Periods Particular studies and fields

Historical study often focuses on events and developments that occur in particular
These are approaches to history; not
blocks of time. Historians give these periods of time names in order to allow
listed are histories of other fields, such as
"organising ideas and classificatory generalisations" to be used by historians.[37]
history of science, history of mathematics
The names given to a period can vary with geographical location, as can the dates
and history of philosophy.
of the beginning and end of a particular period. Centuries and decades are
commonly used periods and the time they represent depends on the dating system
Ancient history: the study from
used. Most periods are constructed retrospectively and so reflect value judgments the beginning of human
made about the past. The way periods are constructed and the names given to history until the Early Middle
them can affect the way they are viewed and studied.[38] Ages.
Atlantic history: the study of
the history of people living on
Prehistoric periodisation or near the Atlantic Ocean.
The field of history generally leaves prehistory to the archaeologists, who have Art history: the study of
entirely different sets of tools and theories. The usual method for periodisation of changes in and social context
the distant prehistoric past, in archaeology is to rely on changes in material culture of art.
and technology, such as the Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age and their sub- Comparative history: historical
divisions also based on different styles of material remains. Despite the analysis of social and cultural
entities not confined to
development over recent decades of the ability through radiocarbon dating and
national boundaries.
other scientific methods to give actual dates for many sites or artefacts, these long-
Contemporary history: the
established schemes seem likely to remain in use. In many cases neighbouring
study of recent historical
cultures with writing have left some history of cultures without it, which may be events.
used. Counterfactual history: the
study of historical events as
they might have happened in
Geographical locations different causal
Particular geographical locations can form the basis of historical study, for circumstances.
example, continents, countries and cities. Understanding why historic events took Cultural history: the study of
place is important. To do this, historians often turn to geography. Weather
culture in the past.
patterns, the water supply, and the landscape of a place all affect the lives of the Digital history: the use of
computing technologies do
people who live there. For example, to explain why the ancient Egyptians
massive searches in published
developed a successful civilization, studying the geography of Egypt is essential. sources.
Egyptian civilization was built on the banks of the Nile River, which flooded each
Economic history: the use of
year, depositing soil on its banks. The rich soil could help farmers grow enough economic models fitted to the
crops to feed the people in the cities. That meant everyone did not have to farm, so past.
some people could perform other jobs that helped develop the civilization. Intellectual history: the study
of ideas in the context of the
cultures that produced them
Regions and their development over
History of Africa begins with the first emergence of modern human time.
beings on the continent, continuing into its modern present as a Maritime history: the study of
patchwork of diverse and politically developing nation states. maritime transport and all the
History of the Americasis the collective history of North and South connected subjects.
America, including Central America and the Caribbean.
Modern history: the study of
History of North Americais the study of the past passed down the Modern Times, the era
from generation to generation on the continent in the Earth's after the Middle Ages.
northern and western hemisphere.
Military history: the study of
History of Central Americais the study of the past passed down
from generation to generation on the continent in the Earth's warfare and wars in history
western hemisphere. and what is sometimes
History of the Caribbeanbegins with the oldest evidence where considered to be a sub-branch
7,000-year-old remains have been found.
 History of South Americais the study of the past passed down of military history, Naval
from generation to generation on the continent in the Earth's history.
southern and western hemisphere.
Palaeography: study of
History of Antarctica emerges from early Western theories of a vast
continent, known as Terra Australis, believedto exist in the far south ancient texts.
of the globe. People's history: historical
History of Australia starts with the documentation of the Makassar work from the perspective of
trading with Indigenous Australians on Australia's north coast. common people.
History of New Zealanddates back at least 700 years to when it was Political history: the study of
discovered and settled by Polynesians, who developed a distinct
Māori culture centred on kinship links and land. politics in the past.
History of the Pacific Islandscovers the history of the islands in the Psychohistory: study of the
Pacific Ocean. psychological motivations of
History of Eurasia is the collective history of several distinct peripheral historical events.
coastal regions: the Middle East, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Pseudohistory: study about
Asia, and Europe, linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe
of Central Asia and Eastern Europe. the past that falls outside the
domain of mainstream history
History of Europe describes the passage of time from humans (sometimes it is an equivalent
inhabiting the European continent to the present day . of pseudoscience).
History of Asia can be seen as the collective history of several
distinct peripheral coastal regions, East Asia, South Asia, and the Social history: the study of the
Middle East linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe. process of social change
throughout history.
History of East Asia is the study of the past passed down from
generation to generation in East Asia. Women's history: the history of
History of the Middle Eastbegins with the earliest civilizations female human beings. Gender
in the region now known as the Middle East that were history is related and covers
established around 3000 BC, in Mesopotamia (Iraq). the perspective of gender.
History of India is the study of the past passed down from World history: the study of
generation to generation in the Sub-Himalayan region. history from a global
History of Southeast Asiahas been characterized as perspective, with special
interaction between regional players and foreign powers.
attention to non-Western
societies.

