Navegacion Con Brujula Lensatica

PART 1
BASIC
LAND NAVIGATION
PART 1 Basic Land Navigation
USING THE
MILITARY
LENSATIC
COMPASS
WARNING
This presentation is intended as a
quick summary, and not a
comprehensive resource. If you
want to learn Land Navigation in
detail, either buy a book; or get
someone, who has the knowledge
and skills, to teach you in person.
NOTE
To get the ideas across presented on
these slides, many figures, pictures,
and calculations may not be to scale
and may be exaggerated for clarity.
Note:
Prior to being issued any training *equipment, you will
be required to sign a “statement of liability” agreeing
to pay for anything you damage or lose.
All items will be inspected and inventoried prior to

your signature and at the end of the training day too.
If you do not intend to sign this statement, then you

may be denied training.
* You may use your own equipment.
Any Questions?
LAND NAVIGATION WITH MAP

AND LENSATIC COMPASS
LAND NAVIGATION
Why Learn Land Navigation? Training and practicing land navigation on foot
provides the following everyday navigation (how not to get lost) benefits;
- Tracking present location (Where am I ?)
- Determining Distance (How far is it and am I there yet ?)
- Sense of direction (Where do I want to go and where am I actually going ?)
- How to read a topographic map (Do I understand the map ?)
-Terrain and map association (What hill or river am I looking at ?)
- Spatial skills (Can I mentally visualize the landscape in 3D ?)
- Planning safe, practical routes (Take a long safe route or a short risky route ?)
- And more Navigational skills
The best way to learn LAND NAVIGATION is to get "dirt time", that is, get out there with a map and compass!
Navigation is not about finding yourself after you are lost (although that’s what happens sometimes); it’s about
keeping track of your position as you move away from a known point. As you move you have to remain
cognizant of the terrain you are leaving, of the terrain you are passing, and of the terrain that is ahead.
Navigation in the wilderness means knowing your starting point, your destination, and your route to get there.
These skills will allow you to venture farther off the beaten path than you ever thought before.
THIS PRESENTATION IS DIVIDED INTO FOUR PARTS

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

 The Lensatic Compass
 The Topographic Map
 The Land and Map Association
PART 2 Intermediate Land Navigation
 Making Sense of Direction
Tracking Present Location
 Determining Travel Distance
PART 3 Advance Land Navigation
 Planning to Navigate
 Navigation Methods to Stay On Course
 Additional Skills of Land Navigation
PART 4 Expert Land Navigation
 Navigation in different types of Terrain
 Night Navigation
 Sustainment
Any Questions?
PART 1
BASIC LAND NAVIGATION
• The Lensatic Compass
– Description
– Parts and Features
• The Topographic Map

– Description
– How to Read
• The Land
– Terrain Features
– Terrain and Map Association
THE LENSATIC COMPASS

The genuine Lensatic compass differs
from the type most hikers are familiar
with, the traditional "orienteering"
compasses. The Lensatic, a design
preferred by military forces for its
precision and durability, is designed to
take hyper-accurate bearings for land
navigation and directing artillery fire!
LENSATIC COMPASS
DESCRIPTION
• Preferred by military for its precision and durability, and its hyper-accuracy in land
navigation and combat.
• Battle tested - shock, water, sand proof, and functional from -50ºF to +150ºF.
• Uses a retractable lens to read the bearing while simultaneously sighting an object.
• With the Lensatic you just point and shoot one target and immediately move on to the next.
• Luminous Lights allow for navigation in low-light conditions and night navigation.
• Equipped with a magnifying lens, sight wire, and dial graduations in both degrees and mils
to ensure accurate readings.
• Copper induction dampening system slows the rotation of the magnet without the use of
liquids. Retractable lens locks the dial jewel bearing when stowed to lessen wear and tear.
• Employs a "Card" type compass Dial, and this makes for single handed operation.
(Most magnetic "needle" type, always requires 2 hands.)
• A 'deep-well' design is used to allow the compass to be used globally with little or no effect
in accuracy caused by a tilting compass dial.
• Lensatic sighting compasses are so simple and rugged and incredibly easy to use that it is
no wonder they are the standard type used for navigation by the U. S. Military.
LENSATIC COMPASS
GENUINE or IMITATION
Cheap Lensatic Copies
When someone tried to buy a genuine CAMMENGA LENSATIC COMPASS from websites, they came
across a whole raft of cheap imitations. Most outlets tell you they are selling ‘Military Style’ Lensatic
compasses (fake, inaccurate, missing features) – but some claim to offer U.S. Government Military Lensatic
compasses for just $14.95, which are also fake cheap imitations.
Cheap copies break easily, are not accurate, have false features displayed on the compass
glass face and will mislead you.
The genuine lensatic compass used by the military is very durable, accurate, and easy
to use. It can survive rough handling and harsh environments.
Buy the Genuine Article

Purchasing a genuine
CAMMENGA LENSATIC
COMPASS is easy, go to
www.cammenga.com
Click below
Lensatic Compass Evaluation.pdf
to read about the comparison
of compasses…
“orienteering compass
vs.
lensatic compass”.
Any Questions?
LENSATIC COMPASS
PARTS and Features of a Lensatic compass
Bezel 3. LENS
Floating Dial
REAR
Fixed Index Line
SITE
Luminous Magnetic Arrow Sighting Slot
Luminous Sighting Dots
Luminous Bezel Line
Sighting Wire
Luminous Heading
Lens
Lanyard Ring
Thumb Loop
Graduated Straight Edge
1. COVER 2. BASE
LENSATIC COMPASS
Cover - Protects the floating dial and other parts of the compass when closed.
• Sighting Wire - front sight used with rear sight, for sighting landmarks for azimuth headings.
• Luminous Sighting Dots – used in low-light condition and night navigation. Also a visual
queue on aligning your body with the compass during night navigation.
• Graduated Straight Edge - upper half of a standard 1:50,000 scale map ruler, for measuring
distances on a map.
LENSATIC COMPASS
Base - The main body of the compass. If, for any reason, the lensatic compass
were to malfunction, the base would be the piece that you would want to still work.
• Bezel Ring – device clicks when turned; full 360° rotation is 120 clicks; each click equals 3°.
• Luminous Bezel Line – Used to mark a course direction during day or night navigation.
• Floating Dial – black scale (mils), red scale (degrees), set in a deep tub for global use.
• Luminous Heading – to read azimuth heading in low-light or night conditions.
• Luminous Magnetic Arrow – always points to magnetic north.
• Thumb Loop – to hold compass with the thumb.
• Fixed Index Line – azimuth heading.
• Lanyard Ring – for string or rope.
NOTE:
The only way for the compass
to malfunction is for the user to
misuse and abuse the compass.
FLOATING DIAL SCALE BLACK RING

Mils - is used mainly in artillery, tank, and
mortar gunnery. AND is also used for very
accurate azimuth land navigation.
• 6400 Mils to a Circle
• Distance Between Small Marks = 20 Mils
• Distance Between Big Marks = 100 Mils
• Distance Between Numbers = 200 Mils
N = 64 (6400)
E = 16 (1600)
S = 32 (3200)
W = 48 (4800)
8.89 Mils = ½ Degree
17.78 Mils = 1 Degree
LENSATIC
COMPASS
FLOATING DIAL SCALE BLACK RING

Mils - is used mainly in artillery, tank, and
mortar gunnery. AND is also used for very
accurate azimuth land navigation.
• 6400 Mils to a Circle
• Distance Between Small Marks = 20 Mils
• Distance Between Big Marks = 100 Mils
• Distance Between Numbers = 200 Mils
N = 64 (6400)
E = 16 (1600)
S = 32 (3200)
W = 48 (4800)
8.89 Mils = ½ Degree
17.78 Mils = 1 Degree
RED RING
Degrees – common unit of measure is

the degree (º).
• 360 Degrees to a Circle
• Distance Between Red Marks = 5º
• Distance Between Big Marks = 10º
• Distance Between Red Numbers = 20º
N = 0º
E = 90º
S = 180º
W = 270º
Any Questions?
LENSATIC COMPASS
GRADUATED STRAIGHT EDGE
Approximately 1 inch (every 13 ticks)
Exactly 1 cm (every 5 ticks)

Used to take distance measurements from point ―A‖ to point ―B‖ ZERO
on maps; in conjunction with the distance bar scales on the map.
NOTE
When used on a 1:50,000 map, each tick mark on the edge
represents 100 meters (107 yards) of ground distance.
LENSATIC COMPASS
Lens Rear Site - Sighting device.
• Lens - used to read the dial.

