Mass-Transfer Method

 METHOD FOR ESTIMATING THE ACTUAL EVAPORATION FROM A BODY

OF WATER, ASSUMING IT IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE PRODUCT OF WIND
VELOCITY, THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE SATURATION VAPOR
PRESSURE AT WATER SURFACE TEMPERATURE AND THE VAPOR
PRESSURE OF THE AMBIENT AIR, AND AN EMPIRICAL MASS-TRANSFER
COEFFICIENT.
Terms
 Evaporation - THE PROCESS BY WHICH WATER IS CHANGED FROM THE
LIQUID STATE TO IS GASEOUS EQUIVALENT.
 Wind speed - WIND SPEED, OR WIND FLOW VELOCITY, IS A
FUNDAMENTAL ATMOSPHERIC QUANTITY CAUSED BY AIR MOVING
FROM HIGH TO LOW PRESSURE, USUALLY DUE TO CHANGES IN
TEMPERATURE.
 Vapor pressure - THE PRESSURE OF A VAPOR IN CONTACT WITH ITS
LIQUID OR SOLID FORM.
 Saturation Vapor pressure - THE VAPOR PRESSURE AT WHICH THE
GASEOUS PHASE OF A SUBSTANCE CAN COEXIST WITH THE LIQUID OR
SOLID PHASE IN EQUILIBRIUM AT A GIVEN TEMPERATURE.

Meyer’s Formula
𝑈
• 𝐸 = 0.0269 (1 + 16) (𝑒𝑠 − 𝑒𝑎 )

Where:
• U = wind speed at some level above surface in km/h
• 𝑒𝑠 = saturation vapor pressure at temperature above surface in millibar (mb)
• 𝑒𝑎 = vapor pressure at some level above surface in millibar(mb)
• E = evaporation in cm/day

Example
Find the evaporation rate of a certain lake in m/s if the average wind speed at 8m is 25
km/hr, the saturation vapor pressure is 150kpa and the vapor pressure is 120kpa.
Soln:
 • Convert kpa to mb:
1000 𝑃𝑎 1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 1000 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑎𝑟
• (150 𝑘𝑃𝑎) ( ) (100000 𝑃𝑎) ( ) = 1500 mb
1 𝑘𝑃𝑎 1 𝑏𝑎𝑟
1000 𝑃𝑎 1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 1000 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑎𝑟
• (120 𝑘𝑃𝑎) ( ) (100000 𝑃𝑎) ( ) = 1200 mb
1 𝑘𝑃𝑎 1 𝑏𝑎𝑟

𝑈
𝐸 = 0.0269 (1 + ) (𝑒𝑠 − 𝑒𝑎 )
16
Substitute values:
25
𝐸 = 0.0269 (1 + ) (1500 − 1200)
16
𝑐𝑚 1𝑚 1 𝑑𝑎𝑦 1 ℎ𝑟 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐸 = 20.679 ( )( )( )( )
𝑑𝑎𝑦 100 𝑐𝑚 24 ℎ𝑟𝑠 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑚
𝐸 = 2.393 𝑥 10−6 𝑠

Penman equation
The penman formula is a semi-empirical equation combining mass transfer (Ea) and
energy balance (er) methods. The formula was developed by Penman in 1948 and is
still widely used for calculating the potential evaporation using synoptic meteorological
data.

