PRE-CAST

STRUCTURES

raunaq chanda
2019
INDEX
1) PRE-CAST STRUCTURE
2) HISTORY
3) REINFORCEMENT
4) TYPES OF PRECAST STRUCTURES
5) PRECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURAL
ELEMENTS
6) ASSEMBLY CONCEPTS
7) MANUFACTURING OF PRE-CAST
ELEMENTS
8) PRE-CASTING METHODS
9) JOINING PRE-CAST MATERIALS
10) PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE
11) PRE-TENSIONED CONCRETE
12) POST TENSIONED CONCRETE
13) TYPES OF CONCRETE AND CEMENT
USED
14) ANCHORAGE
15) TENDON DURAILITY AND
CORROSION PROTECTION
16) TENSIONING DEVICES
17) PRE-STRESSING SYSTEMS
18) EXTERNAL PRESTRESSING
19) INTERNAL PRESTRESSING
20) PRE FABRICATION
21) ADVANTAGES OF PRE-FABRICATION
22) DISADVANTAGES OF PRE-
FABRICATION
23) MATERIALS USED IN
PREFABRICATION
24) LIMITATIONS IN PREFABRICATION
25) PORTAL FRAMES
26) TYPES OF PORTAL FRAMES
27) WAFFLE CRETE
28) LIGHT GAUGE
29) ADVANTAGES OF LIGHT GAUGE
30) DISADVANTAGESD OF LIGHT GAUGE
PRE-CAST STRUCTURE added with pigments or paints. The color and
Precast concrete is a construction product size of aggregate can also affect the appearance
produced by casting concrete in a reusable and texture of concrete surfaces. The shape
mold or "form" which is then cured in a and surface of the precast concrete molds have
controlled environment, transported to the an effect on the look: The mold can be made
construction site and lifted into place ("tilt of timber, steel, plastic, rubber or fiberglass,
up"). In contrast, standard concrete is poured each material giving a unique finish.
into site-specific forms and cured on site.
Precast stone is distinguished from precast
concrete using a fine aggregate in the mixture,
so the final product approaches the appearance
of naturally occurring rock or stone. More
recently expanded polystyrene is being used as
the cores to precast wall panels. This is
lightweight and has better thermal insulation.
Precast is used within exterior and interior
walls. By producing precast concrete in a
controlled environment (typically referred to as
a precast plant), the precast concrete is HISTORY
afforded the opportunity to properly cure and Ancient Roman builders made use of concrete
be closely monitored by plant employees. and soon poured the material into moulds to
Using a precast concrete system offers many build their complex network of aqueducts,
potential advantages over onsite casting. culverts, and tunnels. Modern uses for pre-cast
Precast concrete production can be performed technology include a variety of architectural
on ground level, which helps with safety and structural applications — including
throughout a project. There is greater control individual parts, or even entire building
over material quality and workmanship in a systems. In the modern world, precast paneled
precast plant compared to a construction site. buildings were pioneered in Liverpool,
The forms used in a precast plant can be reused England, in 1905. The process was invented by
hundreds to thousands of times before they city engineer John Alexander Brodie, a creative
have to be replaced, often making it cheaper genius who also invented the idea of the
than onsite casting when looking at the cost per football goal net. The tram stables at Walton in
unit of formwork. There are many different Liverpool followed in 1906. The idea was not
types of precast concrete forming systems for taken up extensively in Britain. However, it was
architectural applications, differing in size, adopted all over the world, particularly in
function, and cost. Precast architectural panels Eastern Europe and Scandinavia.
are also used to clad all or part of a building
facades or free-standing walls used for
landscaping, soundproofing, and security walls,
and some can be prestressed concrete
structural elements. Stormwater drainage,
water and sewage pipes, and tunnels make use
of precast concrete units.
To complete the look of the four precast wall
panel types — sandwich, plastered sandwich,
inner layer and cladding panels — many
surface finishes are available. Standard cement
is white or grey, though different colors can be
REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcing concrete with steel improves
strength and durability. On its own, concrete
has good compressive strength, but lacks
tension and shear strength and can be subject
to cracking when bearing loads for long
periods of time. Steel offers high tension and
shear strength to make up for what concrete
lacks. Steel behaves similarly to concrete in
changing environments, which means it will
shrink and expand with concrete, helping avoid
cracking.
Rebar is the most common form of concrete
reinforcement. It is typically made from steel,
manufactured with ribbing to bond with
concrete as it cures. Rebar is versatile enough
to be bent or assembled to support the shape
of any concrete structure. Carbon steel is the
most common rebar material. However,
stainless steel, galvanized steel, and epoxy
coatings can prevent corrosion.
The main features of this construction process
are as follows: The division and specialization
of the human workforce, The use of tools,
machinery, and other equipment, usually
automated, in the production of standard,
interchangeable parts and products, Compared
to site-cast concrete, precast concrete erection
is faster and less affected by adverse weather
conditions. Plant casting allows increased
