1.

PRINCIPLES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION

Measurement : is the estimation or determination of extent, dimension or capacity,

usually in relation to some standard or unit of measurement. The measurement is
expressed as a number of units of the standard (a real number times a unit), such as
distance being indicated by a number of miles or kilometers. The process of measuring
involves estimating the ratio of the magnitude of a quantity to the magnitude of a unit of
the same type (e.g. length, time, mass, etc.)

Instrument : Adevice used directly or indirectly to measure or control a variable or both .

the term includes control valves , relief valves and electrical devices such as annunciator
and pushbuttons . the term does not apply to parts such as receiver bellows or a resistor
that are iternal components of an instrument .

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Imperial system
Before SI units were widely adopted around the world, the British systems of English
units and later Imperial units were used in Britain, the Commonwealth and the United
States. The system came to be known as ﾵ U.S. customary units ﾧ in the United States and is
still in use there and in a few ﾵ Caribbean ﾧ countries. These various systems of measurement
have at times been called foot-pound-second systems after the Imperial units for distance, weight
and time. It is interesting to note that many Imperial units remain in use in Britain despite the fact
that it has mostly switched to the SI system. Road signs are still in ﾵ miles ﾧ, ﾵ yards ﾧ, ﾵ miles
per hour ﾧ, etc, people tend to measure their own height in ﾵ feet ﾧ and ﾵ inches ﾧ and beer is sold
in ﾵ pints ﾧ , to give just a few examples. Imperial units are used in many other places, for
example, in many Commonwealth countries which are considered metricated, land area is
measured in acres and floor space in square feet, particularly for commercial transactions (rather
than government statistics). Similarly, the imperial gallon is used in many countries that are
considered metricated at gas/petrol stations, an example being the ﾵ United Arab Emirates ﾧ.

Metric system
The ﾵ metric system ﾧ is a decimalised ﾵ system of measurement ﾧ based on the ﾵ metre ﾧ and the
ﾵ gram ﾧ. It exists in several variations, with different choices of ﾵ base units ﾧ, though these do
not affect its day-to-day use. Since the 1960s the ﾵ International System of Units (SI)ﾧ, explained
further below, is the internationally recognised standard metric system. Metric units of mass,
length, and electricity are widely used around the world for both everyday and scientific
purposes. The main advantage of the metric system is that is has a single base unit for each
physical quanitity. All other units are ﾵ powers of ten ﾧ or multiples of ten of this base unit. Unit
conversions are always simple because they will be in the ratio of ten, one hundred, one
thousand, etc. All lengths and distances, for example, are measured in metres, or thousandths of a
metre (millimetres), or thousands of metres (kilometres), and so on. There is no profusion of
different units with different conversion factors as in the Imperial system (e.g. ﾵ inches ﾧ, ﾵ feet ﾧ,
ﾵ yards ﾧ, ﾵ fathoms ﾧ, ﾵ rods ﾧ). Multiples and submultiples are related to the fundamental unit
by factors of powers of ten, so that one can convert by simply moving the decimal place: 1.234
metres is 1234 millimetres or 0.001234 kilometres. The use of ﾵ fractions ﾧ , such as 2/5 of a
metre, is not prohibited, but uncommon.

SI
The ﾵ International System of Units ﾧ (abbreviated SI from the ﾵ French language ﾧ name
Système International d'Unités) is the modern, revised form of the ﾵ metric system ﾧ . It is the
world's most widely used ﾵ system of units ﾧ, both in everyday ﾵ commerce ﾧ and in ﾵ science ﾧ.
The SI was developed in 1960 from the ﾵ metre ﾧ-ﾵ kilogram ﾧ-ﾵ second ﾧ (MKS) system, rather
than the ﾵ centimetre-gram-second ﾧ (CGS) system, which, in turn, had many variants. At its
development the SI also introduced several newly named units that were previously not a part of
the metric system.
There are two types of SI units, Base and Derived Units. Base units are the simple measurements
for time, length, mass, temperature, amount of substance, electric current, and light intensity.
Derived units are made up of base units, for example density is kg/m3.
Converting Prefixes - To switch prefixes, it is easiest to multiply. If you are working with meters,
and want to convert to centimeters, all you need to do is multiply the number of meters by 100,
becasue there are 100 centimeters in a meter. To switch from centimeters to meters, all you do is
multiply the number of meters by .01, becasue .01 is equal to 1/100, which is how many meters
in a centimeter.
Measured variable : The physical quantity , property or condition which is to be
measured it is sometimes called measurand , common measured variables are
temperature , pressure , flow , .. etc.