• Rear Site - used in conjunction with the front site wire for sighting on objects.
NOTE:
The Lens Rear Sight also serves as a locking device
and locks the dial jewel bearing to protect from wear
and tear when closed. Also the rear sight must be
opened more than 45° to allow dial to float freely.
When traveling make sure that the rear sight is

totally folded down as this will lock the floating
dial and prevent vibration, as well as protect the
crystal and rear sight from being damaged.
Any Questions?
LENSATIC COMPASS
HANDLING A COMPASS
When buying a new compass check . . .
• That the dial does not stick
• Sighting wire is not bent
• Glass and other parts are not broken
• Numbers on the dial are legible
• Check for accuracy along a known line of direction
— Discard any type of compass with more than a 3° +/- variation.
— Lensatic compass is accurate to a ½° degree (better when using the mils scale).
• When traveling make sure that the rear sight is totally folded down as this will lock the floating
dial and prevent vibration, as well as protect the crystal and rear sight from being damaged.
EFFECTS OF METAL AND ELECTRICITY – these sources affect the performance of a compass during use.
• 180 feet / 55 meters High tension power lines
• 33 feet / 10 meters Truck, car, Barbed wires
• 6 feet / 2 meter Hunting rifle
• 1 feet / ½ meter Knife, flashlight, binoculars, camera
• Inches / centimeters Belt buckle, paper clip, jewelry, etc.
• Misc distances any local geological magnetic rocks.
LENSATIC COMPASS
INSPECTING A COMPASS
Compasses are delicate instruments and should be cared for accordingly. A detailed
inspection is required when first obtaining and using a compass. Important serviceability
checks are outlined below:
VISUAL INSPECTION
• Your compass should be opened to see that the cover glass is not broken, clouded, or
cracked and that the compass dial does not stick.
• The front cover should be inspected to see if the cover sighting wire is missing or
bent. If it is, use the center of the opening for sighting purposes, not the wire.
• The eyepiece should be placed flat against the cover glass. The index line on the cover glass should bisect the sight slot.
Then, with the compass closed, it should be noted that the sighting wire also bisects the sight slot.
 This procedure will ensure that the eyepiece is not bent. Gently bend the eyepiece back into proper alignment, if
necessary.
• Check the bezel ring around the face of the compass; it should make a distinct click as it is rotated. If it does not click,
you will have to use an alternate method for night azimuth settings.
MAINTENANCE
• The lensatic compass is built to detailed specifications that were developed in an attempt to increase its serviceable life.
Adherence to very simple maintenance procedures will significantly increase the life of the lensatic compass. Maintenance
procedures are outlined below:
• Rinse in fresh water. This is extremely important, especially after exposure to salt water.
• Brush off dirt and grime. Ensure the "ridges" on the bezel ring are free of dirt. Check movement of the rear sight to
ensure it is free moving.
LENSATIC COMPASS
CALIBRATION
A compass in good working condition is very accurate, but it should be checked periodically
on a known line of direction. This process is called compass calibration.
CALIBRATION
• Note the calibration point azimuth. This is the known magnetic azimuth
from the calibration point to a designated point.
• Shoot an azimuth from the calibration point to the designated point
utilizing the compass-to-cheek technique (described in detail later in this
handout).
• Ensure you check for effects on your compass from your eyeglasses,
watches, rings, etc. If you wear these items in the field, ensure you wear
them when calibrating your compass.
Compare azimuths:
• If your compass shot an azimuth greater than the calibration point azimuth, then you must add the
difference between the two azimuths (the calibration point value) to your computed magnetic azimuth.
 Conversely, you must also ensure you subtract this value when converting from an actual compass
(magnetic) azimuth to a grid azimuth.
• If your compass shot an azimuth less than the calibration point azimuth, then you must subtract the
difference between the two azimuths (the calibration point value) from your computed magnetic azimuth.
 Conversely, you must also ensure you add this value when converting from an actual compass
(magnetic) azimuth to a grid azimuth.
Any Questions?
HOW TO SIGHT
A
LENSATIC COMPASS
SIGHTING A LENSATIC COMPASS

Compass-to-Cheek method
for taking a target azimuth bearing
• The compass-to-cheek technique is used almost exclusively for sighting, and it is the best
technique for this purpose.
• It is the most efficient technique for taking an accurate azimuth bearing.

SIGHTING A
LENSATIC
COMPASS

Any Questions?
65° AZIMUTH
(11.5m = 1,150mils)

Compass-to-Cheek method
this is worth repeating
• The compass-to-cheek technique is used almost exclusively for sighting, and it is the best
technique for this purpose.
• It is the most efficient technique for taking an accurate azimuth bearing.
SIGHTING
LENSATIC
COMPASS
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Any Questions?
LENSATIC COMPASS
Center-Hold method
The center-hold technique is less precise, but is faster to use and can be used under all conditions of visibility.
1. Open the cover until it forms a straight edge with the base.
2. Pull the rear sight to the rear most position, allowing the dial to float freely.
3. Next, place your thumb through the thumb loop, form a steady base with your third and fourth fingers, and
extend your index finger along the side of the compass.
4. Place the thumb of the other hand between the rear sight and the bezel ring; extend the index finger
along the remaining side of the compass, and the remaining fingers around the fingers of the other hand.
5. Pull your elbows firmly into your sides; this will place the compass between your chin and your belt.
6. To measure azimuth, turn entire body toward the object, pointing the compass cover directly at the object.
7. Once you are pointing at the object, look down and read the azimuth from the fixed black index line.
LENSATIC COMPASS
Center-Hold method for following an azimuth bearing
1. Using the Center-Hold method to hold the compass to your body.
2. Turn your body till desired azimuth is aligned with Black Index Line, hold this azimuth. Example 25º.
3. Without turning compass, rotate Bezel Ring till Luminous Bezel Line is aligned with North Arrow .
4. Once bezel is set leave it there. (Till you are ready to change heading, then start the process over again.)
5. Keeping the North Arrow aligned with the Luminous Bezel Line, proceed forward in the direction
of the desired azimuth 25º on the Black Index Line.
STEP 2 STEP 3
Any Questions?
THE TOPOGRAPHIC MAP
Without ever having been

to a particular place, and with out
talking to someone who has been
there, you can already know quite
a lot about it with a map. A map is
a graphic representation of the
earth’s surface drawn to scale, as
seen from above. It uses colors,
lines, symbols, and labels to
represent features found on the
ground.
However, the finest maps

available are worthless unless the
map user knows how to read them.
TOPOGRAPHIC MAP
DESCRIPTION
• Reading a map is a language composed of lines, colors, and symbols.
• Five basic colors are used for Topographic Maps.
– Brown (Contour Lines)
– Black (Man Made Features, Roads, Trails)
– Blue (Water Features)
– Green (Vegetation)
– Red (Highway and Land Grids)
– Two minor colors
• Pink (Built up area, civilization)
• Purple (Updated Map Information)
• Symbols are used to represent the natural and man-made features of the earth.
• Lines show relief and elevation; it indicates variations in terrain features and heights of natural features.
• Every map has Margin Information about the map.
• Maps come in three scale sizes; SMALL, MEDIUM, and LARGE. Which affects the amount of area
covered and detail that will be shown.
• A map is read for four basic kinds of information.
– Direction
– Distance
– Position
– Identification
• Maps must be taken care of and properly folded for field use.
Map Margin Information

• A map could be compared to any piece of equipment, in that before it is placed into operation the user
must read the instructions.
• It is important that you know how to read these instructions.
• The most logical place to begin is the marginal information and symbols, where useful information telling
about the map is located and explained.
• All maps are not the same, so it becomes necessary every time a different map is used to examine the
marginal information carefully.

The top left corner of all USGS topographic maps carries the imprint of the authority
responsible for the mapping .

In the upper right corner is the complete quadrangle name. The state is also given,
as may be the county. Also included is the area covered and the type of map.

In the bottom right corner of the map is a
• key to roads on the map.
• Map name and state.
• date of the map - one of the most significant pieces of information available.
• quadrangle location shown as a black square superimposed on a state map.

At bottom center is the
• map scale ratio – size of area covered and terrain detail.
• Distance bar scales show several alternative units for the measurement of distance.
• the contour interval. The contours are the brown lines.

In the lower left corner is the credit legend, a complex of information. And the following
• the magnetic declination.
– The star indicates true north: the direction of the North (rotational) Pole
– "MN" indicates the direction of the North Magnetic Pole
– "GN" (Grid North), the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) grid.

