SPQR: Senatus Populusque Romanus "The Senate and People of Rome"

In his treatise on Roman architecture, the first century B.C.E.

author Vitruvius outlines the key elements, proportions, and
aesthetics of the Roman house, creating what has been treated
as a canonical recommendation for domestic architecture of the
period. The Vitruvian canon (or standard) proposes a range of
plans, suggesting strongly that the organization of interior space
was important in Roman architectural theory (De
Architectura 6.3.3-6). Although the plan of the
Roman domus does reflect the canonical aspects described by
Vitruvius, we also see enormous variation with modifications
and remodeling undertaken over time.

The standard house (domus) plan has several key

architectural elements. Generally entered from the street
via a narrow doorway (fauces), the large centralized
reception hall (atrium) is flanked by wings (alae) and
often bounded by bedrooms (cubicula). The office of the
head of household (paterfamilias), known as the
tablinum, links the public part of the house (pars urbana)
to the private part of the house (pars rustica). This latter
area often focuses on an open, colonnaded courtyard
(peristylium) and serves as the center of family life, with
the kitchen (culina), dining room(s) (triclinium or oecus),
and often a small garden (hortus). Many houses also had
a second level that may have contained additional
sleeping spaces and perhaps storage.
 Architecture Vocabulary
True frescoes (or buon fresco), meaning that pigment Atrium: large centralized reception hall in a
was applied to wet plaster, fixing the pigment to the wall. Roman house
Fauces: narrow doorway into a house off
the street
Alae: the wings flanking the atrium in a
traditional Roman house
Cubicula: bedrooms bounding the alae
(wings) of a Roman house
Tablinum: office of the head of house,
located within the house
Paterfamiliae: head of a household
Pars urbana: the public part of a household
Pars rustica: the private part of the
household contains courtyard, kitchen,
dining room, and small garden.)
Vocabulary on Roman Lifestyle Oecus: dining room
Domus: roman townhouse Culina: kitchen
Clientes: clients Hortus: small garden
Patronus: patron Arca: lockboxes used for storing valuables
Fides: trust in Roman houses, often placed on display
Pietas: dutifulness in atrium
Patrocinium: benefaction given by a patron unto his clients Impluvium: basin for collecting rain water
Mos maiorum: ancestral custom

First Pompeiian Style (Incrustation Style)
During Rome's Republic period, which ended in 27 CE
Originated from 3rd century Hellenistic Alexandria
Colorful, brightly painted walls of faux-marble (ordinary
Romans couldn't afford real marble, so they imitated)
Each marble was connected by stucco, giving a 3D effect.
Used to decorate walls in ordinary Romans' homes
Each rectangle of painted
“marble” was connected by
stucco mouldings that added a
three-dimensional effect. In
temples and other official
buildings, the Romans used
costly imported marbles in a
variety of colors to decorate the
walls.
Ordinary Romans could not afford
such expense, so they decorated
their homes with painted
imitations of the luxurious yellow,
purple and pink marbles. Painters
became so skilled at imitating
certain marbles that the large,
rectangular slabs were rendered
on the wall marbled and veined,
just like real pieces of stone.
 In one of the most
famous examples of the
Second Style, P. Fannius
Synistor’s bedroom (now
reconstructed in the
Metropolitan Museum of
Art), the artist utilizes
multiple vanishing
points. This technique
shifts the perspective
throughout the room,
from balconies to
fountains and along
colonnades into the far
distance, but the visitor’s The Dionysian paintings from Pompeii’s Villa of the
eye moves continuously Mysteries are also included in the Second Style
throughout the room, because of their illusionistic aspects. The figures
barely able to register are examples of megalographia, a Greek term
that he or she has referring to life-size paintings. The fact that the
remained contained figures are the same size as viewers entering the
within a small room. room, as well as the way the painted figures sit in
Second Pompeiian Style (Architectural Style)
front of the columns dividing the space, are meant
First seen c. 80 BCE, popular until 100 CE
to suggest that the action taking place is
Incorporated elements of First style, such as faux-marbles at the bases surrounding the viewer.
of walls
Attempted to create optical illusion of looking through a window
Created depth using columns, stoa, and buildings
Creates a sense of motion and depth using many vanishing points
Action taking place in paintings is meant to envelop and involve the
viewer
 The Roman architect Vitruvius was certainly not a fan of Third
Style painting, and he criticized the paintings for representing
monstrosities rather than real things, “for instance, reeds are put in
the place of columns, fluted appendages with curly leaves and
volutes, instead of pediments, candelabra supporting
representations of shrines, and on top of their pediments
numerous tender stalks and volutes growing up from the roots and
having human figures senselessly seated upon them…” (Vitr.De
arch.VII.5.3) The center of walls often feature very small
vignettes, such as sacro-idyllic landscapes, which are bucolic
scenes of the countryside featuring livestock, shepherds, temples,
shrines and rolling hills.