Process. Is defined as a physical or chemical change of matter or conversion of

energy; e.g., change in pressure, temperature, speed, electrical potential, etc. A
second definition of a process from a Chemical Engineering point of view is as
follows:
a process is a collection of vessels, pipes, fittings, gauges etc., built for the purpose
of producing a product or group of products.
Process Control. The regulation or manipulation of variables influencing the
conduct of a process in such a way as to obtain a product of desired quality and
quantity in an efficient manner.

Input to Process. Mass or energy applied to the process.

Output of Process. The product delivered by the process. This is a dynamic
variable.
Supply. Source of mass or energy input to process.
Control Valve. Consists of the final actuator and final controlling elements. This is
the forward controlling element which directly changes the value of the
manipulated variable.
Measurement and control loop :

Primary Element. The measuring element that quantitatively converts the measured
variable energy into a form suitable for measurement.
Note: The sensing portion is the primary element for transmitters that do not have
external primary elements.
Transmitter. A transducer which responds to a measured variable by means of a
sensing element, and converts it to a standardized transmission signal which is a
function only of the measured variable.
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Accuracy usually is expressed as the degree of inaccuracy and takes several forms:
• Measured variable, as the accuracy is +/- 1 psig in some pressure measurements.
Thus, there is an uncertainty of +/-1 psig in any value of pressure measured.
• Percentage of the instrument full-scale (FS) reading. Thus, an accuracy of +/-
0.5% FS in a 10-volt full-scale voltage meter would mean the inaccuracy or
uncertainty in any measurement is +/-0.05 volts.
• Percentage of instrument span, that is, percentage of the range of the instrument’s
measurement capability. Thus, for a device measuring +/-2% of span for 20-50 psig
range of pressure, the accuracy is (+/-0.02)(50-20) = +/-0.6 psig.
• Percentage of the actual reading. Thus, for a +/-5% of reading current meter, we
would have an inaccuracy of +/-1.0 milliamps (ma) for a reading of 20 mA of
current flow.

MEASURING SIGNALS :
In the early days of industrial instrumentation, compressed air was used as a
signaling medium to convey information from measuring instruments to indicating
and controlling devices located remotely. The amount of air pressure corresponded
to the magnitude of whatever variable was being measured. Clean, dry air at
approximately 20 pounds per square inch (PSI) was supplied from an air
compressor through tubing to the measuring instrument and was then regulated by
that instrument according to the quantity being measured to produce a
corresponding output signal. For example, a pneumatic (air signal) level
"transmitter" device set up to measure height of water (the "process variable") in a
storage tank would output a low air pressure when the tank was empty, a medium
pressure when the tank was partially full, and a high pressure when the tank was
completely full.
ﾵﾧ
The "water level indicator" (LI) is nothing more than a pressure gauge measuring
the air pressure in the pneumatic signal line. This air pressure, being a signal, is in
turn a representation of the water level in the tank. Any variation of level in the
tank can be represented by an appropriate variation in the pressure of the pneumatic
signal. Aside from certain practical limits imposed by the mechanics of air pressure
devices, this pneumatic signal is infinitely variable, able to represent any degree of
change in the water's level, and is therefore analog in the truest sense of the word.
Crude as it may appear, this kind of pneumatic signaling system formed the
backbone of many industrial measurement and control systems around the world,
and still sees use today due to its simplicity, safety, and reliability. Air pressure
signals are easily transmitted through inexpensive tubes, easily measured (with
mechanical pressure gauges), and are easily manipulated by mechanical devices
using bellows, diaphragms, valves, and other pneumatic devices. Air pressure
signals are not only useful for measuring physical processes, but for controlling
them as well. With a large enough piston or diaphragm, a small air pressure signal
can be used to generate a large mechanical force, which can be used to move a
valve or other controlling device. Complete automatic control systems have been
made using air pressure as the signal medium. They are simple, reliable, and
relatively easy to understand. However, the practical limits for air pressure signal
accuracy can be too limiting in some cases, especially when the compressed air is
not clean and dry, and when the possibility for tubing leaks exist.
With the advent of solid-state electronic amplifiers and other technological
advances, electrical quantities of voltage and current became practical for use as
analog instrument signaling media. Instead of using pneumatic pressure signals to
relay information about the fullness of a water storage tank, electrical signals could
relay that same information over thin wires (instead of tubing) and not require the
support of such expensive equipment as air compressors to operate:

