Chapter II

REVIEW RELATED LITERATURE

This part of the research will be discussing all the relevant literature connected in to the
study in the same situation from local and foreign study and any other literature.

Foreign Studies

How Students Get to School in Denver, Detroit, New Orleans, New York City, and
Washington, DC

According to (Boston Municipal Research Bureau 2016).school choice policies can have
a substantial impact on a district’s bottom line, depending on whether and how they provide
publicly funded school transportation. Each state has its own policy on whether charter school
students must be provided bus service by the local public school district.6 For example, Boston
Public Schools spent $12 million providing bus services for charter students in the 2016 fiscal
year, which amounts to 11 percent of the transportation budget to transport 14 percent of all
Boston resident students attending a public school (Boston Municipal Research Bureau 2016).

The relationship of student transportation to students’ health and safety is a critical intersection
for researchers, students, and parents. Issues of health and safety often arise from the trade-off
between walking or biking to school (sometimes called active commuting), compared with using
bus or private automobile transportation. One study estimated that 41 percent of students walked
or biked to school in 1969, but just 13 percent did so in 2001 (McDonald 2007).

The federal Safe Routes to School Program, authorized in 2005, encourages walking and biking
to school, and there have been modest increases in the use of these transportation modes in
recent years. National survey data from the National Center for Safe Routes to School indicates
that the percentage of students who walked to school rose substantially between 2007 and 2012
—from 12.4 percent to 15.7 percent before school and from 15.8 percent to 19.7 percent after
school, with a greater increase for students who attended low-income schools (National Center
for Safe Routes to School 2013)
The relative risk of each mode of transportation is highly dependent on the context of the
community surrounding the school. For example, the physical characteristics of an urban area,
such as the real or perceived safety of the neighborhood or traffic, can affect a student’s travel
mode to school (McMillian 2005). Nationally, the percentage of students who report being afraid
of attack or harm at school or on the way to and from school decreased from 12 percent in 1995
to 3 percent in 2013 (Robers et al. 2015).

TRANSPORT PROBLEMS FOR STUDENTS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON

ATTENDANCE IN COMMUNITY SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN TANZANIA