efficiency, high quality control and greater
control on finishes. This type of construction
requires a restructuring of entire conventional
construction process to enable interaction
between design phase and production planning
in order to improve and speed up construction.
TYPES OF PRECAST SYSTEMS
L A R G E P A N E L S Y S T E M S-
The designation “large-panel system” refers to
multistory structures composed of large wall
and floor concrete panels connected in the
vertical and horizontal directions so that the
wall panels enclose appropriate spaces for the
rooms within a building. These panels form a
box-like structure. Both vertical and horizontal
panels resist gravity load. Wall panels are
usually one story high. Horizontal floor and
roof panels span either as one-way or two-way
slabs. When properly joined together, these
horizontal elements act as diaphragms that
transfer the lateral loads to the walls.
Depending on wall layout, there are three basic
configurations of large-panel buildings:
1) Cross-wall systems
2) Longitudinal wall systems
3) Two-way systems
FRAMESYSTEMS–
Precast frames can be constructed using either
linear elements or spatial beam column sub-
assemblages. Precast beam-column sub-
assemblages have the advantage that the
connecting faces between the sub-assemblages
can be placed away from the critical frame
regions; however, linear elements are generally
preferred because of the difficulties associated
with forming, handling, and erecting spatial
elements. The use of linear elements generally
means placing the connecting faces at the
beam-column junctions. The beams can be
seated on corbels at the columns, for ease of
construction and to aid the shear transfer from
the beam to the column. The beam-column
joints accomplished in this way are hinged.
However, rigid beam-column connections are
used in some cases, when the continuity of
longitudinal reinforcement through the beam-
column joint needs to be ensured.
SLAB-COLUMNSYSTEMS WIT
H SHEARWALLS
These systems rely on shear walls to sustain
lateral load effects, whereas the slab-column
structure resists mainly gravity loads. There are
two main systems in this category:
1) Lift-slab system with walls
2) Prestressed slab-column system
In the Lift –slab system, the load-bearing
structure consists of precast reinforced
concrete columns and slabs, Precast
columns are usually two stories high. All
precast structural elements are assembled
by means of special joints. Reinforced
concrete slabs are poured on the ground in
forms, one on top of the other. Precast
concrete floor slabs are lifted from the
ground up to the final height by lifting
cranes. The slab panels are lifted to the top
of the column and then moved downwards
to the final position. Temporary supports
are used to keep the slabs in the position
until the connection with the columns has
been achieved.
The prestressed slab-column system uses
horizontal prestressing in two orthogonal
directions to achieve continuity. The
precast concrete column elements are 1 to
3 stories high. The reinforced concrete
floor slabs fit the clear span between
columns. After erecting the slabs and
columns of a story, the columns and floor
slabs are prestressed by means of
prestressing tendons that pass-through
ducts in the columns at the floor level and
along the gaps left between adjacent slabs.
After prestressing, the gaps between the
slabs are filled with in situ concrete and the
tendons then become bonded with the
spans. Seismic loads are resisted mainly by
the shear walls (precast or cast-in-place)
positioned between the columns at
appropriate locations.
PRECAST CONCRETE
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
Precast slabs
The precast slab is a precast reinforced
concrete floor plate, forming the lower part
of a floor and providing all or part of the
underlying reinforcement of the floor. The
dimensioning of the rebars is optimized for
each construction site. Precast Concrete
Slabs are used for floor and roof decks.
Precast concrete beams and girders
Provide support for slabs. The projecting
reinforcing bars will bond with concrete
cast on site.
Precast Concrete Columns and Wall Panels
Provide support for beam and slab
elements. Since these elements carry
mainly axial loads with little bending force,
they may be conventionally reinforced
without prestressing. Or, long, slender
multistory elements may be prestressed to
provide resistance to bending forces during
handling and erection.
ASSEMBLY CONCEPTS
There are certain methods and concepts
followed for easier assembly and safety too.
Vertical support can be provided by
precast columns and beams, wall panels, or
a combination of all three. The choice of
roof and floor slab elements depends
mainly on span requirements. Precast slab
elements are frequently also used with
other vertical loadbearing systems such as
site cast concrete, reinforced masonry, or
steel.
A parking garage structure consisting of
precast double tees supported by inverted tee
beams on haunched columns
MANUFACTURING OF PRE-CAST components from fire and corrosion.
ELEMENTS
Precast elements are manufactured in casting
beds, 800 ft or more in length. High-strength
steel strands are strung the length of the bed
and tensioned. Conventional reinforcing, weld
plates, blockouts, lifting loops, and other
embedded items are added as needed.
Concrete is placed.

