Anatomy- the study of biological form
Physiology- study of bio functions
Life is characterized by hierarchal levels of
organization, each with emergent properties
Levels of organization in organismal
complexity
1. Protoplasmic
 Unicellular organisms
 All life functions are
confined within the
boundaries of a single cell
 Protoplasm is
differentiated
 Ex paramecium
2. Cellular
 Aggregation of cells that
are functionally
differentiated
 A division of labor is
evident
3. Cell tissue
 Aggregation of similar cells
into definite patterns of
layers, thus becoming a
tissue
4. Tissue-organ
 An aggregation of tissues
into organs
5. Organ-system
 Organs work together to
perform some function
 Systems are associated
with basic body functions
Animal Body Plains
Symmetry
- Refers to balanced proportions
1. Spherical
 any plane
2. Radial
 body can be div into similar
halves by more than two
planes through the
longitudinal axis
3. Biradial
 Only to planes through
longitudinal axis
4. Bilateral
 Can be divided along
sagittal plane (right and left
halves)
5. Segmentation
 Metamerism (metamere-
segments)
 Serial repetition of body
segments
Types of tissue
REPRODUCTIVE
1. Sperm
2. Egg/oocyte
SOMATIC TISSUE
Epithelial
 Covers the outside of the body and
lines organs and cavities within the
body
 Compact; occurs in sheets of tightly
packed cells
 Little intercellular substance
 Polarized (apical, basal)
o Apical- exposed to air or
fluid lumen, structures:
microvilli, cilia, flagella
o Basal
 Have 3 main types of intercellular
links
o Tight junctions- prevents
leakage of ecf
o Desmosomes- anchoring
junction, fasten cells into
rivets, reinforced by keratin
o Gap junctions-
communicating junction
 Types according to layering
o Simple - single layer cells
o Stratified- many layers
o Pseudostratified- appear as
multi layered but made up
of a single layer only
 Type according to shape
o Cuboidal
o Squamous
o Columnar
 Types:
o Simple squamous- form a
continuous delicate lining
of blood capillaries, lungs
etc; permits passive
diffusion
o Stratified squamous- 2 to
many layers, adapted to
mech abrasion, basal
undergo continuous mitotic
div
o Simple columnar- found on
highly absorptive surfaces
o Stratified columnar- at least
two layers, in anorectal
region & salivary duct
o Simple cuboidal- lines small
ducts and tubules,
secretory and absorptive
functions
o Pseudostratified- single
layer, in vertebrates: forms
a mucous membrane
o Transitional- accommodate
great stretching, found in
urinary tract and bladder
o Glandular- absorb or
secrete chemical solutions,
can be exocrine, endocrine
or mixed
 Special terms
o Mesothelium- squamous
cells lining serous cavities
such as peritoneal and
pleural activities and lining
visceral organs
o Endothelium- lining of
blood and lymph vessels
Connective
 Mechanical support
 Exchange of metabolites between
blood and tissues
 Storage of energy reserve
 Protection against infection; repair
 Ecm is embedded in liquid or jelly
like substance
Types of cells
Fixed
Fibroblast/ fibrocyte
Mesenchymal
Adipose
Fixed microphage
Wandering (from blood)
White blood cells
 Amorphous ground substance
o Glycosaminoglycans- ex
chondroitin sulphate
o Permit diffusion of gases,
water substances,
nutrients, wastes
o Important for places with
absence of small blood
vessels
 Types of connective fibers
o Collagenous fibers
 Made up of
collagen
 Flexible, non-
elastic, does not
tear easily when
pulled lengthwise
o Elastic
 Elastin
 Rubbery
o Reticular
 Very thin and
branched
 Collagen
 Joins connective
tissue to adjacent
tissues
 Major types of connective tissue
Fibrous/dense
- Dense due to its large number of
collagenous fibers
 - Fibers are organized into parallel
bundles
- Forms tendons and ligaments
Loose
- Binds epithelia to underlying tissue
- Functions as packing materials
holding organs in place
- Has all three fiber types
- Two cell types predominantly:
fibroblasts and macrophages
Adipose
- Specialized form of loose tissue that
stores fat in adipose cells
- Pads and insulates body and stores
fuel as fat molecules
Cartilage
- Has abundance of collagenous fibers
embedded in a rubbery matrix made
of chrondroitin sulphate
- Chondrocytes secrete collagen and
chondroitin sulphate
Types:
Hyaline- sig proportion of collagenous fibers,
nose larynx trachea, support and
reinforcement
Elastic- contains fine collagenous fibers and
many elastic fibers, external ears epiglottis
Fibrocartilage- many large collagenous fibers,
absorbs compression shock
Bone
- Mineralized connective tissue
- Osteoblasts are cells that deposit a
matrix of collagen
- Calcium, magnesium and phosphate
ions combine and harden within the
matrix into the mineral
hydroxyapatite
- Hard mineral + collagen = harder
than cartilage
Blood
- Composition:
55% plasma (water, salts dissolved
proteins)
45% formed elements (erythrocytes,
leukocytes, platelets)
- Plasma
 Proteins: fibrinogen, albumin,
globulin
 Supplies for cells: glucose, fats,
amino acids, salts
 Cell products: enzyme,
hormones, antibodies
 Wastes: urea, uric acid
- Formed elements- produced by
bone marrow
Types of white blood cells
Granulocyte
Neutrophil- phagocytic
Eosinophil
Basophil- inflammatory
Agranulocyte
Lymphocyte- antibody prod
monocyte
Muscular
 composed of muscle fibers that are
capable of contracting when
stimulated by nerve impulses
 most abundant tissue in most
animals
 muscle contraction accounts for
most of the energy consuming
cellular work in active animals
Types
Skeletal
- Cylindrical and striated cells with
multiple nuclei (syncytial)
- Occurs in muscles attached to
skeleton
- Single innervation attached to
skeleton
- Voluntary movement
Smooth muscle
- Spindle-shaped cells, single nucleus
- Have no striations
- Double innervation by para
sympathetic nervous system;
involuntary
- Blood vessel and digestive tract
walls
- For movement of substances in
lumens of body
Cardiac muscle
- Cylindrical but branching striated
cells, with single nucleus
- Double innervation by para and
sympa ns; involuntary
- Occurs in wall of heart
- For pumping of blood
Nervous Tissue
 Irritability and conductivity
 Senses stimuli and transmits signals
 Neurons= functional unit; consists
of cell body, dendrites and axons
o Dendrite- transmits nerve
impulses from their tips
toward the rest of the
neuron; receive stimuli
o Axon- transmits impulses
toward another neuron or
effector (muscle cell)

 Types of neurons:
o Sensory (afferent)
o Motor (efferent)
o Interneuron