Additional information is distributed around the entire map margin. (only ―need to know‖ items are circled)
• (1) names for adjoining quadrangle maps (in black). Adjacent to corners and centers of the map sides.
• (2) In red are the distances by road to the nearest towns.
• (3) The spherical grid, latitude and longitude, complete coordinates are given at each corner of the map.
• (4) the UTM (in black lettering with blue tics) and the UTM grid is in kilometers.
(1) (4)
(1) (1)
(1) (1)
(3) (2)
(4)
(1) (1) (1)

(1)
Any Questions?
Map Scale
• Map scale is the relationship between distance on a map and the corresponding distance on the ground.
Scale is expressed as a ratio, such as 1:24,000, and shown graphically by bar scales marked in feet and
miles, or in meters and kilometers. Maps with a small scale for example, 7.5-minute maps, are often called
large-scale maps because they show more detail (by covering less area) than a large bar-scale (30- x 60-
minute) map.
• You must know the scale to determine ground distances between objects or locations on the map, the size
of the area covered, and how the scale may affect the amount of detail being shown.
• The terms ―small scale,‖ ―medium scale,‖ and ―large scale‖ may be confusing when read in conjunction
with the number.
• However, if the number is viewed as a fraction, it quickly becomes apparent that 1:600,000 of something
is smaller than 1:75,000 of the same thing. Therefore, the larger the number after 1:, the smaller the scale
of the map.
• (1) Small. Maps with scales of 1:1,000,000 and smaller are used for general planning and for strategic
studies. The standard small-scale map is 1:1,000,000 (1 inch = 16 miles). This map covers a very large
land area at the expense of less detail.
• (2) Medium. Maps with scales larger than 1:1,000,000 but smaller than 1:75,000 are used for operational
planning. They contain a moderate amount of detail, but terrain analysis is best done with the large-scale
maps. The standard medium-scale map is 1:250,000 (1 inch = 4 miles). Medium-scale maps of
1:100,000 are also frequently encountered.
• (3) Large. Maps with scales of 1:75,000 and larger are used for tactical, administrative, and logistical
planning. These are the maps that you as a Soldier or junior leader are most likely to encounter. The
standard large-scale map is 1:50,000; however, many areas have been mapped at a scale of
1:25,000 (1 inch = 2,000 feet). Lots of detail is shown on this type of map.
Map Scale
Medium-scale topo map (1:150,000)

SOME DETAIL
Large-scale topo map (1:24,000)

LOTS OF DETAIL
Small-scale map (1:100,000,000) Medium-scale map (1:250,000)

VERY LITTLE DETAIL MORE DETAIL
Map Scale
Large-scale map (1:24,000)

LOTS OF DETAIL
Any Questions?
Map Symbols
Symbols are used to represent the natural and man-made features of the earth.
It is a map language that is simple to read and understand. BUT you must first know what the map symbols
represent, in order to understand, read and speak map language to others.
cem
VEGETATION
Map Symbols
Woods
Shrub
Orchard
Vineyard
Mangrove
SUBMERGED AREAS Map Symbols
AND BOGS
Marsh or swamp
Submerge marsh
or swamp
Wood marsh
or swamp
Submerge wood
marsh or swamp
Rice field
Land subject
to inundation
RIVERS, LAKES, AND CANALS Map Symbols
Intermittent stream Perennial lake or pond
Perennial stream Intermittent lake or pond
Intermittent river Dry lake
Well or spring
Perennial river
Small falls; small rapids Dam
Large falls; large rapids Canal

MAN-MADE FEATURES and HIGHWAY & LAND GRIDS
Map Symbols
Built-up Areas Highway
Buildings Land Grids

Road
12 13 14
School
Dirt Road 15 16 17
18 19 20
Church
Bridge
Airports
Landing Strip Foot Bridge
Cemetery cem Trail
Mine
Power Lines
Gravel Pit Railroad

Any Questions?
CONTOUR LINES A=700 ft

B=740 ft
C=770 ft
Contour Interval ~ The contour interval is the distance D=820 ft
between each contour line. The contour interval is found along
the bottom edge, center of the map.
Intermediate Contour ~ a brown line on a topographic map
and represents a line of equal elevation.
Index Contour ~ a bolder/wider brown line that has the
elevation value marked at various intervals as a part of the line.
Example: contour is 20 feet interval
CONTOUR LINES
• There is a dimension to establishing position which does depend on map reading skills.
• This is the vertical dimension. On a map it is referred to as ―relief‖.

– Knowledge of the relief of an area is extremely important to a wilderness navigator.
• The most graphic technique ever devised to show relief information is the contour line.
– If you were to walk a contour line you would never go down hill and never up hill, and eventually you
would arrive back where you started.
Any Questions?
Terrain Relief Features

Five Major Three Minor
• Ridge • Spur
• Hill • Draw
• Saddle • Cliff
• Valley Two Supplemental
• Depression • Cut
• Fill
RIDGE
HILL
S
A
D
D
L
E
VALLEY
DEPRESSION
SPURS
DRAWS
CLIFF
C
U
T
F
I
L
L
Terrain Features
Any Questions?
Map Information – Direction

EXPRESSING DIRECTION
• You need a way of expressing direction that is accurate, is adaptable to any part of the world, and has a common unit of
measure. Directions are expressed as units of angular measure and direction implies a reference point.
• The common reference point for maps is True North, and map direction is figured in degrees from that point.
• Azimuths - The direction from one point to another point (either on the map or on the ground) is called an azimuth.
– Azimuths are given in degrees in a clockwise direction. Since there are 360° in a circle, an azimuth can be any
number up to 360°. East is 90°, South is 180°, West is 270°, and North is 360°.
• Maps are laid out with the top toward the top of the earth – True North (geographic north) and map north. The side edges
of the map are the only lines on the map guaranteed to run true north-south.
• The many north-south lines on a map give grid north. The compass needle points to magnetic north. Grid north and
magnetic north usually have a few degrees difference. Neither points straight at the North Pole; that is called ―true north.‖
• With compass and map you can know what direction you are heading.

THREE TYPES OF DIRECTION
• True North. A line from any point on the earth's surface to the north pole. Is represented by a star.
• Magnetic North. The direction to the north magnetic pole, as indicated by the north-seeking needle of a
magnetic compass. The magnetic north is usually symbolized by a line ending with half of an arrowhead.
• Grid North. The north that is established by using the vertical grid lines on the map. Symbolized by the
letters GN. Used for UTM grid by military and rescue teams for its accuracy and simplicity.
G-M ANGLE. The angular difference between GN and MN. G - M Angle
Your
Why do we need to know all this? 14° + 10° = 24° direction
So that we can navigate using a map, the ground of travel
(we often forget the ground is important) and compass.
You cannot follow a GN with a compass; nor can you
plot a MN with a protractor. To assist you in making
the conversion from MN to GN, and vice versa, a
declination diagram is placed on the map margin.
Remember the following.
When using a map - use a protractor (next slides) to measure
GRID Bearings. Do not use the compass magnetic needle.
(unless map has MN Lines – see Part 2 Intermediate Land Nav)
When using the ground – use a Compass to Measure

MAGNETIC Bearings.
With GN and G-M ANGLE you can find the MN.
With MN and G-M ANGLE you can find the GN.

CONVERSION (three ways to remember)
Left to Right SUBTRACT WEST to EAST is least ( - ) SUBTRACT

Right to Left ADD EAST to WEST is best ( + ) ADD
MN GN GN
MN
When MN is to the west (left) of GN
MN to GN subtract G-M ANGLE
GN to MN add G-M ANGLE
GN MN GN
When MN is to the east (right) of GN MN
MN to GN add G-M ANGLE
GN to MN subtract G-M ANGLE

CONVERSION
(example 1)
G - M Angle
14° + 10° = 24°
Left to Right SUBTRACT Your
Right to Left ADD direction
of travel
HOW?
From ground to map.
1. You measure the bearing of a landmark on the ground
with a compass. It is 49° MN.
2. The G-M ANGLE on the Map is 24°
3. So MN to GN SUBTRACT 49°- 24° = 25° GN (Draw this

on your map)
From map to ground.
1. You measure the bearing of a point on the map with a
protractor (next slides). It is 25° GN.
3. So GN to MN ADD 25°+ 24° = 49° MN (Put this on your compass)


CONVERSION
(example 2)
Left to Right SUBTRACT

Right to Left ADD G - M Angle
14° - 5° = 9°
HOW?
From ground to map.
1. You measure the bearing of a landmark on the ground Your
with a compass. It is 322° MN. direction
of travel
3. So MN to GN ADD 322°+ 9° = 331° GN (Draw this

on your map)
From map to ground.
1. You measure the bearing of a point on the map with a
protractor (next slides). It is 331° GN.
3. So GN to MN SUBTRACT 331°- 9° = 322° MN (Put this on your

compass)
Any Questions?

PROTRACTOR
1. With a protractor the map does

NOT have to be oriented.
2. It is used to calculate direction
from map to ground (compass)
by converting the protractor GN to
a MN for the compass.
3. It is used for –
• Plotting azimuths
• Plotting position
• Plotting UTM coordinates
NOTE
If you have MN LINES drawn on the
map, you can align the protractor
to a MN LINE, get the MN azimuth
on the protractor and you DO NOT
have to do any MN conversions.
(see Part 2 Intermediate Land Nav)

PROTRACTOR (with a protractor the map does NOT have to be oriented)
From map to ground.
1. You are in thick woods and cannot
A
see any landmarks. But you decide
to go to a hill (A) on the map.
2. With protractor aligned with GRID
LINES drawn on the map and the
center of the protractor aligned on
your map position (you are here).
3. You see that the azimuth is 29° or

520 MILS. Next page for closer view
4. Convert this to MN azimuth and put
this on your compass.
NOTE
If you have MN
LINES drawn on the
map, align the
you are
protractor to a MN here
LINE, get the MN
azimuth and you
DON’T have to do
MN conversions.
(See PART 2
Intermediate Land
Navigation)

PROTRACTOR (with a protractor the map does NOT have to be oriented)
From map to ground.
1. You are in thick woods and cannot
see any landmarks. But you decide
to go to a hill (A) on the map.
2. With protractor aligned with GRID
LINES drawn on the map and the
center of the protractor aligned on
your map position (you are here).
3. You see that the azimuth is 29° or

520 MILS. See previous page
4. Convert this to MN azimuth and put
this on your compass.
NOTE
If you have MN
LINES drawn on the
map, align the
protractor to a MN
LINE, get the MN
azimuth and you
DON’T have to do
MN conversions.
(See PART 2
Intermediate Land
Navigation)
Any Questions?
Map Information - Direction

Orienting the Map with the Landscape (MN and True North)
TECHNIQUE # 1 (True North)
1. Identify several landmarks on the map and on the terrain.