Third Pompeiian Style (Ornate Style)

Early 1st century CE
Flat planes of color, like red, incised with minute details
Art depicted everyday objects
Feature small landscapes
Introduced Egyptian imagery, including the Nile and
Egyptian motifs and deities.
Fourth Pompeiian Style (Intricate Style)
Popularized around 50 CE
Combination of the first 3 styles
Faux-marble blocks line bases of walls (1st)
Naturalistic architectural depictions (2nd)
Flat planes of color and minute details (3rd)
Introduced central panel pictures, but on a much
larger scale
Developed by eccentric painter named Famulus
(designed Emperor Nero's Golden Palace)
Seen best in House of Vettii

It can be best described as a combination of the three styles that came before. Faux marble blocks along the base of the
walls, as in the First Style, frame the naturalistic architectural scenes from the Second Style, which in turn combine with
the large flat planes of color and slender architectural details from the Third Style. The Fourth Style also incorporates
central panel pictures, although on a much larger scale than in the third style and with a much wider range of themes,
incorporating mythological, genre, landscape and still life images. In describing what we now call the Fourth Style, Pliny
the Elder said that it was developed by a rather eccentric, albeit talented, painter named Famulus who decorated Nero’s
famous Golden Palace.
It turns out that the practice of presenting hostess gifts dates back to the ancient Greeks; in antiquity, though, it was the host—not the guest—who
presented the gifts. This small fresco is an example of how the Romans played the hostess game and how this generosity was captured by
ancient Roman artists.

Still Life with Peaches and Water Jar was one small part of this house’s decorative scheme, not meant to be seen in isolation. It was part of a
series of at least ten roughly-square still-life compositions, painted together in a row, sharing decorative borders. This series of paintings presents
a variety of fruits, crustaceans, fish, fowl, meats, vegetables, and drinking vessels set against a neutral brown background, sometimes with a
step, shelf or wall niche on which the artist arranged the display.

Still Life with Peaches and Water Jar features five unripe peaches (one only barely formed), their branch cascading off a shelf, and a glass jar of
water in the foreground. One of the peaches has been pulled from the branch and bitten open, revealing a reddish pit and white flesh that contrast
sharply against its yellow-green skin. The glass jar shows the artist’s ability to register two types of transparency at once: the clear glass vessel
and the clear liquid that it contains. While the patron may have wanted the glass, among the most expensive luxuries in Roman Italy, included as
a display of their wealth, the artist turned it into an opportunity to demonstrate his skill at depicting these visually complex attributes in
perspective.
Still Life with Peaches and Water Jar, like the small scenes that accompanied it, belongs to a category of still life
paintings known as xenia, drawing on the Greek word for “guest-friendship” or hospitality. Xenia (hospitality) was
shown to guests who were far from home by accommodating them and by presenting them with the means to be
comfortable (a bed, food, a bath, etc.). This was not just a matter of being polite, but was considered a religious
obligation.

The small xenia paintings at the House of the Stags are not unusual; many rich houses, especially houses and
villas located along the coast where visitors from Rome might want to travel to escape the summer heat (or
political turmoil), were outfitted with special guest quarters. Xenia paintings are frequently found in these rooms,
announcing to these guests that they would be lavished with the finest foods and service wear while in the house.
The ancient Roman architect Vitruvius suggested that the xenia include, in particular, “poultry, eggs, vegetables,
and other country produce” as a way to highlight the experience of getting out of the city and into the countryside
(de Architectura VI.7.4). The xenia at the House of the Stags, as Vitruvius might have liked, present fruits and fish
(known as area specialties) along with the standard fare.
A piece of mosaic art (a 50 CE copy of an original created 300 BCE) depicts the encounter of Alexander the Great and the Persian king Darius at the battle of Issus in 333. The
accurate depiction of contemporary Persiancostume is strong evidence that the mosaic is a faithful copy, executed in the four-colour system. The background is a white void and
the single object in it is a lopped and leafless tree, inserted to balance Darius more than to suggest landscape. The foreground too is blank, except for a little debris from the
fighting. The artist's interest is concentrated on his figures, modelled with bold light and shade, expressive of feeling and arranged in a crowded but carefully controlled
composition.

