matenals is to sand With a small, high speed, right-
angle sander These sanders can be fitted With one 1nch, two inch. or three lnch-
doemeter dosks end they tum ot obout20,000 ·pm
Alum1n1um oxide d1sks are SUitable lor sanding glass or Kevlar. but you should use
srl1con carbide lor sand1ng graphite.
You must wear a dust respirator when sand1ng compos1te materials be-
cause the tiny arrborne part1cles can be extremely hazardous lo your lungs.
Safety Around Composites Certain chemicals used w1th compos.le con-
struction cause allergiC reacbons for some people. so take precautions
when work1ng w1th them Take special care when handling chemicals clas-
Sified as hazardous materials, and be sure to dispose of therr residue 1n a
manner that cornplres ""th local environmental requorements
Vacuum Bagging Solid parttng film: prevents resin escaping onto the heat blanket and
causing damage
Vacuum bagging is probably the most effective method to apply pressure to are-
pair It is recommended for use whenever possible If you are working In an area Pressure plate (optional); helps maintain the original shape ofthe part be-
with high humidity, vacuum bagging should be used. Htgh humidity may effect the ing repaired
cure of the resins and the vacuum bag system evacuates the air and the humidity Heat blanket supplies heat to the repair.
Surface breather; draws air from around the repair.
Vacuum Bagging Lay-Up Vacuum bag; applies pressure to the repair.
Perforated parting film, allows atr to be drawn from the repatr. Sealer material (extruded sealing compound); prevents a1r getting in.
Surface bleeder: absorbs any resin drawn from the repair.
Figure 17: Vacuum Bagging Lay-Up

THRU SAGGING VACUUM-~

VACUUM PROB~E VACUUM GAUGE
- BAG~
Mi:tit~~~~.z~~----------------~--------------~~~·~,._ ..
SURFACE
BREATHER
HEATBLANKET-·t=l:=:
-======~·'"'·::!-~-•
Q:Q>Zl2~1Zli?~'Z"!2'="2'Zl"!2'ZI?!2'Z'!2'Z'Zl"==Zl• ...t- - -- - -PRESSURE PLATE
PARTING FILM - - - - -- - -· - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - -

PERFORATED =:==~~~~~~~~~~~~=:~==,
~=--SURFACE BLEEDER
PARTING FILM
~THERMOCOUPLE
~~:~~~ ------------======="'
REPAIRPUES ~=~~~~~ ADHESIVE FILM
Edge Delamination Holes in Laminates with Limited Surface Area
Minor edge delamination can, if allowed, be reparred by injectrng resin rnto the 1. Step cut out the damaged area.
delamrnation, clamping the edge and allowing the resin to cure. 2. A temporary stepped alumrnium plate could be made and used to the frt cav-
Figure 18: Edge Delamination
ity.
3. Cover aluminrum plate w~h parting film
4. Clean area with solvent
5. Another temporary aluminium plate should be made 21n (Scm) larger than ply
number 1, which Is also covered with parting film.
6. Clamp aluminium plate In place to provide a solid backup surface for plies 1
and 2
7. Impregnate fabric wilh resin system approved by manufacturer or use prepreg
material.
8. Cut out piles to match cut-out areas.
9. Apply repair plies numbers 1 and 2 and hold them In place with the other alu-
minium pressure plate.
10. Carefully remove the tapered aluminium pressure plate, and Insert the other
repair plies making sure ply orientation Is correct.
11. Cover with parting film or peel ply and apply pressure.
12. Cure In accordance with manufacturer's instructions.
13. Finish rn accordance wrth manufacturer's lnstructlons.

t
J

. '
Repairs to Honeycomb Structures Figure 19: One Face Repair

Damage to One Face and the Core

Replacement
If the damage is extensive and cannot be repaired by potting (filling the hole wMh
Patches
resme), the following repair procedure may be used:
1. Prepare the surface
2 Remove core of honeycomb by routing.
3 Remove damage of laminate by scarfing or step cutting the plies.
4. Sand and clean area by vacuuming and wiping with solvent.
5 Cut honeycomb plug to size, keeping the ribbon direction the same as the
original.
6 Butter the mterior ply with resin and install the honeycomb plug.
I'Q."' Note: Some manufacturers may call for a layer of adhes•ve to be laid into the
t.!!.j hole and a foaming adhesive used around the core edge.
7 Prepare patches and apply to the sanded area. I t
I
8. Apply pressure and cure.
9. Refinish.
Repairs to Both Face Sheets and Honeycomb Core Figure 20: Both Face Repair
INhen both sides are accesslble, and damage is all the way through the part
1. Prepare surface.
2 Rout out core.
3. Scarf both sides of face sheets.
4. Cut core to size, keeprng ribbon direction the same as original

Repair to Both Face Sheets, and Honeycomb Core

If one side of the damaged area is inaccessible. the repair can be completed using
a precured patch, which is bonded to the opposing side and cured. The core is
then inserted and the plies are laid into the step cut or scarfed out area.
1. Prepare the surface.
2. Remove the damaged core by routing.
3. Clean out the core area.
4. Apply adhesive to the back side of a precured patch. The patch may have a
hole drilled into it to facilitate applying pressure.
5 Insert the patch to the inside of the repair and apply pressure by using a pres-
sure plate and some weight or if possible metal crimps.
6. Once it is cured sand the top lamrnate by scarfing or step cutting
7 Install the new core material
8. Prepare the repair patches and apply to the sanded area.
9. Apply pressure and cure
10. Refinish .
The Water Break Test
The water break test is a simple method of determining whether the surface to be
bonded Is clean. It Is best su1ted to metals. Apply distilled water to the surface If
the water film does not break up into droplets, the surface is assumed to be free
of contamination. Uniform wettmg of the surface by distilled water indicates that It
will probably be likew1se wetted by adhesive. It must be born 1n mind that certain
plastics. even when clean. may not oe wetted by distilled water but will be wetted
by the adhesive.
Drying Composite Panels
To dry out composite panels they should be vacuum bagged heated to normally
ss•c (150.F) for one hour. lfthe tef1'llerature exceeds ss•c a build up of pressure
may damage the part
Safety Around Composites
Certain chemicals used with composite construction cause allergic reactions for
some people, so take precautions when working with them. Take special care
when handling chemicals classified as hazardous materials, and be sure to dis-
pose of their residue in a manner that complies w1th local environmental require-
ments
Skin Care
Take special care to keep the chem1cals used In composite construction and repair
from direct contact w1th the skin. If any of them do, wash them off 1mmed1ately with
cold water. Wear latex or butyl gloves when working with these chemicals, and
wear a shop coat to prevent the chemicals from contaminating your clothing and
holding the vapours in contact with your skin.
There are protective hand gels that can be used on your hands before working with
the resins. These gels leave a thin, invisible, flexible film on your hands that pre-
vent the chemicals getting to your skin. The gel is easy to wash off when the work
is finished. Typically this protective gel must not be used when wearing gloves.
Eye Care
Take all precautions to protect your eyes. It is extremely important to wear goggles
that provide complete eye protection when working with composite materials. Be
sure that the goggles you wear protect your eyes from splashed chemicals as well
as from sanding dust and particles that fly when you cut or drill the cured materials.
If you should get any chemicals In your eyes. rinse them immediately with plenty
of fresh water and get medical assistance at once.
Respiratory Care
Part1cles of glass and graphite produced by sanding can be extremely hazardous
to your lungs, and you should not sand without weanng a respirator that protects
against these particles. When wcrking with resins such as epoxies in a poorly ven-
tilated area. you should wear a respirator mask designed to protect against these
vapours.
Sealants Figure 21: Chevron Seals

High-Pressure Seals
Seals are used throughout hydraulic and pneumatic systems to minimize leaKage
and the loss of system pressure. There are two types of seals 1n use, gaskets and
packmgs. Gaskets are used when there is no relative motion between the parts
that are being sealed, and packings are used where relative mohon does exist be·
t>.veen the parts. Cross sectiOn ol a chevron soal
v
Chevron Seals
There are many different kinds of seals used in aircraft applications. These seals
range all of the way from flat paper gaskets up through complex, multlcomponent
packlngs. V-ring packings. or chevron seals are found in many high-pressure ac-
tuators. Chevron seals are single-direction seals with the pressure applied to their
open sides. They are usually installed either in pairs, or in larger stacks with metal
backup rings and spreaders used to force the lip of the seal tightly against the sur-
faces being seated. The amount the chevron seal spreads is determined by the
tightness of the adjusting nut that holds the seal on the shaft.

Chevron seats
0-ring Seals Figure 23: 0-ring Backup in High Pressure Systems
Many modem hydraulic and pneumatic systems use 0-rings for both packings and
gaskets. 0-rings are fitted into grooves that are usually about 10% Wider than the
width of the 0-ring, and deep enough that the distance between the bottom of the
groove and the other mating surface is a little less than the cross-sect1ona1 diam-
eter of the 0-ring. This provides the squeeze needed for the 0-ring to seal under
conditions of zero pressure. If the 0-ring is not squeezed, fluid will leak past IL
Figure 22: O·Ring
F 'n4£AE IS HO IACK\IP RiNG, THE MOH PRESSURE WILL
£XTRUDE THE <>-R:iNO 8ETWEEH TME MOYIHO
PARTS.
U')

A ~CKUP f'IHO Pfl.EVOtTS TKE (Xl'AUS'n()N ~

TKE:O--FINB.
(0)
An 0-nng seal of the correct size can withstand pressures of up to about 1'500 psi
without distortion, but beyond this, there is a tendency lor the ring to extrude ~nto Figure 24: Backupring Installation
the groove between the two mating surfaces The next Figure shows that as the
pressure of the fluid increases, the 0-ring begins to wedge 1n tight between the
wall of the groove and the Inside of the cylinder. To prevent this. an anti-extrusion.
or baC·kUp, nng is used. There are two types of antiextrusion rings In use. One is S<. 4%¥¥?)4 · ;.g;;; &t · r
made of leather, and the other is made of Teflon.
THf: CORRECT IHU.LNJ, Qf' ntleACICUP NHG
Leather rings are installed 1n such a oNay that the hair side of the ring, the smooth
side, is against the 0-ring. Before installing a leather backup ring, soften it by soak-
,..
GIYU 'MI P\.ACOII!!)I1' otlMEc::t1.A.II'fJI:

ing it in the fluid the ring will be used with.

Spiraled Teflon backup rings are used for pressures higher than 1,500 psi. The f ,·.ceep;p;,..p:te 2 @t
ends of the Teflon ring are scarfed, and 11 Is possible for the ring to spiral in such
a direction that the scarfs will be on l1e wrong side, and the ring will be damaged.
"Figure 24: Backupring lnstallat10n" en page 29 shows 1mproper and proper ~nslal­
lations. A shows the proper spiral, B the improper installation and C shows the way
the ring looks after pressure has been applied and the ring has taken 1ts sel
WMUt PR(SSUAt IS AHUIO, lMt ()()RRECT\.1
.m'Alltb BACkUP RING WILL fi!ACMDlA 5M001'H
MIW'ACI OH IO'n4 MIU.
~
T-Seals Figure 25: T-Seal Identification
Another type of two-way seal is the T-seal shown in "Figure 25 T-Sealldenlifica-
tion• on page 30. This seal can fit tn the standard O-r1ng grooves. and is bacl<ed
up With two Tenon backup nngs T-seals are most often tnstalled m high-pressure Teflon backup rings Color Use
(3,000 pst) systems Blue dol or stripe Aor or MIL·H·5606 flutd
Re<l dol orstrioe Fu;,J
Sea/Identification Yellow dol Sv1thebc enQine Oil
Whtle sll1pe Pe roleum-base
The matenal of which a seal ts made Is dtetated by the flutd used tn the system
en<JneOtl
Seals are tdenltfied by colored mar11s "Ftgure 25 T-Seal ldenbfication" on
page 30 Green dash Phosphale ester
hydraulic ftutd
There is perhaps no other component as small as a hydrauliC seal upon whtch so
much tmportance IS placed. The correct seal and a wrong seal may took altke, and
IllS htghly probable that tf the wrong seal is tnstalled. tl may appear to worlt. The
material of Which the sealts made. tis age, and tis hardness are alltmportant when
making the proper replacement 'Mien replaong seals tn a hydrauliC system. use
only the spectfic part number of the seal spec~fied by the a1rcrafl manufacturer
Purchase seals from the eqwpment manufacturer or a reputable atrcraft parts sup-
plier, and they should be sealed 1n tndtVtdual packages marKed With the part
number, the compostlton of the seal. the name of the manufacturer. and the cure
date. The cure date IS the date the seal was manufactured, and it is given in quar-
ters. For example, 2094 tndteates that the seal was manufactured tn the second
quarter, dunng the months of Apnl, Way. or June, of 1994
Hydraulic seals must be bought only from a reputable supplter. because oul-¢1-
date seals can be repackaged and stamped With a fresh date The old seal could
be tnstalled tn good ta1th by an av1anon maintenance techntctan and still fall be·
cause of deterioration. Yet, the technician 1s liable tor the fatlure because installing
an improper part In an atrcratt ts a violation of Aviation Regulations.
Sea/ Installation
When installing 0-rings. take extreme care that the ring is not twisted. nicked, or
damaged by e ither sharp edges of the threads over which the ring os Installed or
by the Installation tool "Figure 26: Installation Tools" on page 31 shows some of
the special 0-ring installation and renoval tools that can be used These tools are
usually made of brass and are polished so that there are no sharp edges that could
nick the seal.

Fig ure 26 : Installatio n Tools

~U ~
o o oH
A
Pua~y~~~ Wldg<! oypo
O?
Bo
Puloypo
textema14nternat) (e.....,....,.._, (hN"Y~UOVI

~0
~~
DFY
Putloype
(tntemaiJ

Pushoypo (ontomtl) ~

c::s:
Spoon l'fPe
de=)
eteft· and ~-hand e-JI1tmal)
Cy 'lc=)

"Figure 27. Procedures for proper O·Ring removal" on page 32 shows how to use
these 0-ring installation tools, and the proper method of installing and removing,
0 -rings in both Internal and external grooves.
When inslalling an 0-ring over a sharp edge, cover the edge with paper, alumini-
um foil, brass shim stock, or a piece of plastic, as in "Figure 28. Procedures for
proper 0-Ring installation" on page 33.
Figure 27: Procedures for proper 0-Ring removal

-.&:;;:===
_ ....,q--1 e.-.... -~..1
.,.._o""'~ ..-"""v"""'lyi>O..,...,.
lndnoolt~,.......,.
"'"'*0.M9Nti'IO'Yal~~frPt~OI'
WldhOC:Ik~~**

_ .... _ _1
e_o-.g _ _ _ _ _
MOIII:IC*typt,.,....IOOII
Figure 28: Procedures for proper O·Ring installation

•• I lnslallall0111ool
Soltt,,tn-wa11 4p.~~t~~)
·~~~- cover
Paper
metallic skHlvo
lntomal O·ring lnslallatl011 usln9 metaloc:
skleve to aw>d 0-ring dam&ge.

Plllper ttntel'ng :steovu O.rinV I"VQVIV1I"'V grooves

lnlemal O·ring inSiallation us01g paper E>rtemal O·nng ioslallalion using paper
sloeve to aw>d Q.ring damage. cover 10 avoid O·ring damage.

Wipers
0-rings and chevron seals do not seal around the shaft completely. Enough fluid
is allowed to leak to lubricate the shaft. and this lubricant attracts dust.
A felt wiper IS usually installed in a counterbore around the shaft to keep the seals
from being damS{jed when the shaft Is retracted 1nto the cylinder. ThiS w1per re·
moves any dirt or dust without restricting the movement of the shaft
Sealing Compounds A disposable canndge which stores. m1xes and applies two component matenals
IS also available and convement to use They are available In many SIZes and can
Certa1n areas of all a1rcraft are sealed or to prevent corros1on by sealing agamst be tailored to a SpeCifiC use. To use the cartndge. the seal tl'at separates the two
the weather Most sealant conSISts of two or more mgred1ents that are compound- components must be broken. Th1s 1S done wtth a plunger that breaks the seal
ed to produce a deSired combination of strength, flex1b1hty, and adherence. Some Then the matenals are mixed together by us1ng a lwtsttng and up and down mobon
matenals are ready for use as packaged. but others reqwe m1x1ng before applica- to thoroughly m1x the resm and catalyst together. The label will state how many
tion strokes are requ1red to gJVe a thorough mtx A needle or syn'l!)e may be 1nstalled
onto the end and the restn dispensed through 11
One-Part Sealant
One-pan sealant is prepared by the manufacturer and IS ready for apphcabon as Figure 29: Disposable Cartridges
packaged However. the conSistency of some of these compounds can be altered
to satisfy a particular application melhod. For example. 1f th1nn1ng is reqwed. thm-
ner recommended by the sealant manufacturer is mixed -Catalyst
Resin
Two -Part Sealant
Two-part sealant is compounds recUinng separate packag1ng to prevent cunng
pnorto application. The two parts are identified as the base sealing compound and
the accelerator COmbmmg equal port10ns (by we1ght) of the base and accelerator
compounds generally m1xes two-part sealant and any dev1allon from the pre-
scnbed rabos can reduce the material's quality.
To ensure the proper rabo IS used, at sealant matenat should be carefully weighed
m accordance With the manufacturel's reromnnendabons Sealant matenals usu-
ally we1Qhed W1lh a balance scale equ1pped With we1ghts spec~atty prepared for
vanous quantities of sealant and accelerator To ensure a proper m•x ratio. the
base and accelerator should be thoroughly stirred before they are we!Qhed. Accel-
erator. whiCh is dned oul lumpy or flaky. should be d1SCArde<1 SorM manufactur-
ers produce pre-we1ghed sealant kls that require no we1gh1ng In th1s case the
ent~re quant1ty prov1ded 1s m1xed
After the proper amount of base corrpound and accelerator has been determined, Sealant Curing
the accelerator Is added to the base compound. Immediately after adding the ac- The cunng rate of mixed sealant varies with temperature and humidity For exam-
celerator. thoroughly mix the two parts by stirnng or folding, depending on the ma- ple. at temperatures below 1s•c curing is extremely slow However, a temperature
terial's consistency Mix the material carefully to prevent alf entrapment in the above 21•c typically results In a faster cunng t1me A temperature of 2s•c with 50
mixture Avoid rap1d or pro-longed S11rring, since It shortens the sealant available percent relative humidity is the Ideal condibon for cunng most sealant.
work1ng bme To ensure a compound is well m1xed. test a small port1on by smear- If you must accelerate the curing ttme of a sealanl you may increase the temper-
ing 11 on a clean. flat metal or glass surface If flecks or lumps are found, continue ature by apptymg heal However. the temperature should not be allowed to exceed
mDnng If the flecks or lumps cannot be eliminated, the batch should be rejected 50·c at any time 1n the curing cycle Heat can be appl1ed by using Infrared lamps
The worktng life of nuxed sealant typically ranges from a half-hour to two hours. or heated a1r. If heated air 1S used. 1t must be property filterec to remove mo1sture
dependlllg on the sealant class. Therefore m1xed sealant should be applied as and dirt
soon as possible or placed 1n refrigerated storage
Heat should not be applied to any faymg surface sealant installation until all work Processing
is completed. All laying surface applications must have all attachments. perma-
nent or temporary, completed w1th1n, the application lim1tat1ons of the sealant PR1422A ~
Sealant must be cured to a tack-free cond1hon before apply1ng brush top coatings
TaCk-free cons1stency IS the po1nt at wh1ch a sheet or cellophane pressed onto the VISCOSity FlUid
sealant no longer adheres
Compound Relabonsh1p 100/10
Sealer PR 1422 (Res1n I Accelerator)
General Worlong-hfe ~hour

Tack-free after 8 hour

Brand name PR 1422 A~. PR 1422 B ~.
Cure bme at 2s··c 48 hour
PR 1422 A 2 PR 1422 B 2
Cure t1me at so•c 10 hour
Manufacturer Product and Research & ChemiCal Corp
Burbank, Cahfom1a PR1422A 2

Kind and Application ViSCOSity Fluid

Compound RelatiOnship 100/10
2 compo~ent Th1okol sealer (Res1n I Accelerator)
ApplicatiOn Aircraft general, Fuel Tank seals. Kerosene-resist- Work1ng-1ife 2 hour
ant. good edhes1on
Tack-free after 24 hour
Specification MIL-S 8802F, Type I, Classes A & B
Cure time at 2s•c 72 hour
Chemical composition Cure t1me at so•c 32 hour

Resin Polysulfid (Thlokol)

Accelerator Dichromate
Add comp for 'A" Toluol. ~EK
PR1422 B 'A Note: Do not exceed so•c at any time 1n the curing cycle.

Viscosity: Consistent

Compound Relationship: 100113.5

(Resin I Accelerator)

Working-me: Y. hour
Tack-free after 8 hour

Cure time at 2s•c 48 hour

Cure lime at so•c 10 hour

PR1422 B 2

Viscosity. Consistent

Compound Relationship: 100113.5

(Resin I Accelerator)

Working-life: 2 hour
Tack-free after: 30 hour
Cure time at 2s•c 72 hour
Cure time at so•c 36 hour
 Basic Maintenance
SR Technics f) Training:·Manual
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.5.2 Bolts, Studs and Screws

6.5.2 Bolts, Studs and Screws.

Sept10 I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 6.5.2- 1
 Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Manual 6.5.2 Bolts, Studs and Screws

Introduction International Standards

People talk about "getting down to the nuts and bolts" when describing something Before the Federal Aviation Administration issues a Type Certificate for an aircraft,
in minute detail. An apt phrase . It recognises that standard fasteners are the basic the manufacturer must demonstrate that the aircraft conforms to all airworthiness
and fundamental components of assembled metal products . requirements . These requirements pertain not only to performance , but also to
Despite their uncommon importance to all industry, these common place fasteners structural strength and integrity as well.
are too seldom viewed as highly engineered items. Frequently they are applied by To meet these requirements, each individual aircraft produced from a given design
rule of thumb rather than by a rule . The engineering talent behind them is often must meet the same standards. To accomplish this, all materials and hardware
overlooked . must be manufactured to a standard of quality.
Specifications and standards for aircraft hardware are generally identified by the
What the Designer wants of a Threaded Fastener System organisation originating them .
Threaded fasteners have proved to be the most efficient and effective way to put Some of the most common are listed below:
together shapes that would be impractical as one piece structures.
They also simplify or reduce costs, or make practical the disassembly of such AMS Aeronautical Material Specifications
structures for safety inspection , cleaning , repair or rebuilding . When a vehicle ,
. structure or machine is overhauled, if it is worn or corroded, parts may be replaced Air Force-Navy
AN
as· a routine maintenance operation . However threaded fasteners are not general-
ly regarded as things that wear out or deteriorate. They are expected to be reusa-
AND Air Force-Navy Design
ble.
Fasteners must carry loads. They resist various combinations of tension and shear
loading without permitting any movement of the fastened parts. AS Aeronautical Standard
Most threaded fasteners are screwed up tight so that they clamp the fastened
parts together. It is desirable to maintain this initial clamping force. ASA American Standards Association
Although their primary function is to permit convenient assembly and disas~embly.
Threaded fasteners are expected to stay in place between those events without ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
fail.
The required characteristics are: BAC Boing Aircraft Coorperation
Reliability
Strength MS Military Standard
Tightness
Convenience in service NAF Naval Aircraft Factory
Economy
NAS National Aerospace Standard

NSA Norm Sud Aviation

SAE Society of Automotive Engineers

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SR Technics f) · ~ Basic Maintenance
Training · Manual
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.5.2 Bolts, Studs and Screws

Definitions Material ,
A screw or bolt is defined with the following terms: Common materials are used in th~ manufacture of bolts. These are:
Grip length: Thickness of the material, which it is designed to secure when • Aluminium alloys I .
assembled. * Grip length should be equal to material thickness Carbon steel \
Length: Hexagonal head bolt: Distance from the bottom of the head to the Corrosion resistant steel (CRES)
extreme point. Nickel alloyed steel :
Countersunk head bolt: Distance from the top of the head to the Titanium alloys I
extreme point. I

Plating: Protective coat applied to the bolt to protect against corrosion. *** Anticorrosion Treatment i
Recess: Indentation in the head used to drive the bolt. The following anticorrosion treatmJnts are used in the manufacture of bolts. These
are: I
Diameter: Shank diameter. Cadmium plating I
Chrome plating
Figure 1: Grip Length Anodizing
Nitrating
Recess

.~~

-._j
.!_._ . _j~~~§
~ --=· · · ·~"""""/

1 IDiameter Safety hole __}

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 Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Manual 6.5.2 Bolts, Studs and Screws

Head Types
Hexagon Head Bolt
An all purpose structural bolt used in general application involving tension and
~
0
81)
shear loads. They are available in cadmium plated nickel steel, corrosion resistant
steel and 2024 aluminium alloy.
The drilled hexagon head bolt is similar to the standard bolt but with a deeper head
which is drilled to receive locking wire.
The standard hex head bolt and the drilled head bolt are inter-changeable for a.ll
practical purposes from the standpoint of shear and tension strength. ·

Countersunk Head Bolt

A close tolerance bolt used in high performance aircraft where the bolted joint is
Eyebolt t\
subjected to severe load reversals and vibrations.
':4t~ ~

~
Internal Hexagon Head Bolt
Used in both shear and tension applications .
They are high strength steel bolts, which '"are stronger than the standard hexagon
head bolt. 12 POINT HEAD
The head is specially hardened to allow for tightening loads and they are particu-
larly useful for applications where access is limited.

12 Point Head or Double Hexagon Head Bolt

A heat resistant bolt made from titanium or other heat resistant steel. Their main
application being engine component assembly in hot areas .

Clevis Bolt
Used only in shear application, e.g. joining a control cable to a control rod . The bolt
must be loose enough to allow the cable to pivot freely and remain secure.

Eye Bolt
Used in various applications for attaching components to the aircraft structure
* Clevis Bolt will use only in shear load
where relevant movement is required . application
Manufactured from various materials depending on the application.
Examples of use would be seat belt attachment point or attachment point for cargo
netting. ·

Sept10 I Technical Training

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SR Technics f) :) Basic Maintenance
Training :Manual
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.5.2 Bolts, Studs and Screws

Aircraft Bolt Identification · Figure 3: Identification of AN sdlts

!/]L\
~
It is necessary to be able to positively identify a bolt. This is because as you have
seen there are so many of these components used in the manufacture of anrair-
craft and many of these components will look alike but their strength and material
specification may vary considerably.
Because of this, bolts are marked with a coding system. This code is on the head
AN Standard
steel bolt
AN Standard
steel bolt
!I~
AN Standard
I steel bolt
8
AN Standard
steel bolt
AN Standard
steel bolt
of the bolt to identify the material that the bolt is made from as shown. (corrosion resistant)

e
I
The amount of information on the bolt head will depend on th.e size of the bolt and
the amount of room available.

00~
There are as many codes in use as there are standards and therefore ·it is
not possible to cover all of them here . '
The only way to decode much of the information found on the bolts will be to
<1)
AN Standard
/A\
~
AN Standard
1~ 0AN *
I
Standard
@ "

AN Standard Special bolt

go to the relevant standard normally found in the Aircraft Maintenance Man- steel bolt steel bolt . steel bolt steel bolt
ual or the Illustrated Parts Catalogue.
I
Note that there are different length designations, depending of the bolt type.
Lengths are normally given in 1/8, 1/16 or 1/32. It must be understood, .that
no exact rule can be applied. Therefore Figure 3 on page 5 and Figure 4 on
page 6 are only examples .
8 iO @ 0
Special bolt Drilled head bolt \ Special bolt
.
NAS close
tolerance bolt
Aluminium alloy
(2024) bolt

* AN Standard steel bolt (corrosion resistant - A single dash on the head I

* NAS Close tolerance bolt - triangle stamped on the head
* Aluminium alloy (2024) bolt - two raised dashes on the head
* Reworked bolt - ring stamped on head
<00>08 @ ®
Magnetically.
Bolt inspected
Orange dyed.
Non-magnetic
Clevis bolt Reworked bolt Low strength
material bolt

* When using steel bolt on aluminium structures, it should be cadmium

plated to avoid corrosion.
1
~r~
--~,/'=~~~~-

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 Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Manual 6.5.2 Bolts, Studs and Screws

Figure 4: Identification Example shown on a BAC Bolt Class of Fit

. Gdp length , Threads are designated by class of fit. The class of a thread indicates the toler-
~ ~~

Fl /jf A')/ 12/J..b ·. . ,·

ance allowed in manufacturing: i)
Class 1 is a loose fit.
1
Class 2 is a free fit. {I{/ C// &1:1 ·
I !Diameter
Class 3 is a medium fit.
Class 4 fit is a close fit.
/J/f;r.,
lw
/ ;/
!I\\\\\I\W Class 5 fit is a tight fit.
A Class 1 fit can easily be turned with the fingers.

i. Length .I A Class-2 fit is a free fit. It is used for some machine screws .
A Class 4 and 5 fit requires a wrench to turn the nut onto the bolt.
Aircraft bolts are manufactured in the Class 3, medium fit.
Aircraft screws are manufactured with a Class 2 thread fit for ease of assembly.

BACB30NE ~ E.IH T8 ~
X = 1/64" Oversize
~ Aircraft bolts and nuts must not be rethreaded, as they may loose strength .

Y = 1/32" Oversize
Length in /16" = 8/16 = 1/2" * Aircraft bolts - Class 3 ( medium fit )
Drilled head * Aircraft screws - Class 2

Drilled shank

Nominal thread diameter in /16" = 5/16"

Basic Part Number

NE =Long Threaded
NF =Short Threaded

Corresponding with EASA Part-66

J
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 Basic Maintenance
SR Technics f) Training !Manual --.,_/
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.5,.2 Bolts, Studs and Screws

Nuts Wing Nut

A nut is a block or sleeve having an internal thread designed to assemble with the Used when it is necessary to remove a unit frequently without the use of tools they
are generally made from brass or cadmium coated steel.
external thread on a bolt, screw, or other threaded part.
It may serve as a fastening means , an adjusting means, a means for transmitting I
;-·
motion , or a means of transmitting power with a large mechanical advantage !and
non-reversible motion . :
Nuts that we are interested in are the nuts which are used with the external thread-
ed fasteners, bolts and screws.
The number and variety of nuts used in the manufacture of nuts is the same as for
bolts, also the protective coatings applied to nuts is the same as that applied to
i
'I
AN320 SHEAR CASTLE NUT
$--§t AN315 PLAIN NUT
bolts . +.-----
There are two basic types of nuts, non self-locking and self-locking.

Non Self Lockiflg Nuts

Castle Nut_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
it- $--{J AN340, MACHINE SCREW NUT
COARSE THREAD
$--§t
AN345 MACHINE SCREW NUT
FINE THREAD
Used with standard bolts and may be used when the bolt is used in either shear or I ·:;-----....__. ,
~
$-f} $ -§t
tension situations . n . . . -,.-.:---..,_1
~-
-~~-..."9..0 I
Shear Castle Nut _ _ _ _ _ __ - ............ ~ .........
'>'.'-1)
The same as above but much thinner, normally only 0.2" thick in any diameter.
Used only when the bolt is subjected to shear loads, such as on a clevis bolt. , AN355 SLOTTED ENGINE NUT AN36~ PLAIN ENGINE NUT AN350 WING NUT

Plain Nut I
Has no means of positively locking it to the bolt so it must be used with either a
lock nut or a check nut to lock it to the material. It can be used in either shear or
tensile load application .

Check Nut
Used to jam against a plain nut to lock it to a bolt so that it cannot turn off.

Slotted Engine Nut --- · ----------...

Is designed for aircraft engine applications and is not approved for airframe use.

Plain Engine Nut

Similar to above but without cotter pin slots .

-J.o.... -:"

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 Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Manual 6.5.2 Bolts, Studs and Screws

Self Locking Nuts Anchor Nuts

Low Temperature Self Locking Nuts
**Self locking nuts are used with bolts or machine screws
and are prevented from vibrating loose by a fibre or plastic
insert which is fitted into the nut.
The insert has a smaller hole than the thread diameter. The
nut will run onto the bolt easily until the bolt thread enters
the insert and then it will be necessary to use a spanner to
advance the nut further.
When the bolt threads enter the insert, the insert exerts a
strong backward push on the bolt removing any axial play
between the bolt threads and the nut threads. This creates
a high friction between all of the contacting faces and will
prevent the nut from turning under normal vibration.
Self locking nuts remain serviceable as long as it is not pos-
sible 'to turn the nut onto the bolt fully without the use of a
spanner.
I'RI
Self locking nuts should not be used in locations where the nut or bolt is sub-
~ jE?_<it.!9..,[_9!.~~Lon and the surrounding temperature is hig.h.
r~aq stshould be shown after the nut has been tightened .
-...:·;:. - ~::,~:tl.~
Inspection plates and access doors fastened to an aircraft with screws have an-
chor nuts secured to the inside of the structure into wh ich these screws fit.
Most Commonly used anchor nuts are:
One-lug anchor nut
Two-lug anchor nut
Corner anchor nut
Installation of access door with large number of screws , the floating anchor nut is
used.
These nuts fits loosely into a basket, which is riveted to the skin and the nut floats
enough to align itself with the screw.
To speed up the production of aircraft, ganged anchor nuts are installed around
inspection plate openings. These are floating-type anchor nuts and there are a
number of them in a channel that is riveted to the structure .
Each nut floats in the channel with enough play that screws can move the nut
Fibre Collar enough to align it.
Figure 6: Anchor Nuts

High Temperature Self Locking Nuts

In applications where temperatures exceed 120oc the in-
sert may deteriorate reducing the locking ability of the nut.
In this case it is necessary to use other methods of increas-
ing the friction between nut and bolt.
,,,[JL
A Anchor nuts
0 @ 0
One method is to use nuts, which have slots in the end of
the nut. The slots are then swaged together reducing the

~-lOt
diameter of the hole. When the bolt is driven into this por- a
tion of the nut, the nut threads grip the bolt and raise friction
levels :,(itl)~
Anothef'm ethod is to squeeze the end of the nut into an
oval shape . As the bolt is driven through the oval it must re-
o)gf1
shape it back to round again which provides a gripping ac- B Channel nuts
~· ~
. twe~J.,.
t1on
2 ~ tffreads should be shown after the nut has been tight- * Fiber-type self-locking nuts should not use in hot sections above 120
ened . degrees.
b

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 Basic Maintenance
SR Technics f) Training :Manual
Modul,e 6 Materials & Hardware
65.2 Bolts, Studs and Screws

Clip Nuts
Due to ease of installation and removal, clip * Clip nuts are ideal for Secondary structure applications
nuts are used in place of riveted anchor or
plate nuts. Ideal for secondary structure appli-
cations such as fastening aircraft flooring, ac-
cess panels, instrument components,
electronic cabinet construction, wire clips and
tubing harness.

Tinnerman Nuts
Anchor-Type Tinnerman Nut
This type of Nut is riveted to the structure to hold the
screws for inspection plates. These nuts do not have
the strength of a r.egular threaded nut plate, but they are
approved for non-structural inspection plates where
their use protects the aircraft skin from being damaged
by the repeated insertion and removal of self-tapping
screws.

U-Type Tinnerman Nuts

To prevent the holes being enlarged from repeated use, aU-Type Tinnerman nut
can be slipped over the edge of the inside cowling so that it straddles screw hole .
The screw passes through the hole in the outer cowling and into the nut and when
it is tightened, the spring action of the nut holds the screw tight.
Figure 7: Tinnerman Nut (U-Type)
-

~
_CTI3
~

Q
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 Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Manual 6.5.2 Bolts, Studs and Screws

Screws Structural Screws

Structural screws are similar in appearance to machine screws but will be manu-
Difference between Bolts and Screws factured from higher strength metals .
A bolt is an externally threaded fastener designed for insertion through holes in as- Structural screws are manufactured to the same specification as structural bolts
sembled parts and is normally intended to be tightened or released using a nut. and differ only in the type of head. The normal application for this type of screw is
A screw is an externally threaded fastener capable of being inserted into holes in in shear loading only.
assembled parts of matting with performed internal threads or of cutting its own Figure 9: Structural Screws
thread and of being tightened or released using its own head.
In aviation there are three basic types of screw in use. These are:
Machine screws
Structural screws
Self-tapping screws l
Grip length
Machine Screws
Machine screws are generally used in non-structural applications and are thread- Length
ed for their full length . 1
They normally have a class 2 (free) fit thread and are available in a number of dif-
ferent thread forms. Tread
Materials and coatings are similar to those used for bolt applications. Head forms
are considerably different to those of bolt heads.

Figure 8: Machine Screws 1----1 Diameter

1
~
oooFlat-head
§B-
Button-head
machine screw machine screw

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 Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Manual 1
6.5'.2 Bolts, Studs and Screws

Self Tapping Screws

Self-tapping screws are coarse-threaded fasteners, which are used to hold .thin
sheets of metal, plastics or plywood together. In aircraft they may be used to attach
nameplates, or other minor removable parts and non-structural components.
Self-tapping screws must never be used to replace standard screws, bolts , or riv-
ets in original structure.
Self-tapping screws used in aviation come as two basic types:
Type 'A' has a sharp point or gimlet and coarse threads
Type 'B' has a blunt point and a finer thread than the type 'A'

"Au nsn
TYPE TYPE

~~
There are four head forms in use:
Round head
Pan head
Truss head which is less proud than the round head
1ooocountersink with flat head
1ooocountersink with oval head
Figure 10: Self Tapping Screws

~
A Type 'A' with
gimlet point
CJm-
B Type 'B'
with blunt point
T T
C Round head D Pan head

T T i
E Truss head F Countersunk head G Countersunk oval head

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 Basic Maintenance · Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Manual 6.5.2 Bolts, Studs and Screws

Studs are headless bolts that are threaded for their entire length or at both ends.
The stud is inserted into the main body of the component, (sometimes; into heli-
coils inserts) with the assembly passing over the studs and being clamped into
place by nuts.
Figure 11: Studs
A Taperlok fastener is a tapered bolt with a threaded end and a selflocking nut.
The nut is also threaded and includes its own washer. The use of this fastener is
almost the same as that of a standard nut and bolt.
The Taperlok fasteners are used in those areas of the structure where a high fa-
tigue performance is required . The Taperlok fastener helps to achieve this per-
formance because it has a constant interference fit in the tapered hole in the
structure. This causes a good compression of the structure material around the
fastener hole, and a balanced stress pattern.
An additional feature of the Taperlok fastener is the good seal effect that is given
by the tapered interference fitting.
Taperlok fasteners are available with a protruding or countersunk head in titanium
or steel alloy.
Figure 13: Taperlok Fastener

liEAO DLOCK

Dowel pins are used to retain parts in a fixed position or to preserve alignment. A
properly fitted dowel pin is subject to shearing strain only.

Figure 12: Dowel Pins

Chamfered Square End

-
- L +/-0.012
-B " ·O.OW ~
11::1 - ·--

1$1

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'"(__;
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 Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
Sll Technics f) Training :Manual 6.5'.2 Bolts, Studs and Screws

Hi-Loks
Hi-Loks are bolts of high strength and stability used instead of titanium rivets at pri-
mary structure elements of dificult access.
Steel or titanium are the most commonly used materials for hi-loks
There are two parts of the pin (Threaded) fastener:
a threaded pin with a head (universal or countersunk),
a collar with an internal thread and an external shear groove.
The pin has an hexagonal recess in the threaded end. This recess permits the:use
of an Allen wrench to hold the pin during the installation. The hexagonal drive ~end
of the collar breaks off at the shear groove when the collar is installed to its correct
torque value.
In some areas with a limited clearance self-locking nuts and washers are used in-
stead of collars . In this situation on the wings, a washer is not used, this reduces
the risk of a fuel leak.
When pin (Threaded) fasteners are used to join structure with outer surfaces ,that
are not parallel, self aligning collars or nuts must be used according to require-
ments .

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 Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Manual 6.5.2 Bolts, Studs and Screws

Figure 14: Hi-Loks

COLLAR DRIVE END
(BEFORE SHEARING)
SHEAR GROOVE

~
COLLAR

EMBOSSED RING
(MANUFACTURER)

INTERNAL
RECESS

BEFORE THE ASSEMBLY ASSEMBLED FINGER TIGHT COMPLETED ASSEMBLY

TYPICAL PIN(THREADED)COLLAR ASSEMBLY

PINCTHREADED)
7• MAX.
I BEARING AREA
INCLINATION

==;=JI
PINCTHREADED)WITH PIN THREADED WITH
SELF-ALIGNING COLLAR SELF-ALIGNING NUT/WASHER

~
ONE COMPLETE THREAD
(MINIMUM HEIGHT WITH
NO THREADS IN BEARING
Y PINCTHREADED)WITH SELF-LOCKING
I WASHER
SELF-LOCKING NUT
AREA) NUT AND WASHER

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Sj~ Technics f) ~:) Basic Maintenance
Trc:Hn i ng :Manual
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.5.3 Locking Devices

6.5.3 Locking Devices

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 Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Manual 6.5.3 Locking Devices

Washers · Figure 1: Plain Washer

Introduction
Washers are used to:
provide a bearing surface area for nuts Internal !External
act as spacers or shim Diameter
apply a tension between a nut and the surface of the material to prevent the
nut vibrating loose

Plain Washers
Used to provide a smooth bearing surface between the nut and material being
clamped. To act as a shim in obtaining correct grip length for a bolt and nut assem-
bly. ! / / / / / ,, v ////., 1 Thickness

~
They are used to adjust the position of castellated nuts in respect to drilled cotter
pin holes in bolts . ·
Aluminium alloy washer may be used under bolt heads and/or nuts on aluminium
alloy or magnesium alloy structures where corrosion due to dissimilar metals is a Washers should be added to adjust position in castellated nuts to align
factor. cotter pin holes
It is also common practice to use a cadmium plated steel washer under a nut bear-
ing directly against a structure as this washer will resist the cutting action of the nut.
Plain washers are made from the following materials:
Cadmium plated steel
Brass
Corr~si_on resistant steel
(cCf\ ( 5).
Alumtmum alloy ::..---

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SR Technics f) :) Basic Maintenance
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Module 6 Materials & Hardware
· 6.5 .3 Locking Devices

Lock Washers Figure 2: Lock Washers

Used under screws or bolts where a self-locking or castellated nut is not appropri- I~ ~~~~.,. I
~~
ate . The spring action of the washer provides enough friction to prevent the loos-

©~
ening of the nut caused by vibration . ·
There are two types of lock washers:
Spring Washer, also called split lock washers.
Shake Proof Washers, which are available with internal and external teeth .
Spring Washer
00©? ShakeproofVVasher
g They should be installed only in conjunction with a plain washer to protect
~ the components surface. Always refer to the related procedure given in' the
manuals .
Countersunk Washer
Spring or Split Washer
Spring washers or also named as split lock washer consist of a single or double
coil of square section spring. They are placed under the nut and are compressed
by tightening the nut, thus preventing the nut from slackening off.
~) They may be used again as long as the washer retains the spring tension .
They can be used more than once

ShakeproofWasher
Shakeproof washers work on the same principle except that the washer's teeth are
sharp and bent at an angle . When the nut is tightened the sharp teeth tend to dig
into the face of the nut and the component it is securing, this prevents the bolt from
undoing.
Lock washers should never be used under the following conditions:
-D
With fasteners to primary or secondary structures.
Washer Screw
With fasteners on any part of the aircraft where failure might result in damage
or danger to the aircraft or personnel.
Where failure would permit the opening of a joint to the airflow.
Where the screw is subject to frequent removal.
Where the washers are exposed to the airflow.
Where the washers are subject to corrosive conditions.
Where the washer is against soft material without a plain washer underneath
to prevent gouging the surface.

