Teaching and Learning in Aboriginal Education: Outlining Key Issues and

Their Implications for Classroom Practice

Introduction
‘Over the past thirty years, there has been a significant improvement in the education of Aboriginal
students’ (Partington and Beresford 2012, p. 35). Despite this improvement, Aboriginal students
continue to struggle in mainstream education systems. According to Price (2012, p. 166):

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities want their children to be successful at school and
reap the benefits of participating successfully in mainstream Australian life, but the appalling reality is
that for more than 100 years, mainstream education systems have struggled to enable Indigenous
children to achieve that success.

A substantial body of research has focused on the ‘under-achievement’ of Aboriginal students, and
identified several features of the education system as potential contributors to the problem (Donovan
2015, pp. 613-614). Furthermore, Rahman (2013, p. 661) suggests ‘The inflexibility of mainstream
education structures to accommodate alternative student experiences does little to improve overall
outcomes in Indigenous education’. Today’s educators are now faced with the crucial task of ‘closing
the gap’ between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal students. In order to achieve this, teachers must
develop an awareness of the key issues surrounding the education of Aboriginal students. The purpose
of this paper is to identify these key issues and discuss their implications for classroom practice. The
topics that will be covered are: the context of Aboriginal education, the consequences of deficit
discourse and self-fulfilling prophecies, and the benefits of culturally inclusive classrooms.

The Context of Aboriginal Education

‘The history of Aboriginal education has not received the attention it deserves (Beresford 2012, p.
85). A history of racial prejudice and racist-inspired policies have resulted in the under-achievement
and alienation of Aboriginal students in mainstream schools. ‘This legacy is now manifest in
widespread intergenerational educational disadvantage which has proved difficult to overcome’
(Beresford 2012, p. 85). The proposed gap between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal student outcomes
has been the topic of numerous literature reviews in recent years. As mentioned previously, there has
been a significant improvement in Aboriginal education in recent years, but, the statistics are not
improving at the rate that they should be. Partington and Beresford (2012, p. 42) report:

Information collected from the 2006 census indicated that Indigenous people’s level of education was
improving. For example, compared with data from the 2001 census, the proportion of Aboriginal
people completing year 12 increased from 18.6 per cent to 21.9 per cent, while the proportion earning a
degree increased from 4 per cent to 5.2 per cent. However, these figures were well below those for non-
Indigenous people: 49 per cent completed Year 12, and 21.5 per cent had a degree in 2006.

Joshua Lowe 110163490 1

‘These low levels of education amongst the Indigenous population are recognised by both State or
Territory and Commonwealth governments and underpin their joint efforts around the ‘Closing the
Gap’ targets’ (Biddle and Markham 2013, p. 1). The reports on the 2006 census also reveal a
significant gap in the attendance rates of Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal students. Partington and
Beresford (2012, p. 42) claim ‘the proportion of Indigenous students attending school is less than the
proportion of non-Indigenous students’.

The problem is that ‘education settings are not only considered assimilatory, but that they also
potentially threaten the cultural identities of minority learners’ (Rahman 2013, p. 661). Despite the
Government’s campaign to ‘close the gap’, many Aboriginal students still find school discouraging
and alienating and respond by resisting education. According to Groundwater-Smith, Ewing, and Le
(2015, p. 60):

Aboriginal children are expected to be independent and take responsibility for their siblings from an
earlier age. There is, typically, a much greater value placed on close relationships with family and
friends and less importance placed on individual achievement. Some Indeginous students therefore find
traditional schooling practices alienating, especially if the individuals emphasise individual competition
and the classrooms are largely teacher directed.

Despite the abolition of assimilation policies, Aboriginal children might feel like they are expected to
adopt the outlook and habits of European Australians (Lawrence 1994). Historically, there has been a
consistent lack of Aboriginal perspectives when addressing key issues surrounding Aboriginal
education. ‘Efforts to improve outcomes for Aboriginal students are typically driven by educational
researchers, policy-makers and teachers, drawing on their observations, their own educational
experiences and new theoretical and pedagogical developments’ (Donovan 2015, p. 614). The
Australian Curriculum however, has begun to address this lack of Aboriginal perspectives in recent
years. Kerley (2015, p. 5) states:

The Australian Curriculum, with its cross-curriculum priorities, has helped put Indigenous perspectives
in the spotlight. While there is still controversy and contention surrounding our national curriculum it
has at least got us talking about how and what we teach with regard to Indigenous content and
Indigenous ways of teaching and learning.