The mosaicist who made this copy in the first century must have coarsened the effect of the original picture, since its fluent lines and gradations of colour had to be rendered by
square tesserac, each of uniform tone; but even so, it is an extraordinary feat of virtuosity, and all the more valuable because among our remains of ancient painting there is
nothing comparable to this battle piece. Without this Alexander mosaic, few students would have believed that there were pictures of this kind in Greek art from the late fourth
century.
 Iconography and Context
Patricians
Worked in the senate
Wealthy and educated men who ran the Republic
Busts of Roman patricians specifically embody wisdom and experience from
old age
Roman idealization emphasized distinguishing aspects of the individual
Start of 200 B.C. individuality was increasing
Sculptures were often produced to show the power and wealth of an individual
such as a statesman or a military leader
The Roman Empire had representational form of government run by the
Senate
The Senate was powerful, however, some military leaders "ceasers" who had
distinguished themselves in battle and through political coups, became
emperors who considered themselves living gods
Often power was passed from relative to relative and through
generations. Sculptures were made of these family members almost as a
form of ancestor worship.
Sculptures also express how the Romans viewed male and female roles
in their society.
Men as older and distinguished, at a time in their lives when they
were most powerful
Women are almost never depicted as aged, instead mostly depicted
as young and beautiful
Since art was mainly produced and commissioned for a male audience it
Republican Rome is possible to draw the conclusion that art reflects a dominantly male view
of the world.
"male gaze."
Form
Also known as the Otricoli Head (the name of the individual is unknown)
From Otricoli, Italy; now housed in the Palazzo Torlonia in Rome, Italy
Approx. 1' 2" high
Republican Roman
c. 75-50 BCE
Marble
Polychromed (painted in several colors)
Terra Cotta- was used and then painted with encaustic (otherwise referred to as a hot wax process)
Use of clay (additive and subtractive) process was convenient because with this form of sculpting mistakes can be fixed
Veristic Style: Verism
A form of realism (hyper-realistic)
Over exaggerated (extremely aged and care worn)
Used as a way of honoring powerful elders
Unlike the Greek, the Romans believed that a head was enough to suffice as a portrait
Influenced by the tradition of ancestral imagines
Death wax masks of notable ancestors were kept and displayed by the family
Aristocratic families
Masks were used at funerals so that an actor might portray the deceased ancestors in a sort of familial parade
A reminder that one’s public image played a major role in what was a turbulent time in Roman history

Function
A veristic sculpture that accurately depicts a patrician
Admire the age of the elderly (in this case, an old patrician)
Symbolizes the virtues of wisdom, determination, experience, valor and strength that all Roman Republicans hoped
to obtain
· Veristic depiction of individual facial features

· Deeply wrinkled
· Sunken cheeks
· Creased and furrowed brow
· Drooping bags under the eyes

· Gravitas and status.

· Exaggeration of aged, wrinkled skin was intended

to convey wisdom as well as a lifetime of
experience and dedication to public service,
qualities prized among the patrician class. With age
comes wisdom.

· Public display of these portraits celebrated the

position of patricians in Roman society and
helped legitimize their authority.

· Veristic portraits were influenced by traditions

surrounding the cult of ancestors, including wax
death masks called imagenes. Strong visual
connections between the portraits and imagenes
served to connect Rome’s patrician class to their
honored ancestors.
Man with busts of ancestors, first century BCE.
Content
Description: wrinkled and toothless, with sagging jowls
The face of a Roman aristocrat stares at us across the ages
Physical traits meant to convey seriousness of mind (gravitas) and the virtue (virtus) of a public career by
demonstrating the way in which the subject literally wears the marks of his endeavors––in the days of the Roman
Republic it was an effective means of competing in an ever more complex socio-political arena
This Veristic (or surrealistic) portrait of an unknown Roman patrician depicts carefully sculpted detail in the face,
especially wrinkles and changes in texture
Instead of trying to make their subject appear perfect and youthful patrician portraits from the ancient Roman Republic
aimed to highlight distinctive facial features
wrinkles and other signs of ageing on this portrait in particular serve to point out his admirable qualities of
experience, seriousness, and determination
FORM:
Imperial Roman, Early first century C.E., 20 B.C.E
Marble
found in the villa of Livia (his wife), at Primaporta
free standing, sculpture in the round
bas-relief carving on the breastplate
standing contrapposto
most likely a copy of a bronze sculpture, many copies would have been made

CONTENT:
political significance, filled with Roman political ideology
idealized statue of him, very young and attractive
cupid is pulling down his garment at his ankle, symbolizing his own divine lineage
the cuirass, or breastplate depicts the god of the sky and the goddess of the Earth, divine
convergence, on its sides there are female personifications of the nations conquered by Rome
(specifically by Augustus)
the sun god and sky god (Sol and Caelus) are at the top of the cuirass, and therefore shine down
on all these parts of the empire spreading Roman glory and light
his prestige is awarded by the use of elements from Ancient Greece
wearing army garb and has his hand out, not just an orator...he is addressing his troops who will go
and conquer
perfect/flawless flake and body, athletic, young
unlike early Hellenistic statue he is very still, calm and stately, with little movement
barefoot goes against typical statues of the time and makes it more naturalistic and divine
wears a tunic which at this point in history was associated to the deified Julius Caesar
CONTEXT:
Augustus claimed to be reestablishing the senate, but in reality, he is just trying to stabilize the Roman government so he
could establish himself as Rome's first real emperor
in the previous historical period (the Roman Republic) had an age requirement, an old council of elders, and it was ruled
by the senate, but in the Imperial Roman period Augustus was the sole ruler
utilizes the "Canon" of proportions and his statue is reminiscent of Athens during the age of Pericles (5th century BC),
Polykleitos’ Doryphoros
the Cupid is a significant choice because Caesar Augustus claims his ancestors are: Aeneas (founder of Rome and son
of Venus, hence the Cupid) and Julius Caesar (made into a god)
Cupid rides a dolphin which symbolizes Augustus’ win in the Battle of Actium (31 BCE) using naval power over Antony
and Cleopatra, a victory making Augustus emperor
named after the Italian town it was discovered in (1863)
after his reign he created 200 years of peace (pax romana) so this statue is a precursor
serenity of peace and even chosen imagery on breastplate (no battle scene) reflect how he recently ended civil wars
doesn't have anything like sun rays or specific qualities of a god like Alexander would have had, Augustus refused to be
deified or called a dictator to keep the guise of the republic and not make the people envious