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 Basic Maintenance
SR Technics f) Training Manual
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.5.3 Locking Devices

This washer is used in special applications where the bolt is installed at angle to
the surface or when perfect alignment with the surface is required at all times .
These washers come in two parts, which must always be used together.
Figure 4: Self Aligning Washer
* It is used in inclined surface
Tab washers do have two or more tabs projecting from the external diameter.
When the washer is fitted, one tab is bent against the component or fitted into a
hole provided for that purpose whilst the second tab is bent against the flat of the
nut after it has been correctly tightened down .
Figure 5: Tab Washer

; !Iii{;(/~ LJ

\_~
. ~OJ" I u

;/Iff MJ4_~

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 Basic Maintenance
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Module 6 Materials & Hardware
' 6.5.3 Locking Devices ·

Figure 6: Applications of Washers

I
COUNTERSUNK WASHER I
MTW~HE?ft
(MS20002C) STANDARD ~
I .._ '""' ~-''
riN
FLAT WASHER
FLAT WASHER USED FOR' SPACING

~
{MAXIMUM 3:WASHERS)

FLATWASHER
T ~
FLAT WASHER

OVERSIZE BOLT OVERSIZE

SOFTMAT~G
·
(SEALS,
INSULATION, ETC.),===
:;• ~ I b KFLATWASHER
OVERSIZE LOCK WASHER

.......--..
~OVERSIZE
.___
~
©
c:::::s:::::J
© @ tr I l
LOCK WASHER

~STANDARD
FLAT WASHERS
@JSliAR
(.I:J:J
RADIUS-WASHER

ANGLE
LOCK WASHERS

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Copyright by SR Technics ;For training p urposes only Cat: 81 6.5.3- 5
 I

SR Techni~s f; Basic Maintenance

Training I Manual
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.5.3 Locking Devices ·
I

Figure 6: Applications of Washers

COUNTERSUNK WASHER 0.032!NCH

MTW~HE?ft
(MS20002C)

FLAT WASHER
FLAT WASHER USED FOR:SPACING

~
(MAXIMUM 3,WASHERS)

--'"g'-
FLAT WASHER
FLATWASHER
~
OVERSIZE BOLT OVERSIZE
SOFTMA~G
·
(SEALS,
INSULATION·, ETC.)C:::::==:;:)
:;:• ~ I 6 c:::::FLAT WASHER
OVERSIZE
LOCK WASHER

,.--.....

~OVERSIZE © © @ t[
i

I I J

c::::s::::J
LOCK WASHER

~STANDARD
FLAT WASHERS
@)SliAR
LOCK WASHERS
I ANGLE
i

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Copyright by SR Technics ,For training purposes only Cat: 81 6.5.3- 5
 SR Technics f) Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.5.3 Locking Devices
l
Figure 8: Pre-Load Indicating Washer
In critical bolted joints the manufacturer may specify the use of a pre-load indicat-
ing washer (PLI). This method gives a very accurate means of torque loading an
individual joint.
PLI washers consist of concentric inner and outer rings, and two high strength Nut is not yet tightened
steel washers. The outer ring (Check Ring) is thinner than the inner ring (Pre- to the required pretorque
torque ring) and has a series of radial holes drilled through it.
A stiff wire tool is inserted in the holes in the outer ring and is used to check wheth-
er the ring is free to rotate .
As the nut is tightened the inner ring is compressed until at a predetermined torque
the outer ring is nipped between the washers . At the point that the outer ring can
no longer be rotated the tightening is complete .
PLI washers are unaffected by thread or nut friction, or by lubrication and provide
a means of pre-loading a bolt which is more consistent than torque loading.
The pre-load of any particular size of bolt can be varied to suit its application by
changes in the material or dimension of the inner ring. Since the inner ring is com-
pressed during tightening it must only be used once. If the joint is slackened it must
be replaced .
Figure 7: Complete Ring Assembly Wrench

Outer Ring
Upper Pressure Ring

ates are thin metal plate's places over a nut or bolt installation to provide
Pretorque Ring positive locking of the nut or bolt.
Their main advantage is that they are quick to assemble and disassemble.
Check Holes
The locking plate will itself be locked by a smaller screw or bolt which may then be
safetied using lock wire or a self locking nut and bolt.

Check Ring Figure 9: Locking Plate

Lower Pressure Ring

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 Basic.Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training :Manual 6.5.3 Locking Devices

Cotter Pins I Split Pins Figure 10: Cotter Pin Assemblin~

The cotter pins, commonly referred to as split pins, used in general aviation · are
made of either: ·
Corrosion Resistant Steel
Cadmium plated, low carbon steel I
I
The most common one is the Cadmium plated, low carbon steel pin . I
Cadmium Plated, Low Carbon Steel Split Pin
I
Used for safetying bolts, screws , nuts, other pins and in various applications where Preferred
I Optional
I
such safetying is necessary.
I
Corrosion Resistant Steel Split Pin
Flathead Pin I
Used in locations where nonmagnetic material is required or in locations where re-
sistance to corrosion is desired . Commonly called Clevis Pin, the fl athead pin is used with tie-rod terminals and in
secondary control, which are not s1ubject to continuous operation.
1

Cotter Pin I Split Pin Safetying The pin is usually installed head up so that if the cotter pin should fail, the pin will
remain in the same place. ., ·
Castellated nuts are used with bolts that have been drilled for split pins . The pins
should fit neatly into the hole, with very little sideplay. Figure 11: Flathead Pin
There are two methods of securing split pins that are generally acceptable. In the
preferred method , one leg of the split pin is bent up over the end of the bolt, and I Lenath
the other leg is bent down over one of the flats of the nut. With the optional method ,
the split pin is rotated 90 degrees and the legs wrapped around the castellations.
It is important to note that nuts should never be over torqued to make the hole in
the bolt align with the castellations. If the castellations in the nut fail to align with Diameter
the drilled bolt hole, add washers under the nut until a split pin can be inserted .
The following general rules apply to cotter pin safety:
1. The leg bent over the bolt end should not extend beyond the bolt diameter.
2. The leg bent down should not rest against the surface of the washer. Roll Pins
I

3. If the optional wraparound method is used, the legs should not extend out- Is a press fit with chamfered ends'. It is tubular in
wards from the side of the nut. shape and has a slot running its fJII length.
The pin is inserted with hand todls and is com-
4. All legs should be bent over a reasonable radius. pressed as it is driven into place. Ptessure exerted
I
by the roll pin against the walls of the hole keep it
in place, until removed by use df a drift or pin
puncher. I

I
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Copyright by SR Technics ;For training purposes only Cat: B1 6.5.3 - 7
 SRTechnics f) Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.5.3 Locking Devices

Taper Pins Figure 13: Grooved Pins

Plain and threaded taper pins are used in joints which carry shear loads and the

t.T::r~-Ji
absence of play is essential.

Plain Taper Pin

Drilled and safetied with locking wire . (A) TYPEB R

Threaded Taper Pin

Used with a taper pin washer and shear nut safetied with a split pin or a self-locking
nut. (B) ~L±MIO~ E
Ell=
. ~==:j L!:o.c:xo - + - j i E
ILL
Figure 12: Taper Pins

(I
-E TYPEC
$ R
t ~-=--th
TYPED

(J_[_ _ _ _ tffiOO
TYPEE
Grooved Pins
This type of pin is forced into a drilled hole of the proper diameter. Locking fit is
Pal-Nuts
obtained by the compression of the groove . . Pal-Nuts, commonly known as check nuts or lock nuts are thin nuts which are tight-
Grooved pins are resistant to loosening from shock and vibration and may be re- ened down firmly on top of the primary nut, after the primary nut has been correctly
moved and reused without reducing their holding force . tightened .
This action wedges the threads and prevents the primary nut from slackening off.
The pal-nut must not be over-tightened, as stripping or over-stressing of the thread
may occur.
Before reusing the pal-nuts, ensure the threads are not damaged.
Figure 14: Pal Nut

Sept1 0 I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

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~
 Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Train i rig ·Man ua I 6.5.3 Locking Devices

Wire Locking Safety Wire Specifications :

It is the most positive and satisfactory method of ensuring that threaded fasteners Safety wires are identified in differ$nt standards as bolts and nuts are. The follow-
remain secure under all conditions . · ing example shows the wire idenmication given under MS 20995 specification .
It is a method of wiring together any two or more components in such a manner MS 20995- c - 32: I
that any tendency of one to loosen is counteracted by the tightening of the wire . MS Military standard I
Safety Wiring Methods 20995 Standard number i
There are two recognised wire locking methods in use: C Material code letter I
Single wire method 32 Wire diameter (1/1000 inch)
!
Double twist method I
Nuts, bolts and screws are safety wired by the single-wire or double-twist method . Material code letters are: I
The double-twist method is the most common method of safety wiring . The sin'gle- C Corrosion resistant. 19°ia Cr. and steel (CRES) . 9% Ni. The most com-
wire method may be used on small screws in a closely spaced geometrical patt,ern, monly used . I .
on parts in electrical systems , and in places that are extremely difficult to reach .
F Low carbon steel, 0.18 to 0.23% carbon content. The surface is Zinc
Figure 15: Single and Double Wire Methode coated. I
N Nickei-Chrorne steel all9y. Nickel-based with 15.6% Cr. and 8% iron .
Used in high temperatu l e areas.
NC Nickel copper. Nickel-bqsed alloy (MONEL) with 30% copper.

Available Wire Di~meters: I f~

24 = 24/1000 mch = 0.6 m m -'-;:;> . /
32 ~ 32/1000 inch~ 0.8 mm.~ / ;-1ec./ttll1i0
41 = 41/1000inch=1 .0mm.l) 1[ULi~

jl/f);'V- ~ hJ0 tv0e 47 = 47/1000inch=1 .2mm l

Select the proper safety wire material and diameter according to the drawing in-
struction or the requirements give ~ in the related .manuals .

* Whenever use new safety wire use new safety wire only

Sep/10 I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics 1For training purposes only Cat: 81 6.5.3 - 9
 Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Manual 6.5.3 Locking Devices

Quick Release Fasteners Figure 16: Dzus Fasteners

That type of fastener are used to secure inspection plates, doors and other remov-
able panels on an aircraft. They also refer to such terms as turnlock, quick-action

'!1)
and stress panel fasteners . STUD
The most desirable feature of these fasteners is that they permit quick and easy
removal of access panels for inspection and servicing purposes .
Quick Release Fasteners are manufactured and supplied by a number of manu-
facturers under various trade names.
Some of the most commonly used are :
Dzus
; ~ { "U"'"''
GROC.~ ~
Camloc "' m
Airloc STUD
ASSEMBLY
Dzus Fasteners REMOVABLE
The Dzus fastener consists of a stud , grommet and a receptacle . The Figure 16 PART
on page 10 illustrates an installed Dzus fastener and the various parts .
The grommet is made of aluminium or aluminium alloy material , and acts as a FIXED
holding device for the stud . The spring is made of steel, cadmium plated to prevent PART\
corrosion . The spring supplies the force that locks or secures the stud in place
when two assemblies are joined.
The studs are fabricated from steel and are cadmium plated . They are available in
three head styles: wing , flush and oval.
Body diameter, length and head type may be identified or determined by markings SPRING
found on the head of the stud. The diameter is always measured in sixteenths of ASSEMBLY
an inch . Stud length is measured in hundredths of an inch and is the distance form
head of the stud to the bottom of the spring hole.
A quarter of a turn of the stud (clockwise) locks the fastener. The fastener may be
unlocked only by turning the stud counter-clockwise. A Dzus key locks or unlocks RIVETS
the fastener.

~1 I '

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Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only I i Cat: B1 6.5.3 -10
"-.__)
 Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training ·Manual 6.5.3 Locking Devices

Camloc Fasteners Airloc Fasteners .

I
Made in a variety of styles and designs. Included among the most commonly used This fastener consists of three parts: a stud, a cross pin, and a stud receptacle .
are the 2600, 2700, 4001, and 4002 series in the regular line, and the stressed-
The studs are manufactured from 1steel and case hardened to prevent excessive
panel fastener in the heavy-duty line. wear. 1
The latter is used in stressed panels , which carry structural loads .
The stud hole is reamed for a pre ~s fit of the cross pin .
Usually they are used to secure aircraft cowlings and fairings and consists of three
The total amount of material thick~ess to be secu,red with the Airloc fastener must
parts: receptacles, studs , and grommets.
be known before the correct lengt~ of stud can be selected for installation .
Two types of receptacles are available: The total thickness of material thpt each stud will satisfactorily lock together is
1. Rigid type stamped on the head of the stud in thousandths' of an inch (0 .040, 0.070, 0.190
etc.). I
2. Floating type
Studs ac_e manufactured in three hFad styles:
The stud and grommet are installed in the removable portion; the receptacle is riv-
eted to the structure of the aircraft. 1. Flush 1

The stud and grommet are installed in either a plain , dimpled, countersunK, or 2. Oval 1

counter-bored hole, depending upon the location and th ickness of the material in- 3. Wing I
volved .
A quarter turn (clockwise) of the stud locks the fastener. It can be unlocked by turn - The cross pin is manufactured fr~m chrome-vanadium steel and heat-treated to
ing the stud counter-clockwise . provide maximum strength, wear and holding power.
It should never be used the secon~ time once removed from the stud ; it should be
Figure 17: Camlock Fastener replaced with a new pin. j
Receptacles for Airloc fasteners a ~e manufactured in two types:
Coil spring
Q 1. Rigid
\[;;3 2. Floating
Sizes are classified by number: Ndl . 2, No. 5 and No.7.
They are also classified by the cehtre-to-centre distance between the rivet holes
of the receptacle:

~ Grommet
No. 2: 3/4 inch
No. 5: 1 inch
No. 7: 1 3/8 inch
I
Receptacles are fabricated from h'gh-carbon, heat-treated steel.
An upper wing assures ejection of the stud when unlocked and enables the cross
pin to be held in a locked position between the upper wing , cam, stop, and wing
detent, regardless of the tension t<D which the receptacles is subjected .

Receptacle Spring steel

II
receptacle

..~v; . Gf r(Q r~ ~ I
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 Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Manual 6.5.3 Locking Devices

Figure 18: Airloc Fasteners Circlips

Circlips are part of the retaining ring family. The main advantage of retaining rings
is that they reduce weight and are a cost saving device, this is due mainly to the
simplicity of design and use.
These retaining devices have internal and external applications. Most retaining
ROLL PIN rings (Circlips) sit in a recess , other types have a self-locking action.
The removal and installation of circlips is with the use of a special circlips pliers.
In some cases you will require two different pliers one for internal circlips and one
for external circlips. Another type of pliers allows for the removal of both internal
and external circlips.

Figure 19: Circlips

0 A B c D

Internal Position ExternaiPosition

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Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 6.5.3- 12
 Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training i,Manual 6.5.4 Aircraft Rivets

6·. 5.4 Aircraft Rivets

Sep/10 I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics ;For training purposes only Cat: 81 6.5.4- 1
 Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Manual 6.5.4 Aircraft Rivets

Introduction Figure 1: Different Loads

The structure of modern civil transport aircraft is generally made of all metal com-
ponents . To keep the aircraft weight as low as possible, the selection and the uti-
lisation of the materials used is most important.
The materials must be selected with cons ideration to the special purpose of the
various structural members . Light metal alloys are used mainly in the structure of
the fuselage , wings and empennage .
Rivets are necessary for fastening two or more pieces of metal together. A rivet is
a metal pin or bar with a cylindrical shank. One end of the rivet has a head formed
previously by the manufacturer. The metal pieces to be joined have holes of the
proper size drilled through them.
The shank of the rivet is inserted through one of these holes. The size and shape Load in Shear
of the rivet is inserted through the holes in the metal , a bucked head is formed on
the end, opposite the manufactured head .
With rivets it is possible to transfer two different kinds of load from one sheet of
metal to another sheet of metal. Most structure is designed for the primary load to * Aircraft rivets can carry shear and tension
be carried in "shear".

Load in Tension

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 Basic Maintenance ( Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SJ'l Technics f) J Training iManual 6.5.4 Aircraft Rivets

The Rivets are identified by numb~rs and letters according different standards .
The benefits of a rivet joint are several:
The most important are: [
• · Low maintenance cost because they last longer.
No malfunctioning; they are reliable .
AN: Air Force Navy I
They will hold the parts together under stress; they are strong. MS: Military Standard J

They allow a light and yet strong design, because of the low weight. NAS : . National Aerospace Standard
They are resistance to fatigue, due to their high elasticity which contributes to NSA: Norm Sud Aviation I
their durability. Rivets are normally specified by Arperican standardisation . The diameter of a rivet
High productivity because of the low costs involved, compared to other meth- is standardised in 1/32". The rivet lengths are graduated by 1/16" increments .
ods. To describe or identify a Rivet, a cbde, devided into four main parts is used .
I .
Competitive methods like the use of threaded fasteners, such as HI-LOK and: HI- These are:
Shear are mostly used for accessibility reasons . The cost of installing threaded Head Styles
fasteners are, however, much higher than that of rivets.
Pin Length
Gluing is an increasingly used method, but is still normally combined with riveting. Pin Diameter
Material
~ There is a variety of rivets us:ed in the aviation industry. We only discuss the
~ most important rivets.

------

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 SR Technics f) . Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.5.4 Aircraft Rivets

Aircraft Solid Shank Rivets
Solid shank rivets are the most commonly used rivets in aircraft construction. They
consist of a manufactured head, a shank and a driven head . The driven head,
sometimes called an upset head, is caused by upsetting the shank with a rivet gun
or rivet squeezer.
Mostly, you will find Solid Rivets as shown in the next illustration . Look at the dif-
ferent Head Styles .
Figure 2: Design of modern solid Rivets
MS20426 MS20430 . MS20442
100 ' -countersunk round head flat head
head rivet rivet rivet
Rivet Alloys
See Sub Module "6.2 Aircraft Materials - Non Ferrous", for Heat Treatment and
Figure 3 on page 5.
Rivets used for the construction of aircraft must be as strong as , but much lighter
than steel. Alloying aluminium with other metals such as copper, magnesium and
zinc and then heat treating the metal makes this increase in strength possible .
Alloyed aluminium rivets which are heat treated and allowed to cool and age hard-
en, are as strong as , and about one third the weight of steel.
Rivet alloy 11 OOH 12 and 5056H32 are non heat treatable . Non heat treatable riv-
ets are rarely used on primary structures . The alloy 1100 contains an insignificant
amount of copper (0.01 %). In the AN or MS20 methods of cataloguing , the 1100
alloy is designated by the letter A. The 1100 rivet has no marking on the manufac-
tured head . These rivets are never used structurally, but are used in areas where
strength is not a major concern . The only non heat treated alloy used for structural
work is 5056H-32. It is used to skin magnesium covered control surfaces because
it is compatible with magnesium, its major alloying ingredient. Many light aircraft
control surfaces were at one time covered with magnesium alloy to reduce weight.
The only type of fastener that would not cause corrosion was the magnesium com-
patible rivet 5056H32. The 5056H32 rivet is identified by a raised cross on its MFG
head and it is designated by the letter B in AN or MS20 catalogue .
The alloy 2117T4, developed by Alcoa, is produced only as rivet stock . The
2117T4 rivet is called the "universal" replacement rivet, because it can be used in
the "as received" condition from the rivet manufacturer. Rivets made from the alloy
2117T4 are more corrosion resistant and crack free than any of the copper bearing
aluminium alloys. These rivets are used for plugging holes on wet wing fuel tank
installations because of their excellent swelling characteristics . The 2117T4 rivet
is designated by the letters AD in the AN and MS20 system of coding , and it has
an identifying dimple embossed in the centre of its MFG head .
The alloy 20 17T4 is presently made in two forms of rivet stock. The first type, used
in the construction of earlier aircraft, is slightly harder than 2117T4, and it is difficult
to control its cracking when rivets of diameters greater than 3/16 of an inch are
driven. To minimise cracking, such rivets must be re-heat treated before driving . A
new form, the crack free 2017T4 rivet alloy, recently· developed by Alcoa, was first
used for skinning the Boeing 727 wing . It contains slightly less magnesium and a
precisely controlled amount of iron and silicon . The new crack free alloy has a
greater shear strength than the older form . The two forms of 2017T4 are designat-
ed by a letter D and have a raised dot on their MFG heads .
The alloy 2024T4 is produced as skin, extrusions, and rivets . The 2024T3 rivet is
used in the construction of light and heavy aircraft, both internally and externally,
and has been established as the strongest of the copper bearing aluminium alloys .
Rivets made from alloy 2024 cannot be driven without first softening them by re
heat treating. The alloy 2024T4 is denoted by letters DO and has two raised shoul-
ders on its MFG head.
In 1979, Alcoa and the US Air Force developed a new rivet alloy, 7050T73. The
alloy 7050, in a stable T73 condition , is a rivet material with good form ability, high
strength and excellent resistance to corrosion cracking . The material used to make
the alloy 7050 is a mixture of magnesium and zinc. This alloy has a fatigue life limit
longer than that of the aircraft structure itself. Rivets of 7050 alloy in the T73 tem-
per are considered to be strongest aluminium rivets commercially available, and
they should be considered as replacements for 2024T31 rivets on new aircraft de-
signs . For example, the Boeing 767 uses the 7050T73 rivet extensively. In addi-
tion , its ability to be driven in the "as received condition" makes the Alcoa 7050T73
alloy rivet an excellent choice for automatic rivet setting and field or shop repair
work.

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Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: 81 6:5.4-4
 Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR_Technics f) ( _) Training IManual 6.5.4 Aircraft Rivets

The 7050T73 rivet is identified by a ring on its MFG head and is coded oy; the loss of strength which results frorrj a convention~! machine type countersink job.
letter E. The 7050T73 alloy is available in all head styles. Jhe countersunk, coun- One of the primary uses of .this ri\(et has been to skin wings and tail surfaces of
terbored, tension type rivet made from the alloy was developed to overcome' the modern aircrafts. j

Figure 3: Marking of Rivet Heads

Rivet Material Letter Code Marking on MFG Head Remarks /

I
11 OO-H12 Aluminium alloy A
0 No mark
structure[
I
I
-Not used1on primary ;rr£
'

t ~0'~
,
1 . -~~/, / i,,_J~
to-ttJ s~ !'7a-tlfcP1
.
2117-T4 Aluminium alloy AD
8 Dimpled -Used on ~rimary structure
I

2017-T4 Aluminium alloy D

8 Raised dot -No heat Lating necesscary~ o-nf;~~
1 . Jillcfid .
2024-T4 Aluminium alloy DD
0 Raised double dash -Needs to Ibe heat treated
before u~e
I
5056-H32 Aluminium alloy B
0 Raised cross -Used for !components without
high loaqs.
-Magnesi~m compatible
,

7050-T73 Aluminium alloy E @ Raised Circle -Aiternatite rivet for D or DD

rivets /
I
Cres ~.-
F
0 No mark * Rivet A - 1100-H12 Al IAlloy - Not used on primary structure
* Rivet D - 2017-T4 Al Alloy - Raised dot - Heat treating is not necessary
Monel M
8 Dimpled
*Rivet B - 5056-H32 Al Alloy - Raised cross
I
Titanium T
8 Raised V

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 SR Technics f) Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.5.4 Aircraft Rivets

Figure 4: Rivet Code

MS20426 DD - 6 - 5 * The second dash number denotes the length of the fastener. Grip length indicated in 16th of an inch
In this case it is 5/16
* The first dash number denotes the diameter of the fastener in 32 of an inch
In this case it is 6/32
* Material. In this case it is 2024-T4 Al Alloy ( Refer below)
* Basic number denotes type of fastener
In this case it is a solid rivet (Refer below)
AD
***

length of the fastener 6/16 or 3/8

shank diameter 5/32

Code denotes the material of the fastener. In this instance 2117-T4 aluminium alloy.
A = 11 00-F pure aluminium
0 = 2017-T4 aluminium alloy
AD = 2117-T4 aluminium alloy
DO = 2024-T4 aluminium alloy
B = 5056-H32 aluminium alloy

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 '
Basic ,M aintenance
SR Technics f) ( Training rManual ( ~ Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.5.4 Aircraft Rivets

i
Determine the Rivet Length Figure 6: Measuring the Rivet Length with a Grip Scale
I
On Page 3, we have spoken about standardisation of rivets. Remember that 'rivets
are normally specified by American standardisation. The diameter of a rivet is
standardised in 1/32". The rivet lengths are graduated by 1/16" increments.

Figure 5: Measuring Material Thickness with .

~Grip Scale)- ~JJ. ..Sf :[
1
'1 . ~ You can read more about measuri~g and installing of rivets in sub module 7.8 "Riv-
eting". I
Figure 7: Rivet Head and Upset-Head Sizes

I
I lo

w
1

T
The figure above shows an example of how to measure the material thickness us-
ing a grip scale. Since the scale is devided into increments of 1/16 inch, and the
reading is -8, the material thickness is 8/16 inch, therefore 1/2 inch. Let's suppose,
that the hole has a diameter of 1/4 inch .
The rivets length can be determined with the following formula:

Rivet Length = Material Thickness+ ( 1.5 x Rivet Diameter)

:=0.50

L= linch+
2
(1l2 x 4linch)
1 3 4 3 7.
L= - + -= - + -= -mch
2 8 8 8 8

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 Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Manual 6.5.4 Aircraft Rivets

Blind Rivets Figure 9: Standard Cherrylock Part Number

Friction Cherrylock Rivet

Tbe friction Cherrylock rivet is an older special blind fastener. It will be used where
access is limited and solid riveting is not possible . Friction is the only thing that
holds the stem of this fastener in place .
In locations where vibrations occur, the stem can work loose and fall out. For this
reason, whenever the Cherrylock friction rivet is used to replace a solid shank riv-
et, it must be 1/32 inch larger in diameter.
The friction Cherrylock rivet is available in three diameters: 1/8, 5/32, and 3/16
inch .
The friction Cherrylock rivet is constructed of two parts: M Monel
1. The rivet, with either a universal or a countersunk head .
C A286 Stainless Steel
2. A m·andrel or pulling stem that runs through the centre of the hollow rivet for
installation purposes. B 5056 Aluminium Alloy
The pulling stem is designed with an expanding section which causes the shank
to fill the hole when it is being drawn up. On the bottom of the puller is a part called D 2017 Aluminium Alloy
the header, which forms the bucktail on the blind side.
The upper portion of the pulling stem has a break point which lets go when the rivet
is pulled to its maximum. When the break point snaps the manufacturer's head and
has to be clipped and filed down flush.
Figure 8: Friction Cherrylock Rivets.
Second dash number denotes nominal
grip length in 1/16 of an inch; nominal
grip length of this example is Y. inch.

Sept10 I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: 81 6.5.4- 8
 Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Trcil in i ng ·Ma·n ual
1
· 6.5.4 Aircraft Rivets

Bu/bed Cherrylock Rivet

The bulbed cherrylock rivet is an improvement over the friction cherrylock rivet be-
cause its stem is locked into place with a retaining ring .
The bulbed cherrylock with its locked spindle, has many uses, such as thin sh'eet,
skin to spar stackup and wing leading edge applications . Its large blind head, high
strength and locked spindle make the bulbed cherrylock structurally sound enough
to replace solid shank rivets. ,
The bulbed cherrylock rivet is available in two head styles: countersunk and ;uni-
versal. '
Its diameter are measured in increments of 1/32 inch. It is available in three stand-
ard diameters of 1/8, 5/32 and 3/16 inch and an oversize of 1/64 inch diam~ter.
The rivet portion of the bulbed cherrylock rivet is made of 2017 or 5056 alumi~ium
alloy, monel, or stainless steel.
The main disadvantage of the cherrylock mechanical rivet is that a special tooling
head is required to install different sizes and head styles.
Figure 10: Bulbed Cherrylock Rivet

QelJJWJ/ RLftt

a) As the stem is pulled into the rivet sleeve, a bulb forms 1on the rivet's blind side
that begins to clamp the two pieces of metal together and· fill the hole.
b) When completely installed, the collar is inserted and th~ stem is fractured flush
with the rivet head.

Sept10 I Technical Training Coi responding ~ith EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics 1For training purposes only Cat: B1 6.5.4 - 9
 SR Technics f) Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.5.4 Aircraft Rivets

Figure 12: Cherrymax Rivet

The Cherrymax fastener is a reliable, high strength, structural rivet. It is inexpen- PULUNG ~~~
STEM--............f'S.
sive, easy to install, to inspect and a suitable replacement for solid shank rivets. It
will be used where access is limited.
DR~~~~~ 1111111111111111
The Cherrymax has five parts:
a serrated pulling stem with a breakaway notch
a driving anvil to insure a visible mechanical lock
a locking collar with an internal grip adjustment cone
a rivet sleeve with a recessed head
a bulbed blind head
The driving anvil, which looks like a washer, eliminates wear and tear on the instal-
lation tool. This allows the use of one pulling head on all diameters.
The Cherrymax Rivet is available in six diameters: 1/8, 5/32 and 3/16 inch nominal
and oversize at:Jd is manufactured in different head styles .
Figure 11: Standard Cherry Part Number

CR 324 2 - 6 - 4
c~ -~ L Cherry Max Rivet

I Maximum grip length in 16ths of an inch.

/ In this instance -4 = 4/16" = 1/4 inch.
Rivet diameter in 32nds of an inch.
In this instance -6 =6/32" =3/16 inch.
/
/; Pop rivets are used in many commercial devices where speed of installation is im-
I Head style: portant. They are not used for structural applications in certificated aircraft, but are
/ Odd number = universal head used in many applications for amateur-built aircraft.
Even number = flush head

I Rivet type & material combination

!

Sept10 I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: 81 6.5.4-10
 I

Basic Maintenance
SR technics f) Training 'Manual
I
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.5.4 Aircraft Rivets

Rivnuts Figure 14: Rivnut Heading Tool ;

I
It is often necessary to install a threaded fastener in a piece of thin sheet met$1. A
practical solution to this problem was found many years ago by the B.F .Goodrich
Company for the installation of their rubber deicing boots on the leading edge!s of
wings .and empennages. A hole of the correct size is drilled and a keyway is cut in
the edge of the hole. If the Rivnut is to be a flush type, the hole is dimpled. ,The
Rivnut is screwed onto the installation tool and is inserted in the hole with the lkey
in the keyway. The installation tool pulls the Rivnut tight enough to form a head on
the inside of the structure and squeezes the Rivnut tight enough around the skin
to prevent it turning when it is used as a nut.
Rivnut is a trade name of hollow, blind rivets for secondary structures. It is a one-
piece, internally-threaded rivet which can be used as blind nutplates, blind rivets,
or as a combination of both . Rivnuts are normally used to attach brackets, trim ma-
terials and lightly loaded fittings after the assembly has been completed .
Rivnuts are available with or without small keys attached to the head to keep the
Rivnut from turning . Keyed Rivnuts used for service as a nutplate, while tHose
without keys are used for straight blind riveting repairs where no loads are im- 1

posed. A keyway cutter is needed when installing Rivnuts which have keys .

Figure 13: Rivnuts

I

Threaded 1\\\
mandrei T

Types of Rivnuts j
Rivnuts are manufactured in two head types, each with two ends the flat head with
open or closed end and the Countbrsunk head w,ith open or closed end .
recommende~
Rivnut before installation Rivnut after it has be en upset
Open-end Rivnuts are the most wi!dely_ used and are in preference
*Rivnut can only be installed in secondary structures ( non structural parts) to the closed -end type whenever ~osstble . However, closed-end Rtvnuts must be
used in pressurised compartmend .

~~I!WJ~
Grip length I
Rivnuts are manufactured in six grip ranges . The minimum grip length is indicated
by a plane head. The next higher rgrip length by a radial dash mark on the head.
Each succeeding grip range is indicated by an additional radial dash mark until five
marks indicate the maximum rangb.

Sept10 I Technical Training c o/responding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics [ For training purposes only Cat: 81 6.5.4-11
 Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Manual 6.5.4 Aircraft Rivets

~ Some manufacturers sign the Rivnut sizes OE)-200, 06-240, 08-2450 with Part Number
~ one or two circumferential marks. The part number indicates, head style, material, thread size, key or keyless, open
Figure 15: Rivnut or closed end and the maximum grip .

Head Style NAS 1329 A 3 K 130

NAS 1329 = Flat Head ~
=
NAS 1330 Countersunk Head 100' angle of countersunk head will be 100°
Material
A= Aluminium alloy 6053-T4, anodised _ _ _ _ _ ___J
S= Carbon steel 11 08 or 1110, cadmium plated
Lock H= Alloy steel , cadmium plated
Key C= Corrosion resistant steel , passivated
Thread Size
04=0.1120-40UNC-3B
06=0.1380-32UNC-3B
08=0.1614-32UNC-3B
3=0.1900-28UNF-3B - - - - - - - - - - - - _ _ J
4=0.2500-28U NF-38
5=0.3125-24UNF-3B
6=0.3750-24UNC-3B
8=0.5000-20UNF-3B
Type
- =Open end, no key
B = Closed end, no key
K =Open end with key _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __~
KB= Closed end with key
Circumferential Mark (CIRC)
Grip Length
Maximum Grip in 1/1000 inch
(130/1000 = 0.13inch) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____J

Sept10 I Technical Training

Copyright by SR Technics
Corresponding with EASA Part-66 ·
For training purposes only )
"-....__/
) Cat: 81 6.5.4- 12
SR Technics f; Basic .Maintenance
Training ' Manual
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.5.4 Aircraft Rivets

I
Pin Fasteners Figure 16: Hi Strength Pin Riveti

There are locations in an aircraft structure where the strength of a steel bolt is re- Rivet iset
quired, but there is no need for the fastener to be removed in normal maintenance
operations . For these applications , a high-strength pin fastener may be used . -- '~ ' w" - I

· ~·
i
I
High-Strength Pin Rivets
Modern aircraft construction techniques require as I

~
much automation as possible, and in locations where 1
a high-strength fastener is required that is not like 1y to Correctly-driven pin rivet.

.Ill 1111 be removed in normal maintenance, a pin rivet such

as the Hi-Shear rivet may have been used . This fas-
I tener may be installed rapidly and has the same
shear strength as an equivalent size structural steel
bolt.
Pin rivets are installed by inserting the body of the riv-
et with the correct grip length through a hole thati has
-< - Collar been reamed to the correct size . The shank of these
rivets does not expand to completely fill the hoi~ as
does the shank of a conventional solid rivet. ·
A steel pin with a flat head on one end and a groove around the other end is
slipped through the .hole in the structure. An aluminium alloy collar is slipped bver
the grooved end and a special swaging tool is used to swage the collar into the
groove . Hi-Shear rivets have sufficient strength to replace structural steel bolts on
a size-for- size basis.
To drive a pin rivet, hold a heavy bucking bar against the flat head and a Hi-Shear
rivet set such as the one in Figure 16 on page 13 against the collar. Impacts from
the rivet gun swage the collar into the groove in the pin and the shearing edge on
the pin trims the top edge of the collar until it forms a smooth cone.
To remove a pin rivet, use a small, sharp chisel to split the collar and pry it off the
pin. After removing the collar, tap the pin from the hole with a hammer.

Sept10 I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics I For training purposes only Cat: B1 6.5.4 -13
 SR Technics f) Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.5.4 Aircraft Rivets

Heat Treatment of Rivets
Icebox Rivets
Icebox is a nickname given to rivets made of alloy 2017T4 more than 3/16 of an
inch in diameter and all rivets of the alloy 2024T4 . These two alloys are too hard
to drive in their original heat-treated condition.
They must be reheat treated and kept in a frozen condition until ready for use.
When these two alloys are heat-treated, they harden after cooling down, due to a
process called age hardening. Age hardening brings the metal to its maximum nat-
ural hardness, which can be held in suspension by storing these rivets in a freezer
~e~. .
Years ago when this process was first developed, there were no freezers . So the
rivets were stored in dry ice boxes; thus the name icebox rivets. Today there-hard-
ening process is the same as the one originally used to heat treat the rivet , but im-
mediately after the rivet is quenched , it is put into the identified containers and
stored in a freezer.
Alloys such as 2024 are followed by a temper designation, made up of a letter and
a number, which indicates the temper condition of the rivet. T4 means solution
heat-treated and age hardened . T3 means solution heat-treated, age hardened
and then coldworked .
For a long time, the 2024T31 icebox rivet was considered to be the strongest alloy.
However, the new rivet 7050T73 may replace the 2024T31 icebox rivet.
All heat treatment of rivets are to be carried out in accordance with Airline Manu-
facturers Process Specifications . This could look like the procedure in the following
section .
Place Icebox Rivets into Cold Storage as follows:
1. As soon as rivets reach the temperature of the quenchant, as determined by
tests or by a thermocouple that is attached to the centre of the charge, transfer
rivets to a denatured or isopropyl alcohol bath , chilled to -30oc ± soc (the al-
cohol bath shall be capable of cooling the rivets to zero or below within a short
time as defined). Hold the rivets in the chilled bath for at least 3 to 5 minutes,
until the temperature is below -20°C, then immediately transfer the rivets to
cold storage.
2. When transferring the rivets to cold storage, do not allow the rivets to reach
temperatures higher than -20°C .
3. Store rivets at -20°C or lower.
4. Do not allow the total elapsed time that rivets are exposed to room tempera-
ture between quenching and driving to exceed 15 minutes, except, if rivets are
to be driven immediately after quenching, the total elapsed time that rivets are
exposed to room temperature may be increased to a maximum of 20 minutes .
5. Age , when required, in accordance with the Structure Repair Manual.
6. After completion of heat treatment, remove a representative sample of rivets
for inspection in accordance with Airline Manufacturers Process Specifica-
tions.
Figure 17 on page 15 illustrates how storing and handling time is affected by the
temperature. The left part shows a rivet immediately driven after heat treatment.
The right part of the illustration shows how a rivet can be held in the annealed state
by storing it in a Icebox.

Sept10 I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only ) j Cat: 81 6.5.4- 14
'-....__./
 ( Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training M·a nual
1
6.5.4 Aircraft Rivets

Figure 17: Handling Time after Heat Treatment

f - - - - - - - 1 - - SOAKING TIME (30- 45 min.)

I SOAKING TEMPERATURE

STORED IN ICEBOX
(- 18'C) UP TO 7 DAYS
(- 20'C) UP TO 20 DAYS

HANDLING TIME
QUENCHING
TEMPERATURE AGEING PROCESS

QUENCH DELAY (15 sec.

liB Handling not allowed - Handling not allowed 1

"""' Handling allowed within 20 minutes Handling allowed within 15 rttinutes

I
I
I
I
I
Sept to I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66
Copyright by SR Technics iFor training purposes only Cat: 81 6.5.4-15
 SR Technics f) Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.5.4 Aircraft Rivets

Sept10 I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: 81 6.5.4- 16
6.6 Pipes and Unions
Introduction
All a1rcraft, from the smallest tra1ners to the largest transports. have systems to di-
rect the flow of fluidS from their source to the umts requ1nng them These systems
consist of hoses. tub1ng, fillings, and connectors and are often referred to as an
a1rcraft's "plumbmg•
Even though a1rcraft flu1d hnes and related hardware are very rehable and requ~re
httle mamtenance, they cannot be overlooked For example. because of the vanety
of fluids used in aircraft. the reqwenents for flUid lines dtffer greatly.
Therefore. 111s very 1mportant that you, as a mamtenance techmcian, understand
the. d1fferent types of fluid hnes used their applicatiOns and the inspection and
mamtenance requirements of each For example replacement bnes must be of the
same size and matenal as the ong1nal hne and the correct fittmgs must be select-
ed and property mstalled
An error 1n the selection or mstallabon of a component could resut11n damage to a
umt, loss of flUid, or complete system failure Regular mspeclJOn and bme-spea-
fied replacements ensure continuous and safe operatiOn.
* If a pipe is subjected to vibration, it becomes brittle.
Pipes and Tubes
As descnbed before, p1pes and lubes are used to transfer.
Fluids such as hydrauliC oil. engme 011, fuel, potable- and waste water
Gaseous such as oxygen nitrogen or extmgU1sh1ng agent
Air such as bleed air, cond1t1oned air, static instrument air, p~ot instrument air
eel.
They are usually made from Alumimum Alloy, Sta1nless Steel or Trtanium Alloy
Newer types are also ava1lable tn composrte matenal
P1pes are repeatedly exposed to negawe Influences Vibrat on, bending, stress,
pre-load Incorrect support tw1sbng cond1bon and Improper mstallation etc. Will
lead sooner or later to p1pe damage P1pes are also exposed to corrosion by neg-
awe enwonmental concM100s
To facilitate both 1nstaltal100 and ma1ntenance. many break potnts are requrred A
vanety of connectiOn and fitt1ng types are m use depefl<hng on aircraft manufac-
turers engineenng speCifiCatiOns
For hydrauliC systems the hogh·pressure (HP) hydraulic pipes are made from
stainless steel or lltamum SuctiOn and return pipes can also be made from alu-
miniUm alloy excepttn the fire zones, on the land1ng gears 1n the w1ng section and
the wheel well of the land1ng gears
Rigid Fluid Lines Corrosion • Resistant Steel Tubing
Corrosion-resistant steel tub1ng, either annealed or l4 hard, is used 10 h1gh pres·
A s1ngle aircraft typ1cally contains several d1fferent types of rigtd "uid lmes. Each
type of line has a specific application However, as a rule, ng1d tubing is used in sure systems (3.000 ps1).
statK>nary appltcahons and where long. relatively straight runs are poss1ble. Sys- Applications include h1gh pressure hydraulic, pneumatic and oxygen systems
tems that typiCally uhltse ng1d tub1ng 1nctude fuel. 011 . oxygen, and 1nstrument Corros1on-res1stant steel1s also used 10 areas that are subJed to phys1cal damage
from dirt. debns and corrosiOn caused by mo1sture, exhaust fumes and salt a11
Materials SuCh areas mclude flap wells and external brake lines
Another benefit of corroslon·res1stant steel tubmg 1s that rt 1as a higher tensole
Many fluid hnes used 1n earty a1rcran were made of copper tub1ng Copper tubtng strength whiCh perm1ts the use of tubmg w1th th1n walls As a result, the Installation
however proved troublesome because 11 became hard and bnttle from the vibrabon weJQht IS s1mliar to that of ttucker-walled aluminium alloy tubmg.
encountered dunng fl;ght. and eventJally faded
To help prevent failures and extend t,e life of copper tubing. it must be penod1cally
annealed to restore 1t to a soft cond1ton. Annealmg IS accomplished by heabng the
tube unbt 1t 1s red-hot and then quench1ng 10 cold water. When wol1ong on an alf·
craft that has copper tub1ng, the tu~1ng should be annealed each bme it IS re·
moved Furthermore. copper ltnes must be regutarty 1nspected fof cracks.
hardness, and general cond1bon
Today, atumm1um-alloy and corrosJOn-resJstant steel hoes have replaced copper
1n most appltcabons

Aluminium Tubing
Alumimum tub1ng comes 1n a vanety of alloys For example, 1n low pressure sys-
tems (below 1,000 ps1) such as those used for instrument atr or venblabng air,
commerCially pure alumin1um tub1ng made from 1100-H14 (half-hard), or alullllm·
um alloy 3003-H14 (half-hard) Is used
Low-pressure fuel and 011 and medium pressure (1 ,000 to 1,500 psi) hydraulic and
pneumatic systems often use lines '!1ade of 5052.0 alum1mum alloy. Th1s alloy,
even in ~s annealed state. Is about one and three quarters times stronger than
half-hard, commerc1ally pure alumlmum.
Occasionally, 2024-T aluminium alloy IS used for fluid lines because of its high
strength. However. it Is not as flexible and. therefore, II is more difficult to bend and
ftare without cracking
Alumlmum alloy tubes are ldent1fied In a number of ways For example. on larger
lubes, the alloy designahon Is stamped directly on the tube's surface However. on
small tubing. the alloy designation Is typically 1dentified by a coloured band.
You can read more about matenal specifications In Sub Module 6 2 "Aircraft Ma·
tenals · Non Ferrous"
 Size Designations
* The size of rigid tubing is determined by Its outs1de diameter in increments of 1116
Inch Therefore, a -4 tubing is 4/16 or Y. inch in diameter A tube diameter is typi-
cally prrnted on all rig1d tubing.
Another 1mportant size designation is the wall thickness, smce this determines a
tube's strength. Like the outside diameter, wall thickness 1S generally pnnted on
the tube in thousandths of an inch.
One dimension that is not printed on rigid tubing is the inside diameter. However,
since the outside diameter and wall thickness are indicated, the ins1de diameter is
determined by subtracting twice the wall thickness from the outside diameter. For
example, if you have a piece of -8 tubing with a wall thickness of 0.072 inches, you
know the inside diameter is 0.356 inches.

lnsideD iameter= OutsideDiameler- (2 x Thickness)

0.5Inch - (2 x 0.0721nch)= 0.3561nch

Table 1: Dash number I OD Relationship

Fluid Line Size (Dash number) Outside Diameter (OD) In Inch

-4 1/4
3/8

-8 1/2
-10 5/8
-12 3/4

-16
Identification of Tubing Figure 1: Rigid Tubing Identification

All fluid·, gas lines and ducts, (excep; as outline below) are marked to identify sys-
tems on which they are installed Marking is either by a code marker as shown in
Figure 1 or with a colour band corresponding to colour of code marker. Locat1on of
coding will vary accordmg to the length of the assembly. Coding location should
be readily vis1ble.
Following a few points to cons1der:
Hose assemblies 1n pylon and p'XI areas are not colour coded.
Heating and ventilabon flex1ble air ducts are Identified by part number only
and are not coded.
Lines and ducts which are subject to temperatures exceeding 2so•c (Soo•F)
are tdenlified by part number on y and are not coded
Skydrol resistant hose assemblies are identified during manufacturing and do
not require colour coding.
Static and pttot system hoses are identified, by function as well as system.
with a marker of whtte acetate tape Imprinted with function
Hydraulic lines have addttional marking to Identify function and direction of flu· Coolant ~ Hydraulic 0 Lubrication 0
0
id flow within each line.
~ 0 0
No tdentiftcation is required on lines installed in integral fuel tanks.
~ 0 0
0

