Hardened Concrete

Testing of concrete
• The basic method of verifying that concrete complies
with the specifications is to test its strength using cubes
or cylinders made from samples of fresh concrete.

• Concrete assumed as a brittle material

 Compressive Strength
• Cylinder : ASTM C470

• Cubes : British standard 150x150x150 mm3

• Other sizes:
Cylinder: 100 × 200 or 150 × 300 mm
Cubes: 100 × 100 × 100 mm3 or

P
 C
A
•For 150 mm cubes fill in 3 layers compact
each layer 35 times.
•For 100 mm cubes fill in 3 layers compact
each layer 25 times.
•No need for capping.
•For 150 x 300 mm cylinder, fill in 3 layers
compact each layer 25 times.
•Capping to obtain a plane and smooth surface
(thin layer ≈ 3mm), using:
Stiff Portland cement paste on freshly cast
concrete, or mixture of sulphur and granular
material, or high-strength gypsum plaster on
hardened concrete.
Factors Affecting Measured Compressive
Strength
1. Stress Distribution in Specimens.

2. Effect of L/d ratio.

3. Specimen Geometry.

4. Rate of Loading.

5. Moisture Content.

6. Temperature at Testing.
Typical Failure Modes for
Test Cubes:
(a) Non-explosive;
(b) explosive
Typical Failure Modes for Test Standard
Cylinders:
a) Splitting; (b) Shear; (c) Splitting and shear
(cone).
 2. Effect of L/d ratio

The standard cylinder has a length to

diameter ratio of 2.0.

If L/D ratio is other than 2.0 a correction factor

must be applied to count for the restrainment
effect of the platens; discussed earlier.
Reference Cylinder : L/D =2
Strength (L/D) = C.F x Strength (L/D=2)
 3. Specimen Geometry

• Different geometries for a concrete specimen can be used:

Prisms, Cubes, and cylinders.

• As stated before, cube are more confined by the platens

thus have higher strength than cylinder made of the same
concrete. It has been found that c=1.25 cyl .

• As specimen size increases, strength decreases.

 4. Rate of Loading

Higher rate of loading  higher strength.

5. Moisture Content

Standards require testing of concrete in SSD

conditions
(ASTM C39).

6. Temperature at Testing

Higher Temperature  lower strength

 Tensile strength:

1. Direct Tensile: No standard Test

2. Indirect Tensile:
A. Splitting Tension Test.

The tensile strength of concrete is approximately

equal to 10% of its compressive strength.
Splitting test:

In this test, a concrete cylinder, of the type used for

compression tests, is placed with its axis horizontal between
the platens of a testing machine, and the load is increased
until failure by indirect tension in the form of splitting along the
vertical diameter takes place.

However, immediately under the load, a high compressive

stress would be induced and, in practice, narrow strips of a
packing material, such as plywood are interposed between
the cylinder and the platens.

With such an arrangement, the distribution of the horizontal

stress will be almost uniform.

Without packing strips, the recorded strength is lower,

typically by 8 percent.
The strength
determined in
the splitting
test is
believed to be
close to the
direct tensile
strength of
concrete,
being 5 to 12
% higher.

2P
 sp 
LD
 2P
 sp 
LD
 B. Flexural strength ( IS: 516-1959 )
f :

• The test is useful since most concrete members is loaded in bending rather than
in axial tension. Thus, it represents the concrete property of interest.

• Size of specimen:

• 15X15X70 cm ( Agg.size < 38mm)- 400 kg/min as rate of loading

10X10X50 cm ( Agg. Size <19mm)- 180 kg/min as rate of loading

• The flexural strength of the specimen shall be expressed as the modulus of

rupture.
• This test is mostly used for quality control of highways
and airport runways. It gives more useful information
than do compression tests.

• Flexural strength:
Affected by:
- Specimen Size   strength 
- Temperature: Same as in compression.

The tensile strength of concrete is approximately equal to

10% of its compressive strength.
 Strength of concrete

• Strength = ability to resist stress without failure.

• Concrete strength made of:

1. Strength of paste or mortar.
2. Strength of CA-paste (mortar) interface.
3. Strength of CA.

Cracks at the bond between the

aggregate, rebar, and paste
(see arrows).
Stress-strain relationship for ordinary concrete
Stress-Strain Behaviour of Concrete

A typical relationship between stress and strain for normal strength

concrete is presented in Figure. After an initial linear portion lasting
up to about 30 – 40% of the ultimate load, the curve becomes non-
linear, with large strains being registered for small increments of
stress.

The non-linearity is primarily a function of the coalescence of micro

cracks at the paste-aggregate interface.

The ultimate stress is reached when a large crack network is

formed within the concrete, consisting of the coalesced micro
cracks and the cracks in the cement paste matrix.

The strain corresponding to ultimate stress is usually around 0.003

for normal strength concrete. The stress-strain behavior in tension
is similar to that in compression.
Complete stress-strain curve including post-peak
response
The descending portion of the stress-strain curve, or in other words,
the post-peak response of the concrete, can be obtained by a
displacement or a strain controlled testing machine.

In typical load controlled machines, a constant rate of load is

applied to the specimen. Thus any extra load beyond the ultimate
capacity leads to a catastrophic failure of the specimen

In a displacement controlled machine, small increments of

displacement are given to the specimen. Thus, the decreasing load
beyond the peak load can also be registered.

The strain at failure is typically around 0.005 for normal strength

concrete, as shown in Figure below.