FUNCTION:
served as a portrait of her husband considering it was found in her home
there would have been many bronze copies distributed around Rome, and put in public places as a type of propaganda
the statues showed the positive qualities, what he looked like (no photos so commoners wouldn't even know what the
Emperor looked like), it shows how he wanted to portray himself to the people in a godlike way
one scene on the breastplate depicts the Romans getting back their standards from the Parthians, showing Rome's
superiority and power
"visual propaganda" demonstrating Augustus' military prowess and the Religion of Rome
Cupid on the back of a dolphin at the base indicates Agustus’s divine descent from Venus. Meant to confuse man and
god (indicating divine rule). Standing barefoot indicates he is on sacred ground.
Doryphoros (Spear Bearer)
Roman marble copy of a
Greek bronze,
c. 450-440 B.C.E.

vs

Augustus of Prima Porta

Imperial Roman
1st Century BCE
The so-called Augustus of Primaporta was clearly made to provide visible testament to Augustus's claim to authority and the creation of a visual
language of imperial images. Augustus holds in his left hand a spear which was a symbol of ability in arms and power (imperii). The spear, which
will morph into the scepter of the medieval king, was a regular symbol of imperial power. Augustus is shown wearing the cuirass, or breastplate of a
military general. This manifests Augustus's role as imperator, or head of Rome's military forces. The formula of the cuirass statue would be one of
the most prevalent in the Roman tradition.

Along with the cuirass, a common characteristic of this portrait type is the contrapposto pose with the weight clearly shifted to one leg. Scholars
have seen a special reference in this pose in the statue of Augustus. They have seen strong parallels to the statue entitled the Doryphoros by the
Greek mid fifth-century BCE artist Polykleitos. This statue was one of the most famous and most copied statues of Antiquity.

The similarities between the two statues extend beyond the poses to the handling of facial details. Both emphasize the clear delineation of the brow
and nose. Similar conventions are used in the handling of the hair of both. It was undoubtedly intentional on the part of the Augustan artists to base
their statue on the Greek work. The rich drapery with its multiple-folds and elegant edge can be related to Greek Classical drapery style like that
appearing on the Parthenon. Both the Doryphoros and the Augustus of Primaporta share the same calm, self-controiled expression. Using the
Greek distinction, both represent the ethos, or character, of the figures rather than their pathos, or immediate emotional response. The conception
of the ideal man of the Greek Classical period was an important model for Augustus, the ideal man of his age, but there is the significant difference
that the Augustus statue is unmistakably a portrait of Augustus while the Doryphoroslike the other major Greek works is a representation of the
archetypal concept of the male figure and clearly not a representation of a particular individual.

Another significant difference between the Polykleitos statue and the Augustus of Primaporta is how the Doryphoros is self-contained in its
balanced pose while the right arm of the Augustus of Primaporta extends out in space. This is one of the most popular and easily identifiable
gestures in Roman art, the ad locutio gesture or the gesture of speech (orator). In Roman public life, the orator played a central role. The ability to
convince an audience through an effective oration was critical to the success of a politician. For a military leader, the ability to rally and motivate the
army was a hallmark of a great general. The ad locutio gesture conveys of the voice and authority of the figure.
Second Style. (Atmospheric Style) Triclinium paintings from the villa of Livia at Prima Porta, Museo Nazionale
Romano, Palazzo Massimo alle Terme
 76 Entrances and exits
50,000 spectators
Barrel vaults, groin vaults
and arches

The Colosseum or Flavian Amphitheatre

72-80 BCE

Rome, Italy.