The government of Tanzania has put a lot of effort on education by giving it a priority to
ensure access to education and to improve the quality of education. Many secondary schools
have been built in different parts of country since introduction of the Secondary Education
Development Program (SEDP) in 2004. These schools are commonly known as community
secondary schools. The Secondary Education Development Program (SEDP) was launched to
respond Primary Education Development Plan (PEDP) of 2002/2006 which increased enrollment
rate from 59% in 2000 to 97% in 2007 (The United Republic of Tanzania (URT), 2010). The
United Republic of Tanzania (URT), (2004) SEDP identified five objectives which are
improvement of access, equity, quality, education management information system and
management reforms to enable the public administration to manage secondary education more
effectively. In accomplishing these objectives, there was a push by the government to increase
the number of secondary schools to maintain transition rate from primary to secondary schools.
The number of secondary schools increased from 1,202 government secondary schools in 2005
to 2,806 government secondary schools in 2007, doubling the number of secondary schools
accepting and enrollment (URT, 2010). With increase in number of secondary schools in
Tanzania, students’ enrollment has significantly increased. For example, boys’ enrollment in
form one jumped from 265,804 students in 2006 to 446,716 students in 2007, an increase of
51.7% while the girls’ enrollment jumped from 224,688 students to 382,378 students, an increase
of 50.3% (URT). The Dar es Salaam city had 127 community schools, 7 government schools and
200 private schools that made 334 total schools in 2012 (UTR, 2012) and the increase in
enrollment was in the newly constructed government community schools. The most of these
schools are located in non-urban settings and are day schools. It is important to consider that
remoteness schools do not have enough qualified students to fill school’s enrollment. According
to Prime minister’s office regional administration and local government (PMORALG) in Dar es
Salaam (December 30, 2013) indicated that there were 4788 chances in remoteness schools in all
Dar es Salaam municipalities whereby 822 in Temeke, 1864 in Ilala and 2102 in Kinondoni. For
instance, the schools mentioned in Temeke that had very low population of students were
Mguva, Somangila, Kimbiji, Kisalawe II and Pemba mnazi. The government built those schools
by considering space opportunity not population available. The study carried out by Sunday and
Olatunde (2011) in Ekiti State in Nigeria, employed location planning technique in order to
distribute facilities in relation to education reforms. They discovered that there were imbalances
in the relationship between population density and distribution of secondary schools by Local
Government Area, the result could be the same in Dar es Salaam city. The useful school
allocation considers physical and social aspects. For example, types of building, capacity, home,
location of mode transport, time taken in home or school journey and parental background.
Community schools are intended to enable children from poor families to get education at the
minimum cost. According to URT (2004), one of the SEDP goals is to improve access through
advancing affordability by reduction of household education costs. The evidence of this is
confirmed by the short distance covered by school students in their wards who live nearby the
school. But unfortunately enough, the selections and post for Form One students are conducted
by the government officials who just list the names of students and allocate the school without
considering wards where individuals come from and distance from home to school. The lack of
location technique in Dar es Salaam city when building community schools has brought negative
results for students and parents. Many of the students assigned to those community schools tend
to be from outside of their communities (wards); therefore, they have to travel a considerable
distance to get to school that may hinder the learning time. The amount of learning time is very
crucial to student achievement because students involve into the learning setting with diverging
levels of knowledge. Thus, when learning time is fixed, it is obvious that some students will
learn at a high level, some at a moderate level, some at a low level and some will not learn at all
due to being late and transport tension as well as tiredness (McKinney, 2000). The Constitution
of the Republic of Tanzania (1977) states "everyone has the right to get education”. To acquire
this human right, students must have transport to get to and from school safe. Student transport is
very important although there is little attention by government which has led to significant
impact on transport demands for students during peak hours. As a result according to Lurdes,
Didier and Pascal (2003) can facilitate drop out in schools for children from poor families.
Numbers of studies have established that poor student attendance is an important predictor of
school failure (Janes, 2009). Achievement gains in education are determined to a great degree by
time-on-task and time allocated for learning. Students who spend more time on task tend to
demonstrate more achievement gains than students who spend less time on task (Sanford and
Evertson, 1983; McKinney, 2000). The amount of time actually the student spent in the
classroom has a direct correlation to a student’s accesses education (Babyegeya, 2002). It means
that when a student comes late, skips class or being absent for whole day he or she will face
difficult to access education that lead catastrophe to achieve the best results. In order to improve
education, the government requested public transport (daladala) operators to transport students at
moderated fare but with the absence of any monetary compensation. Lurdes et al (2003)
contended that it is unprofitable customers of school children at rush hours since more than 90
percent of public transport dominated by private sector (Surface and Marine Transport
Regulatory Authority (SUMATRA, 2011) which increases in the number of incidents and
discrimination concerning school children.

Today, transport disadvantage is very outspread phenomenon which can influence individual's
need and opportunities. According to scientific literature, youth are often considered transport
disadvantaged part of the society. Their dependance on other people in the aspect of
transportation greatly influence their everyday life. In many ways crucial segment of youth's life
is education. The aim of this paper is to investigate the influence of transport disadvantage on
some segments of education of high school population of the City of Zagreb. The population of
interest comprised 826 high school students of high schools in the City of Zagreb. The research
was based on travel time, due to the fact that transport disadvantage is a function of accessibility
and mobility. Students' attitudes regarding the influence of transportation on education, as well as
the correlation between travel time and academic achievement or the pupils' absence from the
school, respectively, were investigated in this paper. Research was conducted and analysed using
quantitative, as well as qualitative methods. Data were obtained through questionnaire survey
and analysed via regression and correlation methods. In order to deepen the research of the
specific problems in high school population, addit ional research was performed in eight focus
groups of high school students of the City of Zagreb. Data analysis showed significant
correlation between travel time and academic achievements of pupils, as well as correlation
between travel time and absence from the school. It was also found that travel time negatively
affected attitude of pupils regarding the influence of transportation on their education. These
results are strongly supported by states collected through focus group research.(Slavic
Gasparovic 2014)