Beams are set on bearing pads on the column

corbels. Steel angles are welded to metal plates
cast into the beams and columns and the joint
is grouted solid.

Prestressing and Reinforcing Steel. Many

precast elements contain both prestressing
strands and conventional reinforcing. Once the
concrete has cured to sufficient strength, the
castings are cut into sections of desired length.
In some cases, transverse bulkheads are
inserted to divide the casting bed into sections
before concrete is placed.

Hollow core slabs are set on bearing pads on

precast beams. Steel reinforcing bars are in
inserted into the slab keyways to span the joint.
The joint is grouted solid. The slab may remain
untopped, or topped with several inches of cast
in place concrete.

JOINING PRE-CAST MATERIALS

Metal bearing plates and embedded anchor

bolts are cast into the ends of the columns.
After the columns are mechanically joined, the
connection is grouted to provide full bearing
between elements and protect the metal
Site cast Concrete Toppings over Precast Slabs
Greater floor strength and stiffness. Greater
fire resistance. Greater acoustic isolation.
Allow easy integration of electrical services into
floor system. Create a smoother, flatter floor.
PERCASTING METHOD
INDIVIDUAL MOULD METHOD –
Using mould which may be easily assembled
out of bottom and sides, transportable, if
necessary, this may be either in timber or in
steel using needle or mould vibrations and
capable of taking prestressing forces Used in –
Rib Slab, beams, Girders window panels, box
type units and special elements.
BATTERY FORM METHOD –
Battery form method shuttering panels may be
adjusted in the form of a battery at the required
distances equal to the thickness if the concrete
members.
PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE
Prestressed concrete is a form of concrete used
in construction. It is substantially "prestressed"
(compressed) during its fabrication, in a
manner that strengthens it against tensile
forces which will exist when in service.
This compression is produced by the
tensioning of high-strength "tendons" located
within or adjacent to the concrete and is done
to improve the performance of the concrete in
service. Tendons may consist of single wires,
multi-wire strands or threaded bars that are
most commonly made from high-tensile steels,
carbon fiber or aramid fiber. The essence of
prestressed concrete is that once the initial
compression has been applied, the resulting
material has the characteristics of high-strength
concrete when subject to any subsequent
compression forces and of ductile high-
strength steel when subject to tension forces.
This can result in improved structural capacity
and/or serviceability compared with
conventionally reinforced concrete in many
situations. In a prestressed concrete member,
the internal stresses are introduced in a planned
manner so that the stresses resulting from the
superimposed loads are counteracted to the
desired degree. Prestressed concrete is used in
a wide range of building and civil structures
where its improved performance can allow for
longer spans, reduced structural thicknesses,
and material savings compared with simple
reinforced concrete. Typical applications
include high-rise buildings, residential slabs,
foundation systems, bridge and dam structures,
silos and tanks, industrial pavements and
nuclear containment structures. First used in
the late-nineteenth century, prestressed
concrete has developed beyond pre-tensioning
to include post-tensioning, which occurs after
the concrete is cast. Tensioning systems may be
classed as either monostrand, where each
tendon's strand or wire is stressed individually,
or multi-strand, where all strands or wires in a
tendon are stressed simultaneously. Tendons
may be located either within the concrete
volume (internal prestressing) or wholly
outside of it (external prestressing). While pre-
tensioned concrete uses tendons directly
bonded to the concrete, post-tensioned
concrete can use either bonded or unbonded
tendons.
PRE-TENSIONED CONCRETE
Pre-tensioned concrete is a variant of
prestressed concrete where the tendons are
tensioned prior to the concrete being cast. The
concrete bonds to the tendons as it cures,
following which the end-anchoring of the
tendons is released, and the tendon tension
forces are transferred to the concrete as
compression by static friction.
Pre-tensioning is a common prefabrication
technique, where the resulting concrete
element is manufactured remotely from the
final structure location and transported to site
once cured. It requires strong, stable end-
anchorage points between which the tendons
are stretched. These anchorages form the ends
of a "casting bed" which may be many times
the length of the concrete element being
fabricated. This allows multiple elements to be
constructed end-to-end in the one pre-
tensioning operation, allowing significant
productivity benefits and economies of scale to
be realized.
The amount of bond (or adhesion) achievable
between the freshly set concrete and the
surface of the tendons is critical to the pre-
tensioning process, as it determines when the
tendon anchorages can be safely released.
Higher bond strength in early-age concrete will
speed production and allow more economical
fabrication. To promote this, pre-tensioned
tendons are usually composed of isolated single