Penman Formula

Where:
𝐸𝑟 = Potential evaporation by energy balance method in mm/day
𝐸𝑎 = Potential evaporation by aerodynamic method in mm/day
ℽ = psychrometric constant
𝑃𝑎
Δ = the gradient of the saturated vapor pressure versus temperature function in °𝐶
Example
On 24 January 2013, in the Upper Brushy Creek watershed, two observations for
evaporation where made one by energy balance method and one by aerodynamic
method. if 𝐸_𝑟 is 1.80mm/day, 𝐸_𝑎 is 1.58 mm/day , 𝑒_𝑠 is 1938 pa and The average
air temperature through the day is 20°C. find the potential evaporation by combined
method(penman method).
Soln:
• Solve for Δ
4098𝑒 4098(1938) 𝑃𝑎
Δ = (237.3+𝑇)^2
𝑠
= (237.3+20)^2 = 119.963 °𝐶

• For value of ℽ check table 2

𝑃𝑎
ℽ in 20 °C is 66.7 °𝐶
𝑃𝑎
Δ + ℽ = 119.963 + 66.7 = 186.663 °𝐶

Δ ℽ
𝐸𝑜 = ( ) (𝐸𝑟 ) + ( ) (𝐸𝑎 )
Δ+ℽ Δ+ℽ
119.963 66.7
𝐸𝑜 = ( ) (1.80) + ( ) (1.58)
186.663 186.663
𝑚𝑚
𝐸𝑜 = 1.721
𝑑𝑎𝑦
References:
http://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Mass-transfer_method
http://www2.arnes.si/~gljsentvid10/vaporation.pdf
http://www.tvrl.lth.se/fileadmin/tvrl/files/vvr145/Kompletterande_materialf4.pdf
Gomez, Sherwinn Joar

Evaporation
Evaporation is the process in which a liquid changes to the gaseous state as the free surface,
below its boiling point, through the transfer of energy.

Factors affecting Evaporation:

1.) Vapour Pressure
2.) Wind Speed
3.) Atmospheric Pressure
4.) Air and Water Temperature
5.) Size of the water body

Vapour Pressure/Humidity - Rate of evaporation is proportional to the difference between the

saturation vapour pressure at the water temperature and the actual vapour
pressure in the air

Wind Speed - Wind helps to remove the evaporated water vapour from the zone
of evaporation, thereby creating greater scope for evaporation.

Atmospheric Pressure - Other factors remaining the same, a decrease in atmospheric

pressure (as in high altitude areas) increases the evaporation rate

Air and Water Temperature - Rate of evaporation increases with an increase in water
temperature. If there is an increase in air temperature, there is also an
increase in the evaporation rate.

Size of the water body - the bigger the water body the higher the evaporation rate

Empirical Methods in Measuring the rate of Evaporation

1.) Meyer’s Formula

2.) Rohwer’s Formula

Measuring Evaporation Rate using Devices

Atmometer - An instrument that is used for measuring the rate of evaporation of water into air.
It is normally in the form of an open-ended glass tube from which water can evaporate. By
using an atmometer alongside a potometer, it is possible to compare the rate of
transpiration from a plant with evaporation from a purely physical system.

Types of Atmometer
1. Floating Pans:
2. Pans Placed above the Surface
3. Sunken Pans
4. Lysimeters

Floating Pans:
These pans are made to float over the water surface. But their limitation is that
their installation is very costly and their operation is difficult under windy conditions,
therefore, it becomes difficult to measure evaporation.

References:

https://theconstructor.org/water-resources/evaporation-and-its-measurement/4575/

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167564808707640

http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/water/evaporation/evaporation-meaning-factors-and-
types/88813
Interception
– refers to precipitation that does not reach the soil, but is instead intercepted by the leaves,
branches of plants, grasses and the forest floor. It occurs in the canopy and in the forest floor or
little layer.

– Interception depends on the leaf area index and what kind of leaves they are.

– Intercepted precipitation is not available for runoff or infiltration, but instead is returned to the
atmosphere through evaporation.

Three Main Components of Interception

1. Interception Loss
-The water that is retained by vegetation surfaces that is later evaporated into the atmosphere or
absorbed by the plant.
2. Throughfall
-The water which falls through spaces in the vegetation canopy, or which drips from the leaves, twigs
and stems and falls to the ground.
3. Stemflow
-The water which trickles along the stems and branches and down the main stem or trunk to the ground
surface.