2. Visually orient the map landmarks with the terrain landmarks.
3. The map is oriented to True North.
TECHNIQUE # 2 (Magnetic North)

With compass & map:
1. Lay the compass on the MN
line on the map.
2. Rotate the map and compass
together until the compass
bearing reads 0° degrees
Magnetic North (compass and
MN line on the map are
aligned / parallel).
3. The map is oriented to MN.

Orienting the Map with the Landscape (True North)
TECHNIQUE # 3
1. Find Magnetic Declination value in the map margin (bottom left corner), example East 11.5°.
2. Place compass edge on edge of map North/South line with front of compass facing top of map.
3. Rotate map and compass together until North Arrow is 11.5° east of Black Index Line.
Note: Black Index Line is aligned with 348.5°(360° – 11.5° = 348.5°), map is oriented to TRUE NORTH.
MN 11.5° East of North correct for 1990

and moves easterly by 0.1° annually.

Orienting the Map with the Landscape (Magnetic North)
TECHNIQUE # 4 – when your position on the map is known.
1. Select a terrain feature on the ground that you can find on the map, example the HILL.
2. With the compass, sight the azimuth to the HILL(295 °) from your position ( ).
3. Align the compass edge through the HILL and your position ( ).
4. Rotate map and compass together until 295° is aligned with the Black Index Line. Map is oriented MN.
HILL
HILL
Any Questions?
Map Information - Distance

• The relationship between map and ground distance is the function of the bar scale.
• The bar scale looks like a small ruler and usually has 3 to 4 bar scales; feet, miles, meters, and
kilometers.
• The ability to determine distance on a map, as well as on the earth’s surface, is an important factor in
planning and executing safe, practical routes.
• The map scale of 1:xx,xxx means that one unit of measure on the map is equal to xx,xxx units of the
same measure on the ground.
– Example
• A map scale of 1:25,000 means that one unit of measure on the map is equal to 25,000 units of
the same measure on the ground.
– On map 1 inch = 25,000 inches (2083 feet, 694 yards) on the ground.
– On map 1 cm = 25,000 cm (250 meters, ¼ kilometer) on the ground.
• A map scale of 1:100,000 means that one unit of measure on the map is equal to 100,000 units
of the same measure on the ground.
– On map 1 inch = 100,000 inches (8333 feet, 2778 yards, 1¾ miles) on the ground.
– On map 1 cm = 100,000 cm (1000 meters, 1 kilometer) on the ground.
• A map scale of 1:500,000 means that one unit of measure on the map is equal to 500,000 units
– On map 1 inch = 500,000 inches (41667 feet, 13889 yards, 8 miles) on the ground.
– On map 1 cm = 500,000 cm (5000 meters, 5 kilometer) on the ground.
Map Information - Distance

• EXAMPLE - a map scale of 1:25,000 means that one unit of measure on the map is equal to 25,000 units
– On map 1 inch = 25,000 inches (2083 feet, 694 yards) on the ground.
– On map 1 cm = 25,000 cm (250 meters, ¼ kilometer) on the ground.
• Example below shows the navigator using centimeters (cm) as a measurement, therefore the map 10cm
measurement is equal to 250,000cm on the ground. (3.9 inches map = 97,500 inches ground)
10cm x 25,000 = 250,000cm (2.5 Km) 3.9in x 25,000 = 97,500in (1.5 miles)
Map Information - Position

• Finding one’s position on a map in the usual sense, such as at the intersection of two compass bearings,
is more a matter of compass technique than of map reading skills. . . BUT . . .
• It is possible to locate your POSITION on a map without a compass, by land feature and map association.
• It is IMPOSSIBLE TO BE TOTALLY LOST. Finding your location is a process of narrowing down the
options until you can determine a point on a map.
– By determining the lay of the land and finding prominent features, then relating them to your map,
the narrowing-down process will not take long.
– Landmarks can be anything that you recognize as being on the map. Classically these are hill tops,
but you can use the intersection of two roads, a building such as a power grid sub-station, the abrupt
edge of a ridge, the edge of an island, the bend in a trail, anything that you can recognize as being
on the map and that you can see.
• There is a second dimension to establishing position which does depend on map reading skills. This is
the vertical dimension. On a map it is referred to as ―relief‖.
– Knowledge of the relief of an area is extremely important to a wilderness navigator.
– The most graphic technique ever devised to show relief information is the contour line.
– If you were to walk a contour line you would never go down hill and never up hill, and eventually you
would arrive back where you started.
• Navigation is not about finding yourself after you are lost (although that’s what
happens sometimes); navigation is about keeping track of your POSITION as you
move away from a known point. As you move you have to remain cognizant of the
terrain you are leaving, of the terrain you are passing, and of the terrain that is
coming up.
Map Information - Identification

• The identification of significant features, both natural and man-made, is partly a matter of knowing the
language of maps.
– One category of map language is lines. In addition to showing contour relief, lines are used to portray
roads, trails, railroads, power lines, and drainage features.
– Another category of map language is composed of various picture symbols.
– A third part of map language is color.
• If part of identification is in knowing the language of maps, the rest is a problem of interpretation. What is
the relationship among certain lines, symbols, and colors?
• Reading contour lines is literally reading between the lines. Contour lines represent the shape of the
terrain only at specified intervals. The user must be aware that what lies between may be quite different.
There could be rugged terrain, vertical bluffs, or deep ravines that might not be shown.
• A river may be drawn some what straight on a map, but the terrains actual river meanders, with many
curves, turns, and with wide and narrow banks.
• What a topographic map shows is as accurate as possible, BUT can give you a false sense of what you
might mentally think what is ahead of you and what actually is shown on an aerial photo map and actual
land features. (see next slides)
Map Information - Identification

CONTOUR LINES
Contour Lines on a map
Do not show everything.
Scan the Landscape,

read between the lines.
Any Questions?
Map Information –
Identification
What a Topo map,
Aerophoto map,
And actual Land features show
LAND
AERIAL PHOTO TOPO MAP

Map Information –
Identification
What a Topo map
and actual Land features show
Map Information –
Identification
What a Topo map
View 1
Map Information –
Identification
What a Topo map
Compare the next five slides

with this map, to get view point
perspective of what you see on
this map and what you see on
the landscape in front of you.
View 2
Map Information –
Identification
What a Topo map
Note: here the map is turned upside down so
you can get a better perspective
View 1
View 1
Map Information –
Identification
What a Topo map
View 2
View 2
View 1
View 2
Any Questions?
Map Folding and Map Care

• Maps should be correctly folded.
– Maps should be folded to make them small enough to be carried and still be available for use
without having to unfold them entirely.
– After a map has been folded it should be placed in a folder for protection. This will prevent the
corners and edges of the map from wearing out and tearing easily when opened.
• It is hard to navigate accurately with a dirty, grimy, wet or damaged map. Take care of your map and it will
take care of you.
– Most maps are printed on paper and require protection from water, mud, weather, and tearing.
– Whenever possible, a map should be carried in a waterproof packet to prolong its life.
– Waterproofing maps.
All members of the group

should know the map’s
location at all times.
• Marking a map.
– If it is necessary to mark a map, use light lines so that they may be erased without smearing or
smudging. If the margins of the map must be trimmed note any marginal information which may be
needed, such as grid data or magnetic declination data, on the back of the map.
• Special care should be taken of a map that is being used in any situation, especially in a small group; the
mission may depend on that map.
Map Folding
Technique # 1 Technique # 3
Technique # 2
Any Questions?
Note:


TESTING
Now it is time for the following . . .
• Written exam
• Hands-on / Outdoors exam

THE END OF
LAND NAVIGATION
PRESENTATION
PART 1
PART 2
INTERMEDIATE
LAND NAVIGATION
USING THE
MILITARY
LENSATIC
COMPASS
WARNING
NOTE
Note:


Any Questions?
BREAK TIME
. . . and now on with the . . .
PRESENTATION

LAND NAVIGATION

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

 Tracking Present Location
Determining Travel Distance
 Sustainment
Any Questions?
PART 2
INTERMEDIATE LAND NAVIGATION
• Making Sense of Direction
– Description
– Current Azimuth
• Tracking Present Location

– Description
– Finding Your Location
• Determining Travel Distance

– Description
– Calculating
MAKING SENSE OF DIRECTION

DESCRIPTION
WHERE DO YOU WANT TO GO AND WHERE ARE YOU ACTUALLY GOING ?
A hiker’s path isn’t straight, small detours are made in following a general bearing – like around a big log in
the way, a boulder, or avoiding a small water pond, etc. – since the land has so many irregularities.
The idea is to be conscious of the detours, keep them short, and try to zig as often as you zag. If you must
make a sizeable detour, you are better off plotting a new travel bearing.
YOU WANT YOU END