wires or strands, which provides a greater
surface area for bonding than bundled-strand
tendons.
Unlike those of post-tensioned concrete, the
tendons of pre-tensioned concrete elements
generally form straight lines between end-
anchorages. Where "profiled" or "harped"
tendons are required, one or more intermediate
deviators are located between the ends of the
tendon to hold the tendon to the desired non-
linear alignment during tensioning. Such
deviators usually act against substantial forces,
and hence require a robust casting-bed
foundation system. Straight tendons are
typically used in "linear" precast elements, such
as shallow beams, hollow-core planks and
slabs; whereas profiled tendons are more
commonly found in deeper precast bridge
beams and girders.
Pre-tensioned concrete is most commonly
used for the fabrication of structural beams,
floor slabs, hollow-core planks, balconies,
lintels, driven piles, water tanks and concrete
pipes.
POST TENSIONED CONCRETE
Post-tensioned concrete is a variant of
prestressed concrete where the tendons are
tensioned after the surrounding concrete
structure has been cast. The tendons are not
placed in direct contact with the concrete, but
are encapsulated within a protective sleeve or
duct which is either cast into the concrete
structure or placed adjacent to it. At each end
of a tendon is an anchorage assembly firmly
fixed to the surrounding concrete. Once the
concrete has been cast and set, the tendons are
tensioned ("stressed") by pulling the tendon
ends through the anchorages while pressing
against the concrete. The large forces required
to tension the tendons result in a significant
permanent compression being applied to the
concrete once the tendon is "locked-off" at the
anchorage. The method of locking the tendon-
ends to the anchorage is dependent upon the
tendon composition, with the most common
systems being "button-head" anchoring (for
wire tendons), split-wedge anchoring (for
strand tendons), and threaded anchoring (for
bar tendons). Tendon encapsulation systems
are constructed from plastic or galvanized steel
materials, and are classified into two main
types: those where the tendon element is
subsequently bonded to the surrounding
concrete by internal grouting of the duct after
stressing (bonded post-tensioning); and those
where the tendon element is permanently
debonded from the surrounding concrete,
usually by means of a greased sheath over the
tendon strands (unbonded post-tensioning).
Casting the tendon ducts/sleeves into the
concrete before any tensioning occurs allows
them to be readily "profiled" to any desired
shape including incorporating vertical and/or
horizontal curvature. When the tendons are
tensioned, this profiling results in reaction
forces being imparted onto the hardened
concrete, and these can be beneficially used to
counter any loadings subsequently applied to
the structure.
TYPES OF CONCRETE AND CEMENT
USED
The cement used should be any of the
following
1) Ordinary Portland cement conforming to
IS269
2) Portland slag cement conforming to IS455.
But the slag content should not be more than
50%.
3) Rapid hardening Portland cement
conforming to IS8041.
4) High strength ordinary Portland cement
conforming to IS8112. 87
Prestress concrete requires concrete, which has
a high compressive strength reasonably early
age with comparatively higher tensile strength
than ordinary concrete. The concrete for the
members shall be air-entrained concrete
composed of Portland cement, fine and coarse
aggregates, admixtures and water. The air-
entraining feature may be obtained by the use
of either air entraining Portland cement or an
approved air-entraining admixture. The
entrained air content shall be not less than 4
percent or more than 6 percent. Minimum
cement content of 300 to 360 kg/m3 is
prescribed for the durability requirement. The
water content should be as low as possible.
3. Steel: - High tensile steel, tendons, strands or
cables.
The steel used in prestress shall be any one of
the following:-
1) Plain hard-drawn steel wire conforming to
IS1785 (Part-I & Part-III)
2) Cold drawn indented wire conforming to
IS6003
3) High tensile steel wire bar conforming to
IS2090
4) Uncoated stress relived strand conforming
to IS6006 High strength steel contains: 0.7 to
0.8% carbons, 0.6% manganese, 0.1% silica
Durability, Fire Resistance & Cover
Requirements for P.S.C Members
According to IS: 1343-1980 20 mm cover for
pretension members 30 mm or size of the cable
whichever is bigger for post tensioned
members. If the prestress members are
exposed to an aggressive environment, these
covers are increased by another 10 mm.
Necessity of high grade of concrete & steel:
Higher the grade of concrete higher the bond
strength which is vital in pretension concrete,
also higher bearing strength which is vital in
post-tensioned concrete. Further creep &
shrinkage losses are minimum with high-grade
concrete.
Generally minimum M30 grade concrete is
used for post-tensioned & M40 grade concrete
is used for pretension members. 88 The losses
in prestress members due to various reasons
are generally in the range of 250 N/mm2 to
400 N/mm2. If mild steel or deformed steel is
used the residual stresses after losses is either
zero or negligible. Hence high tensile steel
wires are used which varies from 1600 to 2000
N/mm2.
ANCHORAGE
Anchorage in Prestressed Concrete.