Depression Storage
– Is the term applied to water that is lost because it becomes trapped in the numerous small
depressions that are characteristic of any natural surface.

– Another term for depression storage is surface depression, mill ponds or water bodies.
 – Any place in land surface that water collects but that is not connected to drainage network.

Factors affecting Depression Storage

1. Nature of Terrain 2. Slope 3. Type of soil surface 4. Antecedent rainfall
5. Time

SYNTHETIC UNIT HYDROGRAPH AND ITS APPLICATION

HYDROGRAPH
A graph showing the rate of flow (discharge) versus time past a specific point in a river, channel, or conduit
carrying flow. The rate of flow is typically expressed in cubic meters or cubic feet per second (cms or cfs).

UNIT HYDROGRAPH
A unit hydrograph is a hydrograph for a given basin that is produced by a unit of rainfall (excess) depth.
Since there are several possible durations for that unit of rainfall depth, a given basin can have several unit
hydrographs.
SYNTHETIC UNIT HYDROGRAPH
A synthetic unit hydrograph retains all the features of the unit hydrograph, but does not require rainfall-
runoff data. A synthetic unit hydrograph is derived from theory and experience, and its purpose is to simulate
basin diffusion by estimating the basin lag based on a certain formula or procedure.
The first synthetic unit hydrograph was developed by Snyder in 1938. In order to provide sufficient flexibility
for simulating a wide range of diffusion amounts, Snyder devised two parameters: (1) a time parameter C t,
and (2) a peak parameter Cp. A larger Ct meant a greater basin lag and, consequently, greater diffusion. A
larger Cp meant a greater peak flow and, consequently, less diffusion.

FORMULAS:
STANDARD TIME TO PEAK:
tp = c1 c2 (LLc)0.3
where c1 = 0.75 (SI UNIT)
= 1.0 (ENGLISH UNIT)

STANDARD DURATION / UH DURATION

tp = 5.5tr

TIME TO PEAK FOR DESIRED DURATION

tPR = tp + 0.25(tR – tr)

PEAK DISCHARGE
𝑪𝟐 𝑿 𝑪𝒑 𝑿 𝑨
QPR =
𝒕𝒑𝒓
Where c2 = 2.75 (SI UNIT)
= 640 (ENGLISH)

UNIT HYDROGRAPH WIDTHS

𝑪𝟓𝟎
W50 =
(𝑸𝒑𝒓/𝑨)^𝟏.𝟎𝟖
Where c50 = 2.14 (SI UNIT)
= 770 (ENGLISH)
𝑪𝟕𝟓
W75 =
(𝑸𝒑𝒓/𝑨)^𝟏.𝟎𝟖

Where c50 = 1.22 (SI UNIT)

= 440 (ENGLISH)

LENGTH OF TIME OF RAINFALL EXCESS

 𝐴
tB = 2581 ( ) – 1.5W 50 -W 75 (ENGLISH)
𝑄𝑝𝑟

𝐴
tB = 11.11 ( ) – 1.5W 50 -W 75 (SI UNITS)
𝑄𝑝𝑟

EXAMPLE
GIVEN:
WATERSHED AREA, A = 5.42 mi
MAIN CHANNEL LENGTH, L = 4.45 mi
DISTANCE FROM OUTLET TO WATERSHED CENTROID, LC = 2.0 mi
REGIONAL PARAMETERS
Ct = 2.0
Cp = 0.625

1. FIND THE STANDARD DURATION, tr

2. FIND THE SYNTHETIC UNIT HYDROGRAPH FOR A DESIRED RAINFALL EXCESS
DURATION (TR) OF 30 MIN.

TRANSPIRATION AND EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

What is the difference of TRANSPIRATION AND EVAPORATION????????

TRANSPIRATION
 – is the process by which moisture is carried through plants from roots to small pores on
the underside of leaves, where it changes to vapor and is released to the atmosphere.

How much water do plants transpire?