TO BE HERE UP HERE
X
YOU STARTED HERE

TO SET A COURSE (Follow An Azimuth)
Three Methods
METHOD ONE
1. Select the desired azimuth you want to follow, example 120º azimuth. Then rotate the compass until the
Black Index Line is positioned over the 120º azimuth.
2. Rotate bezel until Luminous Bezel Line is aligned with the North Arrow. Once bezel is set leave it there.
3. Follow set azimuth.
STEP STEP
STEP ONE TWO
ONE B
A

Three Methods
METHOD TWO
1. Align the North Arrow and Luminous Bezel Line with the Black Index Line.
2. Subtract the desired azimuth (example 120º) from 360º . 360º – 120º = 240º
3. Rotate bezel until Luminous Bezel Line is aligned with 240º. Once bezel is set leave it there.
4. Then rotate the compass until Luminous Bezel Line is aligned with the North Arrow. The Black Index Line
will be aligned with 120º.
STEP
FOUR
STEP STEP
ONE THREE

METHOD THREE Three Methods
1. Align Luminous Bezel Line with the Black Index Line. It does not matter which direction compass is facing.
2. Divide desired azimuth (example 120º) by 3. 120º .. 3 = 40 clicks left
* Above 180º is 360º- desired azimuth (example 285º) ; 360º – 285º = 75º 3 = 25 clicks right
* Desired AZIMUTHS below 180º go left, desired AZIMUTHS above 180º go right
3. Rotate bezel 40 clicks left. Once bezel is set leave it there.
4. Then rotate the compass until Luminous Bezel Line is aligned with the North Arrow. The Black Index Line
will be aligned with 120º.
New
Direction
120 º
STEP STEP STEP
ONE THREE FOUR
Any Questions?

CURRENT BEARING
Where do you want to go and where are you actually going ? - COMPASS FOLLOWING
• Using the compass without a distant reference landmark is known as compass following.
 It results in a lateral error (drift) as shown here.
• The compass provides only the forward part of navigation. COMPASS FOLLOWING
( LATERAL ERROR )
 By itself it has no way of preventing lateral errors.
Intended line of travel BEARING 58º GOAL

Actual line of travel
Compass “read” here to stay on 58º
C
• This is where the use of landmarks fits in.
 Known as intermediate landmarks. B
 Like trees, huge boulders, hill, saddle, or any
landmarks that will be visible when traveling
from START to “A” intermediate landmark, A
then to “B” intermediate landmark, then to
“C” intermediate landmark, then to GOAL.
 Intermediate landmarks should be short START
distances from landmark to landmark.

CURRENT BEARING
COMPASS FOLLOWING ( summarized )
• Is when you drift away from the given destination, but you remain on the same bearing.
• The compass alone, is not enough to eliminate lateral drift.
• Spot a landmark (tree, knoll) on the set bearing, walk to that landmark, then pick another. Continue until
destination is reached.

CURRENT BEARING
GIVEN THE NECESSITY OF OCCASIONAL DETOURS, you can come close to your destination by . . .
• Make careful, accurate sightings on both destination and intermediate landmarks.
• Recheck bearings often, to avoid accumulation of small errors.

(LATERAL DRIFT)
• Use bearings over short distances when possible.
• Continually relate your progress to the map.
• Aim for a line rather than a point ; for instance, a stream is easier to hit than a waterfall on that stream.
• Line up two distant objects on your bearing line that will always be in sight – example, a prominent tree
and a huge crag (boulder). When you have to detour off course, quickly correct for error by moving until
these two points are again aligned.
USING A BASELINE
Any Questions?

CURRENT BEARING
OBSTACLES – getting around them
1. While on course you run into a lake. 1. While on course you run into a hill.
2. On the other side you clearly see a lone tree 2. You take a 90º left turn and pace count until you
directly on the same course bearing. clear the hill.
3. So you walk the lake shore until you get to 3. Then turn right 90º and walk till you clear the hill
the lone tree again.
4. and continue on your course bearing. 4. Then turn right 90º again and pace count the
same amount as the first pace count.
5. At the end of the pace count, turn left 90º and
continue on your course bearing.
54 STEPS
54 STEPS

CURRENT BEARING
BACK AZIMUTH – return trip
• A back azimuth is the reverse direction of an azimuth. It is comparable to doing an “about face”.
 Azimuth less than 180º ADD 180º.
 Azimuth more than 180º SUBTRACT 180º.
NOTE: the back azimuth of 180º may be stated as either 0º or 360º
15º + 180º = 195º back azimuth

277º - 180º = 97º back azimuth
HILL
LAKE
CAMP
TRAIL

CURRENT BEARING
DELIBERATE OFFSET – aiming off
1. You are at the lake and want to head back to camp at a 195º bearing.
• But when you reach the trail, which way to go, which way to turn; left or right?
2. At the lake; deliberately offset to a 165º bearing and follow the bearing to the trail.
• When you reach the trail, all you have to do is turn right and go to the campsite.
LAKE
NOTE
Deliberate Offset needs a LINE reference, like a
• Trail
• River
• Road
• Shoreline
• Etc.
CAMP TRAIL
Any Questions?
TRACKING PRESENT LOCATION

DESCRIPTION
Navigation is not about finding yourself after you
are lost (although that’s what happens
sometimes); navigation is about keeping track of
your POSITION as you move away from a known
point. As you move you have to remain cognizant
of the terrain you are leaving, of the terrain you are
passing, and of the terrain that is ahead of you.
• Make it a habit of keeping your map and compass handy and refer to them every hour or so to locate
your position (more often in low visibility). Keep track of your starting time, rest breaks and general
hiking pace. This will also give you an idea of how far you have traveled.
• To find out where you are, you must relate your position to features you can see and identify on the map.
• There are several techniques to find your position on a map.

– RESECTION - With map only (no compass).
– MODIFIED RESECTION – With map or One compass bearing.
– DISTANCE RESECTION – With compass.
– INTERSECTION - Two compass bearings.
– TRIANGULATION - Three compass bearings.
• Plotting Location to record your position.

FINDING YOUR LOCATION – RESECTION (with map only)
• RESECTON has only one prerequisite - there must be at least two, but preferably three, identifiable
points on the landscape that also appear on the map.
• Orient the map with the landscape. And then using a straight edge object (example; ruler), lay flat on the
map and align with the landmark, then draw a line. Repeat for the second landmark.
• Where lines intersect,
you are there.
• You may also do this
visually to estimate
where you are.
Examples 1, 2, 3, and 4

FINDING YOUR LOCATION – RESECTION (with map only)
Example 5

FINDING YOUR LOCATION – MODIFIED RESECTION
( with map or compass )
• MODIFIED RESECTON has one prerequisite – you must be on a linear feature (trail, road, river, ridge
line, etc).
• Orient the map with the landscape (visually or with compass & map magnetic north).
– And then use a straight edge object (ruler) and align with an identifiable landmark, then draw a line.
– Or visualize the line on the map.
– Or take a compass magnetic bearing to the landmark and lay compass on the map landmark and
only rotate the compass to the bearing taken. (see INTERSECTION slides for more details)
• Where the line (or compass) crosses the linear feature (trail, road, river, ridge line), that is where you are.
Example 1 Example 2

• Example 3 - Where are you on the trail in the field?
• Example 4 - Where are you on the ridge line? ?
RIDGE LINE ?
• After orienting the map and taking a compass bearing ? X
or a visual lineup to a landmark, you find that you are
at the “X” position. ?
HILL
TRAIL
?
X
?
? HILL

• Example 5 - Where are you on the field trail?
• Example 6 - Where are you on the ridgeline trail?
TRAIL ridgeline
hill
TRAIL

FINDING YOUR LOCATION – DISTANCE RESECTION
( with compass )
• Example 1 - Where are you on the one azimuth line?
• After taking a compass bearing to a landmark (HILL), you can find yourself on the azimuth line by
determining the distance to the landmark. With this technique you will know where you are on the one
azimuth line ( X ).
* See PART 3 ADVANCED LAND NAVIGATION “DETERMING DISTANCE” for details on how to do it.
?
? ?
? X
X ?
?
HILL
HILL
Any Questions?

FINDING YOUR LOCATION – INTERSECTION (two compass bearings)
• INTERSECTON has only one prerequisite - there must be two identifiable points on the landscape that
also appear on the map.
• Orient the map with MAGNETIC NORTH. And then take a lensatic compass bearing to the first landmark
and lay compass on the map landmark and only rotate the compass to the bearing taken, draw a line.
• Then take a lensatic compass bearing to the second landmark and lay compass on the map landmark
and only rotate the compass to the bearing taken, draw a line.
• Where lines cross each other, that is approximately where you are. (SEE NEXT SLIDES FOR DETAILS)
YOU ARE HERE YOU ARE HERE


STEP ONE. With compass & map:
1. Lay the map on a flat surface and lay the compass on the MN line on the map.
2. Rotate map and compass together until the compass bearing reads 0° degrees Magnetic North (compass
and MN line on the map are aligned / parallel). Put rocks on each corner of the map to prevent it from
moving again.
3. The map is oriented.