Anchorage as the name signifies is a
component of post tensioning system which is
used to anchor the tendons into the concrete
while terminating or joining two tendons. ...
Anchorage is an inevitable part of prestressing
system.
TENDON DURAILITY AND
CORROSION PROTECTION
Long-term durability is an essential
requirement for prestressed concrete given its
widespread use. Research on the durability
performance of in-service prestressed
structures has been undertaken since the
1960s, and anti-corrosion technologies for
tendon protection have been continually
improved since the earliest systems were
developed.
The durability of prestressed concrete is
principally determined by the level of corrosion
protection provided to any high-strength steel
elements within the prestressing tendons. Also
critical is the protection afforded to the end-
anchorage assemblies of unbonded tendons or
cable-stay systems, as the anchorages of both
of these are required to retain the prestressing
forces. Failure of any of these components can
result in the release of prestressing forces, or
the physical rupture of stressing tendons.
Modern prestressing systems deliver long-term
durability by addressing the following areas:
Tendon grouting (bonded tendons)
Bonded tendons consist of bundled strands
placed inside ducts located within the
surrounding concrete. To ensure full
protection to the bundled strands, the ducts
must be pressure-filled with a corrosion-
inhibiting grout, without leaving any voids,
following strand-tensioning.
Tendon coating (unbonded tendons)
Unbonded tendons comprise individual
strands coated in an anti-corrosion grease or
wax, and fitted with a durable plastic-based
full-length sleeve or sheath. The sleeving is
required to be undamaged over the tendon
length, and it must extend fully into the
anchorage fittings at each end of the tendon.
Double-layer encapsulation
Prestressing tendons requiring permanent
monitoring and/or force adjustment, such as
stay-cables and re-stressable dam anchors, will
typically employ double-layer corrosion
protection. Such tendons are composed of
individual strands, grease-coated and sleeved,
collected into a strand-bundle and placed
inside encapsulating polyethylene outer
ducting. The remaining void space within the
duct is pressure-grouted, providing a multi-
layer polythene-grout-plastic-grease protection
barrier system for each strand.
Anchorage protection
In all post-tensioned installations, protection
of the end-anchorages against corrosion is
essential, and critically so for unbonded
systems.
TENSIONING DEVICES
1. Mechanical devices: The mechanical devices
generally used include weights with or without
lever transmission, geared transmission in
conjunction with pulley blocks, screw jacks
with or without gear devices and wire-winding
machines. These devices are employed mainly
for prestressing structural concrete
components produced on a mass scale in
factory.
2. Hydraulic devices: These are simplest means
for producing large prestressing force,
extensively used as tensioning devices.
3. Electrical devices: The wires are electrically
heated and anchored before placing concrete in
the mould. This method is often referred to as
thermo pre-stressing and used for tensioning
of steel wires and deformed bars.
4. Chemical devices: Expanding cements are
used and the degree of expansion is controlled
by varying the curing condition. Since the
expansive action of cement 90 while setting is
restrained, it induces tensile forces in tendons
and compressive stresses in concrete.
PRE-STRESSING SYSTEMS
1.Pre-tensioning system-
In the pre-tensioning systems, the tendons are
first tensioned between rigid anchor blocks
cast on the ground or in a column or unit –
mould types pre-tensioning bed, prior to the
casting of concrete in the mould. The tendons
comprising individual wires or strands are
stretched with constant eccentricity or a
variable eccentricity with tendon anchorage at
one end and jacks at the other. With the forms
in place, the concrete is cast around the
stressed tendon.
2.Eccentric prestressing
In the design of a reinforced concrete beam
subjected to bending it is accepted that the
concrete in the tensile zone is cracked, and that
all the tensile resistance is provided by the working stresses within required limits.
reinforcement. The stress that may be
permitted in the reinforcement is limited by the
need to keep the cracks in the concrete to
acceptable widths under working conditions,
thus there is no advantage to be gained from
the use of the very high strength steels which
are available. The design is therefore
uneconomic in two respects
1) Dead weight includes 'useless' concrete
in the tensile zone,
2) Economic use of steel resources is not
possible.
The way in which the stresses due to bending
and an applied compressive force may be
combined for the case of an axially applied
force acting over the length of a beam. The
stress distribution at any section will equal the
sum of the compression and bending stresses
if it is assumed that the concrete behaves
classically. Thus it is possible to determine the
applied force so that the combined stresses are
always compressive.
By applying the compressive force eccentrically
on the concrete cross-section, a further stress
distribution, due to the bending effects of the
couple thus created, and offers further
advantages when attempting to produce

