Logic

Course: Introduction to Mathematics

by Radhiatul Husna, Andalas University
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 Chapter 1. What is Logic?

Definition of Logic

Definition of A Deduction

Assertions or not?

How can a deduction go wrong?

Deductive Validity

Other Logical Notions

Logical Equivalence

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 Definition of Logic

Logic is the science of formal principles of reasoning or correct
inference.

A statement/ proposition is a sentence that is either true or false. It is
also called as an assertion.

Truth value of an assertion can be determined by the fact, opinion,
and logic.

Examples:
* Fact: The sun rises in the East.
* Opinion: Mathematical Logic is one of the interesting courses.
* Logic: An equilateral triangle is a triangle in which all three sides are
equal.

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 Definition of A Deduction

A Deduction is a series of hypotheses followed by a
conclusion.

The conclusion and each of hypotheses must be an assertion.

Logic can be used to decide whether or not a decuction is
valid; that is, to decide whether or not a particular conclusion
is a concequence of a particular assumptions (or hypotheses).

Example 1: Deduction 1
* Hypotheses:
1. It is raining heavily.
2. If you do not take an umbrella, you will get soaked
* Conclusion: You should take an umbrella.

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 Assertions or not?

Assertions: sentences, either true or false.

Questions : not assertions
* Example 2: Are you a mathematics student?

Imperatives: not assertions
* Example 3: Do not go through that way!

Exclamations: not assertions
* Example 4: Ouch!

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How can a deduction go wrong?

A deduction is weak if
1) One or more of the hypotheses might be false. The deduction gives
you a reason to believe its conclusion only if you believe its
hypotheses.
2) The hypotheses might fail to entail the conclusion. Even if the
hypotheses were true, the form of the deduction might be weak.

Example 1: Deduction 1
* Hypotheses:
1. It is raining heavily.
2. If you do not take an umbrella, you will get soaked.
* Conclusion: You should take an umbrella.

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How can a deduction go wrong?
Analysis of Deduction 1:
a. If It is sunny outside (hypothesis 1 is false), then you do not
take an umbrella (hypthesis 2 and the conclusion are false).
b. If hypothesis 1 is true, then hypothesis 2 can be false (you wear
a raincoat since you could go out without an umbrella and still
avoid getting soaked). So it leads the conclusion to be false.
c. If hypoteses 1 and 2 are false (you do not own a raincoat and
you enjoy walking in the rain and getting soaked), then the
conclusion are false (since you do not bring an umbrella).
Hence Deduction 1 is weak.

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How can a deduction go wrong?

Example 5: Deduction 2
* Hypotheses:
1. There is a flower on the table.
2. There is Budi studying in the library.
* Conclusion: Ani is a good cook.

Deduction 2 is a terrible deduction since the two
hyphotheses have nothing at all to do with the
conclusion.

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How can a deduction go wrong?

Example 6: Deduction 3
* Hypotheses:
1. You are reading this book.
2. This is an undergraduate textbook.
* Conclusion: You are an undergraduate student.

Deduction 3 is not a terrible deduction.

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How can a deduction go wrong?
Analysis of Deduction 3:

If the hypotheses are true (your mother or father read
this book), they do not guarantee the truth of the
conclusion (She/He would not immeadiately become
an undergraduate) since its logical form is less than
perfect.

If its hypotheses were true, then its conclusion would
necessarily be true so that such a deduction is
deductively valid or just valid.
Hence Deduction 3 is not valid.

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 Deductive Validity

A deduction is valid if and only if its conclusion is true whenever all hypotheses
are true.

It is impossible that hypotheses are true at the same time the conclusion is false.

Example 7: Deduction 4
* Hypotheses:
1. London is in England.
2. Beijing is in China.
* Conclusion: Paris is in France.

Deduction 4 is a terrible deduction (not valid).

Note: Validity is not about the actual truth or falsity of the assertions in the
deduction, but it is about the form of the deduction; the truth of the
hypotheses is incompatible with the falsity of the conclusion.

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 Other Logical Notions

Truth values: True or false is said to be the truth value of an assertion.

Logical truth: What would be true if the hypotheses were true?

Example 8: Consider these assertions
1. It is raining.
2. Either it is raining or not.
3. It is both raining and not raining.
* Assertion 1 is either true or false.
* Assertion 2 is logically true.
* Assertion 3 is logically false.

Contigent: an assertion that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction.

Tautology: a logically true assertion.

Contradiction: a logically false assertion.

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 Logical Equivalence

Logically equivalent: when two assertions
necessarily have the same truth value.

Example 9: Consider these assertions
1. John went to the store after he washed the
dishes.
2. John washed the dishes before he went to the
store.
* Assertions 1 and 2 are contigent and logically
equivalent.

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