STEP TWO. With compass & map:
1. With lensatic compass take an azimuth (bearing) to both (two) landmarks.
TOWER AZIMUTH = 335º HILL AZIMUTH = 60º


STEP THREE. With compass & map:
1. Lay compass front left corner on first map landmark. Pivot point does not move
2. Rotate compass until the azimuth taken to the
landmark is on the index line.
1. Draw a line.
2. Repeat for second landmark.

AZIMUTH
3. Where the lines cross each other, that is
335º
approximately where you are.
YOU
ARE
HERE
AZIMUTH 60º

FINDING YOUR LOCATION – TRIANGULATION (three compass bearings)
• TRIANGULATION has only one prerequisite - there must be three identifiable points on the landscape
that also appear on the map.
• Orient the map with MAGNETIC NORTH. And then take a lensatic compass bearing to the first landmark
and lay compass on the map landmark and only rotate the compass to the bearing taken, draw a line.
Repeat for the other landmarks. (same procedures as INTERSECTION)
• Where the triangle is, that is where you are. The more accurate you are with the compass bearings, the
more accurate or smaller the triangle.
Any Questions?

FINDING YOUR LOCATION - ALTERNATE TECHNIQUE
for Modified Resection, Intersection, Triangulation
MAKING YOUR MAP

SPEAK
“COMPASS LANGUAGE”
Instead of going to the trouble of converting map
GN to compass MN or vice versa each time you
take an azimuth direction from the map or
compass, with the possibility of making errors,
there is a much simpler way of compensating for
G-M Angle conversions.
MN Lines drawn on the map allow you to orient

a map so that the map landmarks are aligned
with the actual ground landmarks they represent.
You also can use the MN Lines to identify
landmarks, find your own location, and follow
compass bearings without orienting the map,
and that can save you lots of time and trouble.

STEP ONE. With compass & map:
TOP OF MAP
1. With the MN lines drawn on the
map, there is no need to orient
the map to find your position.
• This will be explained in
the following slides.
2. With a ruler or flat edged object,

draw MN lines on the map.
• Do this before going into
the wilderness.
• Make the lines as light or
heavy as you want.
• Draw as many lines as
you want.
• Space out the lines as
wide or close as you want.
Ensure the lines drawn are
accurately parallel with the
map MN line to eliminate
errors when used with the
compass

STEP TWO. With compass & map:
HILL AZIMUTH = 25º
1. Identify a landmark on the map.
2. Take an azimuth to the landmark.
• Example – you want to know
where you are on the dirt road,
in relation to the distant HILL.
TOP OF MAP
HILL
Dirt road

STEP THREE. With compass & map:
1. Lower the compass till you can see the whole compass dial. Example, to your chest or waist.
2. Keeping the compass dial and index line set to the landmark azimuth (HILL AZIMUTH 25º).
3. Rotate bezel until Luminous Bezel Line is aligned with compass needle. Once bezel is set leave it there.
(The Luminous Bezel Line now represents the North Needle Arrow).
STEP 2 STEP 3

STEP FOUR. With compass & map:
1. Map does not have to be oriented. Why?
Because you will be using the MN Lines and
Luminous Bezel Line as references.
2. Open flat the compass and put the compass
HILL
front left corner on the HILL landmark.
3. Then Rotate the whole compass until the
Luminous Bezel Line (which represents the
Magnetic North Needle in STEP THREE) is
TOP OF MAP
aligned / parallel with the MN Lines.
• The luminous bezel line will always
point to Magnetic North (Top of map).
• Ignore the compass dial needle.
Dirt road
NOTE
a transparent square has been drawn to show
that the Luminous Bezel Line and MN Lines
are aligned / parallel.
4. Draw a line from the HILL to the dirt road.

That is where you are.

Here is a closer look at STEP FOUR.
You can see that the Luminous Bezel Line and the MN Lines are aligned / parallel.
NOTE - Depending on how accurate you align the lines, your location can be off by as much as 200 yds.
This method is only an estimation. If you want to be very accurate, orient the map to MN and align the
Magnetic North Needle with the Luminous Bezel Line.

To improve the accuracy of aligning the Luminous Bezel Line with the MN lines on the map.
1. Get a superfine permanent marker
2. Draw three lines parallel with the Luminous Bezel Line.
3. This will visually improve your accuracy of alignment.
However this will also add clutter to the face of the Lensatic Compass. This is a personal preference, if you
want to add this to your compass face.

Which one is easier to align?
You can clearly see the difference.
NOTE
However this will also add clutter to the face
of the Lensatic Compass. This is a personal
preference, if you want to add this to your
compass face.
If you decide that you DO NOT want the
lines on the face of the compass, you
can remove them by getting an erasable
marker and go over the permanent
marker lines with it. This will moisten the
lines so you can wipe them off with a
towel. DO NOT use isopropyl alcohol or
other liquids like nail polish remover –
these liquids will discolor or fog up the
compass face of the Lensatic Compass.
You can actually use the oils on the tips of
your fingers to wipe of the lines; if you
rub hard enough.
Any Questions?

FINDING YOUR LOCATION – ALTITUDE (altimeter)
An altimeter can help you determine your location by adding an elevation reading to other things you know.
Think of this altitude as corresponding to a particular contour line on your map.
It can also tell you when you have reached a contour line on a map and guide you along that line, minimizing
unnecessary uphill and downhill climbs.
This method works best if you are on a trail, ridgeline, or valley that contains a large section that is all uphill or
all downhill. It can also be used in conjunction with the triangulation method to determine your position more
accurately. First, be sure that you altimeter has been calibrated. Next, find the point on your map where the
trail, ridgeline, or valley intersects the contour line that most closely corresponds to your altimeter reading.
Calibrating the altimeter:
The most accurate and first method is to set the altimeter at a location where the elevation is known, such as
a trailhead. The second method is to adjust the altimeter to the current barometric pressure. This usually
requires access to weather information on a radio designed to receive such broadcasts.
Your altimeter reads 5840 FEET

You are at contour line “X”.
X
X
ANALOG DIGITAL WATCH

Any Questions?

UTM GRID or GRID NORTH COORDINATES
Below is the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) grid.

HERE IS A BETTER WAY OF LOOKING AT THE UTM GRID LAYOUT
The world is divided into 60 zones.
Here you can see ZONES 1 thru 60 at the top of the world map.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
EQUATOR LINE

Close-up of UTM ZONES. Here we see zones 10 thru 19.

On the bottom left corner of the map

is the Universal Transverse
Mercator information.
It will list the square area size

covered and the ZONE the map
represents.
The ZONE number is represented in

the front of a UTM coordinate.
example
Z12 559000m 4281000m
UTM Coordinates are explained in

the next slides.

UTM uses two coordinates – EASTING and NORTHING – to determine a location. Locations within a ZONE are measured in
meters east and west from the central meridian (center of the zone), and north and south from the equator.
North Pole
EASTING coordinate
The central meridian is an arbitrary line drawn down the center of

each zone, and given a false easting value of 500,000 meters so that
only positive eastings are measured anywhere in the zone.
Eastings increase eastward and decrease westward from the central

meridian.
0m N Equator
NORTHING coordinate
500,000 m E
10,000,000m N
Northing is the distance in meters north and south of the equator
Zone (measured along a line within the zone).
If the point lies north (Northern Hemisphere) of the equator,

coordinates always increase from south to north (bottom of map to the
top) of the equator, with the equator given a value of 0 meters in the
Northern Hemisphere..
For locations south (Southern Hemisphere) of the equator, the

equator is given a false value of 10,000,000 meters in the Southern
South Pole Hemisphere and values decrease from north to south (top of map to
the bottom) of the equator.

UTM Z19 0297480E 4834360N UTM Z19 0297480E 4834360N (with a Northern Hemisphere map)
will be used for an example in a
Northern Hemisphere map 1. Coordinate 0297480E represents an east-west measurement and is the
and a easting. This coordinate is located 202,520 meters west of zone central
Southern Hemisphere map. meridian line.
2. The 202,520 meters was calculated by observing that 297,480E is smaller

than 500,000mE. Therefore, 500,000mE – 0297480E = 202,520. The
coordinate is 202 thousand, 520 meters west of zone central meridian line.
NOTE:
If the Easting number is greater than 500,000mE, for example 574620E.
The coordinate is located 74,620 meters east of zone central meridian line.
This number 74,620 meters was calculated by observing that 574620E is
bigger than 500,000mE. 574620 E– 500000mE = 74,620. Therefore it
is 74,620 meters east from the central meridian.
3. Coordinate 4834360N represents a north-south measurement and is the

northing. The location of this coordinate is 4,834,360 meters North of the
equator in the zone, which starts at 0 meters.
Z19 0297480E 4834360N (with a Southern Hemisphere map)
1. The coordinate 0297480E is the same as above.
2. The coordinate 4834360N represents a north-south measurement and is

the northing. The location of this coordinate is 5,165,640 meters South of
the equator in the zone. The number 5,165,640 was calculated by
Subtracting 4,834,360 from 10,000,000 m N.