Stone and concrete


Form:"amphitheater"
two Greek theaters put together (facing each other)
to create the oval-shaped amphitheater (stadium)
Inner ring made from concrete
required less skill, time, and money to quarry,
transport, and build with concrete
Romans were the first to master and employ the
widespread use of concrete as a building material
Outer ring (external wall) made from travertine (a
limestone)
Extensive use of vaults and the Roman arch
could hold 50,000 to 80,000 spectators
Dimensions:
covered an area of 6 acres
50 meters high (187 feet)
equivalent to a 12 story building
189 meters (615 feet) long
156 meters (510 feet) wide
outer circumference of 545 meters (1,788 feet)
the center arena measured 287' (feet long) by 180'
(feet wide)
construction began in 70 CE, lasted until 80 CE
(completed in 10 years)
very impressive feat considering its massive size
and the fact that everything was constructed and
transported individually, by hand.
no modern machinery!
Content:
massive, ellipse/oval-shaped ring
four main levels (can be thought of as registers!)
levels 1-3 had evenly-spaced, arched windows around the entire circumference of
the amphitheater
level 4 had a solid exterior wall, no windows
this, being the highest section of seating, would be where the lower classes
would sit (slaves, foreigners, women)
there would have been statuary figures in each window arch on levels 2 and 3, but not on
level 1, because those arches served as doors that people would walk through to enter
the amphitheater
above the 4th level, the upper rim of the colosseum was lined with bronze shields/spears
a glorious, dramatic, and impressive-looking decoration
could be considered a 5th 'register'?
however, not a separate floor of seating, only an independent register in the
visual sense
flat stage filled with sand in center
sand was to absorb blood and other bodily fluids from the fighting
seats angled up from the stage in every direction (shallow funnel)
the "hypogeum"
the underground part of the Colosseum, which included animal pens, trapdoors,
and a network of tunnels, was called the 'hypogeum'
according to tribunesandtriumphs.org, "The hypogeum consisted of two-level
subterranean network of tunnels and 32 animal pens. There were 80 vertical shafts
provided instant access to the arena for animals and scenery. Large hinged
platforms, called hegmata provided access for large animals"
the "velarium"
a retractable awning that would cover the arena to provide shade for spectators

Three different orders of columns are used to support the arches
Level 1 = Tuscan (similar to Doric, but even more
simplistic, and specific to ancient Rome)
Level 2 = Ionic
Level 3 = Corinthian
columns are sturdier, more basic at the bottom
become more delicate, ornate higher up
associated with femininity?
women sat in the highest level of seating
Function:
Public Entertainment (similar function as sports stadium)
Romans came to watch gladiator fights, wild animal fights,
mock naval battles, etc.
violence and gore were popular sources of entertainment
in ancient Rome
Context:
Original name was Flavian Amphitheater
named after the family/dynasty who paid for its construction
Emperor Vespasian (r. 69-79 CE) was the first Emperor
of the Flavian Dynasty
"Colosseum" is just a nickname given later (in the Middle
Ages?), because of the amphitheater's proximity to a colossal
statue of the sun god.
Vespasian built the amphitheater as a gift to the people of Rome, to
win their favor back after the greedy, insane, unpopular Nero
(previous Roman Emperor before Vespasian)
Concept of Urban Planning
unlike Greeks, who shaped their cities around the geography, Romans made the
landscape work for them
more aggressive builders
power of man over nature
also necessitated better engineering
concrete! arches!
their used to be a lake where the Flavian Amphitheater was built
drained the lake because they wanted a building there
much more similar to how we (in western, urban cities) approach
urban planning now
Focus on interior space
shift from ancient Greek focus on exterior space
best example is the Pergamon
Roman Social Status/Citizenship
Discrimination was not based on color of skin, but on citizenship
If you were a Roman citizen, race didn't matter
Rome was a very multi-ethnic empire
If you were not a citizen (woman, slave, etc), you were virtually nothing
Within the population of citizens, there were tiers to that hierarchy as well
social mobility was difficult, but less so than in Ancient Greece
people were seated in the amphitheater according to status
upper-class patricians were seated closest to the stage, those of the lower
class were seated farther up, and women, slaves, and foreigners were the
farthest away from the action ("cheap seats" at the very top)
Reflects Roman Order, Discipline, and Power
POWs, slaves, and non-citizens (not women) could win their freedom/citizenship
by becoming gladiators and fighting to victory
This was such a dangerous risk that it often resulted in the gladiator's
death before earning that freedom.
Different from Ancient Greece, where it was virtually unheard of for
someone to become a citizen
citizenship rules in Roman Empire were similar to America's
immigration/citizenship rules
takes a long time and is difficult, but usually the second
generation can earn citizenship if born in the Empire
Built with the booty
from Trajan’s
victory over the
Dacians.
Forum (fora: plural): open civil space in a Roman city
Imperial Fora
- Were a new series forums built by emperors
o Forums were the civic, juridical, and social heart of the city of ancient Rome
o Could be found in any Roman city
o Always included a temple
§ Shows the connection between church and state that still exists
- These were forums built by Roman emperors during the Roman imperial period
o Mainly to showcase power
- Represent the major architectural landscapes of the city of Rome
o Shows the importance of civic architecture
- Illustrate the strength, accomplishments, and stability of the Roman state
- Fora is the plural form of forum
- There were five but the only one that we need to pay attention to is the Forum of Trajan