The post peak behaviour is actually a function of the stiffness of the

testing machine in relation to the stiffness of the test specimen, and
the rate of strain. With increasing strength of concrete, its
brittleness also increases, and this is shown by a reduction in the
strain at failure.
It is interesting to note that although cement paste and
aggregates individually have linear stress-strain
relationships, the behaviour for concrete is non-linear. This
is due to the mismatch and microcracking created at the
interfacial transition zone.

Understanding the post peak response of

concrete

Concrete belongs to a class of materials that can be called

‘Strain – softening’, indicating a reduction in stress beyond
the peak value with an increase in the deformation (as
against the strain hardening behaviour commonly exhibited
by metals like steel). Figure 3 shows different types of
material behaviour.
Different types of material behaviour (post peak response)
Although the ductility of concrete is several orders of magnitude lower
than steel, it still exhibits considerable deformation before failure.

In conventional testing machines, where the test is performed under

control of loading rate, a sudden failure of the specimen occurs as soon
as the maximum load level is reached.

The machine gives small increments of load to the specimen and the
resultant deformation is measured.

As a result, when the incremental load goes over the maximum level,
the specimen fractures suddenly.

This is depicted in Figure below. In order to obtain the entire stress-

strain graph, inclusive of the post peak region, deformation or strain
controlled test must be performed.
Modes of testing – Green indicates load control, red indicates
displacement control
A displacement controlled test is possible using a machine with
a servo valve, in a closed loop.

As shown in the schematic diagram in Figure 5, the machine

compresses the concrete specimen at a constant displacement
rate of the specimen.

The LVDT on the specimen provides feedback to the controller,

which then indicates to the servo valve the degree of piston
movement to be provided (to keep the specimen displacement
constant).

In this way, the load response of the specimen is continuously

studied as it undergoes incremental displacements.

Failure occurs when the cracks in the specimen grow to an

‘unstable’ size.
 Closed loop servo controlled test system

Acknowledgements
Prof. Jason Weiss, School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University.
www.theconcreteportal.com
Loading Types

•Uniaxial compression
•Biaxial compression
•Compression and tension
•Biaxial tension
•Triaxial compression
Uniaxial Loading
•Failure planes in uniaxial compression
are the planes of principal tensile strains,
which are parallel to the direction of the
applied load.

•In the case of uniaxial tensile loading,

the failure plane is again the plane of
maximum principal strain, which in this
case is perpendicular to the applied load.
 Biaxial loading

•Biaxial compression - Failure planes are the planes of

maximum principal tensile strains, which are parallel to
both the applied principal compressive stresses. Such
loading causes an increase in overall strength; this
increase is especially high if end restraints also exist. The
strength increase can be as high as 27%

•Biaxial compression and tension -The overall strength of

concrete is reduced substantially due to the additive effect
tensile strains (from Poisson effect and from the tensile
principal stress). Failure planes in this case are
perpendicular to the maximum principal tensile stress.
 Uniaxial and biaxial tension

•Similar strength
•Failure plane perpendicular to maximum principal
tensile stress

Biaxial stress
interaction
diagram
 Triaxial loading
Triaxial compressive loading of concrete causes a
drastic increase in the strength of concrete.

The tensile strains generated are overcomeby the

compressive stresses; in effect, the specimen is held
together and tensile cracking is prevented.

Thus, failure in triaxialloading could occur by a pure

case of compression.
The increase in strength is higher for low strength
concrete.
A Mohr failure envelope is generated for concretes of
different strengths. The maximum shear strain at failure
according to this envelope is equal to the half of the
difference between the maximum and minimum
compressive principal stresses.

Mohr failure envelope for triaxial loading

 Constitutive relationships

• Stress-strain curve: Linear up to ~ 40% of ultimate load,

then non-linear

• Non-linearity due to heterogeneity of concrete (presence

of ITZ and micro cracks)

• Strain corresponding to ultimate stress ~ 0.003 (normal

strength concrete)

• Behavior in tension also similar.

• Stress-Strain Diagram of Concrete:
 Factors Affecting Strength of Concrete

1. Water/Cement Ratio
Since the W/C ratio controls the porosity of
concrete, it controls the strength as well.
W/C   strength 

2. Degree of Compaction
Strength = f (full compaction)
Relation between strength and W/C ratio
3. Curing Time:
• In practice, it is common to obtain 7-day as well as
28-day compressive strength.

4. Cement:

• The effect of Portland cement on concrete strength

depends on the chemical composition and fineness
of the cement.
5. Aggregates:
aggregates Shape and Texture

Texture depends on whether aggregate is natural

(gravel )or crushed.
B. maximum Aggregate Size (Dmax)

• Dmax   Reducing the specific surface area

 Less Bond  Strength 

• II. Dmax   More restraint on volume changes in

the paste
Inducing additional stresses in paste 
Strength 

• III. Dmax   Water content   Strength 

• C. Aggregate Strength
The effect of steel platens of testing machine in Uniaxial
loading:
•In compression test, tangential forces being developed
between the end surfaces of the concrete specimen and the
adjacent steel platens of the testing machine.

•These forces will cause lateral expansion in concrete.

•The steel platen will restrain the lateral expansion of the

concrete in the parts of the specimen near its ends:
• The degree of restraint exercised depends on the
friction actually developed.
• When the friction is eliminated, ( applying paraffin wax/
graphite to the bearing surfaces) the specimen exhibits a
large lateral expansion and eventually splits along its full
length.
With friction acting, i.e. under normal conditions of test, an
element within the specimen is subjected to a shearing stress
as well as to compression.

The magnitude of the shearing stress decreases and the

lateral expansion increases, with an increase in distance from
the platen.