1. A UTM coordinate includes the zone, easting coordinate, and northing coordinate; this coordinate describes a specific
location using meters. There are different ways that UTM coordinates are written, for example:
Z19 0297480E 4834360N

19 0297480E 4834360N
0297480mE 4834360mN (zone number is not used, because the hiking groups are all using the same maps and know
297480mE 4834360mN what zone they are in for communicating their location to each other via radios.)
2. Coordinates are also abbreviated to the extent of location accuracy desired; for example, UTM Z19 0297480E 4834360N :
19 297 4834 (1000 m by 1000 m square)

19 2974 48343 (100 m by 100 m square)
19 29748 483436 (10 m by 10 m square)
19 297480 4834360 (1 m by 1 m square)
NOTE:
The more digits you include,
the closer you get
to the exact location.
NOTE:
More detail given in the following slides.

• UTM refers to the system grid that divides the world into sixty zones, at 6º degree intervals.
• The UTM grid is based on the METER SYSTEM, and grid lines are always one kilometer apart (1,000
meters), making it much easier to estimate distance on a map.
• UTM numbers indicate east/west and north/south positions. The numbers along the left/right of margin
are called Northing, numbers along the top/bottom are called Easting. Increasing numbers indicate you
are traveling either north or east, decreasing numbers south or west.
• A full UTM tick number along the margin of the map is as follows: tick 4281000mN and tick 4282000mN, the
principle (large) digits 81 and 82 indicates thousands of meters, and since a thousand meters equals one
kilometer, the two ticks are one thousand meters or one kilometer apart ( 82 – 81 = 1 ).
• The last three smaller numbers 000m 42 82

indicates hundreds of meters. If the ticks
read 4281000mN and 4281500mN this would 1000
indicate the ticks were five hundred meters
or ½ kilometer apart. north
• GN refers to the UTM grid.
• The more digits you include, the closer south
you get to the exact location.
559000m 4281000m (4digit) 1000m x 1000m area.

559700m 4281100m (6 digit) 100m x 100m area. 42 81000mN
559750m 4281170m (8 digit) 10m x 10m area.
559753m 4281175m (10 digit) 1m x 1m area.
5 59 west east 5 60 000m E

This is good to use when navigators have the same maps
and need to communicate their location via walkie-talkies,
when they are separated for any reason.
1. Note which 1000 meter grid square your position is in
(read from the left bottom corner).
• Example ( ) is in 559000 and 4082000.
2. Note that the Easting number (vertical grid line) is
always read first, then the Northing (horizontal).
Also note that two digits are large (principle digits)
and the rest are small. This makes it easier to read.
3. Align the protractor within the grid square and see
what small square your position ( ) is in.
4. Then include vertical and horizontal square numbers
to get 559700 and 4082100 GRID COORDINATE.
• You can read the six digits as 597 821, 100
meter by 100 meter area (328FT x 328FT).
You are somewhere
in this square area.

This protractor is more accurate in your location.
1. Note which 1000 meter grid square your position is
in (read from the left bottom corner).
• Example ( ) is in 559000 and 4082000.
2. Note that the Easting number (vertical grid line) is
always read first, then Northing (horizontal). Also
note that two digits are large (principle digits) and
the rest are small. This makes it easier to read.
3. Align protractor horizontal scale with 82 horizontal
grid line square and shift left or right till the vertical
scale is aligned over your position ( ). 5975 8217
4. Then include the vertical and horizontal tick
numbers to get 559750 and 4082170 GRID
COORDINATE numbers.
• You can read the eight digits as 5975 8217,
10 meter by 10 meter area (33FT x 33FT).
You are exactly here.

On this type of protractor you have a general location
where you are.
100m x 100m area / 10,000 sq meters
110y x 110y area / 12,100 sq yards
At which location are you? On this type of protractor you have a more exact
A. South west side of road, west side of hill? location where you are.
B. North east side of road, north west side of hill?
10m x 10m area / 100 sq meters
C. Due north side of hill?
3.3y x 3.3y area / 11 sq yards
D. On top of hill?
E. Due south side of hill? You know you are exactly at location B.
C B
B
D
A E
Any Questions?
DETERMINING TRAVEL DISTANCE

DESCRIPTION
Determining travel distance is the most common error encountered
while moving. There may be circumstances where you are unable to
determine travel distance using your map. It is therefore essential
to learn methods by which you can accurately measure, pace, or
estimate distances on the ground.
How far is that mountain? An ability to judge distances accurately
is not a natural gift, but it is a skill worth developing. Judging
distances accurately can help to identify features and avoid wrong
assumptions that could lead to trouble; (“We should have reached
camp by now… that’s got to be Eagle Mountain, I think?”)
• There are several techniques to measure distance on a map.
– STRAIGHT LINE DISTANCE – measuring from point A to point B on a map (horizontal distance).
– CURVATURE DISTANCE – measuring a trail or other curved line on a map (horizontal distance).
– SLOPE DISTANCE – measuring the planned route terrain slope on a map (vertical distance).
• There are several techniques to determine distance on the ground.
– SPEED – estimating your travel speed, how many miles per hour.
– PACE COUNT – count the number of steps you have taken and translate to ground distance.
– ESTIMATION – visualizing a set ground distance.
– TIME – Make it a habit of keeping your map and compass handy and refer to them every hour or so
to locate your position (more often in low visibility). Keep track of your starting time, rest breaks and
hiking pace. This will also give you an idea of how far you have traveled over a period of time.

MEASURE STRAIGHT LINE DISTANCE
1. To determine straight-line distance between two points on a map, lay a straight-edged piece of paper on
the map so that the edge of the paper touches both points and extends past them. Make a tick mark on the
edge of the paper at each point.
2. To convert the map distance to ground distance,

move the paper down to the graphic bar scale, and
align the right tick mark with a printed number in the
primary scale so that the left tick mark is in the B
extension scale.
3. Measure (add) the bar scale miles or kilometers.
1 ½ 0 1
MILE
1½ MILES
1 ½ 0 1 KILOMETER
A

MEASURE CURVATURE DISTANCE
Measuring distance along map features that are not straight is a little more difficult. One technique that can
be employed for this task is to use a number of straight-line segments. The accuracy of this method is
dependent on the number of straight-line segments used.
Another method for measuring

curvature map distances is to use a
device called a map wheel. This
device uses a small rotating wheel that
records the distance traveled. The A
distance is measured by placing the
device wheel directly on the map and
tracing the trail or planned route with
the wheel, it measures either in
centimeters or inches.

MEASURE CURVATURE DISTANCE
To measure distance along a road, stream, or other curved line, the straight edge of a piece of paper is used.
Place a tick mark on the paper and map at the beginning point from which the curved line is to be measured.
Align the edge of the paper along a straight portion and make a tick mark on both map and paper where the
edge of the paper leaves the straight portion of the line being measured. Repeat for each straight segment of
the road, stream, or other curved line. When completed, measure distance from first tick mark to last tick
mark on map scale.
NOTE – you can also use a string laid out on the planned route to measure distance.
B
2 1½ 1 ½ 0 1 2
MILE
3 ½ MILES A
STRING
STRING
2 1½ 1 ½ 0 1 2
KILOMETER A

MEASURE SLOPE DISTANCE (percentage or degree)
1. Determine elevation of point (A) (3240 feet) and (B) (2800 feet).
2. Vertical Distance (VD) is subtracting the lowest slope point (B) from the highest point (A), (440 feet) is VD.
3. Measure Horizontal Distance (HD) between points (A) and (B).
4. Compute the slope percentage by using the formula below. (HD) + (Slope%) = total distance
Example 5280ft (1mile) + 25% slope = 5280ft + 1320ft (25% of 5280) = 6600ft (1¼ mile )
* * 25% slope (14º )= every 100ft traveled forward is 25ft traveled up (4ft forward is 1ft up) * *
NOTE: the higher the percentage % or degreeº, the steeper the slope and the longer the distance.
Slope % percent = V D x 100 = % percent
HD
Slope degreeº = V D x 57.3 = slope degreeº

HD B
Slopes above 12% is a concern for a hiker.

Slopes above 25% and a hiker is climbing.
CURVATURE DISTANCE IS 3½ MILES = 18480 FEET

Slope % = 440 ft x 100 = 2 % ( + 370 ft ) [1º slope]
18480
Total distance 18480 + 370 =18850 feet
A
STRAIGHT LINE DISTANCE IS ¾ MILE = 3960 FEET
Slope%= 440 ft x 100 = 12 % ( + 443 ft ) [6º slope]
3960 Total distance 3960 + 443 = 4403 feet CONTOUR INTERVAL = 40 feet

MEASURE SLOPE DISTANCE ( slope profile)
Curvature Trail route vs. Straight Line route.
The (long distance) The straight (short distance)
trail slope profile is line slope is very steep,
B gentle and easy to up and down hill,
walk. difficult to walk.
A
3240 3240
3200 3200
3160 3160
3120 3120
3080 3080
3040 3040
3000 3000
2960 2960
2920 2920
2880 2880
2840 2840
2800 2800
2760 B 2760

SLOPE DISTANCE ( slope profile)
Curvature Trail A
route and B
slope steepness.
Even though this

route is longer, it
is obvious that
this is a gentle
and easy route to
walk.
A
B
3240 A 3240
3200 3200
3160 3160
3120 3120
3080 3080
3040 3040
3000 3000
2960 2960
2920 2920
2880 2880
2840 2840
2800 2800
2760 2760 B
Any Questions?

