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SEDIMENTARY ROCK STRESS DETERMINATION IN BOREHOLES USING KAISER EFFECT

Valeriy Toksarov (toksarov@mi-perm.ru)


Mining Institute Ural Branch Russian Academy of Sciences
Russia

Vladimir Asanov (ava@mi-perm.ru)


Mining Institute Ural Branch Russian Academy of Sciences
Russia

Anton Evseev (evseev@mi-perm.ru)


Mining Institute Ural Branch Russian Academy of Sciences
Russia

Nikolay Beltukov (bnl@mi-perm.ru)


Mining Institute Ural Branch Russian Academy of Sciences
Russia

Artem Udartsev (udartsev@mi-perm.ru)


Mining Institute Ural Branch Russian Academy of Sciences
Russia

ABSTRACT

The results of stress measuring in quasi-plastic salt rocks and brittle sandstones are presented in article.
Stresses were monitored in interchamber pillars using Goodman’s hydraulic borehole jack. Acoustic-
emission (AE) intensity was recorded as borehole walls were loaded. From in-situ experiment analysis data,
Kaiser effect was found to express itself in various modes in quasi-plastic and brittle rocks. Thus, when a
stress level determined by overlying rock weight is reached in salt rocks, AE activity increases drastically,
followed by a smooth increase in intensity as borehole walls were loaded further. According to laboratory
experiments, AE in salt rocks is due primarily to tension micro-fractures which nucleate at grain boundaries.
Vertical stresses are distributed smoothly throughout pillar cross-section, bearing pressure areas being visi-
ble clearly. Kaiser effect expresses itself in sandstone as an isolated AE activity surge which is most likely
due to accumulated elastic energy being transformed to irreversible shear strains at the existing relaxation
surfaces. When moving away from pillar boundaries, dodging variation type of vertical stresses could be
seen, without any pronounced bearing pressure areas which appears to be due to block-type structure of the
massif.

1. INTRODUCTION

When estimating stability of underground structure components, one of the main stages is study of stress
distribution in the marginal massif. Since the 1970s, many published papers have dealt with development of
experimental stress-measuring techniques [1]. Most of the methods use various ways of relief the massif and
followed by converting strain to stresses, which often results in significant errors. Measuring techniques
based on the Kaiser effect have been developed for stress determination in heterogeneous rocks. At present
acoustic emission (AE) memory effect has been detected in most rocks also in cohesive and granular soils
[2-4]. In the main, stress determination reports are devoted to laboratory experiments which were consisted
in testing of rock samples taken from a massif.

The AE-memory effect is usually observed in situ under loading of marginal massif (borehole walls) by
means of pressiometers or borehole hydraulic jacks [5-11]. The pressure is increased from zero to a certain
value continuously or stepwise during the experiment with simultaneous recording AE-signals. In this case,
the initial stress field of the massif can be regarded as the first loading cycle, and subsequent loading as the
second (testing) loading cycle. As can be seen from the experiments, AE activity increases drastically when
a certain loading pressure (Р) is reached. Consequently, Р-value corresponds to initial stress distribution in
rocks.

To measure in situ stresses using the Kaiser effect in rocks, a instrumentation system based on hydraulic
borehole jack was developed (Fig. 1) [10, 11]. The system includes: 1 – Goodman jack; 2 – high-pressure

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hoses; 3 – pressure sensor; 4 – pressure recorder; 5 – hydraulic pump; 6 – strain indicator; 7 – preamplifier;
8 – AE-signals recorder; 9 – notebook.

Due to design feature the jack produces force unidirectionally against borehole walls, that allows to measure
stresses in vertical and horizontal axes. AE-sensor is mounted on the jack body and provide receiving sig-
nals in 200¸500 kHz frequency range.

Figure 1. Equipment for Measuring Stresses in a Rock Massif Using Rock Memory Effect.

To exam the technique, a pilot measurements were realized in a salt massif, involving cycling loading of
borehole walls. Maximum pressure in the hydraulic system was 15 MPa in the first loading cycle, 20 MPa in
the second cycle, and 25 MPa in the third cycle. It was found that AE hit rate increases drastically as the
previous load is reached in the second and the third loading cycle. At that, the previous load level can be
estimated from a dramatic (2 to 3 times) increase in AE hit rate, or from an inflection on total AE hits curve
(Fig. 2).