 – During a growing season, a leaf will transpire many times more water than its own weight. An
acre of corn gives off about 3,000-4,000 gallons (11,400-15,100 liters) of water each day, and a
large oak tree can transpire 40,000 gallons (151,000 liters) per year.

Atmospheric factors affecting TRANSPIRATION

– Temperature: Transpiration rates go up as the temperature goes up, especially during the
growing season, when the air is warmer due to stronger sunlight and warmer air masses. Higher
temperatures cause the plant cells which control the openings (stoma) where water is released
to the atmosphere to open, whereas colder temperatures cause the openings to close.

– Relative humidity: As the relative humidity of the air surrounding the plant rises the
transpiration rate falls. It is easier for water to evaporate into dryer air than into more saturated
air.

– Wind and air movement: Increased movement of the air around a plant will result in a higher
transpiration rate. Wind will move the air around, with the result that the more saturated air
close to the leaf is replaced by drier air.

– Soil-moisture availability: When moisture is lacking, plants can begin to senesce (premature
aging, which can result in leaf loss) and transpire less water.

– Type of plant: Plants transpire water at different rates. Some plants which grow in arid regions,
such as cacti and succulents, conserve precious water by transpiring less water than other
plants.
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
– is the sum of evaporation and plant transpiration from the Earth's land and ocean surface to
the atmosphere. Evaporation accounts for the movement of water to the air from sources such
as the soil, canopy interception, and waterbodies.

– An element (such as a tree) that contributes to evapotranspiration can be called

an evapotranspirator.

– There are factors that affect EVAPOTRANSPIRATION:

Temperature – As temperature increases, the rate of evapotranspiration

increases. Evaporation increases because there is a higher amount of energy available to
convert the liquid water to water vapor.

– Humidity – If the air around the plant is too humid, the transpiration and evaporation rates
drop. It’s the same reason sweat does not evaporate from our skin when it’s too humid.

– Wind speed – If the air is moving, the rate of evaporation will increase. The wind will also clear
the air of any humidity produced by the plant’s transpiration, so the plant will increase its rate
of transpiration.

– Water availability – If the soil is dry and there is no standing water there will be no
evaporation. If plants can’t get enough water they will conserve it instead of transpiring by
closing their stoma.

– Soil type – Soil type determines how much water soil can hold and how easy it is for the water
to be drawn out of it, either by a plant or by evaporation. For areas where the ground is
 covered by vegetation, the rate of transpiration is considerably higher than the rate of
evaporation from the soil.

– Plant type – Some plants, like cacti and other succulents, naturally hold onto their water and
don’t transpire as much. Trees and crops are on the other end of the spectrum and can release
copious amounts of water vapor in a day. For example, an acre of corn can release 4,000 gallons
of water vapor a day and a single large oak tree can transpire 40,000 gallons of water vapor in a
year.

Unit hydrograph Theory & Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph

Reported by: Catherin P. Cifra
What is Hydrograph?
 A plot of the discharge in a stream plotted against time chronologically. Depending on
the unit of time involved.

• Annual hydrographs showing the variation of daily or weekly mean flows over a
year.

• Monthly hydrographs showing the variation of daily mean flows over a month.

• Seasonal hydrographs depicting the variation of the discharge in a particular season

such as the monsoon season or dry season.

• Flood hydrographs representing stream flow due to a storm over a catchment.

 The rate of flow is typically expressed in cubic

meters or cubic feet per second (cms or cfs). It
can also refer to a graph showing the volume of
water reaching a particular outfall, or location
in a sewerage network.
 Graphs are commonly used in the design
of sewerage, more specifically, the design
of surface water sewerage systems
and combined sewers.

Terminology
 • Discharge: the rate of flow (volume per unit time) passing a specific location in a river,
or other channel. The discharge is measured at a specific point in a river and is typically
time variant.