FORM
- Apollodorus of Damascus was the engineer
- Almost the size of all the other imperial forms put together
o Very extravagant
o Had a massive entrance way
- The place where Trajan was to build was already covered with the forums from previous emperors
o So he got Apollodorus of Damascus to move a good portion of the hill that was in his way of building
- Ceremonial entrance way that leads into the forum
o Below is a depiction of the entrance way to the forum
o On the top is an image of Trajan being followed by the goddess of victory
past the forum was the Basilica Ulpia
o this was the largest Basicila in Rome
o we can still see some of it today; there are columns standing
- was filled with sculptures, carvings, free standing sculpture were found all
around the forum
- colored marbles were found on the paving stones and the structures
themselves
- beyond the basic Ulpia there was another entrance way
o this lead to two libraries
o in the middle of these two libraries was the column of Trajan
CONTENT
- Basicila Ulpia
o The Basicila laid the foundation for the modern cruciform church
o Called the Basilica Ulpia because that is Trajan's family name
- The free standing and other art that would have been scattering the forum depict the power of the emperors, politicians and military leaders of ancient Rome
o Throughout the forum, there were sculptures of captured Dacians
§ Represented them as noble to show they the Romans are all powerful and can defeat even noble men
- Column of Trajan
o The point was to see the stories of Trajan's military victories
o Specifically, the column highlights the battle in which Trajan defeated the Dacians
o Shows that he was proud of his military acts
o 125 feet tall, marks the height of the hill that was removed
- Libraries
o One was full of Greek literature, and the other was filled with Roman literature
o This shows how much the Romans were influenced and incorporated Greek life into their lives
§ This is shown through their copying of ancient Greek works as well
§ These libraries had porches, so one was able to study the column of Trajan from within the libraries
- Major theme= power
o This is represented by the free-standing sculptures of the defeated Dacians
o Also, the massive structure alludes to the massive power of Trajan
- Major theme = making nature subordinate to man's rule

- Trajan expanded the Roman empire to its greatest boarders

- - the column was made to depict two major defeats of the Dacians for the Romans
- Trajan
o One of the most highly regarded Roman Emperors
o Best known for his public building program
- He was able to build so many things because of the large sum of money he brought home from the war on the Dacians
o Which is depicted all throughout the forum and is found in detail all around the Column of Trajan

FUNCTION
- civic space
- ceremonial space
- to represent the power of Trajan
- the detail of the art within it shows the importance the society placed on him and his accomplishments
Dedicated to ALL gods.
Inscription- Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, having been consul three times.

Corinthian capitals, cupola walls are 20 feet thick.

Oculus is 27 feet wide

7 niches for gods

Agrippa built the original Pantheon in honor of his and Augustus’ military victory at the Battle of Actium in 31 B.C.E.—one of
the defining moments in the establishment of the Roman Empire (Augustus would go on to become the first Emperor of
Rome). It was thought that Agrippa’s Pantheon had been small and conventional: a Greek-style temple, rectangular in plan.
Written sources suggest the building was damaged by fire around 80 C.E. and restored to some unknown extent under the
orders of Emperor Domitian (who ruled 81-96 C.E.). When the building was more substantially damaged by fire again in 110
C.E., the Emperor Trajan decided to rebuild it, but only partial groundwork was carried out before his death. Trajan’s
successor, Hadrian—a great patron of architecture and revered as one of the most effective Roman emperors—conceived and
possibly even designed the new building with the help of dedicated architects. It was to be a triumphant display of his will and
beneficence.

The symbolism of the great dome adds weight to this interpretation. The dome’s coffers (inset panels) are divided into 28
sections, equaling the number of large columns below. 28 is a “perfect number,” a whole number whose summed factors equal
it (thus, 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 14 = 28). Only four perfect numbers were known in antiquity (6, 28, 496, and 8128) and they were
sometimes held—for instance, by Pythagoras and his followers—to have mystical, religious meaning in connection with the
cosmos. Additionally, the oculus (open window) at the top of the dome was the interior’s only source of direct light. The
sunbeam streaming through the oculus traced an ever-changing daily path across the wall and floor of the rotunda. Perhaps,
then, the sunbeam marked solar and lunar events, or simply time. The idea fits nicely with Dio’s understanding of the dome as
the canopy of the heavens and, by extension, of the rotunda itself as a microcosm of the Roman world beneath the starry
heavens, with the emperor presiding over it all, ensuring the right order of the world.
The most famous example of Augustan art that has come down to us is the Ara Pacis, or the Altar of Peace. Founded on July 4, 13 BCE and
completed on January 30, 9 BCE, was designed as a permanent monument to the most important accomplishment of Augustus --the bringing of an
era of peace. This was particularly important to the Romans who had witnessed the instability of the Civil Wars that marked the end of the Republican
period. Augustan peace extended throughout the Roman / civilized world. The theme of peace is intertwined on the altar with themes of the dynastic
claims of the family of Augustus, his social policy, and the importance of religion as a civilizing force.