The first loading cycle also demonstrated a region of drastic increase in AE hit rate. The moment of such
increase being related to the load getting equal to the stress value which acted in the massif before the test
borehole was drilled.

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a)

b)

Figure 2. Charts of Stress Measurement (a) and AE activity (b) During Cyclic Loading of Borehole Walls us-
ing Goodman’s Hydraulic Jack.

2. STRESS MONITORING RESULTS FOR A SALT MASSIF

Stresses were measured in a salt massif at Verkhnekamsky salts deposit (Russia), at Red-II formation,
which comprises seams of red sylvinite and rock salt (Fig. 3). The formation is being developed using a
chambered system, leaving solid rib pillars about 200 m long. The pillars are about 6.1 m wide, the cham-
bers about 6 m. The mine is 320 m deep. Average strength of red sylvinite is 25 MPa.

The test boreholes were drilled in walls of two mutually transverse mines (test points 1 and 2), outside the
working zone. To estimate stresses in the interchamber pillars, the third test area was in the centre of the
working zone (Fig. 4). The experiment measured the following: hydraulic system pressure, borehole wall
strain in the loading direction, the AE intensity parameters.

A typical chart of AE activity versus borehole wall load is shown in Fig. 5. Comparison of hydraulic system
pressure and AE activity found that, at the initial loading stage, steel plates of the jack crush borehole irregu-
larities and drill cuttings in the salt- rock massif, which is related to high AE activity level. This stage of AE
activity progress can be observed at relatively low load levels (up to 3 to 5 MPa) and is not used in the result
analysis. Then a zone of slight AE activity is identified (persisting at the background level) which indicates
elastic massif strains near the borehole. As the load is further increased, AE activity rises drastically. This
section indicates that stresses reach the level which was present in the massif before the well was drilled
(manifestation of memory effect).

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Figure 3. Section of Mine Wall at Red-II Formation. Figure 4. Test Area Layout.

a) b) c)

Figure 5. Typical Chart of AE Activity during Borehole Wall Loading in a Salt Massif for the Following Dis-
tances to an Outcrop: a) h = 0.7 m; b) h = 2.2 m; c) h = 3.4 m.

Fig. 6 presents diagrams of average vertical and horizontal stress values versus distance to mine border.
The experiments found the bearing pressure zone in the isolated mine wall to have a peak 0.9 to 1.0 m away
from the outcrop, the peak varying in the range of 14 to 16 MPa. As distance to the border increases, vertical
stresses approach the overlying rock weight value, which is about 8 MPa. Horizontal stresses are qualitative-
ly similar to the vertical stress distribution pattern, and are 1.5 to 2 times smaller.

The experimental stress measurements in the interchamber pillars showed the bearing pressure zone to
have a peak about 1.5 m deep. The peak stress value in the bearing pressure zone varies in the range of 13
to 18 MPa. In the central portion of the interchamber pillar, vertical stresses are equal to 10 MPa.

Studies [12, 13] found acoustic emission in salt rocks to be produced primarily by tensile microcracks which
nucleate at grain boundaries and propagate in the maximum principal stress direction as the sample is
strained. This cracking process is distributed throughout the sample volume and accompanied by uniform
release of mechanical energy as AE pulses. If the load level exceeds the stresses present in the massif, the
cracking process is activated, microcracks coalesce to large main cracks, which produces a drastic increase
in AE activity level. Thus, this package of measurements allowed to develop a stress estimation technique
for marginal massifs, which dispenses with the model calculation procedure.

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a) b)

Figure 6. Vertical and Horizontal Stresses versus Distance to an Isolated-Mine Border: a) Test Point 1; b)
Test Point 2.

Figure 7. Vertical Stress Distribution in an Interchamber Pillar (Test Point 3).