• Rising limb: the rising limb of the hydrograph, also known as concentration curve,
reflects a prolonged increase in discharge from a catchment area, typically in response
to a rainfall event.

• Peak discharge: the highest point on the hydrograph when the rate of discharge is
greatest.

• Recession (or falling) limb: the recession limb extends from the peak flow rate onward.
The recession limb represents the withdrawal of water from the storage built up in the
basin during the earlier phases of the hydrograph.

PURPOSES OF HYDROGRAPHS:
• watershed evaluation

• design of structure works

• flood plan management

• emergency action plan

• design of flood ponds - A retention basin, sometimes called a wet pond, wet detention
basin or stormwater management pond, is an artificial pond with vegetation around the
perimeter, and includes a permanent pool of water in its design. it is used to
manage stormwater runoff to prevent flooding and downstream erosion, and
improve water quality in an adjacent river, stream, lake or bay.

• channel design

• grade stabilization structures - a structure (earth embankment, mechanical spillway,

detention-type, etc.) Used to control the grade and head cutting in natural or artificial
channels to improve water quality. Benefits may include reduced soil erosion and
sedimentation.

UNIT HYDROGRAPH THEORY

• This method was first suggested by Sherman in 1932
 • A unit hydrograph is defined as the hydrograph of direct runoff resulting from one unit
depth (1 cm) of Rainfall excess occurring uniformly over the basin and at a uniform rate
for a specified duration (d hours).

Direct run-off hydrograph- Direct response of rainfall in a catchment.

Rainfall Excess- Part of the rainfall which becomes surface run-off.
Effective rainfall - Rainfall Excess + interflow

Effective Rainfall Hyetograph Unit Hydrograph

• UH theory assumes that a watershed's runoff response is linear and time-invariant, and
that the effective rainfall occurs uniformly over the watershed.

• Two basic assumptions constitute the foundations for the unit-hydrograph theory.

1. Time invariance

 This first basic assumption is that the direct-runoff response to a given effective rain- fall
in a catchment is time-invariant. This implies that the DRH for a given ER in a catchment
is always the same irrespective of when it occurs.

2. Linear response

 For example, if one inch of excess rainfall produces a direct runoff peak of 100 cfs then
two inch of excess rainfall with produce a direct runoff of 2 x 100 = 200 cfs.
INSTANTANEOUS UNIT HYDROGRAPH
• An instantaneous unit hydrograph is a further refinement of the concept; for an IUH, the
input rainfall is assumed to all take place at a discrete point in time (obviously, this isn't
the case for actual rainstorms).

• To obtain runoff hydrograph resulting from a storm of varying duration and varying
intensities, it is preferable to have a unit graph with very short duration. Theoretically
the shortest duration approaches zero. Accordingly if the Duration of effective
rainfall approaches zero, the unit Hydrograph may be called as an instantaneous
unit Hydrograph. It is generally abbreviated as IUH.

WATER DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIPS, MEASUREMENT AND INTERPRETATION

A spillway is a structure used to provide the controlled release of flows from a dam or levee into a
downstream area, typically the riverbed of the dammed river itself. In the United Kingdom, they may
be known as overflow channels. Spillways ensure that the water does not overflow and damage or
destroy the dam.
Floodgates and fuse plugs may be designed into spillways to regulate water flow and reservoir level.
Such a spillway can be used to regulate downstream flows – by releasing water in small amounts
before the reservoir is full, operators can prevent sudden large releases that would happen if the
dam were overtopped.