~ o~ 0
~
0
blue bl~!e yellow 0 yelfow 0
* Hydraulic line - Blue yellow D c.
I:;.
Breathi11g De-Icing
* Breathing oxygen - Green D
Oxygen
D /:;./:;. r
* De icing - Grey
* Fire protection - Brown
D
D
grey
/:;. 1-
/:;./:;. J
J0
groen D {';

D rn''
Warntng Symbol
 Rigid Pipe Connections Figure 2: Flared Tubing

Secuons of ngod tubing can be JOt ned to another tube or to a fotung by several meth- Single Flare Double Flare
ods These onclude songle and double-flare connectors, nareless connectors, or a
hose and clamps over a beaded tube (see TtVe Screw Type Hose Clamps· on
page 24)
The most common ones will be made of steel or alumomum alloy The type of fit-
tongs used ts determoned by the pressure range, the routong. and the matenal betng
used for the lines IMlenever you must replace a fttltng, make sure you select a
fitting made of the same material as the ongonal
PrecautiOns must be taken when seecbng fitllngs to prevent dlssomilar metal cor-
rosion from formmg

Tubing Flaring
Most of the metal tubing used in modern aorcraft Is connected to other tubing or to
components by flaring Its ends and using flare·type fittongs IMlen flanng tubing for
onstallahon in aircraft. be sure to us;, the correct naring tool AN fitltngs must be
nared woth a 37• angle and AC fittings woth a 35• angle

Double Flare
Due to omprovong of matenals and piptngs, double flare fitbngs are very seldom
seen these days Nevertheless, we will dtscuss about thts fitting
Tubtng made of 5052-0 and 6061-T alumomum alloy on sozes from 1/8 to 318mch
outside doameter should be flared with a double flare Double flares are smoother
than songle flares and are more con~ntric Also, the extra metal makes the flare
*** more resostant to the sheanng effect when the flttmgs are torqued
Flared Tube End Fittings Figure 4: MS Ftaretess Fitting
There are two types of nuts that may be used on a flared tube: the singlep1ece Preset Tool or
AN817 nut and the two-piece AN818 nut and AN819 sleeve Connector Fitting Nut Sleeve Tube
The AN817 nut cannot be used on tub1ng where there 1s a bend near the end The
AN818 nut and AN819 steeve comb1nation Is the preferred type of connector be-
cause it lessens the poss1bihty of reducing the th1ckness of the flare by the w1pmg
I
or ironing action when the nut is tightened. With the twopiece fittmg, there is no
relative motion between the fitting and the flare when the nut is being tightened.
Colours
Depending on the material, flared tube fittings do have different colours.
* Steel tube fittings are colored black.
AluminiUm alloy fittmgs are colored blue
Remember! On rigrd tubing, the outside diameter Is measured in increments
of 1/16 inch. Therefore, the matching nut for a tube diameter of 1/ 2 inch is,
as an example, an AN818 - 8 nul AI,

Figure 3: Flared Tube End Fittings

e:cH~AN 817 Nut AN818 Nul AN819Sie8Ye ASsembled

AN 818 • 819 Filling

MS Flare/ess Fittings
The fluid lines used in some of the high-pressure hydrauUc and pneumatiC systems
are so hard they are drfficult to flare without cracking, so a system of flaretess fit-
tings has been developed. These fittmgs consist of a body or a fitting, a steeve,
and a nut. The rnside of the fitting has a smooth counterbore, rnto which the end
of the tube fits. The taper at the mouth of the fitting prov1des the seat between the
fitting and the steeve, and the seal between the sleeve and the tube is provided by
the bite of the sleeve into the tube as shown in Figure 4.
MS ftareless fittings are attached to the end of the metal tubing by presetting the * In a proper flared fittings, there should be good seating between the flare
sleeve on the tube. Presetting puts enough pressure on the fitting to deform the
sleeve and cause it to cut into the outside or the tube. and nut
HMS Fitting by hydraulic pressure acting on dies Portable swageing tools are available that al·
low a technician to make permanent repa11s to ftuid lines installed in the a11craft by
Figure 5: Harrison Fitting: A modified, improved MS Fitting. cutting out the damaged section and splicing in a new section with swaged frttings.
Figure 6: Swaging Tool

Swaged A1<crah
fin•ng tubmg
'
I

Tube Tube

Brazed Sleeves and Fittings

On Engines, the connections or tubes are often brazed which means the sleeve is
brazed on the tube. The next Figure shows examples ?!_b~~~ed ~nnecti.~ns.
&RAZE

Hydraut.;
pressure
connection
8ENCH.BRAZED LINE ASSEM8UES

Figure 7: Swaged Fitting

@_
SmGL£ ESCAPE.MrNT
UAlEO SU:EV£

U"ZEO lEE II<TUSECTION

Swaged Tube Fittings

Modern h•gh-performance aircraft that have high-pressure hydrauliC and pneumat-
ic syslems often use swaged fittings on the rigid tubing used In these systems. To
join two tubes with a swaged fitting, the ends of the tubes are cut square and the
swaged fitting IS slipped over them. The fitting is swaged, or forced into the tube,
Fluid Line Fittings
The size of fitttngs used with Ouid lines is indicated by the dash numbers following
the MFG number of the fitting. These dash numbers are in 1/16-lnch tncrements
for the outside diameter of the rigid tube the fitting matches. For exampte. a -6 fit-
ting Is for a 3/8-lnch tube.
The stze of pipe fittings relates to the inside diameter of an tron pipe that has these
threads on its outside.
Pipe Fittings
Many of the fittings that connect a ftuid line to a component such as a pump or
valve have tapered ptpe threads on the end that screw into the component.
AN816 nipple as shown in Figure 8 has on one side the tapered pipe thread and
on the other end the standard Oare cone and thread that fit an AN818 nut
When installing a fitting having pipe threads. start the fitting into the hole for about
one tum, and then put a small amount of thread lubricant on the second thread
from the end. Screw the fitting into the hole and tighten it snugly. If the fitting is be-
ing screwed into an aluminium casting, it is posstble that over tightening can cause
the tapered threads to crack the casting.
Figure 8: Pipe Fittings
AN 118Nt.ll
AN816Fitbflt
Universal or Bulkhead Fittings
Some components. such as selector valves and actuator cylinders use fittings Wlth
double threads such as those on the AN804 Tee as shown in Figure 8. A nut is
screwed onto the fitting above the cutout portion of the threads. A Teflon ring and
an 0-ring gasket are slipped over the end threads and mto the groove. The fitttng
is screwed into the housing until the 0 -ring contacts the housing and then screwed
an additional amount needed to properly align the fitting with the ltnes that are to
connect wtth it. Hold the fitting and turn the nut down until it contacts the housing
This will force the 0-nng into the chamfered edge of the hole to provide the fluid-
tight seal.
Metal Seal Fitting
There are many types of metal-seal fittings: unions, reducers and plugs. It is nec-
essary that the metal-seal fittmg touches against the surface of the boss to seal
correctly The new metal-seal fittings have an 0-Rtng and a backup ring. The met-
al-seal fittings with a secondary seal are Identified by notches on the edges of the
hex flats.
Figure 9: Metal Seal Fitting
AN and AC Flared Tube Fittings Many or the airplanes built during World War II used AC fittrngs which are similar
to the AN fitting. However. there is enough drfference that they are not inter-
Flared tube fittings are available in many configurations. The AN816 nipple and
changeable AN fittings have a short shoulder between the end of the flare cone
AN822 elbow are used to connect a Oared tube or a flexible hose to a component and the begrnnrng of the threads. The older AC fittings do not have this recess.
with tapered pipe threads. The AN821 elbow and AN815 union are used to join
Steel AN fittings are colored black, and aluminium alloy AN fittrngs are colored
nared tubes or nexrble hose The A '1820 cap and AN806 plug are used to seal
blue. AC fittings are colored erther gray or yellow.
tines and fittings to keep dirt and contamrnants out or the system.
~ AC fittings are seldom used these days.
Figure 10: AN Flared Tube Fittings

Figure 11: AN and AC Flared Type Fittings

.... ....... .......

·-.. -----~ -~:

AN 820

AN 816 .',...·' ....... . AN806

~=r~~~:~~p··
:f.'.'.":=.=.\
~: ·:;·::::.:·;·.-~1 1::.:-..
AN 816
.·-..................
.. ---·--... ---~.
~
.. .·,.
; t '

.
i====::=~

··!-······-..

AN 821 AN 822
Bobbins Make sure that you install the parts m the correct posrtion and in this se-
quence·
Bobb1ns are often used in modem hydraulic systems. They are used to assemble
different components together to transfer fluid between them. install the back-up rings 1n the grooves before you install the seals
install the 0-nng on the identification groove side of lhe bobbin (manifold
Figure 12: Assembli ng of Bobbins side)

(!] Get the seal mstaliation tool applicable to the d1ameter of the bobbin Install
the bobbin on the tool.
Lightly apply Common Grease on the 0 -ring (or the square seal) or Immerse

Packing~ the 0-rlng (or the square seal) into Hydraulic Fluids.
Note:
Backup Ring( ! ) If you lubricate the seal wtth hydraulic ftuids it is necessary to immerse the seal into
hydraulic fluid for a mtnimum of a quarter of an hour before you install it on the bob-

Bobbin~
bin.
Slide the 0-ring (or the square seal or the back-up ring) onto the sleeve until
it touches the conical end of the sleeve
Make sure that the 0 -ring (or the square seal or the back-up nng) is in the cor-
d) rect posibon wtthout any torsion or damage.
Align the bobbin with its housing and slide the bobbin into its housing.
(1) Remove the tool.
~ I ~ Make sure that the groove side of the bobbin is installed into the manifold

Figure 13: Seal Installation

Installation of the 0-ring, t h e Square Seal and the Back-up Rings

The following procedure describes the installa tion of the different rings on a bob-
bin:
Note that operators could cut the back-up nngs to make their installation on bobbin
easier. But back-up rings incorrectly cut can cause leaks. To prevent this, back-up
rings are delivered cut and we strongly recommend their use
Make sure that the parts you install are not damaged
Charge Valves Figure 15: Application of a Schrader Valve
There are dozens of different charge vaJves made. to cover a large vanety of ap-
phca!Jons The most famous destgn3!Jon in av1auon bus1ness IS the Schrader"'
Valve 01fferent matenals are used for maktng the d1fferent Valve Cores These
valves. as shown below are moslly Lsed for h'9h pressure appilcaltons such as 1n
hydraulic systems mtrogen accumulators or land1ng gear shock absorbers.
To open or close the valve. the nut must be rotated wtth a 314" spanner
~ Do not overtorque s1nce the valve could be damaged!

Figure 14: Schrader Valve Sectional View

Figure 16: Open and Close configuration

Quick-Disconnect Fittings Figure 18: Qulck-Oisconnect Aircraft--side
It is often necessary to actuate a hydrauhc system w1t~out runmng the a1rcraft en-
g•nes Th1s IS usually done wrth pr~sure supplied by a ground-power uM(GPU)
Alfcrafl-slde ground connecbons are proVIded to conntct to the GPU To prevent
loss of fluid when mak1ng th•s cha~e. the lines to the pump are fitted with quick-
d•soonnect fittings such as the ones shown 1n F!Qure 17
When the Iones are disconnected, the spnngs 1nslde both hailles of the fitting pull
the poppet valves llghUy mto the1r seats and seal-<>ff the Iones When the Iones are
connected, plungers '" each filling meet and force the poppets off of thelf seats
allowmg fluid to now freely through the fitt1ngs
Figure 17: Quick-Disconnect Fittings

~
~
p_,
Ptungot

vn..n t"'.ngs ••• -·!he~

lhtotSUI"
-POill>el- "'lNNY on
Flexible Flu id Lines Flexible Fluid Line Identification
Flexible Fluid Unes (Hoses) deliver fluid and gas to various systems. Lay Line
They carry. The flexible hose 1s marked with yellow. white, black or red str~ runmng the length
Hydraulic fluid of the hose.
Oil Along this line, Information is needed to idenllfy the hose:
Fuel Specification number
Water Manufacturers name and/or symbol
Oxygen Year and quarter of manufacture
Flexible fluid lines are used extensively on aircraft to connect stationary parts to Dash number
moving parts and in areas of high vibration. Additional infos such as the word "Skydrol"

Flexible Hose Construction and Material * This lay lme not only Identifies the hose but also indicates if the hose is twisted dur-
ing installation. When installed properly. the line Will run straight and not spiral
Flexible hose construction generally consists of an inner liner covered with layers around the hose as shown in Figure 20.
of reinforcement to provide strength. and an outer cover to protect from physical
damage. Fig ure 20: Lay Line
The materials and manufacturing process of each layer determme the suitability of
a specific hose for a particular application. Correct Installed
Hoses a re made of Butyl Rubber"", Synthetic (Silicone) Rubber or Teflon"'
with sta1nless steel reinforcement to meet the system requirements of low, med1um
and h1gh pressure.
( Y\.HI~!;<t•f.1r..MR:J
(G
For hoses used with petroleum products. the inner liner in made from synthetic
rubber and outer braid is grey black.
For hoses used with Phosphate Ester Fluids, as e.g. Skydrol"'". the inner liner in lncorrect lnslalled(Twisled)
made from synthetic butyl rubber or Teflon rM and the outer braid is green.
On the landing gear assembly's, high-pressure type hoses are installed and
equipped w ith corrosion resistant fitllngs.
( -""' ft·~ .. &,.. ...f .....,..o __
~
Figu re 19: Flex Hose Constru ction
Size Designation
Like ngld tubing, a dash number 1nd1cates the tube diameter.
MIL -H -8;'94 SIZE·6·2. 92 AIFG SYAIECL
The size of flexible hose is approximately its inside d1ameter in 1/1 6-inch incre-
ments. This refers to the outside diameter of a rlg1d tube thai has the equivalent
flow characteristics For example, a -8 hose has flow characteristics equivalent to
a piece of -8. or 1/2-lnch (8/16) rigid tub1ng The inside diameter of the hose 1S not
exactly 1/2-inch. It rs slightly smaller to allow for the tube wall thickness
Types of Flexible Pipes Medium Pressure Hose
While a1rcraft hoses are manufactured for various applications, the types of hoses Made with a seamless inner tube and a cotton braid impregnated with a rubber
are normally classified by the amount of pressure they are designed to w1thstand. type compound to securely bond the single steel braid to the inner tube.
Over the steel bra1d reinforcement IS placed a braid of rough oil resistant cotton.
These Include low-pressure, medium-pressure. and high-pressure
Figu re 22: Medium Pressure Hose
L o w Pre ssure H o se
These hose Is mainly used for low-pressure instrument air
Made with a seamless inner tube and a reinforcement made of a single layer of
colton braid.
An outer cover of ribbon or smooth rubber is used to protect the reinforcement
from physical abrasion
Figure 21 : Low Press ure Hose

i1fgu3u; w - Dash Size

-3
Size J.D.

1/8
Max. Operating Press(PSt)

3000
-4 3/16 3000

Dash Size Size J.D. Max. Operating Press(PSI) ·5 1/4 3000

·2 1/8 600 -6 5/16 2000

-3 3/16 500 ·8 13/32 2000

-4 1/4 400 ·10 1/2 1750

-6 3/8 300 ·12 5/8 1500

-8 1/2 250 -16 718 800

·10 5/8 250 -20 1·1/8 600

High Pressure Hose Teflon Hoses
Two or more steel bra1ds are used and the outer cover on hose IS smooth. A seamless inner liner of Teflon is covered with stainless steel braid for medium
For hoses used with petroleum products the inner liner is made from synthetic rub- pressure as shown in F1gure 24 or w1th a double spiral wrap for highpressure ap-
ber and other cover is black with a yellow lay hne plications as shown in Figure 25.
For hoses used wtth skydrol products the inner liner is made from synthetic butyl Teflon IS not effected by·
rubber and outer cover is green.
The lay line is withe. Fuels
Oil
Figure 23: High Pressure Hose
Coolants
Solvents
Figure 24: Medium Pressure Teflon Hose

Dash Size Size 1.0. Max. Operating Press(PSI)

-4 7/32 3000
Figure 25: High Pressure Teflon Hose
-6 11/32 3000
-8 7/16 3000
-10 9/16 3000
-12 11/16 3000
-16 718 3000
Flexible Hose End Fittings
Flexible hoses may be equipped with either swaged or replaceable end fittmgs If
a hose having swaged fittings 1s damaged, the ent1re hose must be replaced with
one carrying the same part number or one that is approved by the aircraft manu-
facturer as a replacement
Replaceable end fittings consist of three Nut Socket
p1eces:
a nut
a nipple
and a socket
 Fuel Lines Figure 26: Fuel Co uplings

Fuel lines are made from sta1nless steel. 'Nhere hoses are requ1red, the hose must TYPE A
*be made out of fire resistant material. As a common rule, self locking line connec-
tions are used inside the fuel tanks. W1re locked connections are used 1n fuel lines
outside the fuel tanks.
However, always consult the applicable maintenance manual.

Fuel System Couplings

Fuel p1pe ends are flared or beaded to accept the spectfied type of coupling.
Standard pipe couplings are available 1n s1zes up to 2 .S1nches diameter and these
are often used In aircraft fuel systems 'Nhere flexiblllty is required In joints be-
* cause of flight loads and temperature variations, specially designed couplings may
be used. A few of them are shown In Figure 26.

TYPE~
Flexible Couplings Figure 27 : Flexible Couplings
Sketch (A) shows a couplmg which has provision for a certain amount of misalign- Split Retalnel
ment as well as both angular and axial movement of the pipes The pipe ends are
beaded. and the surfaces wtthin the joint are smooth and polished. so that the
seals may shde freely over the ptpes
A spht retainer encloses the beads. When the coupling nut ts bghtened on the
body. the 0-rings a re squeezed between the gland washern and the split retatner.
and expand to form a seal between the body and the pipes.
Sketch (8) shows a coupling whtch is less flexible, but which has provision for a
limtted amount of misalignment and movement.
When the inner and outer sleeves are screwed together. pressure is applied to the
split collars and the rubber seal is squeezed out to form a seal between the inner
sleeve and pipe beads.

Outer Sleelle Inner Sleeve

Gamah Coupling
A Gamah Coupling"' IS a precis10n item used 1n all types of a1rcratt. m1sslle and
space systems where absolute seah1g IS requ1red They are des1gned Hexible and
are mostly used 1n fuel systems * Gamah coupling mostly used in fuel system
Figure 28: Gamah Coupling * Rubber O-ring or D-ring creates the seal in a Gamah coupling?
Zero Gap
(at One Point Only)

Bondong Strap -...

-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _...
Pneumatic and Air System Pipes Figu re 29: Low Pressure T-Bolt Clamp and Coupling Flanges

General
Ducts are mainly used to transfer a" from one point to another. Ducts carry differ·
ent sorts or air to and from venous systems.
Engine bleed atr (High and low pressure)
De-tcing system
Air condihonlng
Cabin pressurisation
Ventilation
Ambient air
These ducts a re made from·
Slatnless steel
Titanium
Aluminium alloy in a wide range of configurations Flange Clamp Flange
Ducts require break pomt to facllttate both Installation of ducts and maintenance.
These break points are usually provided by installing flanges or hoses on each end Figure 30: High Pressure V-Band Clamp
ofducting
Holding the flanges and duct sections together is done with dtfferent kind of clamps
and couplings. Care is requtred in assembly handling and installallon of ducts that
requires special clamps and couplings. Keep protective covers tn place at all times
on prectston flanges and preciston mating surfaces!

V-Band Clamps and Couplings

These are high temperature, high pressure couplings used in engine bleed pneu-
matic systems. pressurisation and atr conditioning systems. They may be made
from statnless steel, lnconel or Titanium.
Each coupling usually consists of a single metal clamp and two precision formed
metal flanges which are welded to the ends of the duel secltons
Some couplings provide a metal to metal seal wrthout the use or a gasket as
shown in Figure 29. The coupling can be repeatedly dtsconnected and reconnect-
ed without affectmg Its design leakage rate. Other couplings incorporate metal
sealing gaskets Low-pressure ccuplings incorporate 0-rings as shown in
Ftgure 30 and Figure 31

* Janitrol T-bolt clamp is used to connect hot air ducts

Figure 31 : Pressure Joints

Clamp Strap Locking Thang

Janitrol Clamp

Check
at Clearance
"A" on b th .d ~~ Maxtmum
. Clearance
0 st e "A" 0.015 Inch

~
D'ctfloogo .
Flange ~\
O·Rmg Duct
,---1' ~ '_
_ __
Corrujoint Seal

f ' \
Figure 32: Janitrol "" Clamps with and without Locking Pin Flange and Sleeve Coupling

Boll Suppon
* ature,pressure
Flange and sleeve couplings are often used where the ducts move due to temper-
or structural motion They are equipped wrth one or two gaskets.
Two cables or rods are tnstalled to prevent the ducts from slipping out of the
sleeve.
Figure 33: Flange and Sleeve Coupling

Support
Screw Type Hose Clamps
Large d1ameter lines carrying low-pressure a1r etc may be joined w1th a rubber
hose sllpped over the ends of the tube and held in place with screw type hose
clamps. Rubber hoses are often used on the air distribution system in the cabin or
in the lavatory system. The ends of the tubes being jomed must be beaded After
the hose Is slipped over the beads, the hose clamps are centred between the ends
ot the hose and the beads.
Figure 34: Hose Clamp Installation
6.7 Springs
Introduction Characteristics of Springs
Many advances have been made in the spring industry 1n recent years. Helical Sprmgs do have a linear spring-charadenstic a s shown in Figure 1. Ta-
pered or conical Springs do have a progressive charactensllc as shown in
For example·
Developments In matenals permit longer fatigue life at h1gher stresses. simplified Figure 2.
design procedures reduce the complexities of des1gn and 1mprove methods of Figure 1: Characteristic of a Helical Spring
manllfacture help to speed up some of the complicated fabncatlng procedures and
Increase production. 600
New types of testing instruments ano revised tolerances also permit higher stand- kn
ard of accuracy. 500

Types of Springs
The more commonly used types of springs are.
Extension Spring
CompresSIOn Spring
Torsion Spring
Torsion bars
Special types and designs rarely used mciUde:
Volute Springs 40 60 80 nrn tOO
Tr&VIJI Strole•
Belleville Washers
Constant Force, Ring and Spiral Springs Figure 2: Characteristic of a Conical Spring
and those made from rectangular Wire 600
Hel1cal Springs can be both· kn
Extension Springs 500
Compression Springs

Spring Ends
,,
There are many ends on springs~ Two are shown in the figure below. nt-'J "-300
~
l Hookends l f Ground ends ~
& 200 ~-----"'~--~
tOO

r111111M 60
Travel Stroke
80 mm tOO
Extension Spring Compression Spring
Generally. extension Springs are manufactured pre-stressed that the windings are
Helical
straight together On both ends, there are formed eyes or hooks. The real spring-
action begins, when the applied force is bigger than the pre-stressed force of the Th1s spring is des1gned to withstand compressron loads. Th1S
spring. spnng has a wide vanety of applications from heavy duty springs

,:oo
used m land.ng gear systems to very small prec1s1on made
Figure 3: Characteristic of an Extension Spring springs used in Instrumentation One disadvantage of this sping
* is a condition called 'fioat'. This is where the frequency of com-
pression equals the resonant frequency of the spnng and im-
pedes Its etfecllveness. To overcome this problem install two
springs of different diameter one ms1de the other In this way the
resonant frequency of one of the springs may be reached but the
"1 2 other spring will still be able to operate effectively.

2 * ground
The end of a helical compress1on spring may be ground or un-
The advantage of a ground end is that when the sp·ing
0 6 12 ..,.,s
is placed on a nat surface (such as a washer) the spring stands perpendicular The
disadvantage of this type of spring end is that the diameter of the spring material
is reduced, weakening the end of the spring In add1Uon this type of end is more
expensive to manufacture. The unground end is easier to manufacture and is less
expensive but as the end of the spring is not nat. special fittings have to be manu-
factured to accommodate the spring ends
Figure 4: Helical and Conical Compression Spring

F,_321<N
Figure 5: Application of a Compression Spring on a RAT Torsion Spring
Torsion. by definition means an external stress that produces tw1sting w1th1n a
body.It is commonly used in twisted movements
The most commonly used types of ends for torsion spnngs are:
Hook
Hmged
Straight Offset
Straight Torsion
To produce these types o f springs requires only limited tooling.
Figure 6: Torsion Springs

C)OO'd
•
Stowed position

Hinged S1taighl Olfsel Hook SlraighiTOISion

Torsion Bar
Torsion Bars are mainly made of round spring steel. Usually, the ends are
thoothed You can find Torsion Bars for example on a bulk cargo door as a balanc-
ing mechanism.
Figure 7: Torsion Bar
Figure 8: Application of a Torsion Bar shown on a Bulk Cargo Door

HJN6t AM

;~ENstON HJNG£ F1TTIN6

 Nickel Base Spring Alloys with Constant Modulus of Elasticity
Some speaal nickel alloys have a constant modulus of elasticity over a wide tem-
perature range These are especoally useful where spnngs undergo temperature
changes and must exhobot unoform spnng charactenslles
These matena1s have a tow or zero thennoetaslle coeffiCient and therefore do not
undergo vanabons on spnng stiffness because of modulus changes due to temper-
ature dofferenbals
Applications
High Carbon Spring Steels in Wire Form They also have low hysteresis (matenal elasbclty) and creep ~a lues whrch makes
These spnng steels are the most commonly used of all spnng mater.als because them preferred for use in·
they are the least expensive. are easily worked, and are readoly available. Howev- Food weogh1ng scales
er. Ihey are not satisfactory for springs operating at high or low temperature or for Precision Instruments
shock or Impact loading. Gyroscopes
High Carbon Spring Steels in Fl at Strip Form Measuring dev1ces
Two types of thin. nat. hogh carbon spring steel stnp are most wodely used although Recordong 1nstruments
several other types are obtainable for specific apphcabon on watches. clocks. and CompuUng scales where the temperature ranges from- 50 to+ 150 degrees
certaon onstruments. Fahrenheot
These matenals are very expensive
Alloy Spring Steels
These spnng steels are used for co'ldrbons of high stress and shock or impact
loadong They can wothstand both hogher and lower temperatures than the hogh car-
*Hook Failure
The great ma)Onty or breakages on extensoon spnngs occur 1r1 the hool<s Hooks
bon steels and are obtainable in e11her the annealed or pre tempered condlt1011S are subjected to both bend1ng and torsoonal stresses and h3ve hogher stresses
The most common alloys are: U1dll thtl cull~ on the springs.
Chromium Vanadoum
Silicon Manganese
Chromoum S1hcon
Stainless Steel Ouranickel Type
This alloy contains 98% nockel. It 1s non-magnetic, corros1on resostant. has a high
tens11e strength and os hardenable.
Nickel Base Spring Alloys
Nickel base alloys are corrosiOn resJStant. Withstand both elevated and sub zero
temperatures and theor non magnetic charactenslle mal<es them useful for such
applocabons as gyroscopes chronos:opes anclondJCabng onstruments
6.8 Bearings
To quote the dictionary ·a bearing is a means of support of movmg part of a ma· Figure 1: Bearing Loads
chme· In our case beanngs support moving parts of a1rcraft. e1ther •n aircraft en-
gines. wheels that rotate at h19h speeds or 1n control systems that have relatively
small angular movements l ! J
There are many vanants of beanngs. but the ma•n types are as ro11ows
Ball Beanng
ROller Beanng
Pla•n or Shell Type Bearings
Ball and roller beanngs are used where a h1gh degree of rehab• lily and precision is
required
The advantages are·
Low fnctionalloss
W1de range of loads may be accepted
Bearing Arrangement
S1mple lubrication requirements
When shafts are supported w1th two or more beanngs. only one bearing g1ves the
The service hve of a beanng depends of the RPM Ball and Roller beanngs are axial guidance to the shaft These are called ''thrust or locatmg bearing" The other
sensitrve against shock loads and vibrations. beanngs are noahng and support only radial Due to different tilermal expansitiv1ty
between the shaft and the cas1ng, the radiSI support bearings have to be move-
Loads on Bearings able F1gure 2 on page 2 and Figure 3 on page 3
Beanngs used on the a1rcraft that prO'Iide slld1ng contact between mabng surfaces
are designed to operate under two main loads Figure 2: Locating and Floating Bearing
Thrust loads ••
Rad1al loads
In addrtlon to this. neat1y an a1rcraft beanngs are subjected to shOd<. loads.

Material
Locating or Floating
The material of which nngs and rolhng elements are made IS normally a low-al- Thrust Bearing Bearing
loyed. through-hardening chrom1um steel with a h1gh punty. and a hardness of
58...65 HRC Rockwell. wh1ch is identified by the deslgnalton 100Cr6 (tool steel)
n Read more about Rockwell Hardness
U on Page 20m Sub Module 6.1 "Aircraft Material- Ferrous•.
Figure 3: Bearing Arrangement on a Gas Turbine Engine

-,

DIFFUSER LOW·
LOW-PRESSURE HIGH·PRESSURE AND PRESSURE
COMPRESSOR COMPRESSOR COMBUSTOR TURBINE
Rolling Bearing Components tolerance of one grade is very slight The generatnces of cyhrdncal rollers and ta-
pered rollers have a logarrthm1c profile The centre part of the generatrix of a nee-
Rolltng beanngs generally conSlst of dle roller •s straight . and the ends are slightly crowned This ~rofile prevents edge
beanng nngs (onner nng and outer nng stresstng when under load
nng). rolltng elements whteh roll on tile
raceways of the nngs and a cage
which surrounds the rolling elements
The lubriCant (usually lubncabng
grease or lubncaling 011) also has to be
regarded as a rolling beanng compo-
nent as a beanng can hardly operale
without a lubricant Seals are also in-
creasongly bemg integrated into tile
beanngs 8 -iilll-
Rolling Elements
Rolling elements are class1fied, acco·d1ng to the1r shape, mto balls. cylindrical roll-
ers needle rollers, tapered rollers ard barrel rollers
Figure 4: Rolling Elements

0 D Ball Cylindrical
roller
Needle
roller

D O D
Taper Symmetrical Asymmetncal
roller barrel roller barell roller

The rolling elements' functiOn is to transmtt the force acting on the beanng from
one ring to the other For a htgh load carrying capac1ty it 1S 1mportant that as many
rolling elements as posstble. wh1ch are as large as posstble. are accommodated
between the beanng nngs Thetr number and s1ze depend on the cross secbon of
the beanng It IS JUSt as Important for loadab1hty that the roll1ng elements wrth1n the
beanng are of lden~cal SIZe Therefore they are sorted accord•ng to grades. The
Bearing Rings
The beanng nngs- onner nng and outer ring- gu1de the rolhng elements in the di-
rection of rotation. Race way grooves. lips and inchned runntng areas guide the
rollers and transmtt axtal loads in transverse direction. Cyhndncal roller bearings
and needle roller bearings have lips only on one beanng ling; they can, therefore,
accommodate shaft expansions as floating bearings.
Figure 5: Bearing Rings
a a a Machined Cages
a • raceways
b • lips
The two rings of separable rolling beanngs can be mounted separately. This is of
advantage if both bearing rings have to be mounted w1th a tight fit Separable bear-
ongs include, e.g. four point bearings. double-row angular contact ball bearings
with a split ring, cylindrical roller bearings, needle roller beanngs, tapered roller
beanngs, thrust ball bearings, cylindrical roller thrust beanngs and spherical roller
thrust bearings. Non-separable bearings include. e.g deep groove ball bearings,
single-row angular contact ball bearings. self-aligning ball bearings, barrel roller
bearings and spherical roller bearings.
Cages
Functions of a cage:
to keep the rolling elements apart so thatlhey do not rub agatnst each other
to keep the rolling elements evenly spaced for uniform load diStribution
to prevent rolling elements from falling out of separable bearings and bearings
which are swiveled out
to guide the rolling elements m the unloaded zone of the bearing
The transmissiOn of forces is not one of the cage's functions Cages are classified
Into pressed cages, machined cages and moulded cages.
Pressed Cages
Pressed cages are usually made of steel, but somet1mes of brass, too. They are
lighter than machtned metal cages. Smce a pressed cage barely closes the gap
between Inner nng and outer nng, lubricant can easily penetrate Into the bearing
It is stored at the cage.
Machined cages of metai and textile laminated phenolic resin are made from tubes
of steel, light metal or textile laminated phenolic resin. or cast brass rings.
These cages are ma1nly eligtble for bearings of which small series are produced.
To obtain the required strength, large. heavily loaded bearings are fitted with ma-
chined cages. Machmed cages are also used where lip gU1da1ce of the cage Is re-
qwed. L1p-gwded cages for htgh-speed beanngs are in many cases made of light
materials such as hght metal or textile lamtnated phenohc resin to keep the forces
of gravity low.
Moulded Cages
Moulded cages of polyamide 66 are produced by Injection moulding and are used
m many large-series beanngs. Injection mouldmg has made it posstble to realize
cage des1gns with an especially high load carrytng capac1ty. The elasticity and low
weight of the cages are of advantage where shock-type bearing loads. great ac-
celerations and decelerations as well as tilting of the bearing rings relative to each
other have to be accommodated Polyamide cages feature very good sliding and
dry running propertieS
Cages of glass fibre reinforced polyamide can be used at operating temperatures
of up to +120 'C for extended periods of time. In oil-lubricated beanngs. additives
contatned in the oil may reduce the cage life. AI increased le'llperatures. aged oil
may also have an impact on the cage life so that it 1s Important to observe the oil
change intervals.
Seals
The seal should, on the one hand. prevent the lubrocattng grease or oil from escap-
ing from the bearing and. on the other hand. prevent contaminants from entering
the bearing The effectiveness of a seal has a considerable influence on the serv-
Ice life of a bearing arrangement
Non-rubbing Seals
The only fnctoon ansmg wtth non-rullb~ng seals IS the lubncant rnctoon '" the lubn-
caOng gap. These seals can runcbon for a long bme and are SUitable even for very
htgh speeds Outside the beanng, gap-type seals or labyrinth seals may. for in-
stance be used Space-savtng seal ng elements are dust shtelds mounted 1n the
beanng Beanngs wtth dust shtelds are supplied With a grease filling
Figure 6: Non-rubbing Seals
Gap Type Seal Labyrinth Seal Dust Shields
Rubbing Seals
Rubbtng seals contact their metallic runnmg surfaces under a oertatn force The
tntenstty of the resulting tnctiOn depends on the magnttude a thts force, the lubn-
catmg condttiOn and the roughness of the runn•ng surface. as well as on the shdtng
veloCity
Felt nngs prove partiCUlarly successful With grease lubncatoo1
Radtal shaft seals are above all used at oil lubncatJOn
V-nngs are hp seals With aJual effect which are frequently used as pre-seals en or-
der to keep d•rt away from a radtal shaft seal
Beanngs wtth •ntegrated seal~ng washers allow the construcbon of pla1n des;gns
Figure 7: Rubbing Seals
Felt Seal Radllll Shaft Seal
V-Rtng Sealtng Washers
 Lubrication
The ma1n objective of lubncation 1S t:> prevent metal-to-metal contact between the
bearing nngs and the rolling elements by means of a lubricant film. In th1s way,
wear and premature rolling beanng latigue are avoided. In add1tion. lubrication re-
duces the development of noise and fnction. thus improving the operating charac-
teristics of a bearing Additional fune.ions may include protection against corrosion
and heat dissipation from the bearing.
Usually, bearings are lubricated with grease or oil: in rare cases, e.g where very
high temperatures are involved, dry lubricants are also used.

Grease Lubrication
Grease lubrication 1s used for about90% of all rolling bearings
The main advantages of grease lubrication are:
a very simple design
it enhances the sealing effect
long service life but little maintenance is reqUired
With normal operating and enVIronmental conditions. for-life grease lubrication is
often possible.
If a bearing is heavily stressed (load, speed, temperature), suitable relubrication
intervals must be scheduled.

Oil Lubrication
011 lubricetion is the obvious solubon for applications where adjacent machine el-
ements are already supplied with oil or where heat has to be removed by means
* of the lubricant. Heat can be removed by circulating substantial oil volumes. It may
be required where high loads and/or high speeds have to be accommodated or
where the bearings are exposed to external heating.
With oil throwaway lubrication, e.~ oil mist lubrication or oil-air lubrication. the
bearing friction is kept low.
Types of Bearings and Applications Tapered Roller Bearing
Note that 1n th1s type of beanng, the axes of the bear.ng rollers are not parallel to
Ball Bearings the shaft they are supporting and the beanng will accept rad1al loads and axJSI
loads In one dlfectton
Th•s os the most common type of beanng used on an a•rcraft A ball beanng as-
sembly normally cons1sts of an inner and outer race or shells wh•ch are the sup- The proportiOns of the loads the beanng has to carry w•ll determine the degree of
taper The greater the aXJalload the greater the taper.
porting element of the bearing and a set of balls that •s secured between the two
races *
A typtcal apphcabon for tapered beanngs are wheels as shown 1n Ftgure 8 and
Th1s type of beanog IS desJgned to operate under conhnuous rotary COnditions. FIQure 9
and IS des•gned to take rad•al and thrust loads or a combination of both.
* Tapered roller bearing is normally used on wheels
Figure 8: Tapered Bearing Application
There are two types of ball bearings n general use, the caged type and the crowd-
Wheel-half assy Wheel-hall assy
ed type
outer
Caged Ball Bearings y

In general, this beanng is used for eng1ne applications and for eqUipment with ro- I
tat•onal speeds in excess of 100 R.?.M When used within eng.nefgearbox cas-
Ings they are lubricated w1th engine oil supplied by Jets or by splash. When used
outside casings, they are lubricated by the apphcat1on of grease, wh1ch may be ap-
plied at spec•fied •ntervals by grease gun, or they may be of the pre-packed type
where lubrlcaUng grease is packed and sealed 1nto the beanng on assembly
Some caged ball bearings can be dtSmanUed Tapered
roller bearing
Crowded Ball Bearings
ThiS beanng has filhng slots .n one or both races and has no cage or separator
The balls therefore touch each other dunng operatiOn, hence the term "crowded.
They are suttable only where slow rotabon or port rotDbon (osctllahons) are found,
and are usually of the sealed or pre-packed type
Crowded ball beanngs usually cannot be dismantled

Roller Bearings
Roller bearings are normally classified by two types, stra•ght roller or tapered roll-
er Their use will depend on the requ~rements of the a~rcraftfengine des1gners.
Straight Roller Bearing
Stra•ght roller beanngs are used when they are subjected to rad•al loads only
whereas tapered roller bearings are subJected to both rad1al and thrust loads
Figure 9: Tapered Bearing Application Loads on Tapered Roller Bearing
This type of bearing produces an axial or thrust force on the cone rib. It lllerefore
requires good lubrication at high speed to prevent wear. Tapered roller bearings
are very often fitted In pairs witl1 the cone ends facing each other to balance out
the axial thrust

Needle Roller Bearing

This type of bearing would not be used on the main rotating assembly of a gas tur-
bine. as it is used where the loads are purely radial Typical locations would be the
end of a control shaft or universal coupling. In this environment, the movement is
oscillatory, that is, partial rotation in one direction then back in the opposite direc-
tion.
This form of bearing is used where space is lim1led, and the shaft which 1S being
supported acts as the inner race. The needle roller bearing is susceptible to brinel-
ling and there may be less lubricant due to lack of rotational movement
Different types of bearings are shown in Figure 10 on page 10.
 Figure 10: Different Types of Bearings

Radial bearing Thrust bearing

----1 ------+--

Ball
bearing

Deep groove ball bearing Angular contact Four point Sell-aligning Thrust Angular contact
ball bearing bearing ball bearing ball bearing thrust ball bearing
single row double row single row double row

Roller
bearing
R~
Cylindrical roller bearing
n H~ ~
Needle roller
bearing
Tapered roller
bearing
Barrel roller
beanng
Spherical roller
bearing
Ali
Cylindrical roller
thrust beanng
~
Spheric3l roller
thrust bearing

* Ball bearing - Thrust and radial loads

* Roller Bearing - Heavy radial loads
* Straight roller bearing - Radial loads only
* Tapered roller bearing - Axial (thrust) and radial loads
 Plain or Shell Type Bearings
Plain beanngs are stationary bearings and are used to support and surround a ro-
tating shaft This type of bearing is normally subjected to radoalloads only
Small holes are drilled through the shells to allow oil through for lubricating and
cooling purposes. This type of beanng is normally manufactured from non-ferrous
* metal, whoch is normally phosphor bronze.
Figure 11 : Plain Beari ngs
Control Rod Bearing
Although we have discussed bearings that are subjected to conbnuous rotary con-
dotions, there is one other type of bearing that you may encounter in aircraft main-
tenance. This is the control rod end bearing that may only be subjected to small
rotary travel, and is maonly used on control rod linkages
Bearings that do not rotate at high speeds usually use grease as a lubncant, as in
the case of control rod bearings.
Figure 12: Control Rod Bearing

Plain thrust bearing Plain radial bearing Combined radial and

thrust bearing

. tJtG)
Ool ~s
passag~

Shell bearing with oil passage Sell aligning plaon bearing

and anti rotation lips
 Fluid Damped Bearing
Th1s is also referred to as a squeeze Rim bearing. It has the form of a cylindrical
roller beanng and there will be a small space between the outer race and the bear-
Ing housmg This space 1s filled With oil from the pressure side of the lubncating
system
** The functJon of the bearing 1s to dampen out the dynam1c loads and the vibrahon
from the rotating assembly. The oil film, which acts as a cush1on, 1S just a few thou-
sandths of an inch thick. An example of where this type of bearing may be fitted
would be as a compressor or turbine support bearing. Figure 13 on page 12.
Figure 13: Fluid Damped Bearing
Bearing Identification
Bearings on gas turbine engines are not normally removed an:l inspected at rou-
hne mtervals. Depend1ng upon the location w1th1n the engme, they would be
changed only if they malfunction or the engine would be dispatched to an overhaul
facility for repair.
If the bearing can be changed by the operator, always ensure that the new beanng
has the same part number as the old one, or is an approved alternative. Reference
must always be made to the Illustrated Parts Catalogue (IPC) for the correct part
number.
Part numbers, identification marks. may be stamped on the thrust face of the bear-
ing.
The part numbers will also be printed on the sealed bag or container in which the
new bearing is dispatched from the manufacturer.
Types of Gears Helical Gear
This 1s a smoother, less no1sy running gear than the spur gear, the teeth are cut
Introduction on a curve or helix. whiCh produces a slidmg engagement of the teeth. and more
A gear ts a toothed wheel or disc, which meshes with another toothed wheel or than one tooth •s in engagement at any one ttme.
d1sc to transmit mobon. *** A disadvantage of this gear for ts that it produces a heavy axial load This disad·
Gears or gearing refer to a system. which transmits motion and often-heavy loads. vantage can be eliminated by using double helical gears. with the teeth being cut
The gears used on gas turbines are normally made of steel. in an opposite helix.
Where loads to be transmttted are ~ery light and quietness is required. synthetic An advantage of this type of gear IS that it can accept and transmtt a higher loading
resins and plastics, such as nylon, may be used for the manufacture of gears. This than a spur gear of the same size.
would be the case for gears used in instruments. Helical gears might be fitted in the reduction gearbox of a turbo prop engine or in
the gearbox of a ordinary car.
Spur Gear
Figure 2: Helical gears
This is the most common type of gear tooth shape, and would be fitted in the ac-
cessory gearbox of an engine.
The gear can be formed either internally or externally. An 1nternal gear would be
used where a change in speed is reqwed without changmg the axts of drive Ex-
ternal spur gears are used where a change in speed is required but the shafts lie
parallel to each other.
Spur gears may be noisy owing to the impact of the teeth upon each other as they
rotate.
Figure 1: Spur gears Single Double