Some articles have studied the link between commuting time and achievement around the world:
In Sweden, Kjellström and Regnér (1999) argue that the distance to the nearest university have a
negative impact on the likelihood of starting higher education, and according to Westman et al.
(2015), both commuting time and travel mode have an impact on the cognitive performance and
current mood of students. In England, Gibbons and Vignoles (2012) found that geographical
distance has little or no impact on the decision to participate in higher education, but has a strong
influence on institutional choice, while Dickerson and McIntosh (2013) found that the distance
from the student’s home to the academic institutions have a negative impact on their probability
of studying more than the compulsory time. In Netherlands, Sá et al. (2006) showed that
geographical proximity increases the odds of high school graduates continuing their education at
a university or professional college, while Kobus et al. (2015) sustained that the university
students with greater commuting times visit their universities less often, and when they visit it,
they stay longer than other students, and have worse academic performance. Other articles
support that higher commuting times reduce the graduation rates in students from Norway (Falch
et al. 2013), and that the commuting time have a negative effect on the academic performance of
sixth-grade students from Brazil (Tigre et al., 2017).

In Chile, there is no direct evidence concerning the impact of commuting time over achievement.
A related article is Asahi (2016), which tries to estimate the impact of the expansion of the
subway network in Santiago on the student’s spatial mobility and their school’s performance.
The author finds that when the school become more accessible because of the network
expansion, the enrollment in the near schools increases, but also the performance of their
students diminish. Other authors studied the relationship between school choice and distance to
school: Gallego and Hernando (2008) found that 2 of the attributes that the parents value the
most when choosing a school are the school standardized test’s results and the distance to the
school, and that parents face a trade-off when choosing between them. Chumacero et al. (2011)
confirm their findings, using a dataset with much more accurate data about the distance from the
house to the school.
The release of this latest report from Bellwether Education Partners is fortuitously timed as
school districts large and small reach the end of another school
year beset by transportation problems. Authors Phillip Burgoyne-Allen and Jennifer O’Neal
Schiess dissect those challenges and argue convincingly that the difficulties in providing
effective and efficient service are the result of archaic structures, bureaucratic inertia, and siloed
responsibilities. It is less a question of money, as some would argue, than a lack of wherewithal
to change how that money is spent.The authors begin by describing the main models of student
transportation: district-operated, contractor-operated, public transit, and various combinations of
the three. While all of these models are decades old, the district-centered model still
predominates: school systems own and operate two-thirds of all school buses on the road today.
Various state funding models are also described. Some are aimed at maintaining the district-
operated status quo, others are more student and family-centric and agnostic on form, and still
others incentivize contracting out transportation or seeking economies of scale with parallel
public transit systems.Rural and suburban districts face challenges of distance and inefficient
routes. Urban districts face myriad challenges posed by school choice. With magnet schools,
charters, and vouchers available to growing numbers of students, transportation coordinators
must contend with varying school year starts, school day lengths, and distribution of students and
schools beyond their own borders.Despite a penchant for radical redesign of the educational
playing field, Bellwether takes a two-pronged approach to their recommendations here. They
lead with “inside the box” suggestions for districts unable or unwilling to change the basic
structure of district-operated transportation. These include greater use of technology and data to
help redesign routes for greater efficiency and better tracking, changes in funding to incentivize
efficiency and lessen environmental impacts, and regulatory changes to allow more and different
types of vehicles to serve students more flexibly.For metropolitan areas where choice is
increasing—and where transportation difficulties are mounting—Bellwether has more “out of the
box” recommendations (although better data use and incentive funding feature in both sets).
These involve a greater integration between student transportation and overall public transit. This
could mean a city bus or subway system taking on student transportation rather than simply
providing free or discounted passes for students, as is the case in cities like Washington, D.C. and
Columbus. Certain federal regulations currently prevent public transit from being used as
student-only transportation, severely limiting such integration, but metropolitan planning
organizations (MPOs) hold the key to bridging this gap, say the authors. MPOs are required in
any urbanized area with populations over 50,000 and are tasked with coordinating regional
transportation improvement plans in collaboration with all city, county, and state governments in
the region. While this has historically meant federal highway projects, a case study from
Hillsborough County, Florida, found within the report is an interesting albeit preliminary peek at
the possibilities of sharing technology, equipment, maintenance, and schedules among the
spectrum of transit providers. The countywide school system is represented on the Hillsborough
MPOs board, but the chilling effect of those federal regulations means little practical interaction
can occur(Jeff Murray 2017.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/749e/b20e8b6400528a19182916e96aa3b9ff6705.pdf

https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/88481/student_transportation_educational_acce
ss_0.pdf

https://editorialexpress.com/cgi-bin/conference/download.cgi?db_name=SECHI2018&paper_id=87