Types of Spillways - Classification of Spillways

There are different types of spillways that can be provided depending on the suitability
of site and other parameters. Generally a spillway consists of a control structure, a
conveyance channel and a terminal structure, but the former two may be combined in
the same for certain types. The more common types are briefly described below:

1. Drop Spillway
2. Ogee Spillway
3. Siphon Spillway
4. Chute or Trough Spillway
5. Shaft Spillway
6. Side Channel Spillway

Drop Spillway

In drop spillway, the over flowing water falls freely and almost vertically on the
downstream side of the hydraulic structure. This type of spillway is suitable for weirs or
low dams. The crest of the spillway is provided with nose so that the water jet may not
strike the downstream base of the structure. To protect the structure from the effect of
scouring horizontal impervious apron should be provided on the downstream side.
Sometimes a basin is constructed on the downstream side to form a small artificial pool
which is known as water cushion. This cushion serves the purpose of energy dissipater.

Ogee Spillway

The Ogee spillway is generally provided in rigid dams and forms a part of the main dam
itself if sufficient length is available. The crest of the spillway is shaped to conform to the
lower nappe of a water sheet flowing over an aerated sharp crested weir.

Chute (Trough) Spillway

In this type of spillway, the water, after flowing over a short crest or other kind of control
structure, is carried by an open channel (called the "chute" or "trough") to the
downstream side of the river. The control structure is generally normal to the
conveyance channel. The channel is constructed in excavation with stable side slopes
and invariably lined. The flow through the channel is super-critical. The spillway can be
provided close to the dam or at a suitable saddle away from the dam where site
conditions permit.

Side Channel Spillway

Side channel spillways are located just upstream and to the side of the dam. The water
after flowing over a crest enters a side channel which is nearly parallel to the crest. This
is then carried by a chute to the downstream side. Sometimes a tunnel may be used
instead of a chute.

Shaft (Morning Glory or Glory hole) Spillway

This type of spillway utilizes a crest circular in plan, the flow over which is carried by a
vertical or sloping tunnel on to a horizontal tunnel nearly at the stream bed level and
eventually to the downstream side. The diversion tunnels constructed during the dam
construction can be used as the horizontal conduit in many cases.

Siphon Spillway

As the name indicates, this spillway works on the principle of a siphon. A hood provided
over a conventional spillway forms a conduit. With the rise in reservoir level water starts
flowing over the crest as in an "ogee" spillway. The flowing water however, entrains air
and once all the air in the crest area is removed, siphon action starts. Under this
condition, the discharge takes place at a much larger head. The spillway thus has a
larger discharging capacity. The inlet end of the hood is generally kept below the
reservoir level to prevent floating debris from entering the conduit. This may cause the
reservoir to be drawn down below the normal level before the siphon action breaks and
therefore arrangement for de-priming the siphon at the normal reservoir level is
provided
 Weir

A weir is a small barrier that is built across a stream or river to raise the water level slightly
on the upstream side, and is essentially a small-scale dam. Weirs allow for water to pool
behind them, while still allowing water to flow steadily over top of the weir
itself.[2] Additionally, the term weir can be used to refer to the crest of a spillway on a
large embankment dam.

Types of Weirs:
Weirs are classified according to:

1. Types of Weirs based on Shape of the Opening

o Rectangular weir

o Triangular weir

o Trapezoidal weir

. Types of Weirs based on Shape of the Crest

o Sharp-crested weir

o Broad- crested weir

o Narrow-crested weir

o Ogee-shaped weir
 Classification Based on Shape of Opening
Rectangular weir:
o It is a standard shape of weir. The top edge of weir may be sharp crested or narrow crested.

o It is generally suitable for larger flowing channels.

Triangular weir:
o The shape of the weir is actually reverse triangle like V. so, it is also called V-notch weir.

o This type of weirs are well suitable for measuring discharge over small flows with greater
accuracy.

Trapezoidal weir:
o Trapezoidal weir is also called as Cippoletti weir. This is trapezoidal in shape and is the
modification of rectangular weir with slightly higher capacity for same crest strength.

o The sides are inclined outwards with a slope 1:4 (horizontal : vertical)
 Classification according to shape of the crest:
Sharp-crested weir
o The crest of the weir is very sharp such that the water will springs clear of the crest.

o The weir plate is bevelled at the crest edges to obtain necessary thickness. And weir plate should be
made of smooth metal which is free from rust and nicks.

o Flow over sharp-crested weir is similar as rectangular weir.