3. STRESS MEASUREMENT RESULTS FOR A ROCK MASSIF

To study the Kaiser effect specifics in the course of rock stress measurements, in situ experiments were per-
formed at Zhomart mine at the Zhaman-Aybat sandstone Deposit in Kazakhstan. Flat, 2 to 12-m thick beds
of cuprous sandstones occur at depths of 500 to 800 m. Chamber-and-pillar mining system is used, leaving
interchamber and barrier pillars (Fig. 8, 9). Axes of the barrier pillars in the panel are spaced at 128 m. The
barrier pillar width is 40 m. The interchamber pillars are sized 10´10 m, with mining thickness of up to 13 m.
Mining depth is 605 to 610 m, average ore body thickness 7 to 9 m. The uniaxial compression strength var-
ies in the range of 90 to 280 MPa. Pillar stresses were measured using the proposed technique within pan-
el 47, in boreholes 6 to 8 m deep (Fig. 8). The existing stress level was estimated from the AE intensity peak.
Typical diagrams resulting from borehole wall loading using a hydraulic jack are given in Fig. 10.

Mine wall examination in the test area demonstrated heavy cracking of pillar massif (Fig. 9). The massif unit
blocks are sized 0.15 m maximum. Since sandstone is highly jointed, the fact that Kaiser effect displays itself
as a single AE activity spike is most likely due to accumulated elastic energy being converted to irreversible
shear strains at the existing weakening surfaces.

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Figure 8. Test Area Layout (Zhomart mine, pan- Figure 9. Interchamber Pillar Surface (Sandstone).
el 47).

a) b) c)

Figure 10. Typical Charts of AE Activity during Borehole Wall Loading for the Following Distances to an Out-
crop: a) h = 1.9 m; b) h = 2.2 m; c) h = 2.5 m.

Averaged measuring results for vertical pillar stresses are shown in Fig. 10, 11. Vertical stresses were found
to be distributed throughout a barrier-pillar cross-section in dodging manner (Fig. 12). Vertical stress value
varies in the range of 15–20 to 30–35 MPa. Local stress peaks and valleys are spaced at 1.0 to 1.5 m. Such
stress distribution pattern indicates the marginal portion of the barrier pillar to be broken into separate blocks
with 1.0 to 1.5 m -edges. This case appears to involve zonal rock disintegration effect which is caused by
stresses close to the ultimate strength of the rock massif [14].

Dodging behavior pattern of vertical stresses can also be observed in the interchamber pillar which is also
due to blocked structure of the massif (Fig. 11). The interchamber pillar develops somewhat smaller cleav-
ages, 0.3 to 0.4 m, than the barrier pillar, whereas vertical stresses over the pillar width making 20 to
25 MPa.

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Figure 11. Vertical Stress Distribution of the Barrier Pillar.

Figure 12. Vertical Stress Distribution of Interchamber Pillar 120.

Therefore, experimental data analysis demonstrated load from overlying rock weight to fall primarily on barri-
er pillars, vertical stress peaks in barrier pillars being located more than 6 m deep. Interchamber pillars work
only to support the immediate roof rock. Since the massif is broken into blocks, no pronounced bearing pres-
sure area is present.

4. CONCLUSIONS

The following conclusions can be derived from the experiments:

A technique was developed and implemented in order to measure stresses in rock massifs, using memory
effects in near-borehole rocks. The technique has the advantage of relatively unlaborious experimental stud-
ies and absolute stress values being obtainable for various directions without any extra strain measurement-
to-stress conversions using various model representations.

The technique developed was used to measure stresses in pillars in sylvinite and sandstone. Analysis of in-
situ stress-measuring experiments demonstrated Kaiser effect to express itself differently in brittle and ductile

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massifs which is due to their structural differences. In salt rocks, memory effects appear to result from tensile
microcracks which nucleate at grain boundaries and propagate in the maximum principal stress as the sam-
ple is strained. In sandstone massifs, Kaiser effect expresses itself as an isolated high surge in AE intensity
which is likely due to a shear at the existing rock-block contacts. In this case, when load applied to borehole
walls reaches the natural stress level, rock blocks in the near-borehole massif are repacked which can be
detected as a dramatic AE surge.

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