* Helical gear is quieter than spur gears

* It will produce heavy axial loads

External Internal
Bevel Gear HypoidGear

This type of gear is used when the drive is required to be transm•tted through an
angle; in th•s case the gear teeth can be straight cut or in a helical fonn, when the
axis of the shafts intersecl
An example of use would be for the transmission of dnve from the main rotatmg
~ln•o
This is a type of bevel gear, which is used where a
change in speed is reqwed. but the ax1s of the
shafts do not intersect. This gear form is not normal·
ly used on gas turb.nes

~~~ar
assembly on a gas turbine to the accessory gearbox, or the tail rotor gearbox on
a helicopter
Figure 3: Bevel Gears
Hypoid gear pair with
hypold :ooth system

Worm Gear
Th1s gear form is used where there is a large resistance to turn-
Ing, and a large reduc!Jon in speed is reqwed. The worm teeth
are similar to a multi start thread. and are cut at an angle or on
the skew. in which case the gear may be called a skew gear.

Straight Spiral
Planetary Gear Figure 5: Planetary Gear
Planetary gear systems are typically used to reduce the propeller shaft speed on
more powerful aircraft eng1nes. This allows the eng me to turn at a higher. econom-
ic rpm and develop more power In a planetary gear system, the propeller mounts
on a spider like cage that holds the planetary gears. These planetary gears rotate
around a fixed central sun gear
In some planetary gear systems. the sun gear 1s the dnve gear and the ling gear Planetary gear With
is fixed 10 the nose section of the engine. In this situation. the planetary gears act fixed outer gear
as simple idler gears in the system. (Figure 5 on page 4)
Figure 4 : Planetary Gear on a Turbo Prop Engine

Reverse-now annular
combUstion chamber

Three-stage
axial turbine
(Outer gear)

Planetary gear w1th

fixedinnergear

First-stage
ceotrifugal
compressor
Spider

main function of planetary gear is to increase or decrease speed. Outer (ring) gear driven by engln~~ Axed Inner (sun) gear

* Outer gear - Ring gear

* Inner gear - Sun gear
 Nomenclature of Gears Gear Ratio
If the interconnected or 'meshed' gears have d1fferent radii and therefore a differ-
Pitch
ent number of teeth, the speeds of the two shafts will differ.
The distance between a face of a tooth to the next 1s called pitch and is measured Shaft speed is usually stated in "revolutions per minute• (rpm).
on the reference line.
We know that wllh geared drives the relative speeds of two meshed gears de-
Bac klas h or Tooth Clearan ce pends on the ratio of teeth on each gear.
Thts Is the lost motion between the gear teeth, and 1s the d1stance the gear teeth The convention for the 'gear ratio' of two meshed gears is:
1
must travel from drive in the forward direction to drive in the reverse dlfection. <jvt~.Jc :jlV~-"
~ Backlash must exist between gears, as il is essential to allow for thermal ex- Gear Ratio = Number of teeth on lft!'gc gear
*** ~ pansion and lubrication. Number of teeth on small gea,r
Figure 6: Technical Terms 111
regardless of whtch are the driving and driven gears. ' pJt jCuY

Figure 7: Gear Ratio

p Pitch c Bottom clearance

d Reference diameter h Depth of teeth Meshed gears
do Outside diameter ha Addendum
dr Root diameter hd Oedendum
Gear Trains Idler Gears
We are often concerned with 'gear trains' that have vanous arrangements of large Idler gears or also called intermed1ate gears are used between two other gears,
and small gears in sequence. ** e1ther to make an output gear rotate in the same direction as an input gear, or to
For ease of explanation we will accept that for gear trains, the gear rat10 is: link input and output gears when there IS a distance between them
Two meshmg gears always turn in oppos1te directions of rotalion Placing an idler
between them causes the input gear and the output gear to turn in the same direc-
tion. The presence of idler and the number of teeth on 1! make no difference to the
Gear Ratio= Number of teeth on driven gear (output) gear (or speed) ratio of 1nput gear to output gear Any idler gear is a driven gear
Number of teeth on driving gear (input) and also a dnving gear
Figure 9: Idler Gear
Figure 8: Gear Train
24T

Driven gear

Mechanical Advantage of Reduction and Multiplication Gear

Systems
Gears are used to gam mechanical advantage or to change the direction of move-
ment To gain a mechanical advantage when us1ng gears, the number of teeth on
either the dnve gear or dnven gear is varied For example, if both the drive gear
and the dnven gear have the Identical number of teeth, no mechanical advantage
is garned However, 1f a dnve gear has 50 teeth and a driven gear has 100 teeth a
mechanrcal advantage of 2 is gained In other words. the amount of power re-
quired to turn the drive gear Is reduced by half.
Mesh Patterns Figure 10: Mesh Pattern
Spur gears have the1r teeth cut stra ght across the1r Circumference and are used
to connect parallel shafts
VVhen both gears have external teet1, the shafts turn 1n oppos1te d1rec~ons If it •s
necessary for both shafts to tum 1n the same dlfect1on, one gear must have 1ntemal
teeth
Bevelled gears are used rf a dnve shaft and dnven shall are not parallel to each
other However, because the teeth on bevelled gears are extemal. the rotational
d1rec11on of each shaft IS opposite_
VVhen an extreme amount of mechantcal advantage IS needed. a worm gear IS
used A worm gear uses a spiral ridge around a shaft for the dnve gear with the
shafts usually at nght angle to each other One complete rotation of the dnve shaft
moves the driven gear one tooth
In a planetary gear system, the propeller mounts on a splder-hke cage that holds
the planetary gears These planetary gears rotate around a fixed central sun gear
In some planetary gear systems, the sun gear Is the dnve gear and the nng gear
1s fixed m the nose section of the engine. In this Situation, the planetary gears act
as s1mple Idler gears 1n the system.
Belt Drives Pulleys
See · Pulleys• on Page 12 in Sub Module 6.10.
'V' Belt Drive
This type of belted drive uses friction as a turning force That 1S to say that the belt Toothed Belt Drive
is VEE In shape and fits on to pulleys of the same correspond1ng shape. A further example of a belted dnve IS the toothed belt method. Th1s method uses
To ensure that mechamcal movement takes place it is Important to apply the cor- teeth buill1nto the belt and pulley, and the two are mated to provide a mechamcal
rect amount of tension to the belt so that it fits neatly Into the pulley. drive, s1milar to a rotating cog wheel.
Tension must still be applied to the belt to ensure that the bell and pulley teeth re-
Figure 11 : V-Belts main in mesh.
Figure 13: Synchronous Belt Drive

Figure 12: Belt Installation

Chains Figure 14: Roller Chain

Chains are used to change dtrection of control n.tns in systems where considerable Roller

~.rj=
force tS requtred, such as elevator controls
In addttion to the standard roller and Inverted tooth types, a wide variety of drive
chams of dtfferent construction are available.
Such chains are manufactured to degrees of precision ranging from unfinished
castings or forgings to chains having certain machined parts. Practically all of
these chains as well as standard roller chains can be equipped with attachments
to fit them for conveyor use.

Roller Chains
Widlh belween
tnoer plates / £l-o"""'"
/ "._Bearing pin
A roller chain is made up of two kinds of links: roller links and pin ltnks alternately
spaced throughout the length of the chain.
Roller chains are manufactured in several types, each destgned for the partlcular
service required. All roller chams are so constructed that the rollers are evenly
spaced, throughout the chain. Movtng
The outstanding advantage of this type of chain Is the ability of the rollers to rotate direclion
when contacting the teeth of the sprocket.
Two arrangements of roller chains are in common use. the single-strand type and
the multiple-strand type.
In the latter type, two or more chains are joined side by stde by means of common
pins. which maintain the alignment ol the rollers in the different strands.
A simple roller chain consists of
Outer and inner plates Detachable Chains
Rollers The links of this type of chain. which are identtcal, are easily detachable. Each has
Bearing pins a hook-shaped end in whtch the bar of the adJacent link articulates. They are avatl-
Bushes able in malleable iron or pressed steel. The chtef advantage is the ease with which
any link can be removed.
The chain has three prtncipal dtmensions (known as beanng dimensions since
they are related to the size of the wheels on which the chains n.tn}. these being: Cast Roller Chains
Pitch (distance between the centres of the rollers) Cast roller chains are constructed, wholly or partly, of cast mete/ parts and are
Width between inner plates avatlable in vanous styles
Roller diameter In general the rollers and stde bars are accurately made castings without machine
finish The links are usually connected by means of forged ptns secured by nuts
or cotter pins. Such chains are used for slow speeds and moderate loads. or where
the preclsJon of standard roller chains is not required
Pintle Chains Sprockets
Unlike the roller chain, the pintle chain is composed of hollow cored cylinders cast There are generally four d1fferent designs or types of roller chain sprockets:
or forged integrally with two offset side bars and each link idenbcal. with a pla1n plate
The hnks are JOtned by pins mserted In boles 1n the ends of the side bars and w1th a hub on one side
through the cored holes in the adjacent links. Lugs prevent turmng of the pins In
w1th a hub on both sides
the Side bars and thus ensure articulation of the chain between the pin and the
cored cylinder. with a detachable hub
Also used are shear pin and slip clutch sprockets designed to prevent damage to
Figure 15: Roller Chain attached to a Control Cable
the drive or to other equipment caused by overloads or stalling.
Figure 17: Sprockets/Chain Wheels

Plain Plate Hub on one side

Figure 16: Chain drive

Hub on both side detachable Hub

Sprocket Manufacture
Cast sprockets have cut teeth, and the rim, hub face and bore are machined. The
smaller sprockets are generally cut from steel bar stock and are finished all over.
Sprockets are often made from forgings or forged bars. The extent of finishing de-
pends on the particular specifications that are applicable. Many sprockets are
made by welding a steel hub to a steel plate.
Figu re 18: Sprocket
Keys and Key ways
We have discussed several methods of applying a dr1ve using belts, chains etc.
and in both methods pulleys or sprockets are utilised as part of the drive mecha-
nism
However, we must have some method of attaching the pulleys to the rotating
shafts to enable the dnve element to take place. This can be achieved by using a
key or key way as means of attaching the pulley to the shaft
Figure 19: Keys and Key ways

Flat saddle key

Pilch Oiam<!ler
Tl11d<noss

Woodruff key
-·
(Disc shape) I
Out$1d-o Oiamelor

Sprocket Materials
For large sprockets, cast iron is ccmmonly used. especially in drives with large
speed ratios. since the teeth of the larger sprocket are subjected to fewer chain
engagements In a given time.
For severe serv1ce, cast steel or steel plate Is preferred. The smaller sprockets of
a dnve are usually made of steel. \Mth this material the body of the sprocket can
be heat-treated to produce toughness for shock resistance. and the tooth surfaces
can be hardened to res1st wear
Stainless steel or bronze may be used for corrosion res1stance. and Formica"'·
Nylon"' or other suitable plastic materials for spec1al applications.
Example of use
The followmg figure shows a typ1cal application of cha1ns and belts. It is an extract
out of a Stabilizer Trimmwheel mechanism located in the center pedestal of a com-
mercial aircraft.
Torque Shaft Transmission Figure 21: System Components

To simplify matters. we have chosen a nap drive mechanism of a commercial air-

plane for explanation.
The combinabon o f gearboxes and torque shafts transmits rotat1ng power from a
power drive to a location where the power is needed. In our case. the drive stations
of the flap system In each wing
The components of a power transmission are:
Power Drive- or Power Control Unit (Not explained - A~tcrafl specific) OO'iN OJtlVE

Q;C~'
Torque shaftsfTransmlssion shafts
Steady bearings in the fuselage and wings
Joint connections
Angle gearboxes
Torque limiters Power Orlvt Unit
'?' -......··-·
~
...
Downdrive (Not explained- Aircraft specific)
&HT ANGlE
Figure 20: System Layout ARB OX

- o ovN OIUVE
~WIOl

Torque Shaft Construction

The torque shafts are made of steel or carbon fibre remforced plastic (CFRP).
They nave eM fittings, wnicn nave a nange for a tx>tted joint or splines for a sliding
end connection.
Figure 22: Torque Shaft/Transmission Shaft
Joints Ang le Gearbox
Bolts attach universal joints, which are cast corrosion res1stant steel, or splined ar- Angle Gearboxes and Downdrives are installed to change the transmrssions direc-
ticulahng joints, to the flanges where necessa.y. The umversal JOints penmt large bon where necessa.y
angular changes of alignment and the splined articulabng JOints allow small angu-
lar changes of alignment.
Figure 23: Joints
Sliding End Connection\
Articulating Joint
~

The male part of the sliding end connection has an indicator groove. It shows when
the engagement of the male and female part is below a minimum. A check dimen-
sion Is for the maximum engagement.

Steady Bearing
Steady bearings, which support the torque shafts, are attached to the structure.
Torque Limiters
A torque hmiter installed In the transmission system operates in both d1rect1ons to
stop the transmission or too much torque. It is set w1th its own individual lock-out
torque values for extension and retraction. The torque lim1ters protect the wmg
structure and the actuators from a torque over1oad which could be generated by a
ftap mechanism fault or fa1lure. A latch type mechamcal indicator shows that a
lock-out torque has occured.
Fig ure 24: Torque Limiter
BALL ttAitPS TllP unncnoa

BAl l RAAP"S Ul ACTIVATED

CC*IHTIOfri
6. 10 Control Cables
Flexible Control Systems
While a number of different systems are used to actuate fltght and engine controls
from the cockpit, flexible control cables are by far the most commonly used meth-
od Mul~ple-strand control cables are stmple, strong. and reliable.
The cable has several advantages over other types of linkages. It ts strong and
light in weight. and its flexibility makes it easy to route. In addition to pnmary fltght
controls. cables are used on engine controls, emergency landing gear extension
controls, trim tab system. and various other applications
One disadvantage of a cable syst.em for control movement relates to thermal con-
traction. As an aircraft climbs to a high altitude, its temperature drops and its struc-
ture contracts.
Furthermore. the aluminium structure contracts much more than the small mass of
steel in a control cable. and as a result, cables lose their tension Large aircraft
have a rather complex automatic tensioning system to keep control cable tension
relatively constant as the aircraft contracts and expands. However, small aircraft
must have their cable tension adjusted as a compromise so they are not too tight
when the aeroplane is hot nor too loose when it is cold.
All control cables are tensioned to a specific load according to the applicable main-
tenance manual.
Let's discuss about the most important Components in a Cable Control System as
shown in Figure 1 on page 3.
Figure 1; Control Cable Application
Cables
Cables only operate in tension, and can only be used in a 'pull' direction. However,
cables are normally arranged in pa~rs. That Is, making a continuous loop, providing
a pull in both direchons.
Cable Construction
To form a cable, a number of wires are wound together to form a strand , and a
number of strands are wound together to form a cable The straight strand running
through the centre of the cable is known as the heart strand.
Cables are made of galvamsed carton steel alloy or corrosion resistant steel.
Figure 2: Cable Construction
Cable
Types of Cables
The ngidity (nonflex1bihty) or elasticity (flexibility) of a cable depends not only on
the d1ameter of the thread. It is also determ1ned by the cable speed, and whether
1t1s a nonpreformed or a preformed cable Generaly, the more threads are at the
same diameter, the more flexible is the cable.
VVhat's important is that the aircraft maintenance mechanic should know that there
are nonflexible and flexible cables. The Maintenance Manuals list the type of ca-
ble, the location in the aircraft and the system in which the cable is used.
Non-Flexible Cable
In areas where a linkage does not pass over any pulleys, norftexible cable can be
used. It is ava1lable in either a 1 x 7 or 1 x 19 configuration. The 1 x 7 cable is made
up of one strand comprised of seven individual wires, whereas the 1 x 19 consists
of one strand made up of 19 individual wires. Nonfiexible cable is available in both
galvanised carbon steel and stainless steel.
Flexible Cable
Flexible steel cable made up of seven strands of seven wires each is called 7 x 7
or fiexible cable, and is available in 1/16 and 3/32 mch sizes in both gaivanised
carbon steel and stainless steel. Both types are preformed, which means that
when the cable is manufactured each strand is formed into a spiral shape This
process keeps strands together when the cable is wound and also helps prevent
the cable from spreadmg out When cut. Furthermore, preforming giVes cable great-
er fiexibility and relieves bending stresses when the strands are woven mto the ca-
ble
Extra-Flexible Cable
The most widely used cable. 7 x 19, is available in sizes from 118 inch up It is extra
flexible and is made of 133 individual wires wound m seven strands, each strand
having 19 wires These cables are preformed and are ava1lable in both galvamsed
and stainless steel. Galvanised cable is more res1stant to fatigue than stamless
steel, but in applications where corrosion is a factor, stainless steel is used.

Cable identification * Non flexible cable - 1*7 or 1*19

7×19 cable made up of
7 strands each containing 19 wires. * Flexible cable - 7*7
* Extra Flexible cable - 7*19
Locke lad Figure 3: Types of Cables
Used on some large aircraft for all long straight runs It consists of the conventional
nexible cable with aluminium tubing swaged to it to lock the cable inside the tubing.
Th1s construction has certa1n advantages:
Changes in tens1on due to tem"erature changes are Jess
The amount of stretch for a given load Is less

Nylon Coated Cables

As the name explains. these cables are mainly used in high corros1on environ-
ments
1 x 7 Nonflexible 1 x 19 Nonflexible
Control Cable Control Cable

Q;ll
1i)
E
"'
i:5
!
7 x 7 Flexible 7 x 19 Ex1ra Flexible
Control Cable Control Cable
Measuring of Cables Figure 5: Measuring method of Cables

Diameter of a Flexible Cable

The diameter of a flexible steel cable is determined by
the diameter of the thread (Wire)
the number of threads
A HeXJble steel cable does not have the same diameter everywhere. To determine
the diameter of the cable, the cable must be measured with vern1er calipers. The
aircraft maintenance mechanic can best use vernier calipers with wide measuring
jaws. The pictures show the work method.

Figure 4: Vernier Caliper w ith wide Measuring Jaws

End Fittings Thimble Sleeves

End Fittings on Cables Nic opress Oval Sleeves

Cable term1nals are the vanous filttngs that are attached to the end of a cable to Many hght atrcrafl use N1copress sleeves that are squeezed onto control cables to
strengthen 1t where 1t is attached to another component form terminal ends A N1copress sleeve is made of copper and has lwo holes to
accommodate a control cable.
The cable ftttiogs used most 1n large a1rcratt manufacture are MS-type swaged ca-
ble terminals. To install these terminals, cut the cable and insert it into the end or Vv11en a cable IS wrapped around an AN 100 thimble and property squeezed w1th
a terminal Then. use either a hand or power-swaging tool to force the metal of the the correct Nicopress squeezer. the terminal develops at least the strength of the
terminal down into the cable This fo·ms a joint that is at least as strong as the ca- cable. It is use to make eye on a cable
ble Itself. (See also Sub Module 7.13 "Control Cables") Figure 7: Nicopress Oval Sleeve
To ensure that a term1nal 1s properly swaged , a measurement is made of the
swaged terminal w1th a go I no-go gauge. The swagtng process must decrease the
terminal's diameter to the extent that the go end of a go I no-go gauge passes over
the swaged terminal, but the no-go end does not.
As an Inspection aid to ensure the cable does not pull out or the terminal. a small
mark of paint is placed over the teminal end and onto the cable. A broken paint
mark indicates the cable has slipped inside the terminal
Figure 6: Swaged Control Cable Termi nals * In a properly swaged control cable, cable strength should be 100%

:: : , _-___-_-_-p
A

I I I ,_-_-_-_-_-_[1
6riiiilii!!i.\jn!!rcffiCC I } S¥%$l ©:1 I
c E
* Usually end of the cable will be fitted with swaged sleeve or thimble
 Adjusting and Compensation Devices Figure 9: Safetying Methods

Tumbuckles!Turnbarrels
Control cable rigging is adjusted by usmg turnbuckles The bronze barrel has nght-
hand threads in one end and tefthand threads in the other end Nohce that there os
a groove around one end of the turnbuckle barrel. This groove identifies the end
*** of the barrel that has the left-hand thread.
The cable terminal ends are screwec into the barrel and as it1s turned. it pulls the
ends onto ot. To be sure that the terminals are screwed into the barrel enough to
produce full strength. there must be no more than three threads exposed on either
*** end of the barrel.
Figure 8: Control Cable Turnbuckle

c:t:::_:Q mGLiiJJ:=f\1'

Locking Methods of Turnbuckles

Clip Locking
When the cable system is properly adjusted, the turnbuckles must be secured w1th
one of the following methods. These days, turnbuckles are made for special locking devices. It is safelied by in-
serting the long end of a wire locking clip into ihe groove cut into the inside of the
Different locking methods are used to prevent the barrels from turning t>arrel and the termmal ends rhe Clip Is locked on place by passmg Its end onto tne
These are: hole in the side of the barrel.
*** Wore locking method
Figure 10: Clip Type Locking Device
Clip locking method
~ Due to the simple installation procedure, the clip locking method has re- _ _ _ _ _..:G::.roove

&mOO~:.)I:... .
~ placed the wire locking method in a wide nange.

* After adjusting turnbuckle we should check safety and locking of turnbuckle COli
I ....,.L..
o!::ck=in=g=P=in=:;=:-r-'S
 Compensation Devices
Cable operated Oymg control systems in larger a1rcraft need to be fitted with a de·
vice which will maintain the correct cable tens1on at all times. This is necessary for
a number of reasons.
Aircraft structure and control cables are made or different matenals and expand
and contract by different amounts when the temperature changes.
As the aircraft reaches cru1sing speed at altitude the fuselage outer structure may
get very cold, or hot dependmg on the speed. The cable system Inside will be at a
temperature determined by the a1r oondibonmg system or perhaps heated by ad-
jacent engines, thermal anti-Icing or cabin heating ducts. Even if there IS no heat-
ing or cooling inside. there is insulating air between the control system and the
structure causing the cables and structure to be at different temperatures.
An additional thermal factor becomes important when the a1rcraft is left standing
in the sun before take off w1th the control cables at a lower temperature m the air
conditioned cabin. This causes the tension in the cables of unregulated control
systems to become unusually high just before take-off at a lime when it is usually
necessary to fly the a1rcraft manually for a oons1derable length of tJme.
Cable tension regulators maintain the correct cable tension under all conditions.
***
Control system cables are quite often not located on the neutral bending and tor-
Sional axes of the aircraft fuselage or wing.
Deflection of the structure then results in the cables becoming slack or over ten-
sioned. For example the nose or a large aircraft may move 6 inches (152.4 mm)
or so with respect to the central parlor the aircraft. If the cables are located near
the side of the fuselage, they must expand and contract as fuselage deflection oc-
curs. An aircraft on the ground may have the w1ngs deflected downwards, wh1le In
the air the wings will deflect upwards If the cables are not located on the neutral
bending axis of the wing, relative length cllanges between cable and structure will
again occur
Pressurisation of the aircraft cabin can also result in changes in structure length
relative to cable length.
Without cable tension regulators. h1gh initial cable tens1ons must be used to pre-
vent the cables from becoming slack in one extreme thermal or structural condi·
lion. In the other extreme condition, the cable tension would 1ncrease to a sVII
higher value Cable pulley fnction varies in proportion to the cable tension, there-
fore the cable system friction wtll vary widely. Cable tension regulators mamta1n a
nearly constant tension thus allowing the use of lower 1nitial cable tens1ons. This
results in lower and nearer constant cable system friction and operating forces.
Lower cable tension also reduces cable and pulley wear Since the cable tension
is nearly constant. the frequency of vibrat1on (resonance) of the cables can be con-
trolled withm close limits away from any critical aircraft resonances.
Operation of Cable Tension Regulator
A cable tens1on regulator 1s a mechan1cal devtce wh1ch when fitted in a cable sys-
tem. allows the cables under all conditions of temperature change and structural
deflections, to be taken m and let out equally on each side of the circuit. thus main-
taming umform tens1on
Two compression springs in the compensating unit prov1de the force necessary to
maintain the desired cable tension. A braking device allows the springs to exert
their force only when the cable system is in neutral i.e w1th equal tension on both
cables. As soon as a control load is applied in either direction, by the pilot or control
surface, the regulator brakes out the action of the springs and gives the pilot rigid
control, instantaneously.
Figure 11 on page 10 shows a typical cable tension regulator. Th1s type of regula-
tor conststs of two spnng loaded quadrants. w1th a pointer and scale for recording
the cllange in length of the cables. The cables are Inserted through slots 1n the re-
cesses end of the grooved quadrants and the cable ends are secured at the an-
chorage's shown. The cross-head is des1gned to fit the locking shaft very closely,
but is free to slide on the shaft. Each quadrant is free to rotate about a common
p1vot. but both are kept in phase by the cross-head and the two links The
cross-head is spring loaded in a direction to apply the cable tension.
Any extension of the cables attached to the quadrant tends to give equal slacken-
Ing or !he cables The regulator springs then rotate each quadrant in opposite di·
rP.ctions. thP. link ;~rm~ moving thP. ~ross-he::~d freely along the locking shaft. The
compression springs maintain the correct pre-set cable tension.
Any shortening of the cables will have the reverse effect, tending to give equal in-
crease in tension 1n the cables. The quadrants agam move in opposite directions,
the link arms moving the cross-head inwards along the locking shaft.
When a control force is applied to the system. the cross-head tilts on its lock1ng
shaft causmg II to lock on to the shaft. Both quadrants are now locked together and
operate as a lever and give the pilot, pos1tive control or the system. During Hight
the regulator is braked only when control loads are applied It compensates for
changes in cable tens1on only when no control loads are being applied On the
ground, the regulator compensates tor gradual expansion or contraction as It oc-
curs.
Figure 11: Cable Tension Regulator and Quadrant

Cable Quadrant Tension Regulator

.--
..,.
Tensiometer Figure 12: Tensiometer

Non-regulated System
Non-regulated cable systems are used where cable length is short and no expan·
sron or contract ron Is expected. Therefore, a tensionregulator is unnecessary and
the cables tension must be adjusted with turnbarrelsi each cable run. To check the
tensron, a tensrometer IS used.
Regulated System
The cable tensron is adjusted on both sides of the circuit by means of turnbuckles
until the correct readong is obtarned on the regulator scale. The scale reading de-
pends upon the ambrent temperatLKe and is obtained by referring to a graph
shown in the aircraft maintenance manual.
After the control system cables have been set to the correct settong, regulator com-
pensation may be checked by grasping both cables near their point of entry to the
regulator and forcmg both cables in towards each other The resultrng movement
of the quadrant should be smooth and even. If the regulator fails to move. or the
movement is jumpy, it may indicate !hat the cables have been incorrectly rigged
so that the tension Is uneven, causing the locking mechanism to operate, locking
the control system.
In regulated systems, a tensiometer IS often used to check the tensionregulators
accuracy.
In Sub Module 7 13 "Control Cables", you can read more about Cables.
Pulleys Figure 13: Pulley Assembly

Pulleys are used to guide cables and also to change the dtrection of cable move-
ment They are also used to support stratght 'runs' of cables where they travel over
a large distance.
When adJUSting a control cable it is important that the cable end fittings do not foul
the pulley, otherwise cable movement will be restricted
Pulley bearings are sealed and need normally no further lubncation other than the
lubrication done at the factory or overhaul shop.

Types of Pulleys
Metallic
Non Metallic
Metallic pulleys are used where high tension, high temperature and hazardous en-
vironment condttions are presenl

Cable Guards
Cables passmg pulleys are kept in place by guards. Guards are close fitting to pre-
vent jamming or to prevent cables from slipping out when cables slakes due to
temperature variations, or when cable tension being relived for maintenance pur-
poses.
 Cable System Components Figure 14: Pressure Seals

Fair/esds
*** Used to guide cables In a straight line through
or between structural members of the a~rcraft.
Fairleads may be made from non-metallic
materials such as phenolic m1carta or a metal-
he material such as soft alummium.
The rairlead completely enc1rcles the cable
where it passes through bulkheads or other
structural parts

Pressure Seals
Installed where cables route from a pressurised area to a non-pressunsed area. Ground Silicone Cover
Seals ane moulded of synthetic or silicon rubber. Silicone rubber seals are less Plate Rubber Sealing Plate
susceptible to damage caused by bushmg popout, cleaning abuse and agemg.
When replacement is necessary the damaged seal should be replaced according
to applicable maintenance directives.
Skin Panel , tr n .1
* A mechanical linkage passing through a pressure bulkhead must always be pressure sealed.
-/
- -@~ ·~~,,.
'
&'

Synthetic Material Fair lead deflects

maximum 3°
 Push Pull Tube and Rod Typical Application
Used as lmkage 1n vanous types or "'leChanicaJiy operated systems Thts type of A typiCal applteabon of the explaoned otems could look like that
linkage elim1nates the problem of varying tenSK>n and penTllts the transfer of com-
pressiOn and tension loads through a s1ngle tube
They are made on short lengths to prevent vobrabon and bendtng under compres-
soon loads
*** To be sure, that the engagement of the thread is enough to be safe. a wotness hole
is dnlled into the body. Using a safet( w1re, as an example. It Is possible to check,
whether the threads cover the check hole or not
Figure 15: Push Pull Rod and Tube
Push Pull Cable Bowden Cables
Push- pull cables are used for a var~ety of remote control situahons. The main ad- Bowden cables conStst of a stainless steel w1re housed in a ~xible sleeve or con-
vantage is that only one cable gives both push and pull action They are very dUit. The control•s intended for pull operation only, the cable being returned on re-
strong and hard wearing. The disadvantage of these cables is that they are hm1ted lease of the control lever by a spring.
to large radius bends. The flexible cable is made up of several strands of stainless steel wire. On the
l'lii'l Pu!lh Pull Cables need speClallubrication. Lubncate only as specified In the ends are brass mpples which are soldered or swaged on. The conduit consists of
~ Manuals. a close coiled wire, covered with cotton braid1ng and finished with a black water-
proof coating. Metal caps are fitted on each end. On long ru1s metal tub1ng may
Figure 16: Push Pull Cable be used.
At the transmllt1ng end a hand lever could be filled which engages with the n1pple
on the end of the cable At the receiving end the cable passes through an adjust-
able stop and the nipple engages the components operating lever.

-----
I Fig u re 17: Bowd en Ca ble
Rod End Support Bracket ~

Rod End

'\..__-c!~~===c===~~
Connections
These are used where it is necessary to uncouple the cable at some point in the
control run or where the bowden cable is used in conJuncllon w1th some other type
of control cable.

Junction Boxes
Used when connecting a single cab e to two others, where there are two compo-
nents to be operated by a single control.
Figure 18: Connector/Junction Box
Aircraft Materials - Introduction
The development of new ·space age· materials for both aircraft structure and en-
gines has made the vast progress of av~ation possible. The basic structure of most
of the ear11est nying machines were made of strips of spruce or bamboo, and the
lifting surfaces were covered with cotton or linen cloth. After World War I, welded
steel tubing replaced the wooden truss used for the fuselage structure of most of
the new aeroplanes. And 11 was during the 1920s that formed plywood became
used for the primary structure of sorre of the most streamlined and high-strength
aircraft of the time.
The technological developments made during World War II allowed the all-metal,
stressed-skin , semi-monocoque structure to replace the tabric-covered truss
structure in the vast majority of a~rcralt. This technology was standard until the last
few decades when resins remforced with various types of composite materials
Figure 1: Materials
Materials
have allowed us to build structural shapes that are superior to metals in strength,
weight, and rigidity.
Modern aircraft are manufactured from many different types of materials. Those
most commonly used are aluminium alloy, titanium alloy, Monel (a nickel alloy),
stainless steel, and chrome-molybdenum steel.
Civilian aircraft are constructed primarily from heat-treated aluminium alloys, while
mihtary aircraft (fighters) are constructed primarily from titanium and stainless
steel. It is to say that more and more primary structure parts are being made of
composites.
Submodules 6.1 to 6.3 will consider the materials used in aeroplane construction.
and will look at some of the processes used to adapt these basic materials to air-
craft use.
Figure 2: Example of Material Usage In Airliner

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 Metals
The basic classifications of metals for aircraft structure are ferrous and nonferrous.
A ferrous metal is one that contains iron, and in this classification are the various
types of steel. Nonferrous metals are classified 1nto "lightweight" and "heavy-
weight" and include aluminium, magnesium, titanium, and monel . In aviation in-
duslly, titanium with its alloys is considered the heaviest light weight metals (see
"Figure 5" on page 6).
As an aviation maintenance technician, you must possess a thorough knowledge
or metals. However. before you can develop a complete understanding of metals
used in the aviation industry, you must first become familiar with some of the prop-
erties metals have.
Properties Of Metals
A given metal can possess several properties. Among these are strength. hard-
ness, malleability, ductility, brittleness. conductivity, expansion, elasticity, tough-
ness, fusibility, and density.
temperatures. A material Is considered to be heat resistant if there is not an impor-
tant loss of strength up to a temperature of soo•c.
Elasticity
It is the capability of an object or material to be stretched and to recover its size
and shape after its deformatoon
The flexibility of spring steel used for the construction of landing gear is a good ex-
ample of elasticity Another form of elasticity is demonstrated when aircraft skins
expand and contract when an a1rcraft is pressurized.
A metal's elastic limit is the point beyond which the metal does not return to its orig-
inal shape after a deforming force is removed. Soft materials such as lead, copper,
and pure aluminium have very low elastic limits, while the elastic limit of hard
spring steel is very high.
Figure 3: Simplified Elasticity Layout

*** Hardness
The property of a material that enab:es it to resist penetration, wear or cutting ac-
tion.

Strength
The ability of a material to withstand forces which tend to deform the metal in any
direction, or the ability of a materiallo resist stress without breaking.
Considering the way a piece of material is loaded, the strength takes a different
name:
Tension Strength
Pressure Strength
Shearing Strength
Bend Strength
Tension Strength Is the most important one, evaluating material( see Tille "Tensile
Strength Test" on page 22)
Thermal Strength
If metal Is heated up during loading, it will tum ductile ear11er than at ambient tem-
peratures. Because of this phenomenon is necessary to test metals at different
Plasticity
The property of a metal wh1ch allows it to be reshaped. When a force acts on a
lattice structure, the atoms in 1t will begin to slide from each other If there is change
1n the form of the piece of material. without cracks, when the force stops to act, are
we speaking about plasticity.
Figure 4: Simplified Plasticity Layout
Ductility ( fl<..l,..,,cv/(e,t /
The property which allows metal to be drawn into thinner sections without break-
ing. Ductile metals are preferred for aircraft use because of their ease of forming
and resistance to failure under shock loads. For this reason, aluminium alloys are
often used for cowlings, fuselage and wing skins. and formed or extruded parts
such as ribs, spars, and bulkheads.
Malleability
That characteristic of material that allows it to be stretched or shaped by beating
with the hammer or passing through rollers without breaking. Hardness and mal-
leability are generally considered opposite characteristics. To help increase mal-
leability, several metals are annealed, or softened (see Title ' Annealing· on
page 16) .
In this condillon complex shapes can be formed. After form1ng is complete. the
metal is then heat treated to increase its strength. A metal may be fully annealed
when the forming is started, but hammering and shaping can harden it to such an
extent that it must be re-annealed before forming is completed
Toughness £ /Q~-~/Ct!• t)
The property of a metal which allows it to be deformed without breaking Breaking
when it 1s bent or stretched. Hammer faces and wrenches are examples of metal
that must be tough as well as hard to be useful.
Ut·o .f, ~ IL~t.f!
Brittleness
The property of a metal to break when. deformed, or hammered It is the opposite
of ductility and malleability. A bnttle metal is more apt to break or crack before it
changes shape Because structural metals are often subjected to shock loads.
brittleness is not a desirable property. Cast iron. cast aluminium. and very hard
steel are examples of brittle metals.
Conductivity tle.t{~~•)f{e,/)
The characterisbc of a material which makes it possible for ~ to transmrt heat or
electrical conduction
Metals that can carry heat also carry electrons. making them good electrical con-
ductors. Electrical conductivity is the measure of a material's ability to allow elec-
tron flow. A metal oonductor can be a wire, an aircraft frame. or an engine.
Electrons now much eas1er in some metals than they do in others, because of their
molecular structures. The best electrical conductors are gold, silver. copper, and
aluminium.
Durability ( /lflitk-ltt.l- I /{(1 f.&;.,J sk'r. (-
The property of metal t!lat enables it to withstand force over a period of time.
Durability properties are important considering fatigue1or metal.
Density
r~~"'""""'~!
Density is actually the mass-per-unit volume of a material, and throughout the dis-
cussion of metals we use the density of a material to compare weight.
The density of some of the more commonly used metals is s~.own in the table be-
low
Figure 5: Metal Classification Considering Density

•LIGHTWEIGHT" - METALS "HEAVYWEIGHT" - METALS

::<::< ::< UJ ::<

~ ::> ::> ::< z ::>
~3 z ::> :J ~ _, _,
z >- ~ z '
1- 0 w
w ~
(!)a:
<w _,
::> ~ ~
0:
:I: u
::<co <( ;::: :J u ~ z

1.7 1.85 2.7 4.5 6.8 7.8 8.9 (Kg/dm 3)

5 Kg/dm3

Density
Cube of Aluminium Cube of Steel

BJ 2.7Kg
~d~ 7.8 Kg
Ferrous Metals
Any metal that contains iron as its principal constituent is called a ferrous metal In
airaart structure we are chiefly concerned with steel, which is iron with a controlled
amount of carbon added.

Figure 6 : Example of Steel Usage for Airliner

Most of screwings and hinged joinings

I
Nose Landing Gear
Steel Alloy
*Alloyed steel is mainly
using in landing gears
Steel Manufacturing
Iron
Iron is. in Its pure form. a fairly soft, malleable, and ductile metal that is easy to form
or shape It is silvery white m colour and Is quite heavy. havmg a dens1ty of 7.9gl
cm3. Iron easily combines with oxygen to form Iron oxide, which is more commonly
known as rust.
Cast 1ron is seldom used in aircraft construction because of its low strength-to-
weight ratio.
When the iron is removed from the furnace. after it has been taken out of ore. it is
in a form known as pig Iron It may be re-melted and cast Into cast-Iron compo-
nents, or it may be taken to some of the steel-making furnaces, or converters, to
convert the iron into steel.
Unalloyed And Low-Alloyed Steels
Pig Iron from the blast furnace is re-melted In a special furnace where oxygen is
forced through the molten metal so that oxygen can unite with the carbon and burn
it out. When the carbon is burned ou~ a controlled amount of carbon is put back
in. along with other elements that are needed to get the particular characteristics
we want from steel.
High Allo yed Steels
If a steel alloy contains more than 5% of an alloying agen~ it is considered as a
high alloyed steel.
Higl1 allOyed is the kind of steel we use in aircraft construction. 11 is maoe in electnc
furnaces. which allow much better control of the alloying agents than the gas fired
furnaces.
Alloy Steels Standards
There are different standards, used 'or civil aviation steel clasification. The most
applied ones are listed below·
SAE (Society of Automotive Engtneers)
AISI (Amencan Iron and Steel Institute)
AMS (Aerospace Material Specification)
This standard does not g1ve mformation about material components. Be-
cause It tncludes many different material it is often used as a material or-
dering system
BS (British Standard}
AFNOR-A11 ("Association Francaise de Normalisation")
BMS (Boeing Material Speclficabon)
/.ow Ctil'hCVI - (fttt
""'J,v. . . - c'Cikv. -
SAE Classification of Steels
Most of the steel used in aircraft structure IS classified according to the SAE four-
digit numbering system that identifies its composition.
Figure 7: SAE Notation
**** Basic alloytng element
1 = Carbon (C) only
2 = N1ckel (N1)
3 = Ni + Chromium (Cr) SAE 4130
4 = Molybdenum (Mo)
5 = Chromium (Cr)
6 = Vanadium (V) + Chromium (Cr)
7 = Tungsten (Tg)
8 = N1 + Cr + Mo
9 = Silicon (Si) + Mangan (Mn)
cD@
®
Percentage of the basic element in the alloy
Percentage of carbon m the alloy in hundredths of a percent
Eg:- (1) SAE 1020 is plain carbon steel containing 0.2 percent carbon
(2) SAE 2330 is Nickel Alloy with 0.3 percent carbon
For example, SAE 4130steel is a Molybdenum steel that contains approx. 1% Mo
and 0.30% carbon Some of the most commonly used SAE st.eels are.
1xxx Carbon steel:
Steels containing between 0 10% and 0.30% carbon (SAE 1010 and 1030}
n((( are classed as low-carbon steels and are used for making safety wire and cer-
tain secondary structural parts where stnenglh is not critical.This low carbon
steel does not have sufficient strength for aircraft structural applications. and
its use is limited to secondary structuri~here the loads are not high. Steels
containing between 0 30% and 0 50% ¥JrbOn (SAE 1030 and 1050) are me-
dium-carbon steels and are used for machined and forged parts. especially
where surface hardening is needed. Steel containing between 0.50% and
1.05% carbon (SAE 1050 and 1105) are high-carbon steel and ane used
where extreme hardness is reqwed . Springs are made of high-carbon steel.
2AAx Nickel s teel : A lSI Classification of Steels
Between 3% and 3 75% nickel may be alloyed with carbon steel to mcrease This Standard is used, '" av1alion. to classify corrosion resistant steels.
1ts hardness. tensile strength. and elast1c lim1t Without appreciably decreasing
1ts ductility SAE 2330 steel is used for aircraft bolts, cable terminals, keys, Figure 8: AlSI Notation
clevises, and p1ns
310lX N ickel-c hromium steel:
NICI<el giVes to1.1ghness to steel. and chrom11.1m hardens it Ntckel chrom1um
AISI403
steels such as SAE 3130 and 3250 are used for forged and machined parts
where htgh strength. duct1hty. toughness. and shod< resistance are needed The AISI notatJOn does not descnbes the alloy components

410lX Chrome-molybdenum steel: Table 1: Identification for Heat and Corrosion Resistant Steels
Most a1rcrart structural steel IS a chrome-molybdenum allOy that combines
toughness and htgh strength Witt ease of weld1ng and machinrng AISI 2XX Chromtum-nlckel-manganese (non-hardenable, austenill<:,
nonmagnell<:).
SAE 4130 1S one of the most popular alloys, and it •s used extensively lor
welded steel struc1ure such as 'uselage frames. landmg gear, and eng1ne AISI 3XX Chromium-niCkel (non-hardenable, a1.1stenrbc, nonmagnebc)
mounts Eng1ne cyl1nders and ot,er htghly stressed parts are often made of
SAE 4130 steel AISI 4XX Chromum. (hardenable, martensillc and lemlic, magnebc).
Heat-treated SAE 4130 steel has an ultimate tenS<Ie strength of about four AISI 5XX ChrOilllum (tow chrom1um, heat reS<sbng)
bmes that of SAE 1025 steel. wh1ch makes 11 an Ideal chotee for landing gear
structures and engine mounts
Somet1mes It IS pos1ble to find one or more letters close to th9 AISI number, de-
610lX Chrome-vanadium steel : scnblng the follow1ng caractenst•cs
Chrome-vanadium steels are used extens1vely for wrenches and other hand
tools where extremely h1gh strength and toughness ere essential Table 2: Letter Code

L Low Carbon c High carbon

N N1trogen 8 Lower carbon than C
Se Selenium A Lower carbon than B
Ti T1tanl1.1m F Free machining
Cb Col1.1mb1um

For more inlormabon about stainless steel (see T•tle ' Corros1cn-Res1Stant (Statn·
less) Steel' on page 13)
Alloying Agents
Ca rbon
Carbon is the most important element found In steel. mixing Wltl'l tl'le iron to fomn
compounds of iron carbides called cementite. It is the carbon In the steel that al·
lows it to be heat-treated to obtain varying degrees of hardness, strength, and
toughness.
The greater the carbon content. the better the ability to heat treat and therefore the
higher the tensile strength and the hardness. However, increasing the carbon con·
tent deCfeases the malleability and tl'e weldabihty of the steel.
A high carbon content. up to about 0.953%, may be used where extreme hardness
is needed and malleability is not of primary concern. High-carbon steel is used in
the manufacture of cutting tools and springs.
Low-carbon steel that conta1ns about 0.203 carbon is used where a great deal of
fomning or deep drawing is needed, and where strength is of minor concern.
Medium-carbon steel, one having between 0.253 and 0.503 carbon , is used for ap·
plicatlons where both strength and ductility, or form ability, are required.
Manganese
Manganese is alloyed w1th steel to eliminate some of tl'le oxides and the sulphur
from the steel. making it a clean. tou~h. and uniform metal. Manganese also im-
proves the forging characteristics of the steel by making it less brittle at the rolling
and forging temperatures.
Silicon
When tl'lis non-metallic element is alloyed with steel, it acts as a hardener. When
it is used in small quantities. it also improves the ductility of the steel
Phosphorous
This element ra1ses the yield strength of steel, which improves the resistance of
low-carbon steel to atmospheric corrosion No more than 0.05% phosphorous Is
nomnally used in steel, as more of it will cause the metal to become brittle when it
is cold.
Nickel
Nickel adds strength and hardness to steel and increases its yield strength And
n1ckel, used as an alloy. slows the critical rate of harden1ng when the steel is heat-
treated. This increases the depth of hardening and produces a finer grain struc-
ture Nickel also reduces the tendency of steel to warp and scale when 11 Is heat-
treated. Nickel is one of tl'le chief ingredients in corrosion resistant, or stainless
steel.
Chromium
Th1s hard h1gh-melbng point element is alloyed with steel to increase its strength
and wear resistance. as well as its resistance to corrosion. It also gives steel a
good measure of hardness. Chromium is usually used In conjunction witl'l other el-
ements, such as molybdenum, nickel, and vanadium, to give steel the special
qualities that are needed in aircraft structure
Chrome-vanadium alloy is used when extremely tough steel is needed for applica-
tions such as wrenches and ball bearings.
Chrome-molybdenum steel has tl'le strength, toughness and lightweight needed to
make it the primary steel for aircraft structure and for high-strength engine compo-
nents such as cylinders.
Nickel-chrome steel is the primary alloy used in the manufacture of aircraft hard-
ware, and because of its strength and hardness at elevated temperatures, tung-
sten-chrome steel Is used for high-speed cutting tools.
In addition to its Important function as an alloying element in the manufacture of
steel. chromium may be electrolytically deposited on cylinder walls and bearing
journals to provide a hard, wear-resistant surface.
Molybdenum
One of the most widely used alloying elements for a1rcraft structural steel is mo-
lybdenum It reduces the grain size of the steel and Increases botl'l its impact
strength and its elastic limit Molybdenum steels have some of the best wear re-
sistance and fatigue strength of any of the alloys. This accounts for their popularity
for high strengtl'l structural members and for engine cylinder barrels.
Chrome-molybdenum steel responds very well to heat treatment, mach1nes easily,
and is readily welded.
Vanadium
When extremely h1gh strength is reqLired of steel along with toughness and good
ductility, chrome-vanadium steel is used. Vanadium used in amounts up to alxlut
0.20% improves the grain structure and Increases both the ultimate tensile
strength and the toughness. Most wrenches are made of chrome-vanadium steel.

Tungsten
Tungsten, which has an extremely high melting point. brings some of this charac-
teristic into the steels with which it is alloyed. Tungsten alloys are used for breaker
contacts In magnetos and for cutting tools. Tungsten steels retain their hardness
even when operated red-hot.
Corrosion-Resistant (Stainless) Steel
Since the 1940s the term stamless steel, also designated corrosion resistant steel
{CRES). has become a household word because of its many applications in con-
sumer items as well as in atrcrart applications, for example fire walls.
** Aircraft firewalls are made by Stainless steel
Table 3: Type of CRES
Ferritic Martensitic Austenitic
Not used in Aviation limited use:
Engtne parts exposed to htgh temperature
Austenitic
The austenitic steels are chromium (Cr). nickel (Ni) and chromtum-nickel-manga-
nese alloys. They can be hardened only by cold worktng, and heat treatment
serves only to anneal them. They are nonmagnetic In the annealed condition, al-
though some may be slightly magnebc after cold working.
Steels are formed by heating the steel mixture above the cnttcal range and holding
to form a structure called austenite. A controlled period of partial cooling is allowed
followed by a rapid quench just above the critical range.
This kind of CRES is of wide use in aviation.
Ferritic
Ferritic steel contains no carbon; they do not respond to heat treatment. They con·
lain a substantial amount of chromium and many have a small amount of alumin-
ium. They are always magnetic. It is lo mention that this kind of CRES Is not used
in aviation
Martensitic
Martensilic steels are straight chromium alloy that harden intensely if they are al-
lowed to cool rapidly from high temperatures. They differ from the two preceding
groups because they can be hardened by heat treatment
The development of stainless steel has made possible many of the outstanding
advances in aircraft, gas-turbine engines, and rockets.
The most important characteristics of stainless steels are corrosion reststance.
strength, toughness, and resistance to high temperatures. Stainless steels can be
divided into three general groups based on their structures: austenibc. ferribc, mar-
tensitic and Precipitatton hardenable.
Precipitation Hardenable
Chromium-Nickel· (AISI Notabon) Martensitlc:
Hydraulic syst. tubing Rod
Semi Austenitic:
Parts of high strenght High stressed plate parts
Chromium-Nickel-Manganese·
Austenitic:
Hydraulic sysl tubing creeping resistant parts
The most widely used stamless steels for general use are those in the 300 series,
called 18-8 because they contatn approximately 18 percent chromium and 8 per-
cent nickel. Typical of these types are 301. 302, 321 and 347.
Precipitation Hardenable
The increase of flight speed increased friction with the air and grater heat1s devel-
oped. Therefore, the need arose for materials that have good corrosion resistance
and great strenght at room temperature and at moderately high temperatures to
approximately 4oo•c (675.K). This led to development of this kind of Steel. They
are alloyed with elements such as copper and aluminium. These elements make
precipitation hardening possible.
Handling Peculiarities of CRES
Although stainless steels have many advantages, there are certain disadvantages
that must be faced by the fabricator and designer:
Stainless steels are more dtfficult to cut and form than many materials.
Stainless steels have a much greater expansion coefficient than other steels, and
they conduct heat at a lower rate; this makes welding more difficult
Many of the stainless steels lose the1r corrosion resistance under h1gh tempera-
tures.
In the use of corrosion resistant steels for aircraft. the technic1an must assure that
the proper type is selected for the part of the aircraft Involved.
In most cases a damaged part can be replaced by a factory-made part identified
by the part number; however. there are situations where it is preferable to repair a
part by patching or welding In these cases, the correct type of corrosion-resistant
steel (CRES) must be chosen.
In welding CRES, inert-gas arc welding is preferred. because this process causes
less defonnatlon due to heat expansion of the metal and it prevents oxidisation.
The expansion of stainless steel due to temperature increases may be more than
twice that of ordinary carbon steels.
Because of its toughness, stainless steel is more difficult to cui, form, shear, ma-
chine. or drill than ordinary steel. For this reason the techmcian who is to work with
this material successfully must be experienced in the necessary processes or
must be directed by an experienced technician.
Heat Treatment of Steel the carbon particles W111 be extremely fine and wlll effectively bind the molecular
structure of the steel together, making it hard and strong.
When steel is heated its temperature increases steadily until it Is momentarily The critical temperature and the ultimate strength steel will develop, will vary with
checked at the critical po1nl. At th1s point the metal absorbs heat and changes oc- the alloying agents, but the most important factor Is the amount of carbon.
cur in the structure of the metal . without temperature rise. After this period has
passed the temperatune continues to rise as before. Lowo<:arbon steel will not heat-treat satisfactorily because of the small amount of
carbon, but as the amount of carbon is increased, the steel gains the abihty to be
If steels h<IVing different carbon contents are heated In this way and the critical hardened and strengthened by heat treatment. This occurs up to about 0.80% car-
points plotted on a graph, and if all these po1nts are joined an Iron/Carbon Equilib- bon.
rium Diagram is produced (see "Figure 10• on page 17)
Beyond this, the hardness does not incnease, but its wear resistance improves with
Most of the heat treatment that are carried out on carbon steels nelate to the tem- an increase in the amount of carbon.
peratures on the Iron/Carbon equilibrium Diagram
Iron IS an allotropic metal. which means that It can exist 1n more than one type of
lattice structure, depending on the temperature. Molten pure iron will begin to so-
lidify at 153s•c. The structure at this point is known as the l> (della) fomn. If cooling
continues to 1392•c the atoms will rearrange themselves into the y (gamma)
austenitic form. Strangely enough iron in this form Is nonmagnetic. CRE: /JLf- Lj
\.
When lhe nonmagnetic austenitic gamma iron is cooled to 911°C another change
occurs. The iron is transformed into a nonmagnetic fomn of the ex (alpha) ferritic
structure. If cooling continues to 769'C the material becomes magnetic with no fur-
ther change In the lattice structure.
/ ..J
..
Steel (iron + carbon) exists in two basic forms that are of interest in our consider- '>-? ... /iiJ [~rr,_l
ation of heat treatment. Ferrite is alpha solid solution of iron into which some car-
bon has dissolved. It exists at temperatures below the lower crttical temperature.
Above this lower critical temperature, the steel begins to turn into austenite, which
Cr ;V,
consists of austeniticgamma Iron into which carbon has been dissolved. As the
temperature is increased, this transformation of ferrite into austenHe continues un-
til the upper critical temperature Is reached. Above the upper critical temperature,
the entire structure consists of austenite.
Below its lower critical temperature the carbon, which exists in the steel in the form
of cementite (iron carbides Fe3C), is scattered throughout the iron matrix, or its
molecular structure, as a physical mixture
When the steel Is heated to its upper critical temperature, this carbon dissolves
Into the matrix and becomes a solid solution, rather than a physical mixture. The
steel has now become austenite. and the iron Is in its gamma fomn.
When the temperature of the steel drops below this crillcal value. the carbide par-
ticles precipitate out of the solution. If the steel Is cooled slowly, the particles will
be quite large and the steel will be soft, but if it 1S cooled very rapidly by quenching.
Figure 9: Relationship of Temperature and C-content of Steel Annealing
If steel is heated to about 1o•c above its critical temperature, and is held there until
1600 the carbon goes into solid solution with the matrix, and is then allowed to cool very
slowly, the carbon that prec1p1tates out will be in large particles that do not bind the
1536 ~ matnx lightly.
:.......

~ r------_
1500
The steel will be soft and ductile and may be easily fonmed, or worked. The tem-
peratures and oooling rates vary with the alloy, but for annealing they are normally
1300 above 871•c The steel may be oooled by leaving It in the furnace but shutting off
--......... the heat so it will cool slowly, or by packing the steel In hot sand or ashes to insu-

1200 ~ late it so the beat will be conducted away slowly.

**Annealing is the process which has the highest Heating temperature
Normalising
..............
I Steel that has been forged, welded. or machined usually has stresses left within
1100 the structure that could cause failure, so these stresses must be relieved by a

d'~~
Austenlle I process known as normalising.
I
0 1000 The steel is heated to about 40•c above Its upper critical temperature and held un-

l~
'- I til this temperature is unifonnn throughout. Then it is removed from the furnace and
e2 I allowed to cool in still air The particles of carbon that precipitate out are not as
..e
a.
911
900 ~e
,v< I large as those formed when the steel is annealed, but the molecular stresses are
relieved

~"'
E
~ / Austen~te •
Cementite
I
I
800 I Hardening
I
Austeollt~/ I If the steel is to be hardened, it is heated above its critical temperature so the car-
•Ferrite Lower CriUcaJ Temperature
723 han ~.an Anler into a uniform solution with the iron matrix. and is then cooled rapidly
700 by quenching 11 In water. otl, or brine. The speed of the quench Is determ1ned by
I I
I I the quenching medium. Oil provides the slowest quench, and brine the most rapid.
Ferrite+ !! Perlite+ I If the quench is quick enough, insufficient time is allowed for !he carbon to precip-
600 - Perlite --~- - Gtalnboondary
itate out, and ~ beoomes trapped in the solution. The resultant structure is known
Cemenllts I
I I as martensite. and is a supersaturated solid solution of carbcn in an iron matrix.
500 I I Although martensite is the hardest possible structure, it is not the des~red result of
I I
I heat-treating. Martensite is far too hard and brittle for most applications, and the
I I I
Carbon Content(%)- 2I
I final product must be obtamed by tempering.
0 I Tempering

l
0.8 2 .06
The hardened steel may be tempered. or have some of the hardness drawn ou~
Iron t+•-------Steet -.-cast leon by heating it to a temperature considerably below its cntical temperature and hold-

* By tempering we can reduce the hardness of metal

lng it there until It has reached this temperature throughout. It is then allowed to ground to the proper dtmenstons. It is then placed in a special retort and heated to
cool to room temperature In still air a temperature of approximately 538°C, and is surrounded by ammonia gas
Tempering not only reduces hardness, It wtfl also reheve stress and Improve the (CNH3).
ductlltty and toughness of the steel The htgh temperature breaks the ammonia down into nttrogen and hydrogen The
nitrogen reacts wtth the steel and with any of the mtride formers in the steel such
Case Hardening as aluminium, chromium, molybdenum, or vanadium. to form the appropnate nt-
Wearing surfaces in aircraft engtnes and landing gear systems are often hard- tndes.
ened, while the core of the material is allowed to remain soft and tough. There are The nitrided surface Is extremely thin, with Its thickness depending on the length
two ways this Is done. of time it is exposed to the ammonia gas. The hardness of the surface gradually
decreases with depth until it reaches that of the core.
The first is a process known as carb~riz:lng, In which controlled amounts of carbon
are added to the surface of low-carbon steel. Aircraft engine crankshafts and cylinder walls are commonly nltrided for increased
Nitriding ts the other means of case hardemng. and the hard surface is produced wear resistance. But these surfaces have one serious problem: they are htghly
susceptible to plttmg corrosion and must be protected from the air with a coating
in this process by converting the surface of the metal into an extremely hard alu-
minium nitride case hardening will produce a hard, wear- resistant surface of oil.
over a soft, tough core. Figure 10: Heat Treatment Temperatures of Steel
Carburizing
There are three methods that can be used to Increase the carbon content of the
surlace of a low-carbon steel.
Pack carburizing is done by enclosing the part in a fire-clay container and packing
it with a carbon-rich material such as charcoal. The container is sealed and placed
In a furnace where It is heated to 927•c. Carbon monoxide gas forms from the
heated charcoal, and since It cannot escape, its carbon combines with the gamma
iron In the surface of the steel. The depth to which this carbon penetrates depends 800 H--~..3111111o.::,.--- Hardening I Normalising-
upon the soaking time.
Gas carburizing Is similar to pack carburislng. except that the carbon monoxide is t ~~ lli~~~~~~~~~~~~~~jl~o,~ve~r~C~ril~lca~l
produced by a gas rather than a solid material. In this process. as with pack car-
e Tempering
burislng, the carbon from carbon monoxide combines with the gamma iron and
forms a high-carbon surface. ..2600
Liquid carbutising produces the high-carbon surface when the part is heated in a
molten bath of sodium cyanide or barium cyanide, which supplies the needed car-
bon I
.... 500
Any portion of the part that should not be case hardened may be copper-plated
The carbon will not infuse into the copper-plated surface.
0 caJbcn Content(%)- 1 2
Nitriding
Nltriding differs from carburising in that the part to be hardened is first heat-treated
to give it the characteristics we want that is, it is hardened, tempered, and then
Determining the T emperature of Steel
Orange 950
If we need to heat-treat steel and do not have a pyrometer to measure its temper-
ature. we can make a reasonable estimate of its temperature by observing its col- Yellow red 1000
our
Lemon or yellow 1100
In table below, we see the relationship between the colour of steel and 1ts temper-
ature For example. If we want to anneal a piece of chrome-molybdenum steel Light yellow 1200
(SAE 4130). we look up its annealing temperatures in the table below and see that
it 1s between 829"C and 857"C. Dauling or white 1288
In the table below find that steel has a temperature of 850"C when it is heated to
a bright red. To harden this same steel, we would heat until it is not quite so bright
as it was for annealing, and then quench it in oil.
When steel is hardened it becomes extremely brittle. and we can temper or draw
it to relieve some of this hardness and brittleness. We first polish a part of the steel
so we can see its bright, sh1ny metal surface. We then heat the part and watch this
area to see the way the oxides that form change colour.
The first oxide to form is a pate yellow, then the oxides progress through brown
Into the blues. When the oxide on SAE 4130 steel is between a bright and a pale
blue, the heat should be removed ard the steel allowed to cool in still air. This will
temper it to a tensile strength of around 1380N/mm2
Table 4: Relationship b etween Steel Color and Temperature

Colour of Steel Temperature of

Steel ("C)

Faint red 482

Dark brown 550
Terra-cotta 630
Dark red 680
Cherry or full red 780

Ught cherry or bright red aso

salmon or well light red 900
Tempering Small Tools
We find a practical example of tempering steel when we make screwdnver blades,
chisels. or punches, from tool-steel rod. See the table below
This steel has a high carbon content and is usually obtainable in its normalised
condition. After we have shaped the tool, we heat it to a cherry red colour and
quench It in oil. Then we polish a portion and re-heat rt unltl the proper oxide colour
appears When we quench the steel again , it should have the proper hardness.
Table 5: Annealing Colour Chart of Tool Steel Oxides
Colour of Oxide Carbon Steel Example of Small
Temperatures t•c) Tool Tempering

Pale yellow 220 Scribe or hammer face

Straw 230
Golden yellow 243 Center punch

Brown 255 Cold chisel or drift

Brown dappled w/purple 265

Purple 277 Screwdriver

Dark blue 288

Bright blue 297
Pale blue 321
 Testing of Ferrous Materials etrator and a 100~ maJOr load, and the C-scale for hard metals, which uses the
conical diamond penetrator and a 150kg major load.
Relationship between Hardness and Strength
As It is described in the section on the heat treatment of steel. the smaller the car-
The Vickers Hardness System
bon particles that are in solution with the matrix of the steel, the harder and strong- Standard method for measuring the hardness of metals, parti:ularly those with ex-
er the steel will be. It is because of this fact that thene Is a definite relationship tremely hard surfaces: the surface Is subjected to a standard pressure, which de-
between strength and hardness of steel. This relationship does not necessarily ex- pends on the material, for a standard length of lime by means of a pyramid-shaped
ist. however. with metals other than steel. diamond. The diagonal of the resulting indention is measured under a microscope
There are two systems of measuring the hardness of steel that we find commonly and the Vickers hardness value read from a conversion table.
used in shops where steel is heat-treated: the Brinell and the Rockwell systems. This method leves only a small impression on the tested material surface It can
be used for every sort of metal and it is preferred for testing of thin walled parts.
The Brine// Hardness System
The Brinell hardness tester uses a hydraulic force to Impress a spherical penetra-
tor into the surface of the metal being tested. An extremely hard 10mm diameter
ball is forced down onto the surface of the metal by a 3,000kg force for steel, or a
SOOkg force for non-ferrous metals. A hand pump on the tester hydraulically ap-
plies this force, and the amount of the force is read on the pnessure gage.
*** When the me1al is ref110ved from the tester. the diameter of the impression is
measured with a special calibrated microscope. This diameter is converted into a
Bnnell number by using the chart furnished with the tester.
Hardness testing of a metal can be done by following tests
The Rockwell Hardness System
* The brinell hardness system - By using extremely hard 10mm ball
The Rockwell hardness tester gives us the same information the Brinell tester
gives, except that it measures the depth to which the penetrator sinks into the ma-
terial rather than the diameter of the impression.
* Rockwell hardness system
The material to be tested is thorou~hty cleaned, the two opposite surfaces are * The vickers hardness ystem
ground flat and parallel, and all scratches are polished out of them It is then placed
on the anvil of the tester and is raised up against the penetrator
A 10kg load, called the minor load, IS applied and the machme is zeroed. A major
load is then applied and the dial on the tester indicates the depth the penetrator
sinks into the metal. Instead of indicating the depth of penetrabon in thousandths
of an inch. it indicates in Rockwell numbers.
There are three types of penetrators·
a comcal d1amond, a 1/16-lnch ball and a 1/8-lnch ball
There ane also three major loads: 60kg, 100kg, and 150kg The two most common-
ly used Rockwell scales are the B-scale for soft metals, wh1ch uses a 1/16 ball pen-
Figure 11: Hardness Tester

Table 6: Conversion of Different Hardness System Values

HB HV HRC Material Strength

BrineII Vickers Rockwell Rm=N/mm 2

64 67 - Al99.5% 110
105 110
133 140 - AA 2024 440
143 150 -
190 200 -
238 250 22.2 TlAI5Sn2 814
285 300 29.8
342 360 36.6 Waspaloy 1120
361 380 38.8 lncoloy 901 1050
437 460 46.1
- 550 52.3

-
- 650
800
57.8
64
AISI4130 1450

- 940 68

-- 1'500
10'000
-eo
-100
Ceramic Insert
D1amante

Universal Hardness Tester

HB
Tensile Strength Test Figure 13: EJttension/Compression Test Workstation

In lhts test the material is placed in a machtne and pulled until it breaks. To ensure
uniformity, test-piece dimensions are specified in standards for tensile testing.
The figure below shows a typical test piece, and It wtll be seen that a section is of
reduced diameter. so that the extension and the breakage will occuratong that part
of the test·piece. The extension of a length called the gauge length ts studied dur-
ing the test. The points that indicate the ends of the gauge length are called the
gauge points. In a routine tes~ these points are marked by centre punch, but, if a
more detailed test is to be carried out, the extension Is measured by an instrument
cal!ed an extensometer. which prodLces the gauge potnts when it is attached to
the test-piece.
There is a fixed relationship betwee1 the gauge length and the cross sectional
area of the test-piece at the reduced diameter. If the material is ductile. it w111 de-
velop a 'neck' or 'waist'. as shown in the figure below: but if it Is brittle, it will break
before local extension occurs. *tensile strength can be tested by Stretching the metal
The Tensile Strength
This is defined as the maximum force taken by the test-piece, divided by the orig-
inal area. This value is used to compare the strength of materials, but a safety fac-
tor is applied when making design calculations, to bring the working stress well be
low the limit of proportionality.
Figure 12: Specimen
 Fatigue Strength Test Sheet & Plate Bending (Flexural Fatigue)
Procedure: A test stress is selected and converted to a bend1ng moment for the
Fatigue failure is caused by repeated stress cycles, such as reversal or alternating
stresses (reversal ol direction of bend1ng or torsion , or alternating compressive particular specimen configuration The constant- stress tapered specimen is rigidly
clamped at its wide end to the vise or bending moment load cell, the narrow end
and tensile stresses). fluctuating stresses (variation of Intensity of stresses), and
is attached to the stroking portion of the machine. Machine stroke is adjusted to
repeated stresses (application and removal of stresses).
yield the desired peak-to-peak load. The mean load is achieved by adjusting the
This form of failure is encountered ~ery frequently in engineering , and, although position of the vise which retains the speetmen or load cell. As the machine speed
much publicity has been given to the fatigue of aircraft structures, this form of fail- is adjusted, the cycle counter records the number of test cycles. Fracture of the
ure is very common in more ordinary circumstances; motor-car half shafts, crown specimen automatically terminates the test The number of test cycles is recorded
wheel and pinion assemblies, and pedal-cycle crank spindles are susceptible to and plotted.
fatigue failure.
Figure 14: Sheet Bending Machine
'A/hen the fatigue resistance ol a material is to be determined, a number of
test-pieces is prepared and tested The number of stress cycles that produce fail-
ure is recorded. The first test Is carried out with a high maximum stress, and each
subsequent test employs a lower maximum stress.
The object of the series of tests is to determme the highest maximum stress that
will permit a given 'life' in terms of stress cycles; alternatively, the fatigue limit may
be required. (The fatigue limit is the highest maximum stress that will permit the
material to undergo an 'infinite' number of stress cycles before failure).
If fatigue conditions are present, the material will fail at a stress that is much lower
than that associated with a static force. The fatigue strength of a material is be·
tween 0.35 and 0.65 of the tensile strength, depending upon composition: but the
fatigue strength of a component is reduced by poor finish, sharp corners, and cor-
rosion.

*** to cletery,,tiJt: bf t,fc .J"ftl"~ ol c~t p-v/-

( L,/<' :;w•t·)
Tension/Compression (Direct Stress) Figure 15: Rotating Beam ~tig~ Machine
Procedure and Results: The specimen is mounted in an appropriate set of grips
tnstalled on the load cell and loadmg stud. The cyclic toad and mean load are de-
termined from known yield strength data. The mean load is applied with the toad
screw adjustment and locked in place. A trial stroke is chosen and the crank is ad-
justed to that value. Once the required toads are locked in, the machine is brought
up to the desired speed and the counter is reset. Completion of the test is deter-
mined by specimen fracture which actuates the cutoff switch. or the test may be
stopped by means of the predetermined counter. Recording the dtgital readout of
test cycles applied at the selected toad completes the procedure for one data
point
The equipment used for tensile strength testing is normally usable for this kind of
test (see "Figure 13: Extension!Com;>ression Test Workstation· on page 22) .

Rotating Beam (High Speed Bending)

Procedure: The test stress is determined by selecting a percentage(%) of the ten-
sile strength of the test material and converting that value into a bending moment.
After the specimen is mounted into the machine collets, tile speed control is ad-
justed to bring the machine up to the desired speed: the poise weight is then po-
sitioned on the calibrated beam to the bending moment previously calculated and
locked into place. When the specimen fractures. the machine automatically stops
and the number is recorded from the cycle counter.
Impact Resistance Test
During the first part of this century a metallurgist named lzod invented an impact-
test for determining the suitability of various metals to be used as cutting tools. The
test involved a pendulum with a known weight at the end of its arm swinging down
and striking the specimen as it stood clamped in a vertical posibon.
Some years later another metallurgist named Charpy modified the test slightly by
orienting the specimen In a horizontal fashion.
These test methods proved to be very useful, providing reliable, qualitative impact
data throughout WIII/II up until the early 70's. It then became apparent that higher
velocities and Impact energies could be achieved with vertical style drop towers
and thus the trend began to shift. Pendulum Machines remained popular with
those testing to tzod and Charpy while more high speed, product oriented Impact