The development of new approaches, ‘including that of learning ‘contextualization’, are becoming
effective in engaging Indigenous students with mainstream education, through the process of linking
Indigenous and Western knowledge systems’ (Rahman 2013, p. 670).

Deficit Discourse and Self-Fulfilling Prophecies

‘Most of the thought and talk about Aboriginal education falls into a deficit model: it is assumed that
Aboriginal kids lack something and hence are deficient’ (Harrison 2011. p. 9). ‘Assumptions and
accusations of Indigenous deficit have saturated the history of cultural relations in Australia since

Joshua Lowe 110163490 2

contact, and are a key component of racism and prejudice’ (Fforde et al. 2013, p. 164). Interestingly
enough, some of the literature discussed in the previous section falls into this deficit model as
Aboriginal students are often considered deficient when compared to their non-Aboriginal peers.
According to Harrison (2011, p. 9):

Many reviews and articles about Aboriginal education represent Aboriginal students as being behind
the non-Aboriginal kids at school and needing to be brought up to their standard. This creates a non-
Aboriginal standard against which Aboriginal students are compared.

In recent years a number of initiatives have been founded with the purpose of challenging deficit
discourse by adopting a strength-based approach. The Department of Education and Early Childhood
Development (2012, p. 6) state that:

The strength-based approach represents a paradigm shift—a movement away from a deficit-based
approach which can lead to a long list of things considered to be ‘wrong’ with a child’s learning and
development or things a child cannot do. The deficit-based model fails to provide sufficient
information about strengths and strategies to support a child’s learning and development.

The Stronger Smarter Leadership Program (SSLP) for example, is a learning space that focuses on
shifting deficit discourse by challenging how people perceive Aboriginal education. ‘It actively
engages with educational leadership from across Australia to focus on the strengths of individuals
(teachers, students, parents) as its starting point’ (Fforde et al. 2013, p. 168).

It is important that educators consider the implications of deficit discourse and acknowledge that
negative stereotypes can have negative consequences for the individuals targeted by them. For this
purpose, Harrison’s explanation is useful:

It is similar to talking about a friend who has been going through hard times and feeling that you are
better off than he or she is. If you talk about others like that for long enough, they really do become
deficient in the eyes of the people with whom you talk (Harrison 2011, p. 9).

‘Understanding the consequences of negative stereotyping is increasingly being explored in the health
and social sciences literature’ (Larson et al., Paradies, and Steele cited in Gorringe 2011, p. 23).
Research has shown that negative stereotypes are often internalised by the individuals subjected to
them, and that this internalisation can lead to the development of a psychological concept known as
the ‘self-fulfilling prophecy’. According to Merton (cited in Hoy & Margetts 2013, p. 456) ‘A self-
fulfilling prophecy is a groundless expectation that leads to behaviours that then make the original
expectation come true’. For example, an Aboriginal student who becomes convinced by the stereotype
that they are deficient, may behave in such a way that allows others to perceive him or her as
deficient. The notion is a vicious cycle in which deficit discourse leads to the development of negative
self-fulfilling prophecies and vice versa. Gorringe (2011, p. 24) states:

Joshua Lowe 110163490 3

 While perceptions may have arisen first within non-Indigenous Australia, introduced concepts of
deficit, difference, authenticity and validity are also prevalent among Aboriginal people and are having
an effect on relations between the many different nations, groups, communities and individuals that
now constitute Aboriginal Australia.

In order to achieve equity and equality in mainstream education settings, researchers, educators and
policy makers must acknowledge the consequences of this type of discourse and consider its
implications for future practice.