ﾵﾧ

Current loop systems

It is possible through the use of electronic amplifiers to design a circuit outputting a
constant amount of current rather than a constant amount of voltage. This collection
of components is collectively known as a current source, and its symbol looks like
this:
ﾵﾧ
A current source generates as much or as little voltage as needed across its leads to
produce a constant amount of current through it. This is just the opposite of a
voltage source (an ideal battery), which will output as much or as little current as
demanded by the external circuit in maintaining its output voltage constant.
Following the "conventional flow" symbology typical of electronic devices, the
arrow points against the direction of electron motion. Apologies for this confusing
notation: another legacy of Benjamin Franklin's false assumption of electron flow!
ﾵﾧ

Current sources can be built as variable devices, just like voltage sources, and they
can be designed to produce very precise amounts of current. If a transmitter device
were to be constructed with a variable current source instead of a variable voltage
source, we could design an instrumentation signal system based on current instead
of voltage:
ﾵﾧ

The internal workings of the transmitter's current source need not be a concern at
this point, only the fact that its output varies in response to changes in the float
position, just like the potentiometer setup in the voltage signal system varied
voltage output according to float position.
Notice now how the indicator is an ammeter rather than a voltmeter (the scale
calibrated in inches, feet, or meters of water in the tank, as always). Because the
circuit is a series configuration (accounting for the cable resistances), current will
be precisely equal through all components. With or without cable resistance, the
current at the indicator is exactly the same as the current at the transmitter, and
therefore there is no error incurred as there might be with a voltage signal system.
This assurance of zero signal degradation is a decided advantage of current signal
systems over voltage signal systems.
The most common current signal standard in modern use is the 4 to 20 milliamp (4-
20 mA) loop, with 4 milliamps representing 0 percent of measurement, 20
milliamps representing 100 percent, 12 milliamps representing 50 percent, and so
on. A convenient feature of the 4-20 mA standard is its ease of signal conversion to
1-5 volt indicating instruments. A simple 250 ohm precision resistor connected in
series with the circuit will produce 1 volt of drop at 4 milliamps, 5 volts of drop at
20 milliamps, etc:

ﾵﾧ

----------------------------------------
| Percent of | 4-20 mA | 1-5 V |
| measurement | signal | signal |
----------------------------------------
| 0 | 4.0 mA | 1.0 V |
----------------------------------------
| 10 | 5.6 mA | 1.4 V |
----------------------------------------
| 20 | 7.2 mA | 1.8 V |
----------------------------------------
| 25 | 8.0 mA | 2.0 V |
----------------------------------------
| 30 | 8.8 mA | 2.2 V |
----------------------------------------
| 40 | 10.4 mA | 2.6 V |
----------------------------------------
| 50 | 12.0 mA | 3.0 V |
----------------------------------------
| 60 | 13.6 mA | 3.4 V |
----------------------------------------
| 70 | 15.2 mA | 3.8 V |
----------------------------------------
| 75 | 16.0 mA | 4.0 V |
---------------------------------------
| 80 | 16.8 mA | 4.2 V |
----------------------------------------
| 90 | 18.4 mA | 4.6 V |
----------------------------------------
| 100 | 20.0 mA | 5.0 V |
----------------------------------------

The current loop scale of 4-20 milliamps has not always been the standard for
current instruments: for a while there was also a 10-50 milliamp standard, but that
standard has since been obsolete. One reason for the eventual supremacy of the 4-
20 milliamp loop was safety: with lower circuit voltages and lower current levels
than in 10-50 mA system designs, there was less chance for personal shock injury
and/or the generation of sparks capable of igniting flammable atmospheres in
certain industrial environments
The key advantages of the current loop are that the accuracy of the signal is not
affected by voltage drop in the interconnecting wiring, and that the loop can supply
operating power to the device. Even if there is significant ﾵ electrical resistance ﾧ in
the line, the current loop transmitter will maintain the proper current, up to its
maximum voltage capability allows transmitter devices to be powered by the same
current loop (called two-wire transmitters). Such instruments are used to measure
ﾵ pressure ﾧ, ﾵ temperature ﾧ, ﾵ flow ﾧ, ﾵ pH ﾧ or other process variables. A current
loop can also be used to control a valve positioner or other output ﾵ actuator ﾧ.
Taking the point of view of the source of current for the loop, devices may be
classified as active (supplying power) or passive (relying on loop power). For
example, a ﾵ chart recorder ﾧ may provide loop power to a transmitter instrument
such as a pressure transmitter. The pressure transmitter modulates the current on the
loop to send the signal to the strip chart recorder, but does not in itself supply
power to the loop and so is passive. Another loop may contain two passive chart
recorders, a passive pressure transmitter, and a 24 V battery. (The battery is the
active device). Panel mount displays and chart recorders are commonly termed
'indicator devices' or 'process monitors'. Several passive indicator devices may be
connected in series, but a loop must have only one transmitter device and only one
power source (active device).