applications became the dominion of the drop tower Within the last two decades,
advances In strain gage technology, data acquisition & corrputers have allowed
impact test results to become quantitative
As we enter the 21st century, many companies are increasingly turning to drop
weight testing to conduct traditional Charpy & lzod tests. It allows the user to use
one impact test system to not only test Charpy & lzod specimens, but also test
components and flat specimens.

Figure 16: Impact Resistance Test Equipment

* Impact test is use to measure toughness.

/
/
/
~-./
r-,v '
...... ......
.,)'
......

Standard Specimen
Pendulum Machine

Drop Weight Machine

Introduction
Much of the metal used on today's aircraft contains no iron . The term that de-
scribes metals which have elements other than iron as their base is nonferrous.
Figure 1: Usage of Non Ferrous Metals
Aluminum, copper, titanium, and magnestum are some of the more common non-
ferrous metals used in aircraft construction and repair For more information see
Sub Module 6.1 in Title "Aircraft Materials - Introduction• on page 2.

COCKPIT SKIN FLOOR STRUCTURES DOORS : SKINS : ALJCOPPER ALLOY WING UPPER PANEL
TITAN IUM - ALIZINC ALLOYS OTHERS : ALIZINC ALLOY • ALIZINC ALLOY

PYLONS
·ATTACHMENT FITTING :
TITANIUM ALLOY
· MAIN STRUCTURE :
TITAN IUM+
STEEL ALLOY
- SECONDARY :
STAINLESS STEEL

INNER FLAP
MAINLY ALICOPPER ALLOY

WING FITIINGS
PYLON, MLG, FLT/CTL
-TITANIUM
FUSELAGE SKIN
WiNG LOWER PANELS STRINGER : ALJCOPPER ALLOYS
RIBS AND SPARS FRAMES : SHEET : ALICOPPER ALLOYS
- ALJCOPPER ALLOY MACHINE : ALIZINC ALLOYS
Non Ferrous Metal Standards AAA Standard
There are different standards, used f:>r CIVil aviation non ferrous clas1fication. The Figure 2: AAA Notation Copper is the main alloy
most applied ones are listed below: element
AAA (American Alum1n1um Assoc1ation) Q) Main alloy element:
AMS (Aerospace Material Speclflcation) =
1 aluminium (AI) 99%
This standard does not give Information about material components. Be· 2 =copper (Cu)
cause it includes many different material it is often used as a material or-
dering system
3 =mangan (Mn) 202~- T3
=
4 silicon (Sl)

GS~® CD
BS (British Standard)
AFNOR-Air ("Association Francaise de Normalisation") =
5 magnesium (Mg)
BMS (Boeing Material Specificalion) 6=Mg+Si
7 =zinc (Zn)
6 = special alloy
Indicates alloy modification. If the second digit is zero. it indicates
the original alloy: digits 1 through 9, wh1ch are assigned consecu-
**AAA Numbering system tively. indicate alloy modifications

1st digit - Main alloy element

® The last two digits have no special significance, they are ordering
numbers. For casting alloys, the fourth digit is separated from the
2nd digit - Alloy modifications first three digits by a decimal pom~ and indicates the form, that is
to say casting or ingot.
@) Temper designation (see Title "Aluminum Alloy Temper Designa-
tions· on page 14)
 Aluminium
***
The Raw Material
Alumimum is the earth's most abundant metallic element, making up approximate-
ly e1ght per cent of the planets crust. While aluminium never occurs In its pure form
In nature, it Is commonly found In the form of oxides.
The most commercially viable source of aluminium is baux1te, wh1ch is predomi-
nantly found in tropical and sub-tropi::al regions of the world. Bauxite can be found
as a fine powder, granules or rocks and can be pink, cream, red. brown, yellow or
grey in colour, depending on the composition of the bauxite.
While the ore is generally easy to mine. the process to extract the aluminium from
the bauxite is quite complex. The process of making metallic aluminium is carried
out in two successive stages: a chemical process to extract alumina or anydrous
aluminium oxide from the bauxite, and an electrolytic process to reduce the alumi-
na to aluminium.
Four to five tonnes of bauxite are required to produce approximately two tonnes of
alumina, which returns one tonne of aluminium.
Properties of Aluminium
Aluminium is three times lighter than steel, but when alloyed, can attain steel's high
strength characteristics. It is also corrosion resistant, making It hyg1enic and long
lasting. Pure aluminium melts at 66c•c.
***
One kg of aluminium has more than twice the electrical conductivity of an equal
weight of copper.
Polished alum1nium is highly reftect1ve and is utilised for light and heat reflectors.
Since the chemical oomposition of aluminium remains unchanged during re-melt-
ing, it is easily and elficienUy recycled. Re-melting of aluminium scrap requires
only five per cent of the energy neeced to produce pnmary aluminium.
Advantages Compared With Mild Steel
Low density;
High strength-to-weight ratio;
Good corrosion resistance.
Ease of fabrication and diversity of form
Aluminium Alloys
Pure cast aluminium (99.0%) is unsuitable for a~rcrart structures because it is to
sort. However, because of its light weight (one-third the weigtt of steel), it is, when
alloyed with other metals or elements, an ideal structural ma:erial.
Alloyed alumimum is produced In cast or wrought form. Cast aluminium has a grain
structure that is very coarse; thus the metal is brittle. Cast aluminium is used in the
construction of aircraft wheel castings, engine crankcases,accessory gearboxes,
etc.
When aluminium is wrought. its gra1n structure IS oompressed and tightened as it
is forced into shapes of plates, rods. extrusions, or skms. Wrought aluminium used
extensively in aircraft oonstruction, is either non-heat-treated or heat-treated. Most
structural aircraft parts are made of heat-treated aluminium alloys
Experimental Alloys
Experimental alloys are designated according to the four-digit system. but they are
prefixed by the letter X. The prefix is dropped when the alloy becomes standard.
1xxx Pure Aluminium
In this group, minimum aluminium content is 99%, and there is no major alloying
element. The seoond digit indicates modifications In impurity limits. II the second
digit is zero, there IS no special control on individual impurities.
Dlg1ts 1 through 9, which are assigned oonsecutively as needed, indicate spec1al
control of one or more individual impurities. The last two digits indicate specifiC
minimum aluminium content Although the absolute minimum aluminium content
in this group is 99%, the minimum for certain grades is higher than 99%, and the
last two digits represent the hundredths of a per cent over 99.
Thus, 1030 would indicate 99.30% minimum aluminium, without special oontrol on
individual impurities. The designations 1130, 1230, 1330. etc . indicate the same
purity with special control on one or more impurities. likewise. 1100 indicates min-
imum aluminium content of 99 00% w1th individual impurity control.
2xxx Copper (Cu)
When copper is m1xed w1th alum1nlum, the aluminium beoomes more malleable
and ductile.
Pure aluminium is also malleable and ductile. but the addition of oopper enhances
these physical properties The copper also acts to prevent stress cracks from form-
ing while the metal is worked and makes some alloys. like 2024-T3. shock resist-
 ant Copper, which melts at 1083' C,ts one of the most ductile of all the metals It
can, however, be made harder by cold workmg
3xxx Manganese (Mn)
Manganese 1s a grey-wh1te. bnttle metal w1tch melts at 1245'C When manganese
1s m1xed With alumtntum. It prov1des a surface htghly resistant to wear and corro-
sion.
4xxx Silicon (Si)
S~ICOO which melts at 1392 'C IS not metallic. 1t has properties wh1ch, 1n alloy.
makes alumtn1um harder but not bntte
5xxx Magnesium (Mg)
Magnesium wetghs 2/3 as much as alumtntum It Is strong enough to use structur-
ally only when tl 1s alloyed With alum•ntum, z1nc. or manganese Also. because
magnes1um is very comostVe and buns easdy~speoafly 1n nbbon or powder form
1t tS seldom used in sheet form
*** However. the alumtntum magneSium 5056 nvet1s commonly used to hold the skin
onto magneSium control surfaces Magnesium melts at 650'C
7xxx Zinc (Zn)
When zinc IS m1xed w1th alumtn•um. the resulting alloy 1s st1ffer and more bnttle
than pure alum1mum Ztnc (a blu1sh wh1te, lustrous metal) IS bnttle at room temper-
ature but malleable when heated Z1rc melts at 418'C
Application of Aluminium Alloys
*** 1100 Aluminium
This grade Is commerclally pure alurnnlum Ills soft and ducble and has excellent
workability. It Is Ideal for applications Involving tntncate forming because it work
hardens more slowly than other alloys It IS the most weldable of aluminium alloys,
by any method It is non heat treatab e
It has excellent resistance to COI'IOSIOn, and Is w1dely used In the chemical and
food processing lndustnes It responds well to decorattve finishes, which makes It
suitable for g1ftware and apphcatlons where eye appeal•s a factor It has the high-
est thermal conductivity of any alumnlum alloy, and Its electncat conductivity Is
second only to the EC (etectncal conductor) grade
2011 Aluminium
This IS the most tree-machlntng of the common atummium at:oys It also has ex-
cellent mechamcal properties Thus, 1t IS Widely used for automatic screw machme
products 1n parts requ1nng extensive machining
It may be machtned at h1gh speeds w1th retattvely heavy feeds It may be restst-
ance welded Its corrosion res1stance IS good and hardness and strength exce~
lent.
201 7 Alum inium
2017 combines excellent machtneabdtty and h1gh strength with the result that1s
one of the most Widely used alloys for automabc screw machine work. Its strength
1s sltghtly tess than that of 2014 tits a tough, ductile alloy su1!able for heavy-duty
structural parts It has good formabtltty. and may be joined by arc or reSIStance
weld1ng Braz1ng or gas weld1ng IS not recommended Its corrosion resiStance IS
fatr
2024 Aluminium
Th1s 1s one of the best known h1gh strength alum1ntum alloys With 1ts high strength
and fatigue res1stance. 11 is used on structures and parts where a good strength-
to-we•ght rabo IS destred
11 1s readily machtned to a h1gh fintsh 2024 tn the annealed condtbon rs eas1ly
formed and may be subsequently heat-lrealed. Arc or gas welding is generally not
recommended, although this alloy may be spot, seam or ftash welded.
Stnce corrosiOn resistance •s relatively tow, 2024 is commonly used with an ano·
dised fintsh or 1n Clad form (Aiclad)
3003 Aluminium
Th1s is the most Widely used of aluminium alloys It is essentially commerCially
*** pure aluminium with the add•tlon of manganese, which increases the strength
some 20% over 1100 Thus, It has all the excellent characteristics of 1100 with
htgher strength 11 has excellent corrosion reststance and workability, and It may
be deep drawn or spun, welded, or brazed Th1s alloy is non-~eat treatable
5052 Aluminium
Thts 1S the highest strength alloy of the more common non hea.' treatable grades
Fat1gue strength IS h1gher than most aluminium alloys In additiOn, lhts 9,1ade has
part1cularty good resistance to martne atmosphere and salt water corroston
It has excellent workability. It may be drawn or formed into lntncate shapes. and Table 1: Usage of Listed Aluminium Alloys
its slightly greater strength in the annealed condition min1mises tearing that occurs
in 1100 or 3003. The resistance welding characteristics are equal to those of 1100 AA Designation Usage
and 3003. It has excellent flmshing characteristics. and anodic coatings are bright
and clear. 1100 Low pressure pipes and rivets of secondary struc-
tune
6061 Aluminium ~ '
2017 Most used rivet alloy
Th1s IS the most versatile of the heat treatable aluminium alloys. It has most of the
good qualities of aluminium, and it offers a wide range of mechanical propertJes 2024 Ribs, stringers, frames. sk1n (AlC version)
and corros1on resistance. It can be fabricated by many of the commonly used tecll·
niques. 3003 Secondary structure (access panels, fairings, etc)
In the annealed condition it has good formability. In the T4 condition fairly severe 5052 Honeycomb, secondary st.ructure
forming operations may be accomplished. The T6 properties may be obtained by
artificial ageing. It is welded by all methods and it can be furnace brazed. 6061 corrosion exposed welded parts
It is available In the clad form (Aiclad) with a thin surface layer of high punty alu-
minium to improve both appearance and corrosion resistance. 6063 Interior trim parts, galleys

6063 Aluminium 7075 Spars. beams. skin (ALC version)

This grade is commonly referred to as the architectural alloy It was developed as
an extrusion alloy with relatively h1gh tensile properties, excellent finishing charac-
teristics and a high degree of resistance to corrosion.
6063 alloy is most often found in various interior and exterior architectural applica- /
.,~'
.' fO
tions, such as windows, doors, store fronts and assorted trim items. It is the alloy
best suited for anodising applications - either plain or in a variety of colours.
7075 Aluminium ['
This is the highest strength aluminium alloy available. Its strength-to-weight ratio
is excellent, and it is ideally used for highly stressed parts.
It may be formed in the annealed condition and subsequently heat-treated. Spot
or flash welding can be used, although arc and gas welding are not recommended.
it is ava1lable in the clad (Aiclad) form to improve the corrosion resistance with the
over-all high strength moderately affected.
Cladding of Aluminium Alloys To prevent corrosion These layers are permanently welded to the base material in a rolling process at
high temperature. Other than electroplaled stock. clad material can be formed.
Several aluminium alloys as for example 2024 and 7075 are very susceptible to
The thickness of the clad layers is about 3 or 5% of the material thickness An ink
corrosion. Sheets of such material are clad with a thin layer of pure alumtnium with
print on US sheet metal that reads Alclad, Clad or Ale indicates that such sheet is
1 o/o zinc on both sides as a mean of corrosion protection
clad
Figure 3: Cladding of Aluminium Alloys

* Pure Aluminium is used to clad Aluminium alloys ,·· /o-

Aluminium

Thickness of cladding: 3 • 5% of T

Cladding Material
(Pure Aluminium)

Alclad = cladded Material

 Magnesium
Magnesoum alloys are used frequently in structures in cast, forged, and sheet form.
*** The greatest advantage of magnesium is that ot is one of the lightest metals for its
strength
*** The disadvantages in the use of magnesium sheet are that It is more subject to
corrosion than many metals. it Is not easily worked at room temperatures. and if it
becomes ognited, It is extremely difficult to extinguish.
When magnesium os used in an airplane structure. it can often be recognised by
the fact that rt has a yellowish surface due to the chromate treatment used to pre-
vent corrosion and furnosh a suitable paint base.
When technicians encounter magnesium in an aircraft, they must know that it can-
not be cut easily but is likely to tear, 1t cannot be bent or otherwise worked under
normal temperatures. it is subJect to corrosion and therefore should be treated with
the proper coating, and it presents a certain degree of fire hazard.
When standard parts are made of magnesium, this fact will usually be stated in the
manufacture's overhaul and service manuals. Also in the manuals will be direc-
tions for proper treatment of such parts.
Because of magnesium's tendency to corrode easily. the technician has to be sure
that the correct hardware items, such as the correct rivets. bolts and screws. are
used with any magnesium parts; for example. rivets used with magnesium should
be made of 5056-H aluminium alloy Any metal part used with magnesium should
be of a compatible metal or there should be no metal-to-metal contact.
Titanium
ntamum is a metal that has been developed w1th1n the past fifty years 1nlo an Im-
portant alraaft structural matenal Ills hghlwe1ght and corrosron res1stant, and has
h1gh structural strength whiCh It retams to a h1gh temperature. It 1s used 1n turbme
engmes. and for aircraft skJns In areas where the temperature is h1gh
Titanium may be worked by methods similar to those used w1th stainless steel. but
rt requires some spec1at techn~ques and the tools used must be kept very sharp.
It may be welded, but because It reacts w1th oxygen at h1gh temperatures. it must
be protected from the a11 With a blan~et of hel1um or argon gas. For th1s reason,
rnert-gas arc weld1ng 1S used
The use of ntan1um as a structural m1tenal has become prevalent only during the
past three decades. Before then. the methods for refining and working btanium has
not been developed to an extent that would make the use of the metal econoJlll-
cally feaSible
Trtanoum and rts alloys are used Widely 1n the aerospace 1ndustiy because of its
h1gh strength. light we1ght. temperature reSistance. and corroSIOil res1stance The
weight of btamum 1s approx1mately 55% of the we1ght of steel, but its strength is
equal to that of steel
The strength of btamum is ma1nta11ed to temperatures of more than 427"C
(SOO•F); hence rt rs useful m the cooler sectrons of gas-turbme engmes. for cowlrng
and baffi1ng around engmes, and for the sk1n parts of arrcrafl whrch may be sub·
jected to elevated temperatures that would be damaging to alummrum alloys.
Supersonic transport arrptanes utrlrse t1tanrum extens1vely for the skin because of
the atmosph"l 1Ch"dting wh1ch occurs at high supersonic speeds. Tltamum is also
used for the manufacture of supersonic mrlltary arrcraft.
It also has excellent resrstance to oxrdlsmg acids such as mtric or chrom1c acrds.
Strong reducing acrds. however, wfll attack trtanium. The resistance of titanium to
corrosion by natural environmental substances is unequalled by other structural
metals It is completely Inert when exposed to stagnant water, urban atmosphere.
marine atmosphere, saltwater spray, and seawater.
Titanium has excellent properties rn the pure form and also w1th the addition of var-
ious alloymg elements The pure form may have small amounts of carbon and ni·
trogen with max1mums of 0 10 and 0 05 percent, respectively These maxrmums
are also a requrrement for alloyed types
Alummium in amounts of 3 to 7 percent Is commonly used as an alloying element
Other alloymg elements mctude molybdenum, trn, iron, chrom1um. and vanadium.
Alloying and heattreahng have made it possible to develop trtanium products with
more than 1'241 N/mm2 (180,000psr) tens1le strength
Two or the trtanlum alloys are n -6AI-4V and Tr ·8AI ·1Mo-1V. The latter of these.
also called 811,ls employed to a large extent on supersomcaircrafl. This alloy was
chosen because of 1ts h1gh aeep resrstance at high temperatures and its stiffness.
Because of these quahbes, 1t1s more d1fficult to work than many of the other trtani·
um alloys. however rts strength quahtres oulwergh the disadvantages of 1ts work·
ability. Extensrve research has been earned out to d1scover the best methods for
cuttJng. form1ng, and dnlhng the matenal, and It 1S now reasonably ecorromiCSI for
the manufactunng or arretafl parts
Titamum has a very low coefficJent of thenmal expans1on, much lower than that or
other structural metals such as Monel Metal or starnless steel. The thenmal con·
ducttvlty rs approximately the same as that of stamless steel The low thermal-ex-
panSion coefficient s1mpl1fies the desiQn of complex structures made with btanium
because rt IS unnecessary to make such large allowances for expansion as those
required for the metals With h1Qh expansron coefficients
Titanrum is used extenSively 1n both m1htary and commeraal a11Cl'aft and rn ms-
SIIeS because of its htgh strength to werght ratro. Its freedom from stress corrosion
and Cl'SCkrng rts ab1hly to WithStand high operabng stress. and its high-tempera·
ture resrstance It IS used for maJor a11aaft structures, engrnes. and numerous
small parts and components
Two precautions must be observed while wor1<mg with titanium. Both ol these are
necessary because of the strong affinrty wh1ch trtanlum has fer oxygen and other
elements at hrgh temperatures. At about 1'oos•c ( 1 950'F), titanium wi111gnite in
the presence or oxygen and bum with an Incandescent name. Its amntty for nitro-
gen is even more pronounced, because 11 will rgmte at about 815'C (1'500'F)with
nitrogen
When t1tanium 1s being cut or ground In any appreciable quantrty, it 1s necessary
to have fire-extmgurshmg equrpment rmmediately available The hot sparks from a
grinding wheel can Ignite an accumulation of titanium dust ard chips to produce
and extremely hot fire. It rs recommended that liquid coolants or the proper type be
used dunng gnnd1ng to avoid the possibility of such a fire.
General Charac teri stics of T itan ium Influencing its Machining
Titamum requires low sheanng forces demonstrates a complete absence of 'bwlt·
up edge', and is not notch sens1t1ve Because of these properties, it can be easrly
machrned to extremely low mrcrornch RMS surface finishes.
Yet. titanium is sometimes dassified as difficult to machine. In part, this can be ex-
plained by the physical properties of titanium metal:
Titanium is a poor conductor of heat. He a~ generated by the cutting action,
does not dissipate qu1ckly. Therefore, most of the heat is concentrated on the
cutting edge and the tool face.
Titanium has a strong alloying tendency or chemical reactivity with materials
in lhe cutting tools at tool operating temperatures. This causes galling. weld-
ing and smearing and rapid destruction of the cutting tool.
Titanium has a relatively low modulus. Work will have a tendency to move
away from the cutting tool, unless heavy cuts are maintained or proper back-
up is employed.
Special Alloys
The selection of material to be used at high working temperatures is reduced to a Table 2: Super Alloys
small amount of very special alloys. The heat resistant alloys are of presipitat,on
hardening kind (see Title ' Precipitat:on Heat Treatment' on page 14) The most Alloy Name Composition Application
used super alloys are:
Nickel base alloys (inconel) Stellite 31 54%Co, 25.5%Cr, 3%Mo. 51%Cb+Ta, Turbine
Cobalt base alloys (AMS 5382) 0.9%Tl, 0.6%AI
Nickel alloys have a very strong lattice binding force wich gives a very h1gh resist- X-40 40%Co, 22%Cr, 22%Nt, 14.5%W, Turbine vanes
ance to deformation. This resistance grows with lnc;easmg temperature. propertie (AMS 5772) 0.07%La
wich makes such super alloys heat recistant. An unwanted property also grows
with the resistance increasement. it is brittleness. To compensate this. small lnconel600 74%Ni, 15.5%Cr, 8%Fe Turbine
amount of bor (B) is aded to the a lloy. (AMS 5540)
Figu re 4: Heat Resistance of different Metal Alloys lnconel625 62%Ni. 21 5%Cr. 9%Mo, 3.7%Cb+Ta Engine Exhaust
(AMS5599)

lnconel718 42.5%Ni, 19%Cr, 9%Mo, 5%Cb+Ta, Engine: axle,

(AMS5597) 0.9%Ti, 18%Fe, 0,5%AI compressor. case
1000
lncoloy 901 42.5%Ni, 12.5%Cr, 6%Mo, 2.7%Ti, Turbine cases.
(AMS5660) 34%Fe :urbine discs
1750

~
Waspaloy 58%Ni, 19.5%Cr, 3%Ti, 13.5%Co. Compressor
(AMS5709) 4.3%Mo, 1.4%AI disks, turbine
~ 500 disk~
c
~ Nimonic 90 NiCr20Co18Tl Compressor and

...~ 250
c
(AMS 5829) Turbine. disks,
•1anes. disks
{E.
100 300 500 700 900
Temperature (•c)
Monel Metal
Monel contains min 63% Nl and 27-32% Cu, along woth small amounts or iron and
manganese It can be welded and has very good machonong characteristics. Cer-
taon types or monel, espeCJally those contaonong small percentages or alumonum.
are heat-treatable to tensole strengtts equrvalent to steel Monel worils well in
gears and parts that require hogh strength and toughness, as well as for parts in
exhaust systems that reqwe hogh sl!ength and corroSJon resostance at elevated
temperatures
The value or Monel foes pnncopally on ls strength and corrosoon resoslance.
Monel Is nonmagnetic on all conditions It os easily worked on a manner somolar to
steel and has comparable strength. K-Moneloncludes a small amount of aluminium
(2-4%. max 2% Fe and 0,3-1% TI) and is heat-treatable to develop maximum
strength. It Is particularly useful in ma1ufacturing durable parts that are or may be
subjected to corrosive condotoons.
Non Ferrous Metal Heat Treatment
Heat treatment of aluminium, magnesium, and btanium alloys differs in some ways
from heat treatment of ferrous metals.
Aluminium and Magnesium Alloys
Several of the aluminium and magnes1um alloys may be hardened by solution heat
treatment. Unlike ferrous metals, these alloys are not hard when they are first re-
moved from the quenching medium, rather they gain lheir full strength and hard-
ness by natural aging over a period of a few days. To further strengthen these
alloys, they may be artificially aged by a process called precipitation heat treat-
ment. What is the term given to the process in which an aluminium alloy is heat treated to
a specified temperature for a specified time? Solution heat treatment
Heat Treatment of Aluminium Alloys
Heat treatment is a series or operations involving the heating and cooling ol metals
in the1r sohd state. Its purpose is to make the metal more useful, serv1ceable, and
safe for a definite purpose. By heat treating, a metal can be made harder, stronger,
and more resistant to impact. Heat treating can also make a metal softer and more
ductile. However, one heat-treating operation cannot produce all these character-
istics. In tact. some properties are often improved at the expense of others. In be-
ing hardened, for example, a metal may become brittle.
All heat-treating processes are similar in that they involve the heating and cooling
of metals. They differ. however, In the temperatures to which the metal is heated
and the rate at which it is cooled.
There are two types of heat treatmen:s used on aluminum alloys One is called so-
lution heat treatment, and the other is known as precipitation heat treatment. Some
alloys, such as 2017 and 2024, develop their full properties as a result of solution
heat treatment followed by about 4 days of cooling, or ag1ng, at room temperature.
However. other alloys, such as 2014 and 7075, require both heat treatments.
Note: All heat treatment or aircraft pa1s has to be done in accordance with the air-
craft manufacture matenal processing specification
The hardening takes place in three steps.
1. Solution heat treatment.
2. Quenching.
3. Age hardening at:
room temperature (natural aging)
elevated temperature (artificial ag~ng).
The quenching must occur rapidly. After quenching the material initially is soft and
ductile.
Because in the sort condition the material has only little strength, parts may be in-
stalled into the aircraft structure only after they have reached sufficient strength.
Depending on the type of alloy the age hardening process lakes place at room
temperature (20°C) or at an elevated temperature ( 120• to 2oo•c). The period of
age hardening is called 'precipitation heat treatment'.
Heat Hardenable Aluminium Alloys
The strength of certain aluminium alloys can be increased by a process of heat
treatment.
The increase In strength is possible because certain chemical elements that were
added in the alloying process are more soluble within the aluminium grain at higher
temperatures than at room temperature. Such alloy elements are copper. zinc and
silicon.
Non Heat Hardenable Aluminium Alloys
This kind aluminium alloys are hardened by alloying and strain hardening The
terms 'Cold Worked', 'Work Hardened' and 'Strain Hardened' refer to hardening
processes such as rolling , drawing, bending or pressing.
The following kind of alloys are not heat hardenable: AISI, AIMn, AIMg, AIMgMn.
Why is steel tempered after being hardened?
To relieve its internal stresses and reduce its brittleness.
How can the strength of non- heat treatable aluminium alloys be increased?
By strain hardening, or cold working
***Aluminum Alloy Temper Designations
The temper, or condition of hardness, of an aluminum alloy is indicated by a letter
that follows the alloy designation. as we see bellow.
F The metal is left as fabncated. There has been no control over its temper.
T
The metal•s heat treated.
T3 Solution heat treatment followed by strain hardening.
A second digit, if used, indicates the amount of strain hardening.
T4 Solution heat treatment, followed by natural ageing at room
temperature. ,,~ 1~~,t t ...
101~ T6 Solution heat treatment, followed by artificial ageing
· (precipitation heat treated).
T7 Solution heat treatment, followed by stabilization.
T8 Solution heat treatment. followed by strain ha~denlng and then
artificial aging. U.i111b£1 <~
T9 Solution heat treatment. followed by artificial ageing and then strain
*** hardening.
H The metal cannot be heat treated, but can be hardened by cold working.
H1 Strain hardened by cold working.
H 12 Strain hardened to its 1/4 hard condition.
H14Strain hardened to its 1/2 hard condition
H 16 Strain hardened to ts 3/4 hard condition.
H18Strain hardened to ls full hard condibon.
H 19 Strain hardened to ls extra hard condition.
H2 Strain hardened by cold working and then partially annealed
H3 Strain hardened and stabilized.
H36 Strain hardened and stabilized to its 3/4 hard condition.
0 The metal has been annealed.
One of the most popular alloys used in aircraft construction is 2024-T3. This par-
ticular alloy has been solution heat treated and strain hardened by passing it
through rollers in the process of its fabrication.
Solution Heat Treatment
The process of heating certain aluminum alloys to allow the alloymg element to mix
with the base metal is called solution heat treating. In thiS procedure. metal is heat-
ed in either a molten sodium or potassium nitrate bath or in a hot-air fum ace to a
temperature just below its melting point. The temperature is then held to within
about plus or minus 6 2•c (1 o•F) of this temperature and the base metal is soaked
until the alloying element is umform throughout. Once the metal has suffic1enlly
soaked. it is removed from the tumace and cooled or quenched. It is e.xtremely Im-
portant that no more than about ten seconds elapse between removal of an alloy
from the furnace and the quench The reason for th1s is that when metal leaves the
furnace and starts to cool, its alloying metals begin to precipitate out of the base
metal. If this process is not stopped, large grains of alloy become suspended 1n the
aluminum and weaken the alloy. Excessive precipitation also ncreases the likeli-
hood of intergranular corrosion.
To help minimize the amount of alloying element that precipitates out of a base
metal, a quenching medium is selected to ensure the proper oooling rate. For ex-
ample. a water spray or bath provides the appropriate cooling rate for aluminum
alloys. However, large forgings are typically quenched in hoi water to minimize
thermal shock that could cause cracKing Thin sheet metal normally warps and dis-
torts when it is quenched. so it must be straightened immediately after it is re-
moved from the quench. After the quench, all metals must be rinsed thoroughly
since the salt residue from the sodium or potassium nitrate bath can lead to corro-
sion if left on the alloy.
Precipitation Heat Treatment
Heat-treatable aluminum alloys are comparatively soft when first removed from a
quench. With time, however. the metal becomes hard and gains strength. When
an alloy is allowed to cool at room temperature. It is referred to as natural ageing
and can take several hours or several weeks
For example. the ageing process can be slowed by string the metal at sub-freezing
temperatures Jmmecliatly aner quench.
This strengthening process may be speeded up and increased by returning the
metal to the oven and heating it to a temperature much lower than thai used for
solution heat treatment It is held at this temperature for up to 24 hours and then
removed from the oven and allowed to cool in still air. This precipitation hardening.
or artificial ageing, greatly increases the strength and hardness of the metal, but ij
decreases the ductility. the metal becomes more difficult to bend and form. This
procedure has no effect. however. on its corrosion resistance.
Figure 5: Natural and Artificial Ageing Aluminium alloys conlatning zinc. magnesium, sihcon, or copper are given a pre-
cipitation heal treatment after natural heat treatment is completed. For example,
Temp
the alloy 7075 is given a normal heat treatment at 495• C and quenched In cold
\C) water. After It is precipitation heat treated at 120• C for 24 hours, it becomes 7075-
500 TS. Alloys are precipitation heat treated by heating them In an oven; time and tem-
peratures vary.
Quenchtng _ Metals which are given precipitation heat treatment usually lose some malleability
400
and ductility. and their mechanical properties are so changed as to reduce their
;
/ ability to be reshaped cold wnhout crack1ng.
300 The most commonly used precipitation heat treated alloys are those containing
zinc. The alloy 7075-TS has high impact resistance and therefore is used where
200
great strength Is required. The 7079-T6 aluminium alloys are excellent for making
forgings for heavy channels that carry landing gears or flaps of large aircraft. The
alloy 7178 is used where compression loads are the greatest, for example in the
100 structure of wide-body Jets.
15min Ageing 415 Days
Annealing
Time Annealing is a process that softens a metal and decreases internal s!ress. In gen-
Natural Ageing eral, annealing is the opposite of hardening. To anneal an alummum alloy, the met-
al's temperature is raised to an annealing temperature and held there until the
Temp metal becomes thoroughly heat soaked. It is then cooleddown slowly to 2ao•c
(•C) (500°F} at a rate of about 1o•c per hour. Below 2ao•c (500"F). the rate of cooling
IS not important. When annealing clad aluminum metals, they should be heated as
500 ,.,,.'~uength qu1ckly and as carefully as possible. The reason for this is that if clad aluminum is

400 /--
/
/'
.,.. --- -- exposed to excessive heat, some of the core material tends to mix with the clad-
ding. This reduces the metal's corrosion resistance.
Reheat Treatment
300 Material which has been previously heat-treated can generally be reheat treated
any number of times. As an example, rivets made of 2017 or 2024 are extremely
hard and typically receive several reheat treatments to make them soft enough to
200 drive.
The number of solution heat-treatments allowed for clad materials is limited due to
100 the increased diffusion of core material into the cladding. This diffuston results in
15min decreased corrosion reststance. As a result, clad material is generally limited to no
more than three reheat treatments.

Artificial Ageing
Testing of Non Ferrous Materials
The material testing methods are explained in Sub Module 6.01(see Title "Testing
of Ferrous Materials· on page 20)
Corrosion General
Corrosion is a natural phenomenon. which attacks metal by chem1cal or electro
chemical action and converts it into a metallic compound, such as an oxide, hy-
droxide. or sulphate. Corrosion Is to be distinguished from erosion. which is prima-
rily destruction by mechanical action.
The corros1on occurs because of the tendency for metals to return to their natural
state. Noble metals. such as gold and platinum, do not corrode since they are
chemically uncombined In their natural state. All corrosive attacks begin on the
surface of the metal.
The corrosion process Involves two chemical changes. The metal that is attacked
or oxidised undergoes an anodic change. with the corrosive agent being reduced
and undergoing a cathodic change. Tendency of most metals to corrode creates
one of the major problems In maintenance of the aircraft, particularly in areas
where adverse environmental or weather conditions exist.
Some metals, under the right conditions, produce corrosion products that are so
tightly bound to the corroding metal that they form an ox1de film (called a passive
~lm), which prevents further corrosion. As an example· copper oxide film is green
colored. When the film of corrosion products is loose and porous, an electrolyte
can easily penetrate and continue the corrosion process. producing more exten-
sive damage than surface appearance would show.
Most pure metals are not suitable for aircraft construction and are used only in
combination with other metals to form alloys. Most alloys are made up entirety of
small crystalline regions. called grains.
Corrosion can occur on surfeces of those regions, Wh1ch are less resistant, and
also at boundaries between regions, resulting in formation of pits and intergrannu-
lar corrosion. Metals have a wide range of corrosion resistance.
The most active metals (those whict tend to lose electrons easily), such as mag-
nesiUm and aluminium, corrode easily. The most noble metals (those. which do
not lose electrons easily); such as gold and sliver do not corrode easily.
Chemical Fundamentals
There are two general classificat•ons of corrosion. chem1cal and electro chemical;
however, both types involve two simultaneous changes. The metal that is attacked
or oxidlsed suffers an anodic change, and the corrosive agent is reduced and suf-
fers a cathodic change.
Chemical Corrosion
Chemical corrosion results from direct exposure of a bare surface to caustiCliquid
or gaseous agents The most common agents causing direct chemical corrosion
include:
Spilled battery ac1d or fumes from batteries.
Residual flux depos1ts resullmg from inadequately cleaned, welded.
brazed, or soldered joints.
Entrapped caustic cleaning solutions
Electro Chemical Corrosion
Electro chem1cal corros1on IS similar to the electrolytic reaction that takes place in
a dry cell battery. When the number of electrons matches the number of protons
in an atom, the atom is said to be electrically balanced.
However, if there are more or fewer electrons than protons. the atom is said to be
charged and is called an ion. If there are more electrons than protons, it is a neg-
atiVe ion, but if there are more protons than electrons. it is a positive ion. An ion is
unstable, always seeking to lose or gain electrons so it can change back into a bal-
*** anced, or neutral, atom.
The amount of chemical action that takes place is determined by the activity of the
elements that are involved._Figure 2 on page 4 lists a group of familiar metals ar-
ranged according to their ctiemical activity. The metals at the top of the list are the
most anodic and they give up electrons most readily, while those at the bottom of
the list are cathodic and do not readily give up their electrons. As we will see, when
any two of these metals are involved in a corrosion cell, the metal nearer the top
of the list will be corroded while the one below it w111 not.
* If two different metals are in contact with each other then
corrosion by electrolytic action will occur and result deterioration.
That is why we should not keep two unlike metals together
Figure 1: Electrolytic Reaction

Copper Aluminium
cathode anode

Hydroc111oric
aeld
oloctrolyto
Formation of Corrosi on Figure 2: Electro-Chemical Ser le$ for Metal

Corros1on is a very general term and it maybe caused by a vanety of forms, three This means Magnesium u Magne sium
forms are listed below. becomes anodic and i5 Zinc
0 7075-T clad a lu minium alloy
Galvanic Action corrodes easily z
~ 5056 aluminium alloy
This common type of corrosion occurs any time two dissimilar metals make elec- Pu re aluminium
2024 clad aluminium alloy
trical contact in the presence of an electrolyte.
Cadmium
For example, galvanic corrosion can take place where dissimilar metal sktns are 2024 aluminium alloy
riveted together, or where aluminium Inspection plates are attached to the struc- Steel
ture with steel screws. Iron
Lead
Electro-Chemical Series for Metal Chromium
One of the basic characteristics o f metals is their electrode potential. This simply Brass and bronze
means that when two dissimilar metals are placed in an electrolyte. there will exist Copper
between these two metals an electrical potential or voltage. This Ioree will cause Stai nless steel
the electrons in the more negative material to now to the less negative malerial the Titanium
u Monet
cathode if a conductive path is provided. 0 Silver
Metals are arranged to show the relative ease wilh which they ionise in what is 0
J: Nickel
called the electro-chemical series. The earlier a metal appears in the series, the
more easily it gives up electrons. In ether words. a metal that gives up electrons is
~ tnconel
0 Gold
known as an anodic metal and corrodes easily. On the other hand . metals that ap-
pear later in the series do not give up electrons easily and are called cathodic met-
als. Electro Chemical Action
A piece of alum1nium alloy such as alloy 2024, of which most aircraft structure is
made. In the material, copper is alloyed with aluminium, and the microscopic
grains or the copper and the aluminium serve as the cathode and lhe anode for
our explanation.
Aluminium is more negat1ve than copper and will act as the anode in the galvanic
action that takes place Within the metal 1tself. the forces are such that there will
be no ftow of electrons between the two alloying agents until an external path 1s
provided to form a complete circull Th1s path is provided by the electrolyte. which
may be a surface film of moisture, which contains such pollutants as acids. salts,
or other industnal contaminabon's.ln our illustration we will stick with a lillie hydro-
chloric acid in the atmosphere.
The electrode potential difference between the aluminium ard the copper grains
causes positive ions to exist within the aluminium. When the electrolyte film covers
the surface, the alumm1um 10ns attract chlonne Ions from the hydrochlonc acid and
form aluminium chloride. the salt of corrosion.
Hydrogen 1ons Will be attracted to the copper by the electrons from the aluminium
These hydrogen Ions wlll become neutralised and form molecules (H 2) wh1ch
leave the surface as a free gas Corros1on has formed on the anodic aluminium but
no corros1on products are evident on the copper, the cathode
Th1s type or electro chem•cal attack ~roduces p1ts filled w1th the salts of corroSion
and is usually rather localised But, 1f the ent~re surface is covered with a strong
electrolyte, there w111 be so much more corrosiOn that it will produce a more or less
uniformly damaged area Th1s type of conros10n 1s called a d1rect chemiCal attack
Figure 3: Direct Chemical Attack
Alumonum 8110\1 structure
Microbiological
For years. wafer that condensed In fuellanks produced relat1vely mmor corrosion
problems Jet aircraft, however, use a h1gh VISCOSity fuel that holds more water m
suspension than other av1at1on fuels
This water contams ITllcroscop•c animal and plant life ca11ed Microbes These or-
ganic bodies live In the water and feed on the hydrocarbon fuel
Furthermore, the darK 1nsldes of the fuel tank promote their growth. and m very
short periOds of time these bny creatures muiUply and form a scum mSide the tank
This scum can grow to cover the ent1re bottom of a tank and hold water 1n contact
wtth the tank sii\Jcture Th1s provides a place for concentrati~n cell corrosion to
form If the scum forms along the edge of the sealant in an 1nlegral fuel tank. the
.
sealant can pull away from the structure. cauSing a leak and an expensive re-seal-
ing operabon
,~ .;.. ....
Stress
Stress corros!Oil occurs when metal IS subjected to a tensile stress in the presence
of a corros111e enVIronment
The stresses 1n the metal can come from 1mproper quench1ng after heat treabnent.
or from an mterference fit of a fastener Stress corros•on can be transgranular or
1nter granular 1n nature Cracks caused by stress corrosion grow rapidly as the cor-
rosJve attack concentrates at the end of the crack rather than along its sides
Figure 4: Stress Corrosion
Effects of Corrosion Both bare and clad aluminium alloys resist corrosion in non-marine areas. Where
airborne salts and/or industrial pollutants are present all aluninium alloys require
Most metals are subject to corrosion. but corrosion can be minimized by the use protection. The corrosion product of alumimum IS a white-to-grey powdery materi-
of corrosion resistant metals and finishes. The pnncipal material used in a1rframe al, wh1ch can be removed by mechanical pollshmg or brushing with materials soft·
structure is high-strength aluminium alloy sheet coated (clad) with a pure alumini· er than the metal.
um coating (alclad) which 1s h1ghly resistant to corrosion on attack. General surface attack of aluminium penetrates slowly but is accentuated in the
However, with an accumulation of airborne salts and/or industrial pollutants along presence of dissolved salts. Considerable attack can usually take place before se-
with an electrolyte (motsture) p1tting of the alclad will occur. Once the alclad sur- rious loss of structural strength.
face is broken, rapid deterioration of ~igh-strength aluminium alloy below occurs.
Other metals commonly used in airtra11e structure, such as non-clad high-strength Factors Which Influence Metal Corrosion
aluminium alloys, steel, and magnesium alloys, require special preventive meas- Some factors which inffuence metal corrosion and the rate of corrosion are the:
ures to guard against corrosion.
Type of metal
Aluminium alloys, for example, are usually anodised (a chemical coat-
ing), or aluminium applied plabng, then primed and possibly top coated Presence of a dissimilar, less corrodible metal (galvanic corrosion)
w1th paint. Anode and cathode surface areas (m galvanic corro~1on)
Steel (except most stainless steels) and other metals. such as brass and Temperature
bronze, require cadmium plating, zinc plating, and aluminium coating etc. Heat treatment and grain direction
Magnesium alloys are highly susceptible to corrosion attack, especially Presence of electrolytes (hard water, salt water. battery ffUJds. etc.)
where airborne salts and/or industrial pollutants are present and require Availability of oxygen
special chemical and electrc chemical treatments and paint finishes. Presence of different concentrations of the same electrolyte
Presence of biological organisms
Effects of Co"osion on Metals
Mechanical stress on the corroding metal
The characteristics of corrosion in commonly used aircraft metals are: Time of exposure to a corrosive environment
Steel:
Corrosion of steel is easily recognised because the corrosion product is Causes of Co"os/on
red rust. When iron-base alloys corrode. dark corrosion products usually
form first on the surface of the metal. These products are protective. Corrosion is an electro chemical reaction of a metal with 1ts environment. The nec-
essary condition for this reaction 1s an electrical potential difference and an elec-
However, if moisture is present. this ferrous oxide coating is converted to hydrated trolyte.
ferric oxide, which is ned rust. This material will promote further attack by absorbing
moistune from the air. The most practical means of controlling corrosion of steel ts Corrosive agents such as:
complete removal of corrosion products by mechanical means and by maintaining AcidS
the protective coating system (usually a plating, often combmed w~h a paint sys- Alkalis
tem). Salts
Aluminium: The atmosphere
Aluminium and its alloys exhibit a wide range of corrosive attack including water
umforrn surface, galvanic, pitting. intergranular, exfoliation, crevice,
stress, and fretting corrosion. Micro-organisms give the best conclihons for corrosio1 to start when they
come m contact with the metal surface
Acids Mari ne A tmosphere
Most acids will cause corrosion on most of the alloys, which are used in the con- The atmosphere in marine areas conta1ns salt chlondes, or droplets of salt-,satu-
struction of an aircraft But in the list which follows you are given those acids which rated water Corrosion on alumin1um and magnesium alloys will occur very eas11y
can quickly cause corrosion. in this type of atmosphere. Th1s IS because salme mo1sture IS a good electrolyte.
Sulphuric Acid (battery acid)
Wate r
Halogen Acids (hydrochloric)
Hydrofluoric (hydrobromic) Water conta1ns mineral and organic impunt1es and dissolved gases, for example
oxygen. The amount of these impurities will change the corrosion strength of wa-
Organic Acids such as human and am mat waste ter. Corroston on aluminium and magnes1um alloys will occur very easily in this
type of atmosphere. This is because saline moisture is a goo:l electrolyte.
Alkalis
Alkalis do not usually cause corrosion as much as acids. But aluminium is very Micro-Organism
sensitive to alkaline solutions, which do not contain a corrosion inhibitor.
It is not unusual to get the water in aircraft fuel tanks, this water can contain iron
The list that follows gives you some of the alkaline solutions to which aium1nium oxides and mineral salts. This water can also contam micro-organtsms, these or-
alloys are especially sensitive· ganisms make the water Into slime. This slime wi11 1ncrease the rate of corrosion If
Wash Soda corrosion occurs.
Potash
Lime

Salts
Most salt solutions are good electrolytes and can cause corrosion. On some stain- AJ f/JIJ ~ ., ~r
less steel alloys corrosion does not occur by a salt solution. Aluminium alloys and Tc~ .:<A7
steels are very sensitive to some solutions which contain salt 1';:· "'
The Atmos phere --J:Y·
The general atmosphere contains Moisture and oxygen, which are the primary !C_' r
causes of corroston. Corrosion of ferrous alloys will occur in the general atmos-
phere, if they have no protection.
There are o ther gases and contamination In the atmosphere, which also cause
corrosion, for example. the atmosphere in industrial and marine can give special
problems.

Industrial Atmosphere
The atmosphere In industrial areas will frequently contain oxldised sulphur and ni-
trogen oompounds. When these oompounds mix with moisture they make an actd
which easily causes corrosion .
Types of Corrosion High strength aluminium alloys like 2024 and 7075 can develop intergrannular cor-
rosion it they have been improperly neat treated and are then exposed to corrosive
Pitting Corrosion MO.- , ,,, environments.

The most common type of corrosion on aluminium and magnes1um is pitting Pit- Figure 6: lntergranular Corrosion
ling first appears as a white, powdery depos1t lt starts on the surface of a material
and then extends vertically into the material.
Th1s type of corrosion is dangerous because of the vertical extension, which de-
crease the material strength. You do not get a large indication of this type of cor-
rosion on the material surface. This corrosion can be the startmg point of
intergranular corrosion.
For example. contamination's during the alloy process, metal chips, or electrolyte
liquids can cause pitting.
Figure 5: Pitting Corrosion

Anode, Corrosion Location

Aluminium
Alloy

lntergrannular Corrosion
lntergrannutar corrosion is an attack along lhe grain boundaries of the metal with
only smaller or no indication on the surface. Each grain has a clear defined bound-
ary, which d1ffers from the metal Wlthm the grain centre.
The grain boundary and the grain centre can react with each other as anode and
cathode when it gets contact with an electrolyte. Rapid selective corrosion at the
grain boundaries can occur with delamination.
* Intergranular corrosion can not be detected by surface condition
Filiform Corrosion *** Exfoliation Corrosion
Filiform corrosion IS a spec1al form of oxygen concentratton cell corros1on or crev- Exfoliation corrosoon is an advanced form of intergrannular corrosion where the
Ice corros1on, whiCh occurs on metal surfaces hav1ng an orgamc coaUng system surface gra1ns of a metal are llrted up by the force of expandong corrosion products
It 1s 1dent1fied by 1ts charactenstac worm·hke trace of corrosion products beneath occurrmg at the gram boundanes just below the surface Exfol1abon is most prone
the pa1nt film It occurs mainly under paint coating to occur an wrought products such as extrus1ons th1ck sheet sand, and thin plates.
Fd1form occurs when the relatwe hurn1d1ty of the a1r 1s between 78 and 90 percent wh1ch have elongated nat type gra1n structure.
and the surface IS slightly acid Corros1on starts at breaks Ill the coatoog system Figure 8: Exfotlant Corrosion It occurs mainly in extruded section
and at fastener heads and extends along the surface of the paonted sheet under-
neath.the coabng . •
Mo1sture CorrosiOn Products
If filiform corros10n 1S not removed the corrosiOn can lead to 1ntergrannular corro-
siOn, espec;alfy around fasteners and at seams Filiform oorrosaon can be removed
by usmg glass bead blasbog matenal With portable abrastve equipment and/or
sandong
Figure 7: Filiform Corrosion
Topcoat
MotSture
Primer

AI Alloy

Topcoat
Primer
Topcoat
Clad

AI Alloy \-viW~t,f.. fl~'O< vr

Anode. Corrosion Location 3 •'/ ,. , J

..
Corrosion Products
Fretting Corrosion ..
Damage can occur at the interface of two highly loaded surfaces, which are not
supposed to move against each other However, vibrations may cause the surfac-
es to nib together resulting in an abrasive wear known as fretting.
The protective film on the metallic surfaces is removed by the rubbmg action. The
continued rubbing of protective oxide film exposes fresh active metal to the atmos-
phere Fretting can cause severe pitting.
Dampening of vibration, tightening of joints. application of a lubncant or installation
of a fretting resistant material between the two surfaces can reduce fretting corro-
sion. A loose rivet can cause fretting corrosion
Figure 9: Fretting Corrosion
Topcoat
Fatigue Corrosion
Fatigue corros1on is caused by the combined effects of cyclic stress and corrosion.
No metal is immune to some reduction in its resistance to cyclic stressing if the
metal is In a corrosive environment. Damage from fatigue corrosion is greater than
the sum of the damage from both cychc stresses and corrosion.
Fatigue corrosion occurs in two stages. During the first stage the combined act1on
of corrosion and cyclic stress damages the metal by p1tting and crack formation to
such a degree that fracture by cyclic stressing will ultimately occur, even if the cor-
rosive environment is completely removed. The second stage is essentially a fa-
tigue stage in which fa1lure proceeds by propagation of the crack (often from a
corrosion pit or pits) and is controlled primarily by stress concentration effects and
the physical properties of the metal.
Fracture of a metal part. due to Fatigue corrosion, generally occurs at a stress lev-
el far below the fatigue limit in laboratory air, even though the amount of corrosron
is relatively small For this reason, protection of all parts subject to alternating
stress is particularly important, even in environment that are only mildly corrosive.

Primer

Corrosion
Products
Microbia( Corrosion Mainly occurs in Fuel tank sections Figure 10: Microbial Corrosion
Microbial attack includes actions of bacteria, fungi, or moulds. Micro-organisms Micro Organismus
occur nearly everywhere. Those organisms causing the greatest corrosion prob- I
lems are bacteria and fungo
Bacteria may be either aerobic or anaerobic. Aerob1c bacteria require oxygen to
hve They accelerate corros1on by oxidising sulphur to produce sulphuric acid.
Bacteria living adjacent to metals may promote corros•on by depleting the oxygen
supply or by releasing metabolic products.
Anaerobic bacteria. on the other hand, can survive only when free oxygen is not Fungus
present. The metabolism of these bacteria requires them to obtain part of their sus- Colony
tenance by oxidising inorganic compounds. such as Iron, sulphur. hydrogen. and
carbon monoxide. The resultant chemical reactions cause corrosion.
Primer
Fungi are the growths of m1cro-organ1sms that feed on organic matenals While
low humid1ty does not kill microbes. 1t slows their growth to prevent corrosion dam-
age. Ideal growth conditions for most micro-organisms are temperatures between AI Alloy
68 and 104• F (20 and 40° C) and relative humidity between 85 and 100 percent.
It was formerly thought that fungal attack could be prevented by applying moisture-
proofing coat1ngs to nutrient material or by drying the interiors of compartments Anode, Corrosion Location
with desiccants.
However. mould. bacteria. or other microbes attack some moisture proofing coat-
ings, especially if the surfaces on which !hey are used are contaminated. Microbial
growth occurs at the intertace of water and fuel, where the fungus feeds on the-
fuel. Organic acids, alcohol's, and esters are produced by growth of the fungus.
These by-products provide even better growing conditions for the fungus. The fun-
gus typically attaches itself lo the bottom of the tank and looks like a brown deposit
on the tank coating when the tank is dry. The fungus growth may start again when
water and fuel are present.
The spore form of some micro-organisms can remain for long periods while dry,
and can become active when moistUJe is available. When desiccants become sat-
urated and unable to absorb moisture passing Into the affected area. micro-organ-
isms can begin to grow. Dirt, dust. and other airborne contamination's are the least
recognised contributors to microboal attack. Unnoticed, small amounts of airborne
debris may be sufficient to promote fungal growth
Microbial corrosion can be mlnimosed with a maintenance program which oncludes
frequent sump draining. tank inspectoon, total removal of microbial growth, and ap-
plication of biocide with effected soak periods.
Stress Corrosion Figure 11: Stress Corrosion
Stress corrosion cracking is an intergrannular cracking of the metal, which is Moisture
caused by a combination of stress and corrosion. Stress may be caused by inter-
nal or external loading.
Internal stress are produced by non-uniform deformation during cold working. by
unequal cooling from high temperatures, and by internal structural rearrangement
involvmg volume Cllanges.
Internal stresses are induced when a piece of structure is deformed during an as-
sembly operation (i.e. during pressing in bushings, shrinking a part for press fit, in-
stalling Interference bolts, Installing rivets. etc.).
Concealed stress is more important than design stress. Corrosion is difficult to rec-
ognise before it has overcome the design safety factor The level of stress varies
from point to point within the metal. Stresses near the yield strength are generally
necessary to promote stress corrosion cracking, but failures may occur at lower
stresses
Specific environments have been identified which cause stress corrosion cracking
of certain alloys. Salt solutions and seawater may cause stress corrosion cracking
of high strength heat treated steel and aluminium alloys. Methyl alcohol-hydrochlo-
ric acid solutions will cause stress corrosion cracking of some lilamum alloys.
Magnesium alloys may stress corrode in moist air. Applying protective coatings,
stress relief heat treatment, using ccrrosion Inhibitors. or controlling the environ-
ment may reduce stress corrosion.
Shot peening a metal surface increases resistance to stress corrosion cracking by
creating compressive stresses on the surface which should be overcome lly ap-
plied tensile stress before the surface sees any tension load, and therefore, the
threshold stress level is increased.
Galvanic Corrosion Crevice Corrosion
Galvanic corros1on occurs when two dissimilar metals make electrical contact in Crevice corros1on IS a form of concentration cell corrosion. This is corrosion of met-
the presence of an electrolyte The rate which corrosion occurs depends on the al 1n a metal-to-metal JO•nt, and corrosion at the edge of a joint. Sealing of jomts
difference in the acbvibes and gaps and usmg of protect1ve coatings in the fraymg surface area can reduce
The greater the difference 1n actrv~ly the faster corrosiOn occurs For example, crev1ce COrrOSIOn
magneSium would corrode very qulddy when coupled w1th gold ma hum1d atmos- Figure 13: Crevice Corrosion
phere, but alum1mum would corrode very slowly m contact With cadmium
The rate of galvamc corrosiOn also depends on the SIZe of the parts in contact If
Electrolyte Metal
the surface area of the corrodmg metal (the anode) IS smaller than the surface
area of the tess acbve metal (the cathode), corros100 will be rapid and severe
VI/hen the oorrod1ng metal 1S larger than the less acbve metal. corrosion will be
stow and superfic1al
For example an alufl11mum fastener in contact With a relatiVely 1nert Monel struc·
w~
;;~::(
~~ft¢--oxygen
ture may corrode severely. while a Monel bracket secured to a large aluminium R1m Area (Noble)
member would result In a relatiVely superficial attack on the alum1nium sheel
Figure 12: Galvanic Corrosion

)n=:J;... -
Expandtng Comxuon Product
Moisture

~ .
Topcoat

Primer

AI Alloy

Rivet Anode. Corrosion Location

Corros10n Products
Susceptibility to Corrosion
As explained in T1lle "Eiectro-Chem1cal Senes for Metal" on page 4, dependmg on
the anothity of the metals and alloys they will corrode more or less easily (See also
Figure 2 on page 4)
Sub Modules 6 01 and 6 .02 g1ve more informabons about corrosiOn susceptibility
of metals used 1n av1tabon
Locations Susceptible to Corrosion
Any corrosiOn can degrade the strength of an a~rcraft structure. Therefore one of
the most 1mportant funcbons performed by an av1abon ma1ntenance techniCian on
an annual or C-dleck 10spection 1S to check the enbre structure for any mdicabon
of corroston . Almost all parts of an aircraft are subject to corroSIOn damage, but
corrosiOn is more likely to form In certa1n areas than 10 others
External Skin Seams and Lap Joints
One of the first places corrosiOn appears on the surfaces of an a1rcran IS along the
seams and lap JOints II IS here that both types of concentratiOn cell corrosion form
In dad skins, rt is here that the sheared edges expose the alloy wrthout the protec-
tiOn of the pure alum1num There IS also a danger of water or deamng solvents be·
com10g trapped 1n the lap JOints and acting as an effectiVe electrolyte.
Spot-welded seams are likely locations for corros1on to start because of the pos-
Sibility that the spot-weld1ng process may have caused the gram structure in the
metal to become enlarged Spot-welded seams are suscepbble 1 0 further corro-
Sion when moisture seeps between the akin a Check carefully for bulg.ng along the
spot welds Hold a straightedge along the row of spots.
If there IS corrosion 1n the seams, the skin will bulge between the spots and show
up as a wavy skin. Corros1on m a seam can progress to such a degree thai the
spots actually pull apart
Figure 14:
Control Surface Recesses
CorrosiOn has an opportunrty to start and progress 10 almost any place that is dif-
ficult to 1nspect Some a1rcraft have areas in the wmg or empennage where mov-
able surfaces recess back 10to the fixed surface H1nges are buned back Ill these
cav1bes and are d1fi1CU" to lubncate Spectal attentiOn must be paid when inspect-
Ing these areas to rerr10ve every trace of corroston, and to provide dra1ns for any
water that m1ght collect A th1n film waterd1splactng lubncant may be used to pro-
tect the sk1n lap JOints 1n these recesses
Piano Hinges
P1ano hinges mstalled on control surfaces and access doors offer ideal cond1bons
for the start and development of corros1on The h1nge body 1s made of aluminum
alloy and the p1n IS hard carbon steel These are the diSSimilar metals, and dirt and
dust hold moisture between the pin and the hinge body This serves as the ele<>
~ulyt" Th" f.1111 may 1u~t am.l lll!lol." "' Lhe lunge, even br.,akwg orr and bt<Com1119
Impossible to remove.
Piano h1nges should be kept as clean and as dry as possible They should be lu-
bricated w1th a spray that displaces water and leaves an ex1remely thin film of lu-
bricant that will not form gum or attract dust
Figure 15: Plano Hinge area over which the exhaust gases flow must be carefully inspected, and all of the
exhaust residue must be removed before corrosion has a chance to start
Figure 16: Engine Exhaust Area Engine Exhaust Area

Hidden eo<roslon occurs ~ere

Engine Inlet Areas

One of the most vital parts of a jet a1rcraft is direcUy in front of the eng1ne where
air is taken in This inlet area IS usually qu1le large. and air rushes into the eng1ne
at a high velocity. Abrasion by this high velocity alf and by contaminants that are
carried in the air tend to remove any protective coating on the sk1n. Abrasion strips
are often Installed along the leading edges of Intake ducts to help protect these ar-
eas. Engine inlets must be carefully inspected, and any damaged finish must be
restored to prevent corrosion.
Engine Mount Structure
All of the current used by the starter must return to the battery through the engine
mount. This current flowing through joints in <>n <>luminum <>lloy mount crontes the
potential difference that is needed for corrosion, and corrosion is likely to form In-
spect builtup engine mounts carefully. and spray the inside of these mounts with Landing Gear Boxes
a heavy coating of a waterdisplacing lubricant. Protect the inside of welded steel The fixed landing gear in many modem aircraft is attached to the structure through
lube engine mounts from corrosion by f111ing each tube with hot hnseed oil or other a strong, heavygage alummum alloy box. This structure is under the cabin floor
type of tubing oil. Allow as much oil as possible to drain out of the tube, then plug where it is accessible for Inspection only through relatively small access holes.
the hole with a drive saew or with a selftapping sheet metal saew. Water can collect 1n this area especially if the drain holes in the outer skin become
plugged.
Engine Exhaust Area
The exhausts of both rec1procat1ng and turbine engines contain all of the m gradi-
ents needed to make a potent electrolyte for the formation of corrosion. Because
these gases are so hot. corros1on can form all the more rapidly. Lap joints and
:;earns in the skin in the exhaust track are prime areas for corros1on to form. Fa~r­
l~gs between the nacelles and the wings. and the hinges and fasteners on Inspec-
tion doors all contain crevices which invite the for mat1on of corrosion. All of the
 lubricant film.
Wheel Wells and Landing Gear
There 1s probably no other location on an a•rcrart that IS subjected to as much hard
service as the wheel well. On takeoff and landing. debris from the run way surface
may be thrown into it. and this can be espec1ally troublesome 1n the wintertime
when chemicals are used on runways for ice control These chem1cals may re-
move the protective lubricants and coatings from the structure. Water and mud can
freeze in the wheel wells and damage the structure
Corrosion can take place in any of the electrical components such as the antiskid
sensors. squat switches, and limit switches. Bolt heads and nuts on magnesium
wheels are susceptible to galvanic corrosion, and concentration cell corrosion can
form under the marking tape on aluminum tubing.
Special care must be taken to search out any area where water can be trapped
The drain holes that are located in these areas must be kept open. Figure 17 on
page 16 shows some of the most hkely locations for corrosion to form on landing
gear.
Fuel Tanks
One of the most diffiCult areas to inspect, and yet one that is highly suscep tible to
corrosion. is the integral fuel tank in an aircraft. Integral tanks are actually a part of
the structure that is sealed so it can hold fuel. and all of the seams in the structure
are covered with a resilient sealant.
Jet engine fuel has a high enough viscosity that it can hold water entrained, or held
In suspension. VI/hen the temperature of the fuel drops. some of the water precip-
itates out of the fuel and collects in the tank. Bacteria and microbes live in this wa-
ter and feed on 111e hydrocarbon tuet. They multiply to such an extent tnat they
form a scum mside the tank that breaks down the bond between the sealant and
the tank structure and allows water to be held aga1nst the me:al. causmg low O)(>J·
gen concentration cell corrosion. Corrosion inside the fuel tanks is difficult to detect
and is usually found with X-ray or ultrasonic inspection froM the outside of the
wing.
Battery Compartments and Vents
All modem aircraft have an electrical system that uses a battery for starting and for
Wheel Bearing Races backup power These batteries store electrical energy by con·,erting it Into chemi-

.Jufy(JtfN.•• Correspondtng W11h JAR &8

Ccpyrlgh/t>y SR TOCI>noC< Cat: 81 6.4-16
For tll<llll>g "'""""'" 0111y
cal energy and are therefore active chemical plants complete with environmentpol-
luting exl'tausts
Aircraft that use nickelcadmtum battenes must have the area around their battery
boxes protected with a finish that resists alkaline fumes. These areas have been
protected by an acid· or alkaline resistant paint. usually a tar-base, or bitu mastic,
paint Most modern aircraft protect this area with chemical resisting polyurethane
enamel
On an inspection, these areas must be carefully checked, especially un der the
battery, and If any trace of corrosion is found, it must be removed and the area re-
finished.
Both lead-acid and nickel-cadmiurr battery installations use a vent sump ,ar.
These sump jars should be checked to see that the pads are moist and that the
jars are not leaking All of the vent cpenings should be clear, and the intake and
exhaust tubes must be free and open
Figure 18: Battery Installation
If battery electrolyte spills when a battery ts being serviced, the spill must be
deaned up immediately and the area neutralized. Flush the entire area with water
and neutralize battery ackl with bicarbonate of soda. The electrolyte from a nickel-
cadmium battery is neutraliZed with a boric acid solution or v.ith vinegar.
You can check the area with litmus paper to be sure that it has been completely
neutralized. Blot the water on the surface with a pieoe of litmus paper. If the paper
turns pink, the area Is still acidic. or if it turns blue, the area is still alkaline. If the
area is completely neutralized, as it should be, the paper will not change its color.
Bilge Areas
Btlges are in the bottom of the fuselage, below the floor boa res. They are ideal lcr
cations for the formation of corrosion because water and all forms of liquid and sol-
Id debns accumulate in these areas. Dissimilar metals In the bilges are constantly
exposed to an electrolyte, and because of their inaccessibility. corrosion can often
go undetected until it has caused major damage.
All areas that are likely to accumulate water have drain holes, but since dirt and
other debris also collect with the water, these holes may become clogged. It is im-
portant on every inspection to determtne that all of the drain holes are clear. and
lo carefully inspect any area where water might stand.
Air-powered vacuum cleaners may be used to remove any dirt or water that has
collected in these areas. A water-displacing liquid spray will form a thin film on the
surface of the metal and prevent further contact between the metal and the elec-
trolyte.
Control Cables
Some of the cables used in aircraft controls systems are made of carbon steel. If
water enters them. they wtll corrode. and the corroston will be difficult to detecL If
corrosion is suspected. release the tension on the cable and open the strands by
twisting them against the lay so you can see between the strands. If a cable has
any indication of corrosion. it should be replaced. Corrosion may be prevented by
spraying the cable with a water-displacing lubricant.
Lavatories and Food Service Areas
Organic materials such as food and human waste are htghly corrosive to alumini-
um surfaces, and the areas where this type of material may be spilled must be
carefully inspected.
Galleys, or food service areas, are especially troublesome as there is a possibility
that some of the food particles can get into cracks under or behind the galley
While this material may not in itself be corrosive, if it is not removed, it can hold
water against the metal and cause it to corrode.
The lavatory, or to1let. area is an especially important location to check for corro-
sion. Human wastes are usually corros1ve and they promote corrosion in a hurry if
they are allowed to remain on the skin or to get into cracks or seams In the struc-
ture. Disinfectants used in this area may even cause further damage. Check any
disinfectant that is carried in the aircraft to be sure that Is It is not of a type that is
harmful to aluminium A1rcraft that have relief tubes must have the area around
and behind the discharge of the tube carefully inspected for indication of corrosion.
The area where discharge contacts the aircraft skin must be painted with an acid-
proofpaint.
Welded Areas
Aluminum gas welding reqUires the use of a nux to keep oxygen away from the
molten metal, and this flux may contain lithium chloride, potassium chloride, potas-
sium bisulphide, or potassium fluoride. All of these chemicals are extremely corro-
sive to aluminum, and all traces of the ftux must be removed after the welding is
completed. Scnub the area with hot water and a bnush that has nonmetallic bristles.
Spot welds and seam welds are susceptible to intergranular corrosion because the
heat used m the welding can cause the grain structure in the spots and seams to
enlarge. The corrosion can usually be detected by evidence of buckling between
the sheets.
Summary - Corrosion Control
CorrosiOn •s the most damagtng natural phenomenon that the am:raft techmCian
must contend wtth The th10. htghly reactive metals of whteh modem atrplanes are
made make them espeCially vulnera)le to corroston s attack. Once corrosion has
started •n a structure. rt opens the v.ay for more. and the corroston spreads until
the structure •s destroyed
CorrosiOn cannot be prevented total!y. but 1t can be controlled by ehm~natmg one
or more of the baste reqUirements for Its formation
We can prevent the electriCal potential dtfference Wlthm the metal
We can insulate the cond~.~:tive path between areas of potential differ-
ence
We can elimmate any electrolyte which could form a conduchve path on
lhe surface of the metal
While corrosion itself is htghly complex, its control IS mamly a matter of paying at-
tention to detail The wucture must oe kept clean and dry. and any breaks in Ihe
fimSh must be repalled Immediately. Any corroston that is found must be promptly
removed, and the surfaCie from which the corros•on was removed must be treated
to neutralize any restdue and 1nhib1t 'urther corrosion
Some of the modern surface treatments, sealers. and fimshes are complex. and
they w.ll not tolerate any tmproper procedures tn thetr mtxtng or application. For
thts reason. tt ts imperabve that the techmcian understand and follow 1n detail the
SpeCifiC 1nstnuct1ons from the manufacturer of these products
 Screw Nomenclature Thread Forms
*** Major Diameter Accordong to the thread profile, the threads are named V-threads ACME threads,
round threads and buttress threads.
The largest diameter of the thread measured in a plane normal to lhe axos
*** V Threads
Minor Diameter
The smallest diameter of the thread measured on a plane normal to the axos These are mostly used for attachong pans. e g aircraft nuts and boils.

*** Pitch ACME Threads

These are mostly used for mot10ns of aXlal droves, e.g traohng edge flap dnve
"
The distance from the centre of one crest to the centre of the next crest measured
parallelt.o the main axis. *** Buttress Threads
*** Thread Depth These are mosUy used for motoons of axial dnves with one-soced load, e g traolong
The dostance from the thread crest to the thread root edge nap drove. landong gear systems.

Figure 1: Screw Thread Teml nology Round Threads

These are mostly used for motions of axoal dnve and especoally for stressed
threads, e g. horizontal stabohzer drive.
Figure 2: Thread Forms.

Mltl()(
Olameoe• -1- Eifecu..
Diametor
"~
'oiamerer
---
·-
- A>•I o/";;1
\;-·I
\j
e .............. --
Thread Number Thread Direction
Accord1ng to the number of threads they are named etlher single threads or multi- According to the direction of thread. the threads are named right hand thread or
ple threads. Most screw threads are single. The s1ngle thread has a stngle ridge left hand thread.
and groove A right hand thread tightens when turned clockwise. A left-hand thread tightens
Multiple threads are used to obtain an increase in lead Without weakemng the when turned counter- or anti clockwise.
sCfew itself Left-hand threads are used if RH thread could become loose when installed or af a
certain linear movement is necessary (turnbuckle).
A double thread has two threads and two grooves starting on opposite of the
sCfew. The lead of a double thread 1S twice that of a single thread having the same ~ Left-hand threads are marked with the letters LH
pitch.
A triple or treble thread has three threads and three grooves The lead of a triple Figure 4: RH and LH Thread
thread is three times that of a single thread having the same pitch. Therefore, the
linear pitch of a double thread is 112 lead and the linear pitch of a triple thread is
1/31ead.
Figure 3: Th read Numbers
fUi.SCREWS
CLOCKWISE
INTO NUT

RlgM Hand Thre.cb

Sl ngle Thread Double Thread Tr iple Thread

I.
* Double thread - 1/2 lead : '-.
* Triple thread - 1/3 lead
Standards for Screw Threads Figure 5: ISO Metric Threads

In past century numerous thread systems have been Introduced but many of them Bolt (External Thread) Nut (Internal Thread)
have gone out of use The future hes pnne~pally w1th the 1sometr1C thread. but the
others are likely to be 1n use for some years until the Sl system IS fully estabfished

ISO Metric Threads

In practJce the basiC thread form is modified to g1ve a slightly dtfferent form for ex-
ternal and Internal threads The root of external threads should always be smooth-
ly rounded The crests of external threads may be e•ther rounded or Rat depending
on the method of manufacture. The root of internal threads is usually rounded. The
crests of internal threads are usually flat
There are two series of ISO Metric threads:
Standard or coarse senes for general use
Fme series for spec1al applications
In each case the nominal d1ameter and the pitch Is given in mtlhmetres.
Thus a standard bolt des1gnated as M10 is 10 mllhmetres 1n major diameter and
has a standard pitch of 1.5mm. A fine thread is destgnated as e g M10 x 1 25 The Threads Compared
second number indicates the pitch. See the Table below
~~~ ~
~ /~
'/
Table 1: Pitch of Standard and Fine ISO-Metric Threads compared
'/ ,, Nut