EXTERNAL PRESTRESSING
The external prestressing technique is widely
used in the construction of various engineering
structures and also as one of the most efficient
approaches for strengthening of existing
structures. In an external prestressing system,
the prestressing tendons are placed outside the
concrete section and the prestressing force is
transferred to concrete through end
anchorages and deviators. An external
prestressing system is simple to construct and
easy to inspect and maintain as compared to
the internal tendon system. Many bridges that
were designed for earlier loading standards or
that have suffered damage or deterioration are
not functioning properly for the present traffic
conditions. Poor reinforcement detailing,
design errors, and general wear and tear can
impair structural performance. Corrosion of
reinforcement, attack by chemicals or
pollution, overloading, impact damage from
vehicles, etc. can lead to loss of strength and
loss of prestress.
Bridge strengthening by external prestressing is
to be carried out to regain the prestress lost. An
external prestressing technique is being widely
used for enhancing strength of the existing/
distressed prestressed concrete girders to carry
the required loading or enhanced loading. If
end blocks are not strong enough to withstand
the additional prestressing forces due to the
proposed external prestressing, it is susceptible
to distress. A physical concept of state of stress
in the anchorage zone in the transverse
direction, that is, normal to planes parallel with
the top and bottom surfaces of the beam is
tensile in nature over a length of end block due
to internal prestressing at a single point.
Understanding this state of stress due to
external prestress is a complex phenomenon.
INTERNAL PRESTRESSING
Internal Prestressing When the prestressing is
achieved by elements located inside the
concrete member (commonly, by embedded
ten- dons), it is called internal prestressing.
Most of the applications of prestressing are
internal prestressing.
PRE-FABRICATION
Prefabrication is the practice of assembling
components of a structure in a factory or other
manufacturing site, and transporting complete
assemblies or sub-assemblies to the
construction site where the structure is to be
located structure is to be located. Prefabricated
units may include doors, stairs, window, walls,
wall panels, floor panels, roof trusses, room-
sized components, and panels, floor panels,
roof trusses, room sized components, and even
entire buildings. Prefabricated building is the
completely assembled and erected building of
which is the structural parts consist of erected
building, of which is the structural parts consist
of prefabricated individual units or assemblies
using ordinary or controlled materials.
Prefabrication is used to effect economy in
cost. Components manufactured under
controlled conditions. The speed of
construction is increased since no curing
period is necessary. Prefabrication helps in the
use of locally available materials with required
characteristics like light-weight; easy
workability, thermal insulation, non-
combustibility etc.
ADVANTAGES OF PREFABRICATION
The product is of high-quality product. Labour
cost is considerably low. As the materials are
pre-fabricated time taken for overall
construction is low. Overall efficiency is greatly
increased. Overall efficiency is greatly appliances, and weapons.
increased. Mass production is easier and quick
Protected and controlled production
environment. Potential for lower production
costs and other cost savings. Independence of
climatic conditions. The disruption of traffic is
avoided as there is less transportation and
equipment required. Ensures high degree of
Safety by less equipment requirement.
DISADVANTAGES OF
PREFABRICATION
Careful handling of prefabricated components
such as concrete panels or steel and glass
panels is required. Attention has to be paid to
the strength and corrosion-resistance of the
joining of prefabricated sections to avoid
failure of the joint. Similarly, leaks can form at
joints in prefabricated components. Treated wood is wood that has been
Transportation costs may be higher for appropriately treated with preservative
voluminous prefabricated sections than for the chemicals with the intent of prolonging its
materials of which they are made, which can intended usefulness lifecycle compared to
often be packed more compactly be packed untreated wood.
more compactly. Large prefabricated sections
require heavy-duty cranes and precision
measurement and handling to place in position.
MATERIALS USED IN
PREFABRICATION SYSTEM
Concrete is a construction material composed
of cement, fine aggregates (sand) and coarse
aggregates mixed with water which hardens
with time. Portland cement is the commonly
used type of cement for production of
concrete. Concrete technology deals with study
of properties of concrete and its practical Aluminum was first used in quantity for
applications. building and construction in the 1920s. The
applications were primarily oriented toward
decorative detailing and art deco structures. ...
Today, aluminum is recognized as one of the
most energy efficient and sustainable
construction materials.