 Broad-crested weir:
o These are constructed only in rectangular shape and are suitable for the larger flows.

o Head loss will be small in case of broad crested weir.

Narrow-crested weir:
o It is similar to rectangular weir with narrow shaped crest at the top.

o The discharge over narrow crested weir is similar to discharge over rectangular weir.
 Ogee-shaped weir:
o Generally ogee shaped weirs are provided for the spillway of a storage dam.

o The crest of the ogee weir is slightly rises and falls into parabolic form.

o Flow over ogee weir is also similar to flow over rectangular weir.

EVAPORATION FROM FREE SURFACE

-Water balance method
-Energy balance method

Evaporation
The process by which water is changed from the liquid state to is gaseous equivalent.
• Occurs when some water molecules attain sufficient kinetic energy to break through the water
surface and escape into the atmosphere
• Depends on the supply of heat energy and the vapor pressure gradient (which, in turn, depends
on water and air temperatures, wind, atmospheric pressure, solar radiation, etc.)

Free surface
• The free surface of a liquid just means the surface that is in contact with air. Like the horizontal
surface of water in a glass. Or the top of the ocean where boats float

Water balance method

 • A water balance can be established for any area of earth’s surface by calculating the total
precipitation input and the total of various outputs.
• The water-balance approach allows an examination of the hydrologic cycle for any period of
time.
• The purpose of the water balance is to describe the various ways in which the water supply is
expended.
The water balance method is a method by which we can account for the hydrologic cycle of a specific
area, with emphasis on plants and soil moisture

Water Balance Equation

P= Q + E + dS/dt
Where:
P= Precipitation
Q= Discharge
E= Evaporation
dS/dt= Storage Changes per time step

FOUR CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF WATER BALANCE METHOD

• A water balance can be assessed for any subsystem of the hydrologic cycle, for any size, and for
any period of time.
• A water balance can serve to check whether all flow and storage components involved have
been considered quantitatively.
• A water balance can serve to calculate on unknown of the balance equation, provided that the
other components are known with sufficient accuracy.
• A water balance can be regarded as a model of the complete hydrologic process under study,
which means it can be used to predict what effect the changes imposed on certain components
will have on other components of the system or subsystem

Example Problem: A swimming pool having dimensions 20x20x5 ft. has a leak in its wall where
11.5 inches of water seeped out. If the change in storage is -8.0 in., and precipitation is 7.0 in,
Calculate the volume of its evaporation for a certain time interval.
Solution:
IN – OUT = ΔS
P – (E+L) = ΔS
7.0 – (E+11.5) = -8.0
E = 3.5 in (1 ft/12 in) = 0.292 ft
VE = 20×20×0.292 = 116.8 cu.ft Ans.

Energy Balance Method

• Evaporation of water requires relatively large amounts of energy either in the form of sensible
heat or radiant energy.
• The energy arriving at the surface must equal the energy leaving the surface for the same period
of time.
• Because of this limitation, it is possible to predict the evapotranspiration rate by applying the
principle of conservation of energy.
 • Only the transfer of heat as sensible heat flux is considered, and evapotranspiration (latent heat
flux) is calculated as the residual term in the general energy balance equation.

The potential evaporation by the Energy Balance method is given by the equation:
Rn Rn
Er = =
ρw lv L
Where:
Er = evaporation rate
Rn = irradiation (the radiant flux received by a surface per unit area)
𝜌w = density of water
lv = latent heat (the amount of energy needed to cause a phase change)
L = latent heat factor given in Table 1 (product of water density and latent heat)
In the energy balance method, only the transfer of heat as sensible heat flux is considered, and
evapotranspiration (latent heat flux) is calculated as the residual term in the general energy
balance equation.