Military history
Military history concerns warfare, strategies, battles, weapons, and the psychology of combat. The "new military history" since the
1970s has been concerned with soldiers more than generals, with psychology more than tactics, and with the broader impact of
warfare on society and culture.[39]

History of religion
The history of religion has been a main theme for both secular and religious historians for centuries, and continues to be taught in
seminaries and academe. Leading journals include Church History, The Catholic Historical Review, and History of Religions. Topics
range widely from political and cultural and artistic dimensions, to theology and liturgy.[40] This subject studies religions from all
[41]
regions and areas of the world where humans have lived.

Social history
Social history, sometimes called the new social history, is the field that includes history of ordinary people and their strategies and
institutions for coping with life.[42] In its "golden age" it was a major growth field in the 1960s and 1970s among scholars, and still is
well represented in history departments. In two decades from 1975 to 1995, the proportion of professors of history in American
universities identifying with social history rose from 31% to 41%, while the proportion of political historians fell from 40% to
30%.[43] In the history departments of British universities in 2007, of the 5723 faculty members, 1644 (29%) identified themselves
with social history while political history came next with 1425 (25%).[44] The "old" social history before the 1960s was a
hodgepodge of topics without a central theme, and it often included political movements, like Populism, that were "social" in the
sense of being outside the elite system. Social history was contrasted withpolitical history, intellectual history and the history of great
men. English historian G. M. Trevelyan saw it as the bridging point between economic and political history, reflecting that, "Without
social history, economic history is barren and political history unintelligible."[45] While the field has often been viewed negatively as
[46]
history with the politics left out, it has also been defended as "history with the people put back in."

Subfields
The chief subfields of social history include:

Demographic history
History of education
Ethnic history
History of the family
Labour history
Rural history
Urban history

American urban history

Women's history
Smaller specialties include:

History of childhood
Gender history

Cultural history
Cultural history replaced social history as the dominant form in the 1980s and 1990s. It typically combines the approaches of
anthropology and history to look at language, popular cultural traditions and cultural interpretations of historical experience. It
examines the records and narrative descriptions of past knowledge, customs, and arts of a group of people. How peoples constructed
their memory of the past is a major topic. Cultural history includes the study of art in society as well is the study of images and
human visual production (iconography).[47]

Diplomatic history
Diplomatic history focuses on the relationships between nations, primarily regarding diplomacy and the causes of wars. More
recently it looks at the causes of peace and human rights. It typically presents the viewpoints of the foreign office, and long-term
strategic values, as the driving force of continuity and change in history. This type of political history is the study of the conduct of
international relations between states or across state boundaries over time. Historian Muriel Chamberlain notes that after the First
World War, "diplomatic history replaced constitutional history as the flagship of historical investigation, at once the most important,
most exact and most sophisticated of historical studies."[48] She adds that after 1945, the trend reversed, allowing social history to
replace it.

Economic history
Although economic history has been well established since the late 19th century, in recent years academic studies have shifted more
and more toward economics departments and away from traditional history departments.[49] Business history deals with the history
of individual business organizations, business methods, government regulation, labour relations, and impact on society. It also
includes biographies of individual companies, executives, and entrepreneurs. It is related to economic history; Business history is
most often taught in business schools.[50]

Environmental history