1!.'
ISO Thread Pitch of a standard Pitch of a fine thread in
Diameter d ,. 0 thread in mm mm
8 1 25 1
10 1.5 1 25
12 1.75 15
16 2 15
 Unified Inch Threads Table 2: UNC Threads
The Un1fied Inch Threads have the same design form as ISO Metric threads. UNCTHREAD MAJOR TAP DRILL SIZE
Also there are two series. SIZE IN INCH AND DIAMETER IN
Coarse series - UNC NUMBER OF
INCH MM DRILL INCH MM
Fme series - UNF THREADS PER
NO
Below X Inch diameter, the nominal sizes of both are given as series of numbers INCH
from 0 to 12. 1 64 073 1.85 53 0.0595 1.5
Above X inch diameter. the nominal sizes are given as fraction an inch. 2 56 .086 2.18 50 0.07 1.80
The SIZe 1-64 through 12-24 are machme screws. The first number Is a code 3 45 .099 2.51 47 0.08 2.05
number and indicates not the screw diameter. The seccnd number ind1cates the
number of threads per inch. 4 40 .112 2.84 43 0.09 2.30
5 40 .125 3.17 38 0.10 2.60
***
Pitches are given as the number of threads per inch. Thus a 112" diameter bolt with
UNC thread has 13 threads per inch and IS designated as 112 • 13 UNC. 6 32 .138 3.50 38 0.11 2.75
The size 1/4-20 through 718-9 are aircraft bolts. The fractions indicate the diameter 8 32 .164 4.16 29 0136 3.5
and the number indicates number of threads per inch.
[1lA>t-:-~<:::24{il;"l~ 1:;.-!,19
:~
For example: 10-24. 10' stands for .190 inch. 24' stands for 24 threads per inch ~
12 24 .216 5.48 16 0.177
See the highlighted row in Table 2 on page 5.
1/4 20 250 6.35 7 0.201 5.1
5/16 18 .3125 7 93 F 0257 65
3/8 16 .375 9.52 5/16 0.3125 79
7/16 14 .4375 11.11 u 0.368 9.3
1/2 13 .500 12.70 27/64 0.4219 10.8
9/1 6 12 .5625 14.28 31/64 0.4844 12.2
5/8 11 .625 15.87 17/32 0.5312 13.5
3/4 10 .750 19.05 21/32 0.6562 16.5
718 9 .850 22.22 49/64 07656 19.5
Table 3: UNF Threads Dimensions and Tolerances
UNFTHREADSIZE MAJOR TAP DRILL SIZE In order to provide for interchangeability and ensure the correct class of fit for a
IN INCH AND DIAMETER IN particular application, standard unified threads are controlled by a system of toler-
NUMBER OF ances.
INCH MM DRILL INCH MM The tolerances permitted for the major, effective and minor diameters of a screw
THREADS PER
NO thread provide, In effect, an envelope of lim1ting boundaries wi:hin which the thread
INCH
0
1
80
72
'""' .060
.073
1.52
1.85
3164
53
00449
0.0595
1.20
1.50
surface must lie. The accuracy of pitch. however, should be assessed over the
specified length of engagement of the mating parts In a similar manner no sepa-
rate tolerance is normally quoted for the Rank angle.
2 64 .086 2.18 50 0.07 1.80
3 56 "099 2"51 45 0.082 210
4 48 .112 2.84 42 0.0935 2.40
5 44 .1 25 3.17 37 0.104 2.65
6 40 .138 3.50 33 0.113 2.90
8 36 .164 4.16 29 0.1 36 3.50
10 32 .190 4.82 21 0.159 4.10
12 28 .216 5.48 14 0.182 4 60
114 28 .250 6.53 3 0.213 5.50
5/16 24 .3125 7.93 I 0.272 6.90
3/8 24 .375 9.52 Q 0.332 8.50
7/16 20 .4375 11.11 25164 0.3906 9.90
'ml.:- .:.~ ·-·:·~· "!771!: -·,rt:~~ -:1~~
9/16 18 .5625 14.28 33/64 0.5156 13.00
5/8 18 .625 15.87 37/64 0.5781 14.50
3/4 16 .750 19.05 11/16 0.6875 17.50
7/8 14 .875 22.22 59164 0.9291 20.50