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, and

sometimes other elements. Because of its high
tensile strength and low cost, it is a major
component used in buildings, infrastructure,
tools, ships, automobiles, machines,

Cellular concrete is a lightweight cement-based
material, containing many gas bubbles evenly
distributed in the volume, produced by
blending and maturing of a mixture of cement,
filler, water, agent generating cells. By the
method of generating the air or gas cells there
exist foam concrete and gas concrete.
Ceramic products for the construction sector
include cements and cement-based materials,
interior and exterior tiles, sanitary ware, non-
refractory bricks, and other more complex
shapes such as drainage, sewer, and chimney
pipes and linings.
LIMITATION OF PREFABRICATION
1) Small number of units required may prove
to be uneconomical.
2) Special connections, such as special bearings
to transmit the vertical and horizontal loads,
can add cost to the system.
3) Waterproofing at joints.
4) Transportation difficulties.
5) Need for cranes.
PORTAL FRAME
Portal frames are generally low-rise structures,
comprising columns and horizontal or pitched
rafters, connected by moment-resisting
connections. Resistance to lateral and vertical
actions is provided by the rigidity of the
connections and the bending stiffness of the
members, which is increased by a suitable
haunch or deepening of the rafter sections.
This form of continuous frame structure is
stable in its plane and provides a clear span that
is unobstructed by bracing. They are very
efficient for enclosing large volumes; therefore,
they are often used for industrial, storage, retail
and commercial applications as well as for
agricultural purposes. This article describes the
anatomy and various types of portal frame and
key design considerations.
A portal frame building comprises a series of
transverse frames braced longitudinally. The
primary steelwork consists of columns and
rafters, which form portal frames, and bracing.
The end frame (gable frame) can be either a
portal frame or a braced arrangement of
columns and rafters.
The light gauge secondary steelwork consists
of side rails for walls and purlins for the roof.
The secondary steelwork supports the building
envelope, but also plays an important role in
restraining the primary steelwork.
The roof and wall cladding separate the
enclosed space from the external environment
as well as providing thermal and acoustic
insulation. The structural role of the cladding is
to transfer loads to secondary steelwork and
also to restrain the flange of the purlin or rail
to which it is attached.
TYPES OF PORTAL FRAMES
Pitched roof symmetric portal frame -
Generally fabricated from UB sections with a
substantial eave’s haunch section, which may
be cut from a rolled section or fabricated from
plate. 25 to 35 m are the most efficient spans.
Portal frame with internal mezzanine floor –
Office accommodation is often provided
within a portal frame structure using a partial
width mezzanine floor.
The assessment of frame stability must include
the effect of the mezzanine.
Crane portal frame with column brackets-
Where a travelling crane of relatively low
capacity (up to say 20 tonnes) is required,
brackets can be fixed to the columns to
support the crane rails. Use of a tie member or
rigid column bases may be necessary to reduce
the eaves deflection.
The spread of the frame at crane rail level may
be of critical importance to the functioning of
the crane; requirements should be agreed with
the client and with the crane manufacturer.
Tied portal frame-
In a tied portal frame the horizontal movement
of the eaves and the bending moments in the
columns and rafters are reduced. A tie may be
useful to limit spread in a crane-supporting
structure.
The high axial forces introduced in the frame
when a tie is used necessitate the use of second-
order software when analyzing this form of
frame.
Mono-pitch portal frame –
A mono pitch portal frame is usually chosen
for small spans or because of its proximity to
other buildings. It is a simple variation of the
pitched roof portal frame, and tends to be used
for smaller buildings (up to 15 m span).
Propped portal frame –
Where the span of a portal frame is large and
there is no requirement to provide a clear span,
a propped portal frame can be used to reduce
the rafter size and also the horizontal shear at
the foundations.
Mansard portal frame –
A mansard portal frame may be used where a
large clear height at mid-span is required but
the eaves height of the building has to be
minimized.
Curved rafter portal frame –
Portal frames may be constructed using curved
rafters, mainly for architectural reasons.
Because of transport limitations rafters longer
than 20 m may require splices, which should be
carefully detailed for architectural reasons.
The curved member is often modelled for
analysis as a series of straight elements.
Alternatively, the rafter can be fabricated as a
series of straight elements. It will be necessary
to provide purlin cleats of varying height to
achieve the curved external profile.
Cellular beam portal frame –
Rafters may be fabricated from cellular beams
for aesthetic reasons or when providing long
spans. Where transport limitations impose
requirement for splices, they should be
carefully detailed, to preserve the architectural
features.
The sections used cannot develop plastic
hinges at a cross-section, so only elastic design
is used.
WAFFLE CRETE SYSTEM