Analog electronic signals are still the primary kinds of signals used in the
instrumentation world today, but it is giving way to digital modes of
communication in many applications (more on that subject later). Despite changes
in technology, it is always good to have a thorough understanding of fundamental
principles, so the following information will never really become obsolete.
One important concept applied in many analog instrumentation signal systems is
that of "live zero," a standard way of scaling a signal so that an indication of 0
percent can be discriminated from the status of a "dead" system. Take the
pneumatic signal system as an example: if the signal pressure range for transmitter
and indicator was designed to be 0 to 12 PSI, with 0 PSI representing 0 percent of
process measurement and 12 PSI representing 100 percent, a received signal of 0
percent could be a legitimate reading of 0 percent measurement or it could mean
that the system was malfunctioning (air compressor stopped, tubing broken,
transmitter malfunctioning, etc.). With the 0 percent point represented by 0 PSI,
there would be no easy way to distinguish one from the other.

Advantages/ Disadvantages of measuring signals :

AIR

Advantages
Disadvantage

•Cheap
• Plentiful supply
• Non-corrosive
• Easier trouble shooting
• No fire risk
• Requires compression plant, filtration
• Must be clean, oil free. Moisture free
• Fairly slow response to pressure changes
• Frequent maintenance
• Dependent on power supply to compression plant

Electrical

Advantages
Disadvantage

• Much faster response to change of voltage level or current

• easily interfaced with control computers and logic systems
• Less moving parts
• Greater reliability
• Less maintenance
• May have battery back-up against power interruption
• Expansive generating equipment
• Requires stabilization of supplies for control accuracy
• May constitute a fire hazard
• Requires intrinsically safe circuitry for hazardous areas
• Skilled trouble shooting at component level
• Dependent on power supply

Modern features of SMART measurement :

HART PROTOCOL :
HART communication uses the conventional 4 to 20 mA current loop for data
transmission. The communication systems requires (almost) no additional wiring.
The HART protocol is therefore also a good solution when smart field devices are
to be integrated in an already existing plant.
The acronym .HART. . Highway Addressable Remote Transducer . shows that the
protocol originally was defined for measuring transducers. The protocol
specification available today, however, supports data exchange with sensors as well
as with actuators. HART provides a very simple point-to-point connection between
an operating device and a field device. With the appropriate instrumentation,
however, HART is also suitable as communication system for extended plants. The
only prerequisite is that the field devices are connected according to the
conventional 4 to 20 mA technique .
ﾵﾧ

The HART protocol is an open communication protocol which interfaces the

master device with the field device and can be implemented by any manufacturer
and freely employed by the user. The required technical support is provided by the
HART Communication Foundation (HCF). This manufacturer- independent, not-
for-profit organization encourages widespread use of the HART technology. HCF
assumes the responsibility of coordinating and supporting the open protocol
standard and manages within this framework the device descriptions of all
registered devices .

HART PROTOCOL LOGO

There are several reasons to have a host communicate with a field instrument.
These include:
- Device Configuration or re-configuration
- Device Diagnostics
- Device Troubleshooting
- Reading the values of additional measurements provided by the device
- Device Health and Status

The most important performance features of the HART protocol include:

- proven in practice, simple design, easy to maintain and operate
- compatible with conventional analog instrumentation
- simultaneous analog and digital communication
- flexible data access via up to two master devices
- supports multivariable field devices
- sufficient response time of approx. 500 ms
- freely available to any manufacturer or user

ﾵﾧ
HART device connection

HART handheld communicator

Fieldbus systems
Fieldbusses are wired in a completely different manner. Communication can take
place on several hierarchical levels . the control level, the automation level and the
field level. What makes fieldbus systems so interesting is the very simple and cost-
effective wiring.
A fieldbus system replaces the analog 4 to 20 mA current loops with a simple two-
wire line running from the control station to the field. This bus cable connects all
devices in parallel. The entire information is transmitted exclusively digitally. This
includes the data necessary for control and process monitoring as well as the
commands and parameters required for start-up, device calibration and diagnosis.