The size 0-80 through 12-28 are rrachine screws. The first number is a code
number and indicates not the screw diameter. The second number Indicates
number of threads per Inch.
For example: 112-20. 1/2 stands for .500 inch 20 stands for 20 threads per 1nch.
The size 114-28 through 7/8-14 are aircraft bolls. The fraction indicates the diam-
eter and the number indicates number of threads per inch. See the highlighted row
in Table 3 on page 6.
SR Technics f) 0 Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
r0
I
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors
'--' ' - "'--'

6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Sept10 I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 6.11 - 1
 Basic Maintena:nce Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Manual 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Introduction Resistance to abrasion

An aircraft cable must :POSsess a number of physical qualities and in particular
In the beginning the cables used in aircraft was Jmanufactured to a similar standard mu$t have high resistance to abrasion induced by aircraft vibration . Cables should
to those used in the automobile' industry. Thes e cables didn't withstand up to the also be physically strong and easily workable .
1
severe climatic and environmental conditions encountered during the aircraft op-
eration . Therefore cables had to be designed specifically for aircraft use. A choice Deterioration
of cable for a particular function is governed b~ its purpose and location .
, I Aircraft cables are designed to provide the best possible combination of resistance
* Like automobiles, the aircraft electrical installation is of the single-wire type, this to deterioration caused by extremes of temperature, mechanical damage and con-
means only one wire is used to support the su~pply of electric current to the user. tam.ination by fluids, and in general, are suitable for installation without additional
* In most cases the return path is established via the metallic structure of the aircraft.
me<;;hanical protectio~ .
*
Dur,ing flight many cabi\3S will experience a l(:lrge temperature range and must re-
Requirements main flexible within this irange with the insulation remaining in tact.
Reliability is of prime consideration for aircraft !cables since the performance and
safety of an aircraft and its occupants is usually dependant on electrically operated Electrical requirements
systems. Care therefore must be exercised dulring the manufacture of cable har- The conducting element must have a low resistance with a low voltag e drop per
nesses, circuits and installations. unit length and the insulation must have a sufficiently high insulation resistance .
Listed below are a number of qualities which ar aircraft cable should possess.
***************************************************************************************
Below are listed some of the groups responsible for the design specification s for
Minimum weight and dimensions 1
aircraft electrical installations.
A large aircraft may require up to 100-200 kilo ~ eters of electrical wiring . Small re-
Airbus Industry (AI)
ductions in the size and weight of a cable will rf3sult in a considerable weight sav-
Boeing Aircraft Connpany (SAC)
I
ing .
Resistant to fluids , l
The likelihood of an aircraft cable encountering a variety of aircraft fluids is high . It
Aeronautical Radio Inc. (ARINC)
Federal Aviation Rt;lgulations (FAR)
, British Civil Aviation Regulations (SCAR)
is therefore important that aircraft cables are a le to withstand the effects of: · Military Wiring Specs . (MIL-W)
water, engine oils, hydraulic oils, fuels , solventf , etc. International Stand,ards Organisation (ISO)
Non-inflammability 1
Joint Aviation Requirement (JAR)
Wiring is necessary in high fire risk areas such as engine nacelles, and APU bays .
Such .wiring should not cause. the .fir~ to sprea~ and for this reason the protective Qualities of aircraft cables
covenng should be of self extmgu1shmg matenal.
I * Minimum weight and dimension
I
I * Resistant to fluids
* Non inflammability
* Resistance to abrasion
* Resistant to deterioration

Sept10 I Technical· Training Corresponding .with EASA Rart-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: 81 6.11 - 2
 ("- Basic Maintenance !,('"~
SR Technics f) Training Manual '----'
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Aircraft Environmental Zones Figure 1: High Vibration and High Temperature Areas on MD11
Aircraft electrical cables will be required for many uses in many different locations
throughout the structure of the aircraft in following manner:
Pressurized zones
Hydraulic fluid area
Fuel area
Vibration area
Hot areas
c-~

Fire areas I
·-~
I

Severe weather and moisture prone

Location is a major factor in the type of cable to be used . It should be obvious a

cable chosen for use in the cabin would not be chosen for use in the wheel wells
or on the engines.

Listed below is an indication of the various environmental zones.

High vibration areas

Engine Pylon can with stand high vibration
Pylon or apron and high temperature
APU compartment
Wheel well
Wing
Behind pressurised areas

High temperature areas

Engine
Pylon or fire wall (apron)
APU compartment
Air conditioning compartment

Sept10 I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 6.11 - 3
 Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SRTechnics f) Training Mant.!tal 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Electrical Wire Fig1-1re 2: Stranded aircraft electrical wire.

Most of the wire used in an aircraft electrical s~stem is made of copper or alumin- Stranded tinned PVC insulation Extruded nylon jacket
ium. Copper conductors are coated with tin, nirkel, or silver to prevent oxidation copper conductor
and to facilitate soldering. Both copper and aluminium wires are stranded for pro-
tection against breakage from vibration . I
' I
The conductor is insulated with white polyvinyl:chloride (PVC) which is often cov-
ered with a clear nylon jacket. This !_ype ?_f wir~ ;is sui_table for installation~ in w~ft!­
**the temperature does not exceed~The m1sulat1on has a voltage ratmg offlj},eW
~~ - , . I

a
A wire will be understood to be single wire st~and or small stranded conductors.
A cable will be understood to be larger stranded conductors or multiple conductors
in one outer sheath . : I

Aircraft wires and cables must possess the foll t wing properties :
• Voltage resistant up to 600 :volts I ·
Resistant to all fluids \
Highly flexible
Highly strengthened
Light in weight

* Most of the aircraft wires are made by copper.

Aluminium also using to save weight. A nickel coated
stranded conductor can be found in most electrical wiring.

Sep/10 I Technical Training

'
Corresponding with EASA P.art-66
Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 6.11 -4
 0 Basic Maintenance ("
SR Technics f) "-- Training Manual i
.___,
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Current Handling Wire Gage

'(¢.~;~;filil~j]Jlp)j'~f¢1[Wr1~;;-~ l:~~j?r;{:;ir;J·p~!:famf66_ o !SJ9k~r.~Xt9n:;~he current rating be- e most common
ing defined a·s.·-the amount of current a cable will carry without sustaining a tem- amount bt current, to AN-0000
perature rise sufficient to cause the value of insulation resistance to deteriorate to
an unacceptable level or without exceeding a specified voltage drop. rat~.,J?.?~~I:~~~~~,~~~@\~1*?-,JQeJ, ..S"~\~rx "~"~~-L-<i!J1'"tw~~!..e.d
~§(4~~~~t,~gf~~rtc'1W!it~l§.m.9J!W!~~$3~~£l~~,~tt1t~~0l~119~k.&~;etl

0':-'\-t:ic.i~~!P<~~~~of the nominal voltage .

The table below shows the current-carrying capability of copper wire. Six-gage
'~"''~x:~9'flj~of the nominal voltage. copper Vv! re can carry 101 amps in free air; or 60 amps in a cable bundle or con-
duit.
Table 1: Allowable voltage drop for aircraft electrical wiring\
Table 2: Stranded copper wire sizes and current carrying
\i
System Voltage drop Voltage drop

~
Voltage continuous operation intermittent operation Size Size Current A Current A
WG mm 2 in free air in bundles
* Current carrying
14 v 0.5 V or 3.5% 1.0 Vor 7%
AN-24 0.25 3 2 capacity of a cable is
28 v 1.0 v 2.0 v AN-22 0.4 6 3 classified by American
AN -20 0.6 11 7
115 v 4.0V 8.0 v wire gauge.
200 v 7.0 v 14 v AN -18 1 16 10 Please note :- When the
AN -16 1.5 22 13 number decreases
AN-14 2 32 17
AN-12 3 41 23
diameter increases
AN -10 5 55 33 eg :- diameter of AN24
is less than AN22
/1/'i c e lo (lc ~C<J AN -8
AN-6
9
14
73
101
46
60
AN-4 22 135 80
AN-2 34 181 100
* When replacing a copper wire with an aluminium wire, AN-1 42 211 125
the aluminium wire must be larger in size. AN-0 53 245 150
AN-00 68 283 175
AN -000 85 328 200
AN-0000 107 380 225

Sept10 I Technica l Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 6.11 - 5
 Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Manual 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Tab:le 3: Stranded aluminium wire sizes and current carrying

'
Si+e Size Current A Current A
A~G mm 2 in free air in bundles
I

AL!-6 14 83 50
AL-4 22 108 66
AU-2 34 152 90
I

r wire to breakage and corrosion. AL!-0 53 202 123

use of aluminium wire in aircraft AU-00 68 235 145
AlJ-000 85 266 162
AL-0000 107 303 190
engine-mounted accessories '

frequent connections and dis-

aluminium wire should be rela-

.,

I
Sept tO I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66
Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes on,ty Cat: 61 6.11 - 6
 SR Technics f)
("
·....-
Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
0 \..._..-
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Kapton Insulation Kapton Wire

Insulation material is applied to conductors by one of two basic methods; extrusion Many aircraft cable manufacturers use Kapton, either singly or in combination with
and wraooing . other materials to give a so called 'Hybrid' construction.
~~"'~~~.;i'-·p;~~::~~-<:.:;.;"f·~f'i;~·c:.- . . ~··:,:r-!_' • h,-:.- -o~-·:r.-:v.--· ,.• - ~
ti~J~.J~ili9~L~.$!ltlati:qq~j§J.i:~~~Rt9.1g;bwhich is the registered ;. ~L~g[~[icilhllil~firi.~-§;af~~:$J?J£§J.iyj.:~Q:®~i~~&rib¢.£~3Jlo1:tq~~o a defined over-lap
trade name <?fan-aromatic polyimide produced by DuPonf ···'to give the required tape thickness at any one point.

-~-~~~XitP~~~
~. ' ...:. maintains its mechanical stability a(very high and very low temperatures .
The process of wrapping insulation provides good control of overall insulation wall
thickness . Some general wiring cable types employ only four layers of Kapton, giv-
ing a total wall thickness of approximately 0.06 inches (1.5mm).
resists high mechanical stress during assembly, installation and
rations. -1(i{m~rsft~~tt11l1i~6~~~1~P~lg:Qy.~¢ ~ top coat provides a coloured surface which
gives added protection to the cable and will also accept print.
I.flifM[(l~iJi!Ma'ft~~:~Kitiroo~moin:atid;t;J. s .o.f;K8,Q}Pn1~WTFE, FEP, and Fibreglass
has significant resistance to most chemicals, solvents, lubricants
'tO give improved performance. · ·---'.:"·.··,;-:--;. :.r '~!.,,,,. · ..,_ . . ,/~'
and fuels or hydrocarbons. ·
allows space and weight savings. Table 4: Kapton Isolation
has excellent formable and bondable characteristics . Maximum I Materials
allows significant potential for increasing the energy-to-size ratio of mo- Temperature
tors and transformers (power-to-weight ratio) .
s:, ·_~"'~,!',~r:.._r.~~'CT
150°C Kapton

200°C Kapton I FEP

--
200°C I Kapton I PTFE
200°C I PTFE I FEP I Kapton
--
200oC I PTFE I FEP I Kapton I FEP
Figure 3: Kapton wire with double wrapped insulation -
260oC I PTFE I Kapton I PTFE
--
260°C I Kapton I Glass I PTFE

Dispersion PTFE Poly Tetra Fluor Ethylene

,..., " .... > "T ////1 markable l) FEP Fluor Ethylene Polyamyd
Nickel plated Copper 2ndKAPTON Tape

Sept10 I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: 81 6.11 -7
 Basic Maintena;nce Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Manlllal 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

A .1rcratt w1res...
· II
as shown in the figure below are very specific a~ d can not be substituted with wires
available from the common electric installation or car industry.

Figure 4: Aircraft electrical wires characterrcs

Gable BF
-~TFE insulated Colour: Temperatur Range:
Nickel-plated copper ..........._ -t crossed tape overlap 24 + 18Dwhite 200°C
+ silver flash
22Diightgreen
20Diightblue
1
Gable CF
Kapton tape overlap/ Kapton tape overlap / Dispersion
Nickel-plated copper --........_ I
I
/ ,
24/20-1 ODwhite 20ooc
22Diigthgreen

I
Gable DK
I
Kapton tape overlap Kapton tape overlap / 2nd PTFE overlap
Nickel-plated copper ..........._ I
I
/ / ;
. · white 260°C

I
BXS 7007
FEP Fluorcarbon Polyimide (Kapton) coated
Nickel-plated copper ..........._ I 1
/ /
I lightbrown 200oc
I
~801684 TFE Fluorcarbon
•
Polyimide (Kapton) coated
Nickel-plated copper ..........._ / / 260°C
I II I lightbrown

II;)\. ~ _J0 (((;/

V ~-
11
IT ~v-v------v
vrfr
Sept10 I Te chnical Training Corresponding•with EASA ~art-66
Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes oqly Cat: 81 6.11 - 8
 SR Technics f) (" Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
{",, Module 6 Materials & Hardware
~ 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Special Purpose Wires Figure 5: Fire resistant wire

High Temperature and Fire Resistant Wires GPTFE

SILICON GLASS/PTFE RED OR WHITE COLORED
If a wire is used in an application in which the temperature is too high for the PVC CONDUCTOR 1
MMI tf\\\\MnS*MPBIJ4liljllQ5f'"IFIMmM!
insulation some form of glass braid or fluorocarbon insulation can be used. This COPPER/NICKEL PTFE
insulation is normally good to a temperature of about 200°C. POLY TETRA FLUORETHYLENE
'\ .-~-.-~~~~~~kB~:rf~);+;·.~:--~~~~Wt~~!;~~lfi~~~~?~ff~:.::.~~..:f.!!•!r-~ ·"J,'fr'"t~r"f'-'".,;,~~.,·13' ':· '".o· '7::-s.· -:-; ·:-~~· ..-.~ ·· · ~,..._.. . •·
l:i~!W'~.I];.!!l:S:e~il1~1~!.llitf.e:mMtt.em. rrr;rem,tak;zQ11i:~.:s).l\&@g~~&!t~W~J.w~~.tl~Jig.!NJspecla 1
insulation is required: ·· " " ~ "' "''
Up to 1oooc norm temperature type

Up to 250°C high temperature type

*** Up to 400° C fire resistant type

Their temperature range is up to 400°C and fire resistant for 5 minutes
against a temperature of 11 00°C .
The outside insulation colour is normally red,. sometimes also white.

Sept10 I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: 61 6.11 - 9
 . Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Mant\lal 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Shielded Wire Figure 6: Shielded wire and cable

Tinned copper

. :
Stranded tinned PVC insulation Extruded nylon jacket braid shielding

j""~'~' ' ' 1 ~ ~

0

~'
sensitive signals. These wires

Examples of these wires are,

Computer wiring . C:u-Conductor Glass-fibre
Audio and video circuits. (Silver-plated) plaiting Shield PVC Sheath
Metering and bridge input circuits. I I I
I
Microphone circuits .
These wires can be single wire shielded, and shielded wire pairs or multi-
ezz -cC :S:::t§~'&A~
conductor shielded. I I I
PVC Polyamide

Sept10 I Technical Training

Copyright by SR Technics
Corresponding with EASA P:art-66
For training purposes only
c Cat: 81 6.11-10
SR Technics f) Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
0·i
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Ignition Cables Figure 7: Ignition cable

These are used for the transmission of high tension (high vq.!tgg5l) in both piston
and turbine engine ignition systems . They are usually of the j§{~.fj'i_~ ~9.9r~- ,~t[~!.19~d~
.}t.:[:t.,;
i~;;;~\ wiflii~al~f:li';;i]ji~ IB;.X@I?lo f.,~!,r;r§..ttl ati.oAf,i~a nd screened by meta I nraiCfe'd'siie~atiiln fftci
;...:;._~~.l':;JG;"~)_...~.-.r_,~~.;.,;,.®-'_~~~-.~~'-tiC:~~~
prevent Interference. - -
" 1·• _ .,.._,Tn~,·~ -~·?l,:c{l"'"ftJ'•~ ..,.,~~''·~~';~ " --;•-.•· ~~-·.- ~·

~Q¢.])~~!~§~~~~~~t~B.W.£W.~i?a system correspond to the numb_ e r of spark

·plugs or 1gn1ter plugs as appropnate, and they are generally made up mto a com-
plete ignition cable harness . Depending on the type of engine installation , the ca-
bles may be enclosed in a metal conduit, which also forms part of the harness, or
they may be routed without conduit.
Cables are connected to the relevant system components by special end fittings
comprising either small springs or contact caps secured to the cable conductor, in-
sulation , and a threaded coupling assembly .

~~-JJlf:§1~~jlliigei@!~l§®±19@~~~t:[f®,§'[Ef[~¥t?if~}li:<:!8g~;A~~q~~~llf~!g@%£i~F~IfU8~oJ~;f,";=.~-
Working on ignition system is hazardous and lethal (Upto 26KV)

Sept10 I Technical Training Corre sponding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 6.11 -11
 Basic Maintenance
SR Technics f) Training Man~al
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Thermo Couple Cables . I Figwe 8: EGT indicating system with thermocouple harness installation
I
These cables are used for the connection of cyl,inder head temperature indicators, ~ALUMEL J EXHAUST

~G
K
turbine engine exhaust gas temperature indica~ors and other temperature indicat- TEMPERATURE
INDICATOR
ing system, to their respective thermocouple sensing elements. I
i
~
1 ALUMEL {-)-
The conducting materials are normally the sam e as those materials used in the
thermocouple sensing elements. :=c:CHROMEL (+)-
1
• Copper and Constantan: Cylinder Head Temperature or EGT {~:B

·•rL
;:.
LIGHTS
• Chrome! (alloy of chromium and nickel) Alu1mel (alloy of aluminium and nickel)

~
used for Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT)(
oil and brake temperature indication I
LEFT ENGINE
In the case of cylinder head temperature indica~ing systems, only one thermocou- EGT
THERMOCOUPLE
p.le·. sensi.ng ..elemen.·t is used and the cables betw\een it and a firewall connector are
normally asbestos covered.
J~~~ilt~w,'J mber of thermocouples are required to be radially dis-
posed around the jet pipe"in the gas stream . It is usual practice to arrange theca-
bles in the form of a harness tailored to suit a ~pecific engine installation .
~~'J~lDI:f~~of the harness cables isll either silicone rubber or PTFE im-
pregnated fibreglass . The cables terminate at an engine or firewall junction box
from which cables extend to the flight deck indi'"ator. The insulating material of ex-
tension cables is normally of the polyvinyl type, 1since they are subject to lower am- CHROMEL ALUMEL
bient temperatures than the engine harness. \ white insulaton green insulation

In some applications extension cables are enc$sed in silicone paste within a met-
al-braided flexible conduit.

Wires should be made from the same material

as the sensor

Sept10 I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA P~rt"66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes on,ty Cat: 81 6.11 - 12
SR Tethnits f) ( Basic Maintenance
Training Manual r Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Coaxial Cables Figure 9: Coaxial antenna cable (example VHF Communication)

This c~_9Lr,~.:;~~~J:~9>l:~?,"'<?.r~.~,Of.~, s:parat~ conducting elements . O~e inner and one Plastic outer
outer .J.Qll,e;i.41 11llil.('Z!ii~-~or,:~~Y.i·'1e sol1d or stranded copper w1re, and may be Inner insulation Tinned copper braid shielding jacket
plain, tinned , silver-plated1fr eveif gold-plated in some applications, depending on
the degree of conductivity required .
.i~~)pJUw.j~j~~JJ!fqt~!W:t~~r©:~;wain the form of a circle usually of fi~e wire. braid sur-
roundmg tll e"1nn'lie!flc6re~'THe two conductors are separated by an 1nsulat1on usually
of polyethylene or Teflon .
Outer coverings or jackets serve to weatherproof the cables and protect them from
fluids, mechanical and electrical damage. The materials used for the coverings are
manufactured to suit operations under varying environmental conditions. WEATHER PROOF
OUTER INSULATION
. -·-.-~~o--- .~"-~JJaf.i~1i~t~_ci§:m)§~t9t! 9!J9~;~?)N~L;s.~9-RCII.s1with the signal
.
lm e (the mner conductor) protected from unwanted s·1gnals (no1se) by the outer
wire braid . The outer braid provides a shielded against electrostatic and magnetic
fields. DIELECTRIC INNER CONDUCTOR
SEPARATOR SIGNAL CARRIER
Any electrostatic field does not extend passed the outer braid and the fields due to
current flow in the inne.umd ,ogt~.r-~q nductor's cancel each other. Also , since co-
axial cables-~<Wi.·.L~.L~f~·.~ hen likewise they will '!it§,lfR:i~l<f:([R.~:~y;I~o,er:;p
gy, or be influenced by other strong fields.
Coaxial cables are used on radio equipment, for the connection of antennae to
transceivers (transmitters/receivers), and capacitance type fuel quantity indicating
systems.
This type of cable is used mostly in RF applications , examples:
Radio antenna cables,
Fuel quantity cables.

Note
Coax cables are heat sensitive. Avoid passing through hot areas. Transmitter r------.
Bending radius of should be wide enough . Tx
Coaxial cables are grounded at both ends .
Coax-
For certain applications the cable length is critical and must not be altered . Transmit
Receive )( ) 1 Cable
Switch

Receiver
Rx
VHF TRANSCEIVER

Sept1 0 I Technical Training Corresponding w ith EA SA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: 81 6.11 -13
 Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training ·Manila I 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

The spacing of the identification number shall be at intervals of from 12 to 15 inch-

es, :wires less than 3 in ches long need not be stamped .
If the outer covering or yvire insulation will not stamp easily, or cannot be stamped
without causing insulation damage, a stamped sleeVE! will be used around the ca-
ble.

If direct f §lble markin cable must be in-

spected and an insulation Th~ following_wires shquld not be stamped:
check _ _ . machines like thermal or la- Shielded wire.
ser, that will automatically mark ,the cable al its length at regular intervals with Thermocouple wire.
the identification. Multi-conductor wire .
High temperature wire (with insulation difficult to mark).
To facilitate installation and maintenance, all tiring shall be indelibly marked for Boeing, Airbus arid other manufacturers uses different coding of wires.
identification. The wire identification number shall consist of a combination of num-
bers and letters.

The identification number shall contain:

System it belongs too. ,
Wire size.
Wire number.
Other information to rel,ate the wire to!the wiring diagram .

* wire identification number will be printed on wire insulation

.'-;

Sept10 I Technical Training ~ Corresponding with EASA ~ art-66

~
Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 6.11-14
 ('~ Basic Maintenance (r~- Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics {) Training Manual 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Coding System System code

Boeing uses the following component parts for the identification of wires. The identification code starts with the system letter code (see following page).
If more than one system is installed , the system number appears before the sys-
Description: tem letter.
1 System number 1, 2, 3 or 4
2 System code Wire number
3 Wire number
All wire sections with the same potential use the same wire number. If there is a
4 Wire section
change in potential due to the computer, lamps, switches, etc., the wire number
5 Wire size (AWG)
6 Colour\ phase . will change .

Figure 10: Wire Identification Section number

All wire sections are coded with letters :::startl ng~With ~ lette.rA' at th e .t i'rcUit ·breaker,f
j~:~g~~~9JP,~:~Js\~~~;;g.~~i,~t~r~~Q~ti.orj . p;~!§l/ ... . .. . - .... , .. . .. ., ·--·-· .. .
( 2 L 8 8 A:18 R (P), Wire sections are between ,
..
~
Terminal strips .
Plugs \ receptacles .
Splices .
. .- ··'}'''' . , . ,........: , . , .., ;; .• .., · ' "~·---···--·· . .
..-Jfil~\teJ$:~~~J:W'rr.~~-~-fll.hi.et:sameJ:iJJ~JgoJ@,.~ have the same wire number, but different
section letters .
2 Wire sections at different potentials will have different wire number.
L
8 ~ F?18v::ip~- §;~l?J-~~£~~lti[~@:!ti[~iA, B, C, to identify the ~hase connections,
8 The letter N IS used for the neutral (ground) connection .
A
1
8
R
D

~I

Sept10 I Technical Training Corresp onding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 6.11-15
 Basic Maintena:nce Module 61Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training ·Man mal 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

I
Example I Let,t er code (continued)
i
A cable numbered 2L88A 18RD I S Radar
SA Radio altimeter
.2 System nr. 2
SN Radar navigation
L Lighting
SX A TC transponder
88 Wire number 88 of system
SY TCAS
A Section A
18 Wire gage 18 I T Special electrqnics
TO Passenger address
RD Colour red TL Visual approach system
I TN
TP
INS
Special electronic power
TW Weather radar
TZ Passenger entertainment
Letter code
A
I V DC Power and control
Autopilot \ W Warning and emergency
c Surface controls
X AC Power
D Instruments (other than flight or engin!e instruments
Z . Spares
E Engine instruments \
F Flight instruments
G
H
Landing gears
Heating, ventilating and de-icing
I
I

J Ignition Co!ours used

K Engine controls
RD ' red
L Lighting
BL blue
M Miscellaneous
YE · yellow
N Unassigned (Neutral)
p GR: green
DC Power
Q
WH white
Fuel and oil j
R Radio Navigation and Communication
RA Instrument landing 1

RF Liaison (VHF Comm)

RL Liaison (HF Comm Others l

RM Marker beacon AL Aluminium

RN Navigation systems A Phase A
RP Radio power ' B Phase B
RT Teleprinter system c Phase C
RV VHF Communication N Neutral , Ground
RX Recorder
RZ Audio interphone

Sept10 I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: 81 6.11 -16
 ('~ Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Manual 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Figure 11: Example Wire identification Airbus A320FAM

~A319/A320/A321 AIRCRAFT WIRING MANUAL

137

. 22S=illG
226
227
p 9!-80-67-n
---t=cd

~
y
,"3-14-1'1~70 179

l}
209VT '"= 81 F@@
211 278 67\VG
13 IS

BLP BORRO-
67 R ! 227V(
STR657 125
7051
1TK24ttB
r. 1s1st•
1TKZ'l B
c
B
®
@
RNN L T TEST & INTFC
126STR550 70VU I 969VC R 75 I SVP
\31 SHHBBO 137 STR\961
163-CF22~2
l~1=E~~~ =====~ 164 - CF22
53
i6017t:R
IPF22 B
0
0
®®

6H
,. %·54-54
'" 231 ''s-------1
I 939VC

19'15VC
A
131 STR \9\1

R
751iVP
137 STR\96 1
75SBVC A
191 STA2026

209VT" 131 SHIJBBO

230 - - - - - - - - . ,

7HH CONT-
PI=ICK 1 TEHP

2'1.-08-14 --(1"'1-l/ 1279

:J
~-_il-3 )31·5~ -95
1=1 251\ VC
60\PP STR$60 211
zevoc
ESS BUS/ 1HB
L.I.. C/8
SHEODABLE AIR CONO/FLOWICTL & 'IIVO
\NO\
'19VU OVERHERO C/6 PNL 236-ill- 2 1· 51-01
2IOSTAS40

r--------------------?~5~
209VT
.----------------- 232 ----~--~
•1tLC~\6~ 6~dz
6
a1

n
2499VT 6119VN
2\0STR539 19JSTA2151

13HB RELAY
L PACK CLOSE 2 1 ~5 1-01
l - - - - 2 3 • - - - - - - jII •s t------,
zq1vc-t"R I
21-51-03~
235~ oc1 .,t£Cf~Os_ 6~fq 6

209VT
6721VN .
l91STAI961
9S VU SHE L F
121 STA-195

~' -i=
17-1 E 239 - - ' 6023
2-19 H 237
v 236 zqt sozo
27HH CQNT- 2 I OVT zqsvc r A 1939VC A
P~CK 2 TEHP 131 STA\911
75 17VP IIHB VALV(·
3QVU AIR [QNO PNL i 31 STRJ961 FLOW CTL
2 \0STR'\80 191 smzoeq
S \ Wire Specified Wire Size NOTE : UNLESS OTHERWISE SPEC IFIED PREFIX ALL WIRE IOENTIFICIHION WITH FHA 2 151
EFFECTIVITY . . UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED !=ILL WIRES RRECFZq GRUGE

21 51 04 ~ :ge
UNLESS OTHERWISE SPEC IF I EO !=ILL ROU TES RRE IH

~~~~~------
INDICATING
01 19 J

Each wire is identified by an 8 digit number composed follows : 2151 Circuit identification prefix corresponding to ATA 100 numbering
Example: 2151 - 0080 (Chapter, Section).
0080 Wire number in circuit (different for each segment).

Sept10 I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: 81 6.11-17
 Basic Maintena.nce Module 6. Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Mantlal 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Figure 12: Example: Wire identification Bo~ing MD -11

.1---
83
9102-
7595·22RO
II
II
7595-22BL
P 1-473 RS-l73
G
RS0-24069 PI0-24069 Pl-1934 93-34
lo4AR SHELF 2 R L ~R NOSE: R HYO IENP SE:ItSOR. SYS 3
l113
I

Barrel section: - - - - - - - - - - - f - - l
B - Fuselage nose
C - Fuselage forward
E - Fuselage center c
G - Fuselage aft
J - Tail aft body 9
N - Wing complete
W - Cabin
Wire number
Wire gage
N /

Annex code:
RD - Red N- Ground wire
f§;>~
BL - Blue AL- Aluminium
YE - Ye 11 ow A- Phase A
GR - Green B- Phase B The wire identification details· are;
WH - White C- Phase C barr~l setion, wire number, wir~ gaqe. annexcode

I
Sept10 I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA P;art-66
Copyright by SR Technics ---- For training purposes DI)IY Cat: 81 6.11-18
 I~ Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f)
(,
Training Manual 'i 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Cable Stamping Figure 14: Hot stamping cable marking machine

Prior to assembly the cable is marked with a code that identifies it and relates it to
the aircraft wiring diagram.
The code may be printed on sleeves which are placed on the cable ends prior to
being made up, or printed on the cable length itself.
The printing may be carried out by a small heated hand operated machine . It is
ribbon fed and prior to cable marking is set up with the correct numbers and letters
(cable code). These are found in the appropriate aircraft wiring diagram .
The cable may be marked by being put through an automatic LASER marking ma-
chine. Once set up this will pull the cable through and print the code on at the re-
quired intervals. After the cable is stamped the machine cuts it to the
. ~f~~9.-9.&~QlT~~~Jll._:. ..,..=·"'TJ.".,.l'","'K""I"~s.-.- ,.__
;b .-.;.-; .,..... .~~~~--~.;;~<"~~~.!'~~~ <;'~~~::;:{.~1;~.... -:."~ ;'I_~_ ~;~l~--' ·~·1;~ .;;_. ~r:;',:-.'$1f:'r7:;:·- ··-. ~~-__,_--,.~.. ~- .
ll'.ltJs;:lm:ifl0r.tah§tli!aNthl'e~eaiDI.e&ls\1GGElecl~ahfue.tlili~L'J.i;);~~g]_g~~1~~.!\Y.;~~,ptg.t where 1t passes
through connections, bulkheads, seals, etc. MosCdi5les"aref coded at regular in-
tervals of approximately 0.5 meter.

Figure 13: LASER cable marking machine

YctfMJf~
~tt(
· HEATING SYSTEM

MARKING UNIT
I

'----------"--: -r: 111111111111-~~

INK RIBBON-/ /@) ,----.,...---CABLE FEED

• q' ~ - -__ ; L E
~ o o'!/)_ CABLE GUIDE

Sept10 I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: 81 6.11-19
 Basic Maintenapce Module 6iMaterials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Manual 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Crimping Fig~re 15: Wire terminals

~~A crimped con-

compression to a termina- ___ _Tongue
r .in dose contact. A .typical crimp
r-rirnninth barrel and tongue, together with ,
ich mate$ with,the crimping barrel
rocess, so as to grip the cable in-
of support.
ble conductor so that after pres-
contact are made. The pressure
cally operated tool fitted with a die
u::.::.- ::.~::~,.;uunal form to the completed joint. Ring-type terminal Slotted-type terminal·

There is a vast range of terminations availabl many of which are colour coded,
and suitable for use only with specific types aircraft cable. It is, therefore , vital
that the appropriate manufacturer's instructio regarding the use of cables and

As~~~~
terminations are followed .
I
I

. hai&J·· ~)&W
I
~~~~II).jf~--w ·<'l-' ~>r.J-ii;-·~2f\)1'.!tf. -<,'"--,~, ~,; ;;,,. , <
ur.I;Yre,ims~Iat~~~!liro:~ 'e'IW.!!liil!..q;!-?~e, ~se'€i ,®mjig!.I ~:.M\!Irle.~ connected to termmal
.

strips. The insulation is stripped from the end otl the wire, which is inserted into the
terminal until the insulation butts,up against the sleeve of the terminal and the end
of the wire sticks out slightly beyond the end 9f the sleeve . When the terminal is Col ou r code of splices iiu:)~ terminal - Indicate wire sizes tha it can fit
crimped with a special crimping) tool , the terminal sleeve · grips the wire tightly 1
yellow fits oil wire gages 26 through 22 (small)
enough to make a joint that is a~ strong as the !wire itself.
red \tits on wires from 20 through 18
The insulation around the sleeve is crimped at the same time, so it is forced tightly blu~ fits on wires from 16 through 14
against the insulation on the wir,e and helps rdmove some ot'the strain from the yell.ow terminal fits wire gages 12 through 10 (large)
wire strands when the wire is subjected to mov;ement and vibration . blank meta II fits on larger wires <1 0

II

Sept10 I Technical Training Corresponding ,w ith EASA P~rt-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes Of1IY Cat: B1 6.11 -20
 SR Technics f) ~
'
Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
0 Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Wire Splices Figure 16: Splice

At one time it was common practice tq _s P.)jG,!il_;Nii~-~ --b.Y wrapping the end s of the
.~J£~$iJgg~1Dtt~~,Q.~"'~~~;;~. ~g,!q1~ff.} Bi37~~~l_'fi~~J~.I. i~ifir~~;~ P.[_i,fi:p;~~~is·}~~.h,e · _~.tit~ the?
'-: ~~81f#.ti~.l.~~~~-ii.JP/&~J.~ff~~J~·?L~L~~~~-~-~:~~\'fo mstall the t_erm1_nals, stnp t~e msu-
latlon off the en as··o f-me w1res , slip the ena's of the two w1res 1nto the splice, and
crimp the splice, using the proper crimping tooL (See module 7.7)

~
~
~ > > > nJH:'>Y~

Sept10 I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: 81 6.11 - 21
 Basic Mainte.na:nce Module 6. Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training .Manwl.al 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Plugs and Receptacles Fig'"'re 17: Electrical Connectors

General
Where frequent disconnection 9f aircraft wiring is necessary for maintenance,
plugs and receptacles are used. Mating of ele~trical wires between plugs and re-
ceptacles is via contacts (pins and sockets). I

~
(~,
• Plug: the moveable part of ;:1 connection a1ttached to cable and fits into the
*** Receptacle: the fixed part of

Thread coupling.
,
a connectior\I
found on panels, supports, computer, boxes, instruments, sensors, actuators
~. I
I
Mating connection between plugs and receptacles is either through,
MS3100
BULKHEAD RECEPTACLE
It) r
MS3102
BOX f1ECEPT /\Cl E
Sl

Bayonet coupling. MS3101

CABLE RECEPTACLE
Push/Pull slide type

connection between wire and co MS3106

MS3106
STf1/\IGIH PLUG
tacts, although soldered type co,ntacts may be STRAIGHT PLUG

Connectors are made by

* General purpose - Aluminium alloy MS3100
BULKHEAD PLUG MS3108
* High temperature - Stainless steel /\NGLEPLUG

Sept10 I Technical Training

Copyright by SR Technics
' I
Corresponding•with EASA Part-66
For training purposes o~/y
I
c Cat: 81 6.11 -22
 SR Technics f) if>- Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
0- Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Connector Coding Figure 18: Connector Details

i@~~fif~~Jgii1~"1~!ri'JX.Q:~~1:mE~@,e~f9rs ~lilave a fixed insert, this means the only Receptacle
·pa·rt ·onfie,_c'orrn)1ect'5'' tassemb'IV-n1arrs'removable is the coupling nut.
These connectors normally have crimp type contacts . Grommet Nut
The connector part number normally contains the following information: (usually used Shell
without cable
• Amphenol - series 48 type connector: clamp)
A Connector type, Insulator
B Coupling - bayonet or threaded,
,e...8IJ-- Sockets
C Shell type,
D Insulation - R = heat resistant,
Main Groove
E Connector size,
F Number of contacts,
P\S Pin or Socket, Plug
G Interlock position,
H With or without a clamp C =has a clamp.
:zi(t~~t.irkiiil~J~_,~;v:Y~G;q:~rl~:~~-,r~~e@W!.~i~r~tbe !iq~ ~lin·g .liln,g)7··~
~- · .,~. .:_' '·"YA'rr -"'"'·'··Made to Gov·e~nment standard , · · ' ·.
3106 Indicates a straight plug,
A Class A, ~art Number
18 Connector size quoted in 1\16inch increments
(eg .18 x 1\16 = 1.1\4 inch plug size).
4 Indicates the particular arrangement style of the contacts
(manufacturer normally provides charts showing various
contact arrangements) . Coupling Ring
S Pin or Socket, 48 0 6 R 22 55 p 6 c
X Insert rotation.