Example Problem: On the 24TH of January, 2013, in the Upper Brushy Creek Watershed, the net
radiation averaged over the day from the National Land Data Assimilation System, is 52 W/m^2.
The average air temperature through the day is 15 degree Celsius. Compute the corresponding
potential evaporation rate using the energy balance method.

Solution:
E = Rn/L
E = 52/28.91*
E = 1.8 mm/day Ans.
*L=28.91 is obtained from Latent Heat Factor Table corresponding to 15 deg. Celsius
in any textbook.
WATER DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIPS, MEASUREMENT AND INTERPRETATION

RATING CURVE
 In hydrology, a rating curve is a graph of discharge versus stage for a given point on a stream,
usually at gauging stations, where the stream discharge is measured across the stream channel
with a flow meter. Numerous measurements of stream discharge are made over a range of
stream stages. The rating curve is usually plotted as discharge on x-axis versus stage (surface
elevation) on y-axis.

 The development of a rating curve involves two steps. In the first step the relationship between
stage and discharge is established by measuring the stage and corresponding discharge in the
river. And in the second part, stage of river is measured and discharge is calculated by using the
relationship established in the first part.

STAGE
 Is measured by reading a gauge installed in the river. If the stage-discharge relationship does not
change with time, it is called permanent control. If the relationship does change, it is called
shifting control. Shifting control is usually due to erosion or deposition of sediment at the stage
measurement site.

STREAM MEASUREMENT
 Surface water hydrology with the movement of water a long earth’s surface as a result of
precipitation and snow melt.

 Knowledge of quantity and quality of stream flow is a request of municipal, industrial,

agricultural and other water supply projects.

What is Stream Gaging?

 Stream gaging is a technique used to measure the discharge, or the volume of water moving
through a channel per unit time, of a stream. The height of water in the stream channel, known
as a stage or gage height, can be used to determine the dischage in a stream.

How Are Steams Gaged?

 As mentioned above, stream gaging can be done by measuring the stage height and velocity at a
series of points in a cross-section of a stream or by constructing a flume or weir and recording
stage height. Stage height can be measured using a ruler, or a pressure transducer or stilling well
connected to a data logger. Stream gaging methods will be discussed in further detail below.

DIRECT MEASUREMENT OF STREAM

 AREA VELOCITY METHOD

- To measure velocity via the float method, one simply measures the time it takes for a floating object
to travel a measured distance.

- By multiplying the cross-sectional area (width of section x stage height) by the velocity, one can
calculate the discharge for that section of stream.
  Discharge, or the volume of water flowing in a stream over a set interval of time, can be
determined with the equation:

 Q = AV,

INDIRECT MEASUREMENT OF STREAM

 SLOPE AREA METHOD

- Uses the slope of the water and the area of a cross-section to calculate the discharge, or amount if
water that moves though a particular point of the waterway.

By using Manning formula, to calculate the discharge using the Slope Area Method.

Q = (1.49/n)A(Rh^2/3)S^1/2
MEASUREMENT OF STAGE
 Direct measurement of discharge is a very time-consuming and costly procedure.

Two steps are followed:

1. The stage of the stream ( elevation of water surface above a datum) is measured by many
methods such as Staff gage, Wire gage and automatic stage recorder.

2. The discharge is related with the stage in well known stage-discharge relationships

STAFF GAGE
 Is calibrated scale which is used to provide a visual indication of level. When used on an inclind
or slope surface, a staff gauge is usually calibrated so that the indicated level is the true vertical
level.
WIRE WEIGHT GAGE
 A wire weight gage is a device that can be bolted to a bridge or railing or other appurtenance
over of water to obtain water surface gage heights. It is manually read by opening the protective
cover and cranking down a weight until the weight touches the water.
AUTOMATIC STAGE RECORDER
 Is used for measuring water level

READING A LOOP RATING CURVE

 Here is an example of a looped rating curve from the same unsteady flow model