The Culturally Inclusive Classroom: Implications for Classroom Practice

‘Many teachers are faced with limited understanding of cultures other than their own and the
possibility that this limitation will negatively affect their students’ ability to become successful
learners’ (Montgomery 2001, p. 4). Groundwater-Smith, Ewing, and Le (2015, p. 57) argue that
‘teachers often unconsciously devalue those ways of knowing and speaking that are not similar to
their own’. A culturally inclusive classroom is one that acknowledges diversity and aims to enrich the
overall learning experience — regardless of age, gender, ethnicity, religious affiliation, and
socioeconomic status. Culturally responsive teachers create this type of learning environment by:
positively engaging with students, actively discouraging classroom incivilities, encouraging open
honest and respectful classroom discussion, and using inclusive language and appropriate modes of
address. In this scenario it is important that teachers become reflective practitioners. According to
Groundwater-Smith, Ewing, and Le (2015, p. 33) ‘Being a reflective practitioner means both thinking
deeply and critically about one’s practice and examining from whence one’s ideas and beliefs have
come’. In culturally inclusive classrooms, teachers should critically reflect upon their attitudes,
assumptions and instructional practices. During reflection teachers also need to ‘make some critical
decisions regarding ways to constructively embrace diversity and, thus, create learning environments
that respond to the needs of their students’ Montgomery (2001, p. 5).

In regards to Aboriginal Education:

It is important that teachers do not stereotype all Aboriginal students as requiring special attention. It is
equally important, however, that they are able to identify the issues confronting those who are in need
and then seek to address those needs quickly and competently (Partington 2012, p. 407).

Foley (2007, p. 105) suggests:

To avoid negative preconceptions or stereotypes of Indigenous Australians shaping your attitudes and
behaviour in the staff room and influencing your teaching and interaction with your students, you will
need to think beyond your own cultural framework.

Teachers must keep in mind that not all Aboriginal students struggle in mainstream education settings,
in fact many go on to succeed in their studies and graduate from high school. Some Aboriginal

Joshua Lowe 110163490 4

communities however, hesitate to embrace mainstream education as they fear that their children will
lose their identity and culture. Education that enhances and promotes Aboriginality enables
Aboriginal students to live full and productive lives. Aboriginal perspectives, cultural pride and a
sense of identity can be promoted by teachers through programs such as music and dance. The
Department of Education and Training (cited in Kerley 2015, p. 5) argues:

There are many reasons to embed Indigenous perspectives. For non-Indigenous children and families,
knowing and understanding our shared history and the importance of Indigenous cultures to our
national identity enriches the learning experiences for all. For Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
children and families, their students thrive in educational environments where staff respect and
promote strong Indigenous culture and identity, build collaborative relationships and set high
expectations.

Teachers should also learn about the behaviours associated with different cultures. For example,
Aboriginal students’ culture has been passed down from generation to generation through storytelling.
Incorporating storytelling into classroom activities may enable Aboriginal students to become actively
engaged in learning new skills, while practicing their already established skills. For example,
narrative in a literacy context is presented using a number of different modes. Aboriginal students can
explore ways to present their own stories using a number of these modes, hence using their
established skills to learn new skills. A number of studies link the enrichment of learning to the use of
narrative and there are a number of resources that teachers can utilise to aid them in creating engaging
learning experiences in this subject area.

Conclusion
Over the course of this paper the context of Aboriginal education, the consequences of deficit
discourse and self-fulfilling prophecies, and the benefits of culturally inclusive classrooms have been
discussed with numerous references to relevant academic literature. The overall goal of this paper was
to identify multiple key issues surrounding the education of Aboriginal students. If teachers truly wish
to improve the outcomes of Aboriginal students, they must first develop an awareness of these key
issues and consider their implications for future practice. Gorringe (2011, p. 33) concludes that:

The challenge of engaging Indigenous peoples in education will be overcome when people within the
education system create space for Indigenous people to step into. The space I am referring to occurs in
three sites: minds, hearts and hands. It will not happen if the space only happens in one of the three; it
must happen in all three.