The most famous reliefs included on the altar are the two processional reliefs that appear in the upper register of the north and south sides of the altar.
The south frieze shows Augustus, attendants, and members of the family of Augustus. Although the lower part of the figure is poorly preserved,
enough of the head is intact to enable an identification of the figure of Augustus. He is shown in the toga with mantle over the head associated with a
priest in a sacrifice. His outstretched right arm suggests that he might have been holding a patera. The figure echoes the representation of Augustus
as Pontifex Maximus and the the likely successor of Augustus. The inclusion of Agrippa in the frieze has enabled scholars to date the events shown.
Since Agrippa died in 12 BCE, this must be the foundation ceremony that took place on July 4, 13 BCE. The figures on the north frieze have been
identified as prominent members of the Senate and families.
The Ara Pacis was constructed in the Campus Martius or the Field of Mars outside of the city of Rome. The Campus Martius represents the boundary
between the military and civic authority in Rome. The altar was instituted on July 4, 13 B.C. and dedicated on January 30, 9 B.C (the birthday of Livia, the
wife of Augustus). Augustus had returned from a three-year campaign in Spain and Gaul on July 3, 13 B.C. Augustus refused to have a triumph to mark
his return and he also refused the Senate's offer to build an altar in the Senate chamber. These decisions were undoubtedly to avoid accusations of over-
reaching. The altar was positioned to be a part of a gigantic sundial, whose gnomon was a hundred foot obelisk, which commemorated the conquest of
Egypt and was dedicated between June 10 B.C. and June 9 B.C. The obelisk cast its shadow on an elaborate series of bronze lines that were set into the
stone pavement. It has been argued that the obelisk's shadow was aligned to point directly to the center of the altar of the Ara Pacis on the fall equinox
which was the birthday of Augustus. This alignment with the heavens was undoubtedly intended as part of the claim of universal domination of Augustus.
Scholars have long noted the parallels between the processional scenes from the Ara Pacis and the Ionic frieze from
the Parthenon showing the Panathenaic Procession. The use of a continuous frieze showing a religious procession as
well as the strong classicism of the Ara Pacis relief indicate some of the similarities between the two. But significant
difference exists as well. Most notably is the approach to the subject matter. In the case of the Panathenaic frieze no
individual procession can be identified. None of the mortals represented can be connected to known historical figures.
While the Ara Pacis frieze, with its identifiable portraits can be identified as the foundation procession of July 4, 13 BCE.
There is thus the contrast between the archetypal approach of Greek and what can be identified as the factual approach
of the Roman work.

A striking difference between the two can be seen in the choice of types of figures included. In the Parthenon frieze,
except for the group of maidens shown in a section of eastern frieze, there are no other mortal women included in the
Parthenon frieze. Likewise there are no children included in the earlier frieze. In contrast, the Ara Pacis friezes
intermingle male and female as well as children and adults. This intermingling of figures suggests the theme of family.
The emphasis on family in the Ara Pacis relief echoes the important role families played in the social and political life of
Rome. Ones identity was determined in significant ways by the identity of your family. The inclusion of members of the
imperial family in particular can be related to Augustus's dynastic claim for his family. The family of Augustus which was
understood to descend from the founders of the Roman tradition Aeneas and Romulus could claim the rightful position
as the first family of Rome and rulers of Rome. The selection also can be seen to reflect Augustan social policy. Laws
enacted by Augustus reflect a relaxing of restrictions on marriage and provided incentives for procreation.

The form of the altar is a large precinct wall that encloses the altar itself. Doors in the middle of the east and west sides
provide access to the altar. Attempts to identify the source for the form of the altar have suggested close parallels to the
fifth century BCE Altar of the Twelve Gods in the Agora in Athens. This is one of the many links connecting this Roman
work to Greek and especially Athenian mid-fifth century monuments.
Context:
sarcophagi start to appear more commonly in the beginning of the second century
found at a tomb near Porta Tiburtina (a gate in the Aurelian Walls of Rome)
no one knows whose sarcophagus this is, but whoever it was was rich (to buy such a large piece of marble and high such a
skilled sculptor would have been expensive)
created at a time in Roman history which was marked by instability and civil wars (and preceded by stability and peace)
this historical shift is clear in the chaotic, complex nature of this piece
moves away from high classic Greek art (in fact, it's almost the opposite!)
less focused on the beauty of the human body and more focused on the interactions between people
an example of the typical artistic style of Late Imperial Rome (also includes aspects common to the Late Antique period)
this style is marked by emotional subject matters and a lack of realistic space
inspired by the Hellenistic style (as seen the movement and density of the composition)
named for its first modern owner, Ludovico Ludovisi