Waffle-Crete has evolved into a state-of-the-art
structural precast concrete building system.
Years of working with the product has enabled
Advance Precast Ltd to develop the
construction system far beyond the original
curtain-wall concept. Utilization of modular
design can give a functional and efficient wall
competitively priced far below other
conventional precast systems. The lighter unit
weight of Waffle-Crete panel permits the use
of smaller capacity crane equipment compared
to the other forms of conventional precast
concrete. A precast building can greatly reduce
the amount of time needed to close in a
building. At Advance Precast Ltd there is an
emphasis on making the structural connections
as simple as possible.
That means more efficient use of sub-trades
and quicker completion. By standing the panels
on strip footing, the pouring of foundation
walls is eliminated and the floor can be poured
under the shelter of a completed roof. All of
these factors often lead to an earlier occupancy
by the tenant. The versatility of the product
seems to increase with each new project. By
using an adjustable-pan steel forming system
for the precasting, the panels can be made to
dimensions that will be the most cost-effective
for each project. With proper planning, future
expansion can be accommodated. By
considering the location of panel joints and
panel sizes, in conjunction with detachable
connections, entire walls can be relocated as a
building is expanded over the years. Waffle-
Crete delivers all the advantages typical in
concrete buildings - long life with minimal
maintenance.
The water tight nature of precast eliminates
moisture absorption. This provides a superb
base for the application of cost-effective
exterior latex paints. A sealed exposed
aggregate finish tends to be self-cleaning and
has a very long service life. Waffle Crete is
substantially lighter than standard concrete
walls - making it ideal for questionable soil
conditions. The caulked joints will absorb
minor amounts of differential movement (and
not result in the zigzag cracking patterns so
common with masonry block). If the vertical
movement of the joint becomes excessive, the
caulking will lose adhesion and the joint will
need to be resealed. A Waffle-Crete building
will tend to appreciate in value much faster
than less substantial buildings.
LIGHT GAUGE SYSTYEMS
Light gauge steel construction is very similar
to wood framed construction in principle - the
wooden framing members are replaced with
thin steel sections. The steel sections used here
are called cold formed sections, meaning that
the sections are formed, or given shape at room
temperature. This is in contrast to thicker hot
rolled sections, that are shaped while the steel
is molten hot. Cold formed steel is shaped by
guiding thin sheets of steel through a series of
rollers, each roller changing the shape very
slightly, with the net result of converting a flat
sheet of steel into a C or S-shaped section. The
steel used here is coated with zinc (called
galvanized) or a mixture of zinc and aluminum
(called zincalume or galvalume by some) to
protect it from corrosion. The thickness of this
coating can be varied to suit a range of
environments. Typically, marine environments
require the most protection, and dry, arid
regions the least. The thicknesses of steel used
here range from about 1 to 3mm for structural
sections, and 1 to 2mm for non-structural
sections. The members are sized to roughly
correspond to wood members: 2"x4" and
2"x6" are common sizes. Like in wooden
framed construction, a frame of steel members
is first constructed, and then clad with dry
sheeting on both sides to form a load bearing
wall. Construction with steel follows the
platform frame system of house building.
Connections between members are made with
self-tapping self-drilling screws. Contractors
will usually order pre-punched sections -
sections with factory-made holes in them - so
that wires and plumbing can be easily passed
through the walls. The gaps between members
are filled with insulation. This form of
construction can also be used for nonstructural
framing, such as interior partitions or external
cladding. In fact, this form of construction was
originally developed for interior partitons in
offices.
ADVANTAGES OF LIGHT GAUGE
They are light, and allow quick building
without heavy tools or equipment. Every
component can easily be carried by hand - a
house is like a carpentry job on a larger scale.
The main tool is a light, handheld screw gun.
Since steel is strong, LGS structures are lighter
than wood framed structures of equivalent
strength.
Their higher strength allows greater spacing
between members when compared to wood
frame construction: about 24" (600mm) for
LGS vs. about 16" or 20" (400 or 500mm) for
wood. Fewer members translates to quicker
construction times.
It is able to shape itself to any form, and can be
clad and insulated with a wide range of
materials.
It is easy to change or modify this construction
at any point in its lifespan.
There are a great range of systems and
products catering to this type of construction.
DISADVANTAGES OF LIGHT GAUGE
Light framed structures allow the passage of
sound more readily than the more solid
masonry construction. Light gauge steel will
lose strength in the advent of fire. Adequate
fire protection must be used. The easiest form
of fire protection is to clad the steel with fire
rated sheeting or drywall.
BIBLOGRAPHY
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