If several connectors are on the same location, make sure, that always the
correct plug is fitted to its receptacle.

A B c D E F G H

/r::le
Sept10 I Technical Training
~
£ 10/U%1/
Corresponding with EASA Part-66
P=Pins
S=Sockets

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: 81 6.11 - 23

 Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Manual 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Backs hells At t~e end of the connec;tor housing a "follower" will give an interfacial seal, as well
as sealing at the wire emds.
The backshell of the connector is designedf.
wire bundle .

Figure 19: Backshells

t
I

1 \-
.1

d~l~l~
J N-1 llUT MOUNTED
Ut:GilEE BACKSII£LL T HREADED RECEPTACLE
STRJ\111 RI::Lll::f CLAHP

PIN AND SO CKE T

CONTACTS

-~ THR£1\DED \ PLUG

-~
'·
90 DI::GREE BACKSJ!t:LJ.
STRAIN RELIEf CLAI-IP
.j -f-~--
STRA I GifT . BACKSH£LL
5 TRA Ill RELIEf CLN-IP
I
fLANGE MOUNTED
THR£1\DED RECEPTACLE

~~ STRAIGHT BI\CKSIIELL
STRAIN RELIEf C LAJ-IP

r-
BI\YOHET COUPLED PLUG

Sock NuT

.j 0

_j l
I fLJI.NG~ HOUNTED
BI>.YOHET COUPLED
RECEPT.>-CLE

Sept10 I Te chnical Training Corresponding with EASA P~rt-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 6.11-24
SR Technics f) ~
I
Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
p ' -../
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Shelf Receptacles Polarizing Key

Computer units located on shelves of the avionics equipment compartment. Rear fvl?.S.! ,C,8WB~t,~.t~r,);>~,;~f ,.~!3C::,~,Pj~les are ~q.uipped f,fi~~:i8:9!:¥.f!~ihg l eys to pre~ent
connectors establishes all necessary connections . Pwrong,:mse!iiOFIJ0f1.computer.s:.,The
~ · ·•J:, ..
•v$~ ~ , .:;. ·~
polanz1ng keys can be rotated 1n any combma-
'.;·; -·~r,,;:,..; . j :;,."t~··;·'~;~.t;·' ' "<' ' o,,r...:. ·:,·~J"":' t.

tion , si::ioriiY the 'd5mputer which fits to this system can be installed.

Figure 20: Line Replaceable Unit with Rear Connector

Figure 21: Shelf-plug and computer-receptacle with polarizing keys
RECEPTACLE/FEMALE CONNECTOR
(INSTALLED ON EQUIPMENT SIDE~ RACK SIDE , 2 3 4 s 6
e () ~ w '-> ~

POLARIZING
POSTS OR KEYS

cotJ\Pu\€-R u~'"
,e\..p...cv..eo'f..) €.·u~'"
\..\~€. R€.?\..p...c€-P...e\..

RECEPTACTLE
(Computer)

Sept10 I Technical Training Corresponding wilh EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: 81 6.11-25
 Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Manual 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Connector Contacts Pins and contacts may be of the soldered type, but more commonly are of the
crimped type, to attach them to individual wires. Contacts are normally round in
Pins and Sockets sha
To facilitate maintenance wher~ frequent disccpnnection of wires is required, con-
nectors are used. Connectors in construction can be broken into two parts, Plugs The wire size its wire barrel can accommodate.
and Receptacles . Each wire in a connector is ! terminated in a contact. A contact The contact size it will mate with .
may be a Pin (male) or a Socket (female).
Contacts are inserted and extracted from their terminating device, by special in-
sertion and extraction tools.
I
Figure 22: Electrical Contacts. I
I
II

' SOCKET CONTACTS

I
(FRONT RE LEAS.E CONTACTS)
CREAR RELEASE CONTACT)
LOCKING CLIP ENGAGING SHOULDER \

\I /SOCKET
SOCKET7

~
RECEPTACLE
0 r::.rr==:J PIN CONTACTS
?LUG

~ INSPECTION HOLES
r?IN

~
I I
~
?LUG
2U-Jl.J= PIN CONTACTS
! I
LL
I
. ~ I

WIRE CRIMP BARREL--'

I
I MATING END __j
SHROUD OR SHROUD FORM SOCKET CON TACT S
I

TYPICAL ~ONTACTS TYPICAL CONNECTORS

I
II
I

Sept tO I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training,purposes only Cat: 81 6.11 -26
SR Technics f)
.r--)..
( Basic Maintenance
Training Manual r"
I
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Crimped Contacts Figure 23: Connector detailed with soldering or crimping contacts
Most modern quick-disconnect plugs use crimped-on tapered terminals that are
pressed into tapered holes in the ends of the pins· or sockets . A tapered pin is
crimped onto the end of each wire to be inserted into the plug, and all necessary ~Insert barrel
rings and clamps are slipped over the wires. Most of the connectors are crimped.

Soldered Contacts
Wires are attached to most of the older quick-disconnect plugs by soldering .
Today only connecters of installations inside passenger cabin may be soldered Insert retaining ring
After all of the wires are soldered into the connector, transparent PVC sleeving is Coupling ring
slipped over the end of each wire and the pot into which the wire is soldered . These
wires are then tied together with a spot tie of waxed linen or nylon cord .

CONNECTOR

Crimped contacts

Solder

&:'i=e
- ,
/b /(n~/
Sept10 I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66
Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: 81 6.11 -27
 Basi.c Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training 'Manual 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Coaxial Connections · I Figure 25: Coaxial cor.mectors crimping type

j
The connection between a piece of electronic equipment and its antenna is often
made with coaxial cable .
ll ' I
S"fRAIGHT PLUG CORE CAP FERRULE HEAT SHRINKABLE
I
felt;
There are a number of sizes and types of coa ial cable used for electronic instal- -

-a 1-=t
I F TYPE SLEIEVE

~=r®
lation. Each type must be treated in the way s~ecified by the manufacturer of the
connectors. \
Different sizes and constructions of coaxial connectors are available:
' 1 FOR FOS
Solder able \ BODY I

Crimp able I
I PANEL JACK! - SQUARE FLANGE -BI
Plugs (male)

Ef
TC TYPE
Receptacles (female)
BNC connectors are the most widely used typ c:=::d:(jJ -EE - I

. FOR ·TC06 I
I
Figure 24: Coaxial connectors soldering
RIGHT ANGLE PLUG

I
FC TYPE
DIELECTRIC ' WIRE ,. INNER ADAPTER COUPLING
SEPARATOR, BRAID (slides under RING I
rned back for wire braid &
soLDER H : - . o E s ~~t~;)er innev
\
'l r ~nc~:;;~~~o
assembly)
II I t:=B----~J
1 I

~ - · ··
\ :

CONTACT
. / '
I I INNER
I I
INNER PLUG CONDUCTOR
ASSEMBLY
-~
BRAZED BRAID PANEL JACK - ROUND FlANGE
CONTACT SUPPORT WASHER CAP TR TYPE

I II ISLE,EVE

~ · 1111-runmrrnrR
c.-Efj--J
.EJlUl!UJlJff ~
+==
11 I ·~ "111°0
_ _ _ ____..()~·/J~fC.._.:;;Q
( •
! 1 r) k 1/UWV ..
-.------------~----~~--~------T------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Sept10 I Technical Training Corresponding with•EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics · For training purposes.on/y Cat: 81 6.11 - 28
 )
(--- Basic Maintenance ~-----~ Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Manual I
6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Terminal Strips, Blocks and Grounding Modules Figure 27: Terminal block and grounding module (Airbus)

Wires which are installed when the aircraft is built and are disconnected only dur-
ing a major repair or alteraJion are connected to terminal strips or blocks . COVER -;/"

~~~illlii~J!~{f~~t~f8~t#.~re used to establish the connections between wires.

Thick wires are connected with cable terminals by screw threads and nuts.
""'connecting smaller wires with crimped inserted contacts.
~4~·establishes connections with the aircraft structure .
TERMINAL BLOCK
Figure 26: Terminal strip with wire terminal-lugs

FALSE MODULE -~-

JUNC~~~~ ~gDULE _ _ _ _~ ~

/- RAIL

~
. · ~,
~~ "'" """
CONTACT
BARREL

If it is necessary to connect ~~]~ffuj~(rif;~wJ.rJrtP'.J?fi.S..[!;J~gi_~~P.9J~J:f2 or more studs GROUNDING

are connected with a bus stritp~="'·''··~" · _, __........_,!,,-.._,-,... ····" MODULE

* Maximum number of terminal which can be connected to a single stud is 4

12 HOLES

Sept1 0 I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 6.11-29
 Basic Maintena1nce Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training ·:Mantllal
I
6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

Terminal Blocks are convenien(for electrical i~stallation

and are space saving. A ·iilrY- ,·;·:1
special tool is used for contact removing and inktallation . For trouble shooting pur-
poses or modifications the connections are eadily disconnected and reconnected.
Figure 28: Terminal Blocks a~d grounding todule (Boeing)
INSTALLATION TIP
TERMINAL ' \
NUMBERS ·l.i •

I
I
I REMOVAL TIP TERMINAL BLOCK
I GUIDE HOLE

'>,::: ~
I CONTACT TOOL
LOCKING SPRING
REMOVAL TIP

CONTACT REMOVAL
INSULATION SHROUD INSULATION

COMPLETED TERMINAL
BLOCK INSTALLATION
INSTALLATION TIP

l!l [tJ ..
--

.. ..... :
TERMINAL BLOCK
CONTACT

~JIJ~
.. , USE CONTACT
TOOL FOR FINAL
INSTALLATION
START INSTALLATION OF CONTACT
OF CONTACT BY HAND

TERMINAL BLOCKS ' GROUIND BLOCK CONTACT WIRE INSTALLATION

'
I

Sept10 I Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 6.11-30
 ! ~

Basic Maintenance
--
/,-......,
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f)
v
Training Manual Study Questions

Study Questions
6.1 Aircraft Material - Ferrous 7. Explain the main differences betWeen the brinell-, rockwell- and vickers hard-
ness system. _________________________
1. Most welded steel ~ircraft structure is made of SAE steel /fff:;{f&J.J___
2. Identify the SAE series numbers for steels that have the following major al- ~~~i-~eil:::f3.~ttfi{i§$9.({in:;§:iJPEdia.me~[)$ mea~bred.: ~-Of
-::jl.;l:~il~ .-:.tU.•"(.tc..,-, :-..;-~-- •. 1,~:;._ . ·.:..c.;· -t .. ~'"-"--~t._f "~ .. ·..,, • •.. , •··. ·-·~ I.J ~ ·-··- •• • ,,. ·••• ,-. • "

loys:

t@~~1~¥~~~;~~~~L-------------------------------------------------------
tt.~p~Y~~~~Rei~~i(i,
..;;:,-;£lc~~---·k' -'---------------------
'·'f

-~~~®l?fFI?iff.f~Jft~~ilfrl1~6~i~.~
.:;~'~---------------
3. A medium carbon steel has a carbon content of .f'@:$~ to .--

4. Where is the density limit between lightweight- and heavyweight metals?

5. A high alloyed steel"is a steel that contains - - - - - - - - - - -

6.2 Aircraft Material - Non Ferrous
fi~~~1\:ifm9B1il/~~~~~-
8. Clad aluminium alloy has a coating of f!!jj"pt~!.?ilinjitWl/f)'t.":
':_._::.:l!:.::~;,;l EJ._.;f-:,i'r~~""'-"\..:...-.,
f • L'!''-'.t',
rolled
6. Describe the process of tempering. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - onto its surfaces to improve its corrosion resistance.

9. The code number, which identifies commercially pure aluminium, i~;tJX~La .

10. Identify the series numbers for aluminium alloys that have the following major
alloys:

~~~~~~f~ti~~~~
~~~~~L--------~--------------

Janoarrechnical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: A.1 B1.1 82 WBT 6.Study Questions - 1
 Basic Maintenance
SRTechnics f) Trainin9..~anu;al
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
Study Questions

11. 17.- Explain the term "Pot Life".

-- _ J:L> 4 .tti::~..:_f<!P _ "'"' .• ~ ~

' \ '!!i
12. applied to a 7075-T6 aluminium al- . 18. p~~cribe the characteristics of epoxy resin.
.~ - ~- :.. : ";;·> .

~~~~~~~ ~""'.J~,.JV _,.,~ ~- ~ .:: --~ :::,..

13. ' .
19. ~hich curing ~ystems . ar~ .well known?

:r,

6.3 Com
, ·., ,
posit. ~,. and
. ,. ,'
N()n :- M
;' ' 'I ·. ···· ::. . :_," ' . , - .

6.3.1 Composite and Non - Metallic

!,{<: . •..
14. to make aircraft structural com-
or th-er-

15. Catalysts are used ' wit!J..t.M~p..:.if l · <· • • • • • • (polyester or epoxy)

; . . ..._ -~ j

resins to cause them to ~ure. i

16. Kevl~r is ~ (liphter or heavier.). ~har: fiberg!_ass f~b-
ric of equal strength.

JanOB/Technica/ Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only •, Cat: A.1 81.1 82 W8T G.Study Questions- 2
.. I ' I i
 ~~ ::o-.. i-:-----...
·_;_
I
Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SRTechnics () Training Manual Study Questions

6.3.2 Wooden Structures 25. What is the maximum permissible grain deviation (slope of grain) for Douglas
fir?
• .,
,,,'5·jr
~-,· .
-,.il
'··· 1'·.,.
5•· ·r~e
. ,~,.
.....,.·:'/

·'·'

22.

<&tr:J17i."Wlftt#...qtTalit9ffJI~oCI.u;~t~~~
~~~·~:..... ~~~t0;~:1J,::~'l:~ "· ~:'·<>:,..Y"':.~~~~.::~ ·~ :.1

...

the difference between plywood and laminated wood?

~

In laminated wood grain structure of the plies will be parallel

JanOBffechnica/ Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: A.1 81.1 82 W8T 6.Study Questions· 3
SRT~chnics f; Basic Ma~ntena~ce
Trainin~,,Man_~~l
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
Study Questions

'
29. Which is the method of joining for sparsl lohgerons and stringers? 34. IThe moisture content of wood will have to be how many percent to sustain fun-
I 'gus growth?
'a) 6-8%

b) 10-12%

30. The butt joint can only r~sist ~ · loads.

"'
a)lt·tcl'e
'~;;;e~
~U tiJ:i IV$ ~·~
t~

33. When the moisture cont~n.t of ~he , wood js lowered,..it's dir:n~n§ions decrease. ,.~...:-_-:.-::..:::..c-.- - - , - - . , - - - - - - , . , . , - - , - - - - - - - - - - - ' - ' - 7 - = - - : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ·"'!
What kind. of damage could
I
be caused?
'

::
·:

.) I·

JanOB!Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Parl-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training, purposes only ' Cat: A.1 81.1 82 W8T 6.Study Questions - 4

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. ,. I

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 ..-'"'

;:.___
(
Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SRTechnics f) Training ·Manual Study Questions

6.3.3 Fabric Covering 6.4 Corrosion

39. Which is the most used kind of fabric?
44. Arrange these metals, cadmium, copper, iron, and magnesium in the proper
order of their electro-chemical activity. Place the most active metal first.

e,criteria to select the ·right weight of fabric, generally speaking?

,~~-~
~~~copee.R_
~r"'i~ '"~
~~ ... ~~:fil':,~ ~~~-------------------------------------
41 . What are the methods to shrink the different kind of fabrics? ;;-·

45. Corrosion that forms in riveted joints where there is a slight relative movement
is called "ilJ!t/riS,?'~
~~~;..!=-=-
corrosion.

46. ~:'''; (can or cannot) form

-~ -:".

steps prior apply a doped-on-patch? 47. One of the primary causes for intergranular corrosion i s - - - - - - -
... :sc,.e ......
'!7~-=c

Improper heat treatment

48. Which type of . corrosion is often found on structural members like seat-
rails(tracks)?
43. How much should a patch or a tape over a sewed repair overlap the damage?
~~:'"'07 "1 ·=~t.-
~••KtRJ1e.'i!!~.Pli~Fr;@$!O:n;-f

49. Two dissimilar metals make electrical contact in the presence of an electro-
lyte. This is called a~!Ef{q'[{QJ!ii.,~
,;,;;,;,
~·:?:____________

~::.

-------------------------------------- ..

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Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: A.1 81.1 82 W8T 6.Study Questions- 5
 Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SRTechnics f)
,, Training · M~n ~ al Study Questions

6.5 Fasteners 56. 1A with no marking on its head is made of -

...., (is or is not) ap-
proved for use in aircraft structure.

:s $ loads only.

51 . In the UNF/UNC thread system: B 1/4 inch diameter the nominal sizes 59. The threads for machine screws normally have a class- f"' .• fit.
are given as ....
60. IThe diameter of a ri~et is standardised in fWij''<:'· ~
1
I ._.. .~ -
inch. The rivet
length is graduated by .. inch increments.

52. A self-locking nut should never be used Jon a bolt if the fastener is subject to (A, AD, D, DO)

f.,

62. :What denotes the first and the second dash number in a rivet code?
53. The threads for most aircraft structural have a class- ~7 fit.
· ,__ ,

f§A~.;Jidentify the ~~t~rial b f which an AN-bolt

a/an:
... ;

'6'3. ,Friction~lock self-plugging rivets ... (are or are not)

I approved
.
.for replacement.of
. ·;
. ~-
solid rivets on a size-for-size basis.

64·. :when itis ..n~cessary to provide a threaded hole in a piece of thin sheet
imeial·, ::~ :· :. '~utdt!r-1[! may be used.
55. :A bolt whose . ~~j~ .~~ -,~~~e~f=th al ' asterisk enclosed in a triangle is a
~-+-----------bolt. 65.}! High-$hear pin rivets ~~~ (may or may not) be used to
I . . · t -
replace steel aircraft bolts. on a size-for-size basis.
~

JanDB!Technica/ Training Corresponding .with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only · Cat: A.1 81.1 82 W8T 6.Study Questions- 6
. I

,r '\
 Basic Maintenance " Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SRTechnics f) '/
Training Manual Study Questions

What means the temper designation "T31" of a rivet. 72. An AN818-8 nut will fit a tube with an outside diameter of inch.
i:i'f:)i7"~
73. f.N fittings made of steel are coloured
0

~!fil~~l~,.:;r
::.. ________ .
74. The flare-type fitting that has a short unthreaded section between the flare
.cone and the beginning of the threads is an rr;r;(f;Jjff.fJ
~ril!>--•-· ·
(AC or AN) fitting.

75. How are hydraulic lines identified?

.....
76. Name a few applications of "Charge Valves".
'&' r.J-(•" •" ' ~ ,- "'', ·· =~~,., .. ~·-;;;r·~,··r.-·"'::-:-ii
¥!t...~lY¥,~~fi!i!Jlh<t_."f..~f.)~f!~,q_PllJHl~2fJi.-~f4LQllJlll»!-2L~fl~Jt:r

68. High-Shear Rivets are used where

6.6 Pipes and Unions

-.;,.
69. Many fluid lines used in early aircraft were made of copper tubing. These
days, aluminium-alloy and corrosion-resistant steel lines have replaced cop-
per in most ~pplications. Explain why:
i!J&W,d.Jil ' ·····-~~"'
h~k.;<~~f,f,~~· ' ~.~-~ ~
b ·:az"7£,Jt.+'t ·~..:t~
''l.M'~.:li!.t~~l!lit.U.S ~ 17.Vi81 78 . The size of a rigid fluid line is determined by its ...

minium tubing used in high pressure applications (3000psi)?

--..;"i:".~"7~..:"o;:::•~;:;~-:f!~o~,:":

71. The flare.angle to be used with an AN fitting is ~~ degrees.

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SRTechnics f; Basic Maintenance
Training Manu:a l
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
Study Questions

'
80. Where are flexible hoses· installed? 6.T Springs (N/A)
84. Name the most commonly used types of springs.

81. Why are flexible fuel couplings installed ~------=-----------~---------------------

85. Describe the characteristics of a helical and a conical spring .

... .

82.

83.
·, '

•.. ·
I
. '.1
i
I ...... .
·I:. ....
_
·:

I
;. $!

JanOBffechnical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For trainingpurposes only Cat: A.1 81.1 82 W8T 6.Study Questions - 8
l '

~
·\
 ~
Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SRTechnics f) "0/
Training Manual Study Questions

86. One disadvantage of the helical compression spring is a condition called 6.8 Bearings
"float". Describe this condition and how to overcome this problem.
(see Title "Compression Spring" on page 3) 89. A bearing generally consists of which elements?

90. Bearing cages or separators are made of - - - - - - - - - - - -

' •

91. There are many variants of bearings, but the main types are as follows:
87. Springs: Which are the most common ends?
,J!l~&l<#&fg}f0"ID!fa~e:biis;·i"
.... ~'i!<~.. ~~:~~

88. What type of compression springs do you know?

· ~

92. The on bearings are named ~ia'/!'$Ji,

___,;::
__ _ __
~l';!'~~·.t .:.,; and
:,..,.., load.

93. When shafts are supported with two or more bearings, only one bearing gives
the axial ouidance to the shaft (thrust or locating bearing). Why?

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 Basic Maintenance
SRTechnics f) Training' Manual
- '
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
Study Questions

I
1OO.iWhat load is·usually taken by a roller type bearing?

101. There are two types of bearing seals:

l . . .... •

i.
I

102;A ta.pered roller b~aring can ta~e which loads?

... ' ' .
96. - Are straight roller bearings designed fnr b vi<>l

97. What are Plain- or Shell Type Bearings

lt~

I
99. Wh~.re are Partnumb~rs
---- ~ . :and
I ldentificati6n
I .Marks normally printed/stamped?
,._

'.i ._,. ·- ··· ·

··.;.: I

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Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: A.1 81.1 82 W8T 6.Study Questions - 10
I '
 SRTechnics f) Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
Study Questions

6.9 Transmission

109.A planetary gear consists of which parts?

tlSi!llffi'ieriif!~erla'ild~T;iif.lel'a t;:tt.gealS"·~·rril-
g.,.g7iii .A r
~~~~;t"f.o.~~r~~~~~~;~ ~~&~~~-~~Z'."!~. u:::.".:J!.?'"2·"'· !~:--r;n us·· ... ..;..-:."t~.~/f

110.Pianetary gears can be used to ...

6.10 Control Cables

111. Cables can only operate in __.1ii;IJ)~~, " (pull/push) direction.
112.The more th.reads a~e at .the same diameter, the more ~ is
the cable.

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SRTechnics f; Basic Maintenance
Training IVJanual
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
Study Questions

114.Where are non-flexible cables ·used?

..-- .
-~.,_, _.. .,_ .'""'-- ,_ .... •'-' - - "

i.
r· -~-- ..
122.Why do large all metal aircraft need a tension regulator?
1

:~
.' :';: . . . . ,-:>., ..;

...... :-:.

,I.· .. ;' ,.-,. . . ~: ~

scr~wed into a turnbuckle barrel enough

W h'afis a tensiometer:
123:1
! :
used
•
for?
-~-
·
117.To be sl)re that tile terminal ends are
to produ~e the ~maxi~um strength , j th~.re lll~,st be no more than
~- .. (how rllany) threads s~owing on either end of the barrel.
. .. . I· . . ·.··· .... . .
118.What method is oft~n used these days t0 prevent turnbarrels from turning?
.. ~,.~~--=~li~Y)kl · --------------------~
I

119.-r,/:f,;.~&
h,~~ength of a nico~ress thimble-e~e,
of the cable strength.
cable termin,,~l is ~ ·
120.A fairl~ad st.lould not defl,ect a controi ca ble more than ·. · t:i/fJ
1
degrees .
.. ·.. ' . . . .. . .·.1 ,. ·: . ·.·· ·:. . ·.. ·..· : ·: ·. ..
. I

JanOB!rechnical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training;Purposes only Cat: A.1 81.1 82 W8T 6.Study Questions -12
' i
 ----\

SRTechnics f; Basic Maintenance

Training Manual
}I Module 6 Materials & Hardware
Study Questions

125.Fairleads are used to ... 128.What does a high wire size number (e.g. 22) mean?

~indc-11# .

129.What does a very small wire size number (e.g. 2) mean?

. 0/c; ~ .
126.Cable guards are used to ...

130. Where are the high vibration areas on the MD11 aircraft located?

. W'(j~t /~~¥,):?£1 w(j A£flr &V~

6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 131. Explain the construction of a shielded wire?

127.What does the term "Wire Size" mean?

~I
D~ d;//4twAN

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 Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SRTechnics f) Training Manuia l
. , '· ' ·. I
Study Questions

~ /" , .
132. What is a shielded wire used for? t1:S6.What'means the first letter of an MD11 w1re (E 206-1 00-20N)?
r/,Jo-vdkd /)!C#'[· \ .
r

133.Where do we need Chromel and Alumellwires? ~

~~4~~ - 137.)J\/hat does the colour code of the terminal isolation mean?
· 1~ )/aR

134. Which important information can be taken from the Identification Number
I
(Wire Coding System)?
3r;fi ~/r- I
138.Are all splices soldered? L
~ 2~/Jh{c~J
7---- ~ -

~JIS cw6 I
r/&e~ I
135.What means the second,: underlined nul ber of an Airbus wire (2151-00BO)?
·Cft0Y Ck? t:4 ~ .. . .
140.~her~ ~a? Y_?U ~nd the partn~m~er on a plug?

. &-!? -vm: eo. (,f"-':!1 I<&~

I
,,.. II
·I·

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Copyright by SR Technics For training,purposes on/r Cat: A.1 81.1 82 WBT 6.Study Questions -14

n
 r
SRTechnics f; ' Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
Study Questions

141. Name all requirements to electrical wires and cables. 146.Name the advance I disadvantage of wires with aluminium conductors:

d~ffY!L~
(

147.1nsulation of aircraft wires consists of:

2.Name existing environmental zones of an aircraft. !=4~ feh~fl14~~~~epg// Z¢d~ ~

coaK,Udd _ _
148.Following special purpose wires are known:

143.The smallest aircraft wire has a gage ot l/llldAWG

Its area is mm 2
@
and carries a maximum current o . 6 10 mperes ·
in cable bundles.
149.How aircraft wires are identi~ed? ~
144. The largest aircraft wire has a gage of: (~AWG
r~ tPfA-- dh"#(JP~
Its area is mm 2 and carries a maximum current of _ _Amperes
in free air.

145.The conductor material of most wires i s : - - - - - - - - -

. ~A
150.Most wire terminal-lugs are =®J:=
- ' ----- to the wire.

151.Wire splices are used to .-~C. ./: 6'J.!.~

;...J~-l!<=::.--.;_:Jk!:...t--!..CJ.:~.·~:. . .!<: :;o,:Zb: .~c: : : : .__ _ __

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Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: A.1 81.1 82 W8T 6.Study Questions - 15
 Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SRTechnics f) Training Man~al Study Questions

152. The colour code of a ter~inal- or spl~ce iJins.ulation means: 158.;How to prevenrthat a wrong ·computer is placed in to a shelf location?

lf7 7Ce. £/IC<Z 4 't£1L ·tAU(_~ ¢'1

I
I I
1
153. Where frequent disconnection of wiring i\s expected, 159.'How the wire is connected to pin or socket?

--------and are used (~

154. Name different types of connectors:

7fced [, ~dAT0{ '
160.;Ne3me different types of coaxial connectors?

?i?'F
rY?
jv'; :-- (- 7 ri~Vt:;
~7,c 4/
!?'l'v- '-,. - ./'

155.Male contacts of a plug are called: ~¢

~'{!2:
I '
, I 161 .iferminal strips or blocks are used for:
156.Female contacts of a receptacle are called: > 26/'Jfi /(c.M .~d Pvt-# l:iutz &0 U4~
157. How to prevent that a plug is connected ~o a wrong receptacle?

fb&W440Y 1ifJ- 1

'•

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 SRTechnics f; Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
Study Questions

162.What is the purpose of a grounding module?

~'· nltzt~

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Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: A.1 81.1 B2 WBT G.Study Questions -17
SRTechnics f; Basic Maintenance
Training Manual .,. • I
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
Study Questions

I ,

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Copyright by SR Technics For training purpases only : Cat: A.1 81.1 82 W8T 6.Study Questions -18
1

l '
 SR Technics f; Basic Maintenance
Training Manual n.
·I
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
Study Questions

6.3.2 Wooden Structures 25. What is the maximum permissible grain deviation (slope of grain) for Douglas
fir?
21 . Why is spruce the wood of choice among aircraft builders? .

13~~MI u ~ tit ~» Si~.u1-t;il ~

lvfjl/

26. What can cause a compression failure?

22 . Name the three types of plywood.
(}--WL ~ CM4~Mfd~t~t~d
b-cu iuHLy fk#~tit td

27. Name the tvm g~s of adhesives? ,

{a_£eUz /J · -~~ Nd/AL

24. What is the difference between plywood and laminated wood? .

;/!pi~ ~Wfk_~nt~ 28 . Name the two basic types of joints used in aircraft carpentry?

itmiAul1d~ fh~tli/,;A H/M t14 fit 5~vP/Ltit~ t?tf(IT;d- Scvjpj.d

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 Basic Mair.~tenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training ManU.al Study Questions

29. Which is the method of joini,ng for spars, 1Jngerons and stringers? 34. The moisture content of wood will have to be how many percent to sustain fun-

~$ 5 Ct}jJA-Jk I
. gus growth?
a) 6-8%

. b) 10-12%

I
YrKJ above20%
V
30. The butt joint can only resist ~ke loads. 35. For a plywood skin repair, there is a simple test to determine which type of cur-
31 . Name the four types of spars commonly used in aircraft. vature exists. How does it work?
r-/ I I
htJi(?~

f/4-
f ~.,uuiatl S;Ht 36. i What is the minimum recommended bend radii for a piece of thoroughly soak
1
pl~ood. (~hich is used at goo to the face grain?
32. Name the most used rib types . I(M~
L
~fltk •
I /}

( fJ. I 37. ~ Name the four types of skin patches?

I

I
' l
33 . When the moisture content of the wood is lowered, it's dimensions decrease .
What i of damage could, be caused? I
. , , I 38. : After a repair has been done what is the last and final step of the job?
, I

c~ J

'Z

I
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Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes OIJIY ~ }
 SR Technics f) . r- Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
Study Questions

6.3.3 Fabric Covering 6.4 Corrosion

39 . Which is the most used~~ r ~ ""
44. Arrange these metals, cadmium, copper, iron, and. magnesium
J
~~ ~
in the proper
order of their electro-chemical activity. Place the most active metal first.
a)
40. :~ct the right weight of fabric, generally speaking?
b)

c)

d)
41 . What are the methods to shrink the different kind of fabrics?
Cotton, linen: 45 . Corrosion that forms in riveted joints where there is a slight relative movement
is called _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ corrosion .
Polyester fabric:

Fibreg/ass: /J1i millrL ~

46. Fretting corrosion surfaces l.M64/
is no relative motion between the surfaces .
(can or cannot) form if there

42 . What are the preparation steps prior apply a doped-on-patch?
ldiJ ,)a 1:Lt
43 . How much should a patch or a tape over a sewed repair overlap the damage?
47. One of the primary causes for intergranular corrosion is ___,.....__ _ _ __
48 . Which type of corrosion is often found on structural members like seat-
rails(tracks )?

!~f'/1444
49 . Two dissimilar metals make electrical contact in the presence of an electro-
lyte. This is called a

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Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: 81 6.Study Questions - 5
 Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Manaal Study Questions

6.5 Fasteners 57. The length of the unthreaded portion of a bolt shank is called the _ __
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ of the bolt.
50. Which thread forms are used for axial drives, e.g. Flaps Screw Jacks?
I 58 . Clevis bolts are designed to be used for Shear loads only.
I
59. The threads for machine screws normally have a class- fit.
'
60. · The diameter of a rivet is standardised in inch . The rivet length
' is graduated by inch increments.
I
51' In th~ UNF/UNC thread system: Below 1/!4 inch diameter the nominal sizes
61. The Letter Code of a 2117 Rivet is · (A, AD, D, DO)
are g1ven as - - - - - - - - - - - + - - - - - - - - - - - -
1

\
62. What denotes the first and the second dash number in a rivet code?
52 . A self-locking nut should never be used 01a bolt if the fastener is subject to First dash number:

Second dash number:

I
53 . The threads for most aircraft structural bolts have a class- fit.
63 . Friction-lock self-plugging rivets (are or are not) ap-
54 . Identify the material of which an AN-bolt is rl ade when its head is marked with · proved for replacement of solid rivets on a size-for-size basis .
a/an: .
I
64. , When it is necessary to provide a threaded hole in a piece of thin sheet
a) cross or asterisk:
---+---
~ ---
I metal, a may be used.

b) single dash: 65. · High-Shear pin rivets (may or may not) be used to re-
c) two dashes: I · place steel aircraft bolts on a size-for-size basis .

55 . A bolt whose head .is identified with an Jsterisk enclosed in a triangle is a 66. ' What means the temper designation "T31" of a rivet.
, I
I bolt.

56 . A steel bolt with no markin9 on its head il made of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

steel and (is or is not) approved for use in aircraft structure.
' '

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Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes o~ly c 6.Study Questions - 6
 SR Technics f; ('-
l '
Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
Module 6 Materials & Hardware
Study Questions

67 . Explain the difference between the "Friction Cherrylock Rivet" and the 74. The flare-type fitting that has a short unthreaded section between the flare
"Bulbed Cherrylock Rivet".
cone and the beginning of the threads is an _ _ _ _ (AC or AN) fitting.

75. How are hydraulic lines identified?

76 . Name .a few applications of "Charge Valves".

68. High-Shear Rivets are used where

6.6 Pipes and Unions 77 . What are pipes and unions generally made of?

69. Many fluid lines used in early aircraft were made of copper tubing . These
days, aluminium-alloy and corrosion-resistant steel lines have replaced cop-
per in most applications . Explain why:

78 . The size of a rigid fluid line is determined by its .. .

70 . Is Aluminium tubing used in high pressure applications (3000psi)?

79 . the identification code for fire protection is ...

71. The flare angle to be used with an AN fitting is degrees.

72 . An AN818-8 nut will fit a tube with an outside diameter of inch .

73 . AN fittings made of steel are coloured _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

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 · Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Manual Study Questions

80. Where are flexible hoses installed? 6.7 Springs

84. Name the most commonly used types of springs.

81 . Why are flexible fuel couplings installed?

85. Describe the characteristics of a helical and a conical spring .

Helical:

82. What methods are used to join segments

,
lfI rigid tubes?
, Conical:
I

83. How can a metal seal fitting equipped with a-ring and backup ring be identi-
1

fied?
1

I
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Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes o~/y Ca 6.Study Questions - 8
 SR Technics f) Basic Maintenance
Training Manual
Module 6 Materials &-Hardware
Study Questions

86. One disadvantage of the helical compression spring is a condition called 6.8 Bearings
"float". Describe this condition and how to overcome this problem. (see title
"Compression Spring" 89. A bearing generally consists of which elements?

90 . Bearing cages or separators are made of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

91. There are many variants of bearings, but the main types are as follows:
87. Springs: Which are the most common ends?

88. What type of compression springs do you know?

92 . The two loads on bearings are named _ _ _ _ _ _ and _ _ _ _ load.

93. When shafts are supported with two or more bearings, only one bearing gives
the axial guidance to the shaft (thrust or locating bearing). Why?

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 Bas.ic .Mali ntenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training M·a nual Study Questions

94 . What's the difference between non-rubbinb and rubbing bearing seals? 99. ' What load is usually taken by a roller type bearing?
I .

I
95. Describe the main objectives of bearing lt rication: 100.There are two types of bearing seals:

101'.A tapered roller bearing can take which loads?

96 . Are straight roller bearings designed for alial loads?

97. The purpose of Fluid Damped Bearings is Ito:

10~. Which type of bearings are usually used on aircraft wheels?

98 . Where are Partnumbers and Identification! Marks normally printed/stamped?

I •

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 Basic Maintenance Module 6 Materials & Hardware
SR Technics f) Training Manual Study Questions

6.9 Transmission 107. What are the advantages of helical gears?

103.What is the purpose of idler/intermediate gears?

1OB.A planetary gear consists of which parts?

104.A simple roller chain consists of:

a)

b)

c)
109.Pianetary gears can be used to ...
d)

105.Roller chains have three principal dimensions. Describe:

6.1 0 Control Cables

106. What are torque limiters used for?
11 O.Cables can only operate in _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (pull/push) direction .
111.The more threads are at the same diameter, the more _ _ _ _ is the cable .
112.A control cable consists of...

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113. Where are non-flexible cables used? 120.Describe the purpose of a witness hole.

114.Designate the following cables.

1 X 7:
121. Why do need large all metal aircraft a tension regulator?
7 X 7:

7 X 19:

115.What are turnbuckles/turn barrels used fol

i 12~.What is a tensiometer used for?

I
116. To be sure that the terminal ends are screl.(ved into a turnbuckle barrel enough
I
to produce the maximum strength, ~here must be no more than

- ______(.how many)' threads showing

I
on either end of the barrel.

117.What method is often used 'these days to brevent turn barrels from turning?
i
I
12~.Nicopress oval sleeves are used ...

118. The strength of a nicopress thimble-eye J ble terminal is of

the cable strength. . j

119.A fairlead should not deflect a control cable more than degrees.

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124. Fairleads are used to ... 127.What does a high wire size number (e.g . 22) mean?

128.What does a very small wire size number (e.g. 2) mean?

125.Cable guards are used to ...

129.Where are the high vibration areas on the MD11 aircraft located?

130.Explain the construction of a shielded wire?

6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors
126.What does the term "Wire Size" mean?

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Training Manl!lal
I
Study Questions

131. What is a shielded wire used for? 136.What means the first letter of an MD11 wire (E 206-1 00-20N)?
I

' I
132.Where do we need Chromel and Alumel , ires?

136. What does the colour code of the terminal isolation mean?
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133.Which important information can be takJn from the Identification Number

(Wire Coding System)? I
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I 13i.Are all splices soldered?

I I

' I 138·.Name both main parts of a connection?

134.What means the second, underlined
I
num!der
I
of an Airbus wire (2151-0080)?
I
I

139:.Where can you find the parl:number on a plug?

'
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140.Name all requirements to electrical wires and cables. 145.Name the advance I disadvantage of wires with aluminium conductors:

146.1nsulation of aircraft wires consists of:

141. Name existing environmental zones of an aircraft.

147.Following special purpose wires are known : .

142.The smallest aircraft wire has a gage of: AWG

Its area is ___ mm 2 and carries a maximum current of _ _ Amperes
in cable bundles .
148.How aircraft wires are identified?
143.The largest aircraft wire has a gage of: AWG
Its area is ___ mm 2 and carries a maximum current of _ _Amperes
in free air.

144.The conductor material of most wires is:

-----------------
149. Most wire terminal-lugs are __________ to the wire .

150. Wire splices are used to -------------------------------------

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Training Manual Study Questions

I
151.The colour code of a terminal- or splice indulation means: 157'. How to prevent that a wrong computer is placed in to a shelf location?
I I
'

152.Where frequent disconnecti~n of wiring is l xpected, 158•.How the wire is connected to pin or socket?
________ and
. I
1 are used

153. Name different types of connectors:

I
I
1591. Name different types of coaxial connectors?

154.Male contacts of a plug are called:----+--~ _ _ _ _ _ __

I
160:.Terminal strips or blocks are used for:
155.Female contacts of a receptacle are calleJ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
, I

I
156. How to prevent that a plug is connected tol a wrong receptacle?

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161. What is the purpose of a grounding module?

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Study Questions

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