Form:
made of white marble
high (like REALLY HIGH) relief
some of the figures are almost completely disconnected from the base
incredibly detailed carvings
made with a drill
used to mimic the intensity and chaos of the battle
at some places, this piece has 4 layers of figures on top of on top of each other (!!!)
the figures along the bottom are physically smaller
makes a viewer feel like they are looking down upon them
the sculptor uses shields and other aspects to frame and intentionally highlight certain figures
this piece greatly utilizes the alternation and contrast of light and darkness to guide a viewers eye
the shadows caused by the multiple layers of carving and the extremely high relief greatly contribute to the piece
Content:
generally the figures lack individuality
Romans = very clearly the noble soldiers and good guys in this piece. This can be seen through their appearance. The Romans
have...
attractive characteristics
serious expressions
smooth skin
The Goths/the Barbarians/The Gauls (celtic tribes that were in Western Europe) = the enemy
They are displayed disdainfully (in the same way the Greeks portrayed them) with...
puffy cheeks and noses
wild expressions
uncivilized, primitive features
rough, uneven skin
The Hero - the man in the top center of the sarcophagus
the clear focal point (the only somewhat open space in the midst of a tangled mess)
splayed out
open-chested
strong Cross-cultural Comparisons: Relief Sculpture
fancy, heavy draped armor Churning of the Ocean of Milk
no weapon Last Judgement at Conques
likely a general Stele of Hammurabi
no helmet = invincible
Everything is MOVING!
Movement is KEY to this piece.
a narrative piece
the sarcophagus displays dozen of stories through the individual interactions between figures

Function:
Created to mark the grave of a rich, unidentified Roman (many scholars believe that the sarcophagus belongs to the splayed-out-
focal-point-man in the carvings)
Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs

The Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs is a porphyry sculpture group of four Roman
emperors dating from around 300 AD. The sculptural group has been fixed to a corner
of the façade of St Mark's Basilica in Venice, Italy since the Middle Ages. It probably
originally formed part of the decorations of the Philadelphion in Constantinople, and
was removed to Venice in 1204 or soon after.

The Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs depicts the four rulers in charge of the entire Empire,
instituted by Emperor Diocletian.[1] The Caesar he chose was Galerius, and they ruled
over the Eastern half of the Empire, while the Western half was ruled by
Augustus Maximian and Caesar Constantinius Chlorus, father of Constantine the
Great.[2] There is still discussion and disagreement as to the identity of these statues
and their placement, but it is reasonable to assume that the Eastern rulers form a pair
and the Western rulers form the other pair.[3]
The Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs is a representative example of late
Imperial portraiture. This period marked a sharp departure from the veristic depictions
of Republican Rome, which was reflected visually through stylistic contrasts. Though
this shift may at first seem like a regression, it marked the development of a style
where symbolism trumped realism and idealism alike
Arch of Titus, Rome, Italy after 81 CE

Domitian built this arch on the road leading into the Roman
Forum to honor his brother, emperor Titus, who became a
god after his death. Victories scenes are within the arches
passageway.
The Arch of Trajan or the Trajan Arch, a triumphal arch, is one of the most
prominent ancient Roman structures found in Benevento, Italy. This artistic
feat from the 2nd century, constructed at the entrance of the city, is dedicated
to Emperor Trajan.

it depicts the scenes of Trajan’s conquests and imperial divinity, as well as

the programs of social works implemented by him. The arch was surrounded
by the city walls during the Lombard rule and was known as the Golden Gate
(Italian: Porta Aurea).

The arch, measuring 15.6 m in height and 8.6 m in width, features a single,
barrel-vaulted passageway. At each of the richly sculpted façades, there are
four semicolumns conforming to the two side pillars and supporting a
superstructure of bands and moldings that lie horizontally above the columns.
Built in limestone, the triumph arch is covered with slabs of Parian marble
using opus quadratum technique. There is a dedicatory inscription on the attic
while the base-relief panel on the left side depicted the homage of the
countryside divinities and the right panel represented the removal of provincial
colonies.

The victory of Emperor Trajan against Dacia is portrayed on the frieze while
the pylons located between the semicolumns have two superimposed panels
representing allegories and scenes of the imperialism of Trajan. These are
separated by smaller decorative panels that portray the Victories sacrificing
bulls.
The main attraction of the decorative scheme is the large reliefs decorating
the interior walls of the arch bay. The opening of Via Traiana is
commemorated with a representation of sacrifice on the northern side while a
scene of Trajan overseeing money being handed out to poor children is
depicted on the southern side. The ceiling of the vault is coffered with an
artistic representation of the crowned emperor in the center

https://www.thehistoryhub.com/arch-of-trajan-benevento-facts-
 Arch of Constantine

The Arch of Constantine is a triumphal arch in Rome, situated between the Colosseum and the Palatine Hill. It was
erected by the Roman Senate to commemorate Constantine I's victory over Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge in
312. Dedicated in 315, it is the largest Roman triumphal arch.