A significant amount of literature focuses on the disparities between Aboriginal students and non-
Aboriginal students, ‘setting non-Aboriginal people as the benchmark to be attained’ (Harrison 2011,
p. 9). While, this literature has contributed towards the improvement of Aboriginal education in the
past, it is important that teachers do not let it inform their overall opinion regarding Aboriginal

Joshua Lowe 110163490 5

students. Adopting a strength-based approach rather than a deficit-based approach may be beneficial
for both Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal students as learner diversity extends beyond the confines of
race, religion and gender. Price (2012, p. 160) believes that:

As a teacher you will have many roles. You will be a researcher, a planner; you will use the designated
curriculum; you will master the ever-changing electronic world; and you will be a decision-maker.

Teachers must dedicate themselves to each role equally if they are to create a learning environment
that promotes both equity and equality.

Joshua Lowe 110163490 6

Reference List
Beresford, Q 2012, 'Separate and Unequal: An Outline of Aboriginal Education 1900-1996', Reform
and Resistance in Aboriginal Education, UWA Publishing, Crawley, W.A., pp. 85-119

Biddle, N & Markham, F 2013, CAEPR Indigenous Population Project 2011 Census Papers,
Australian National University, Canberra

Department of Education and Early Childhood Development 2012, Strength-based approach: A guide
to writing Transition Learning and Development Statements, State Government Victoria, viewed 24
August 2016,
<http://www.education.vic.gov.au/documents/childhood/professionals/learning/strengthbappr.pdf>

Donovan, M 2015, 'Aboriginal Student Stories, the Missing Voice to Guide Us Towards Change', The
Australian Educational Researcher, vol. 42, no. 5, pp. 613-625.

Fforde, C, Bamblett, L, Lovett, R, Gorringe, S & Fogarty, B 2013, 'Discourse, Deficit and Identity:
Aboriginality, the Race Paradigm and the Language of Representation in Contemporary Australia',
Media International Australia Incorporating Culture and Policy, vol. 149, pp. 171-180.

Foley, D 2007, 'Aboriginality and pedagogy', Education, change and society, Oxford University
Press, South Melbourne, Vic, pp. 94-126

Gorringe, S 2011, 'Honouring our Strengths: Moving Forward', Education in Rural Australia, vol. 21,
no. 1, pp. 21-37.

Groundwater-Smith, S, Ewing, R & Le, CR 2015, Teaching: challenges & dilemmas, 5th edn,
Cengage Learning Australia, South Melbourne, Victoria.

Harrison, N 2011 ‘Starting out as a Teacher in Aboriginal Education’ Teaching and Learning in
Aboriginal Education, Oxford University Press, Australia, pp. 1-15.

Hoy, AW & Margetts, K 2013, Educational psychology, 3rd edn, Pearson Australia, Frenchs Forest,
N.S.W.

Kerley, V 2015 'Thoughts on Creating a Culturally Inclusive Classroom: Indigenous Literature and
the Australian Curriculum', Access, vol. 29, no. 3, pp. 4-6, 8-13.

Lawrence, H 1994, Aboriginal children in urban schools, Edith Cowan University, viewed 25 August
2016, <http://www.iier.org.au/iier4/lawrence.html>

Montgomery, W 2001, 'Creating Culturally Responsive, Inclusive Classrooms', Teaching Exceptional

Children, vol. 33, no. 4, pp. 4-9

Joshua Lowe 110163490 7

Partington, G 2012, 'The Future: Directions and Best Practice, Reform and Resistance in Aboriginal
Education, UWA Publishing, Crawley, W.A., pp. 403-445.

Partington, G & Beresford, Q 2012, 'The Context of Aboriginal Education’, Reform and Resistance in
Aboriginal Education, UWA Publishing, Crawley, W.A., pp. 35-84.

Price, K 2012, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Education: An Introduction for the Teaching
Profession, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Rahman, K 2013, Belonging and Learning to Belong in School: The Implications of the Hidden
Curriculum for Indigenous Students', Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, vol. 34,
no. 5, pp. 660-672.

Joshua Lowe 110163490 8