Comparison of conventional transmission method and field network

wiring in hazardous areas

Reducing and simplifying wiring has in many ways a positive effect on the plant
and operating costs. In a study carried out by NAMUR (standardization committee
of the instrumentation and control industry, AK 3.5), the costs of a pilot plant
equipped with the conventional transmission technique have been compared with
those of a plant with PROFIBUS-PA instrumentation.
The calculation example yielded cost reductions of more than 40 % thanks to cost
savings in planning, cabling, start-up and maintenance. An additional asset of
fieldbus technology is the considerable gain in functionality and safety. Apart from
the easy start-up and self-diagnosis, which is also true for smart HART devices, the
fast fieldbus communication is also suitable
for real-time capable control systems. Comprehensive status and error messages
can be analyzed simultaneously.
The advantages provided by today’s field networks become obvious when we take
a closer look at them:
- wiring is reduced from several hundred or thousand lines to only a few lines,
- even long distances of several kilometers are no problem,
- savings in material, required space and weight,
- unlike conventional cabling, high flexibility is achieved when it comes to
modifications,
- computers and programmable controls can be easily integrated in the process,
- transparent process monitoring with high functionality can be implemented,
- uniform interfaces reduce maintenance, start-up, development and documentation
costs,
- division into small units enables modular system programming and start-up,
- networked field devices enable numerous improvements concerning process and
system monitoring thanks to data preprocessing, data security and self-diagnosis
- and since the measuring and control signals are transmitted digitally, the entire
system is less liable to errors

The above list of advantages shows that the use of field networks changes the
distribution of tasks between the automation devices and the field devices. As a
consequence, the field devices operate more autonomously and are therefore
equipped with microelectronic components. This trend is reasonable also from the
economical point of view, because of
- improved operating and service friendliness,
- increased flexibility (smaller product range) and
- shorter development and implementation periods.

These advantages alone . even without considering the cost-effective field network
wiring . are often sufficient to compensate for the extra costs of the communication
interface.
The advantages mentioned above can only develop their positive effects when
reliable functioning of the plant can be guaranteed upon implementation. Therefore,
it is important to define what will happen when the individual components or the
field network fail. Which error will be detected and which one can be immediately
remedied or, at least, limited as to its effects. Field communication systems vary
considerably (regarding protocol, function, topology) so that these questions can
only be answered for each implementation individually.

Multi drop connection

More than 100 different fieldbus systems are commercially available, but only a
few of them were able to become established as standard within their area of
application. As very special requirements must be met in the process engineering
industry.
The most important prerequisites are the high safety demands, the need to function
in hazardous areas as well as openness and extensibility of the system.
Repeatedly, efforts have been undertaken to establish an internationally recognized,
manufacturer-independent specification that defines the fieldbus for process
automation. Such an open standard would ensure a large choice of manufacturer-
independent products for the user and, on the other hand, a broad sales market for
the manufacturer.
Today, there are two competing fieldbus systems that fulfill the requirements
mentioned above. This is the PROFIBUS-PA . originated in Europe . and the
FOUNDATION Fieldbus . focused on America and Asia. Both fieldbus systems
operate on the same intrinsically safe physical bus structure (IEC 61158-2).
However, the provided communication services and, hence, the
protocol definitions differ greatly from one another (see L453 EN and L454 EN).
Both bus systems were primarily designed for use in hazardous areas. The two-wire
technique, however, is also a good basis for other applications. The cost-efficient,
bus-powered compact devices help simplify production systems for many process
engineering applications without the need to eliminate common device standards
and connection techniques.
The flexible fieldbus systems enable the connection of completely different field
devices. It is possible to control discontinously as well as continuously operating
actuators and sensors. However, such a wide spectrum of applications is not always
required.
When only switching states need to be transmitted (simple sensors, solenoid valves,
etc.), the relevant system components can be networked via an adequately
simplified bus system. For applications in hazardous areas, the open bus system
AS-I (Actuator/Sensor Interface) is a good solution. If required, the AS-I network
can be integrated via a special connection in more powerful fieldbus systems (e.g.
PROFIBUS).

Table Comparison of Communication Protocols

Difference between Analog Transmission and Fieldbus Communication Systems