DETERMINE DISTANCE BY SPEED
• Estimating your rate of travel is essential when calculating the amount of time it will take to traverse a
route. Especially when a group is hiking at the pace of the slowest group member.
• This data is needed when planning your own trip or a group trip.
• According to the U.S. Army, the following way is a good method to estimate hiking speed.
FEMALE MALE
TIME STEPS SPEED TIME STEPS SPEED
10 SEC 20 - 21 3 MPH 10 SEC 16- 17 3 MPH
10 SEC 27 - 28 4 MPH 10 SEC 20 - 21 4 MPH
You also need to factor in elevation gain and loss

ADD ONE HOUR FOR EVERY 1,000 FEET OF ELEVATION CHANGE
Example you hike 4 MPH, on a 4 mile route, with a 2,000 feet elevation gain, takes you 3 hours.
1hr (4miles / 4mph) + 2hrs (1hr per 1,000ft [2,000ft]) = 1 + 2 = 3 hours

DETERMINE DISTANCE BY PACE COUNT
Why count paces?
While pace counting is an old distance determination technique that is seldom used by trail-bound hikers, it is
an essential technique used by off-trail navigators (with other techniques) who travel cross-country through
challenging wilderness. In certain situations, a map and compass alone just aren't enough.
More mistakes are made in orienteering by wrongly estimating distance than from any other reason. While
most of us can quickly learn to travel in the right direction, few of us have any idea of how far we have
traveled.
Think about it for a moment. Have you ever cut an azimuth through the bush and wondered if you had missed
your target, or perhaps not gone far enough, when it did not materialize? Did you continue on another 10
minutes, then 20 minutes, hoping it would appear? Or did you backtrack? You could have eliminated much of
the guesswork in this situation by using a technique known as “pace-counting."
Pace counting with Ranger Pacing Beads is well suited for the complicated navigational challenges faced by
today's wilderness navigator. For example, pace counting is essential for dead reckoning, where azimuth
(or direction of travel) data is combined with pacing (or distance traveled) data. With this technique, one can
establish his or her position in nondescript terrain, foul weather, or even in complete darkness.
The hardest thing to get a "feel" for is how to adjust your pace-count for weaving back and forth on a route
covered with trees, shrubs, and boulders.
The "dead" in dead reckoning is derived from "ded.," an abbreviation of "deduced.“ It's navigation by logical
deduction. It does not necessarily mean it's a deadly form of navigation.

• In thick jungle, where landmarks can not always be seen to track your position, PACE COUNT is the best
way of measuring distance. It is the only method which lets a navigator know how far he has traveled. With
this information, he can estimate where he is at any given time.
• To be accurate, the navigator must practice pacing over different types of terrain. First you have to do some
calculations. Measure out exactly 100 meters on three types of ground. Flat easy terrain, rougher terrain
with some slope and then steep hill terrain. Then on each measured course count your paces (every time
your left foot touches the ground or every 2 steps = 1 pace). You will have 3 different pace counts for
different types of terrain. If you wear a pack when in the woods then do your pace testing with the pack and
boots on. Once finished MEMORIZE your pace count of all 3 types.
• When using a map and you have a destination that's 3 km's away you have an idea how many paces it will
take you to travel that distance as an estimate.
• A navigator could make a PERSONAL PACE TABLE like one of these three examples:
TERRAIN METERS PACES TERRAIN METERS PACES Flat easy 100 65
terrain meters paces
Swamp 100 85 Sand 100 115
Rougher 100 75
Forest 100 70 Gravel 100 100
terrain with meters paces
Desert 100 115 Snow 100 120 some slope
Snow 100 115 Flat 100 65 Steep hill 100 95
terrain meters paces
Jungle 100 125 Thick brush 100 80
Prairie 100 65 Up hill 100 95
Hills 100 95 Down hill 100 90


0 100 200 900 1000 meters 1100 meters 4000 meters 4900 meters 5000 meters
meters meters meters meters (1 kilometer) (1km 100m) (4 kilometer) (4km 900m) (5 kilometers)
4 4 4 4 4 4 4
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
4km 4 km
1 1 1 1 1
3 3
2 2
1km 1 km 1 1
9 9 9 9 9 9 9
8 8 8 8 8 8 8
7 7 7 900m 7 7 7 900m 7
6 6 6 8 6 6 6 8 6
5 5 5 7 5 5 5 7 5
4 4 4 6 4 4 4 6 4
3 3 3 5 3 3 3 5 3
2 2 4 2 2 2 4 2
1 3 1 1 3 1
200m 2 2
100m 1 1 100m 1
Any Questions?

DETERMINE DISTANCE BY ESTIMATION
At times, because of land navigation situation, it may be necessary to estimate range. There are methods that
may be used to estimate range or distance.
Proficiency of Methods. The methods discussed are used only to estimate range. Proficiency in these
methods requires constant practice. The best training technique is to require the navigator to pace the range
after he has estimated the distance. In this way, the navigator discovers the actual range for himself, which
makes a greater impression than if he is simply told the correct range.
100-Meter Unit-of-Measure Method. The navigator visualizes a distance of 100 meters on the ground.
Rule-of-Thumb-Measure Method. The navigator uses his thumb, arm and eyes.
Time-Measure Method. Keep track of your starting time and hiking pace.

100-Meter Unit-of-Measure Method. There are factors that affect range estimation.
Factors Affecting Factors Causing Under-estimation of Factors Causing Over-estimation of

Range Estimation Range Range
The clearness of When most of the object is visible and When only a small part of the object
outline and details of offers a clear outline can be seen or the object is small in
the object relation to its surroundings
Nature of terrain or When looking across a depression that is When looking across a depression that
position of the mostly hidden from view is totally visible
observer
When looking downward from high ground When vision is confined, as in streets,
When looking down a straight, open road draws, or forest trails
or along a railroad When looking from low ground toward
high ground
When looking over uniform surfaces like
water, snow, desert, grain fields When poor light, such as dawn and
In bright light or when the sun is shining dusk; in rain, snow, fog; or when the
from behind the observer sun is in the observer’s eyes
Light and atmosphere When the object is in sharp contrast with When object blends into the
the background or is silhouetted because background or terrain
of its size, shape, or color
When seen in clear air of high altitudes


100-Meter Unit-of-Measure Method. To use this method, the navigator must be able to visualize a distance of
100 meters on the ground. For ranges up to 500 meters, determine the number of 100-meter increments
between the two objects he wishes to measure. Beyond 500 meters, the navigator must select a point
halfway to the object and determine the number of 100-meter increments to the halfway point, then double it to
find the range to the object.
Example 1

100-Meter Unit-of-Measure Method. 200 meters to the road from the starting point (200 meters).
400 meters to the barn from the starting point, or 200 meters from the road.
800 meters to the silo from the starting point, or 400 meters from the barn.
1200 meters to the tree line from the starting point, or 400 meters from the silo.
Example 2
1200m
400m tree line
800m
400m silo
400m
200m barn
200m
200m road
Total Distance Estimated

1200 meters (1.2 kilometers)

100-Meter Unit-of-Measure Method. 200 meters to the dirt road from the starting point (200 meters).
600 meters to the first tree patch from the starting point, or 400 meters from the dirt road.
1400 meters to the second tree patch from the starting point, or 800 meters from the first tree patch.
2400 meters to the mid point from the starting point, or 1000 meters from the second tree patch.
4400 meters to the hill top from the starting point, or 2000 meters from the mid point.
Example 3
4400m 2000m hill top
2400m 1000m mid point

1400m 800m tree patch
600m 400m tree patch
200m 200m dirt road
Total Distance Estimated

4400 meters (4.4 kilometers)
Any Questions?

Rule-of-Thumb Method
YOUR ARM IS ten times longer than the distance between your eyes. With that fact, you
can estimate the distance between you and any object of approximate known size.
Example, you're standing on the side of a hill, trying to decide how far it is to the top of a
low hill on the other side of the valley. Just below the hilltop is a barn, about 100 feet wide
on the side facing you.
1. Hold one arm straight out in front of you, elbow straight, thumb pointing up.
2. Close one eye, and align one edge of your thumb with one edge of the barn.
3. Without moving your head or arm, switch eyes, now sighting with the eye that was
closed and closing the other.
4. Your thumb will appear to jump sideways as a result of the change in perspective.
5. How far did it move? (Sight the same edge of your thumb when you switch eyes).
• Let's say it jumped about five times the width of the barn, or about 500 feet.
• Now multiply that figure by the handy constant 10 (the ratio of the length of your
arm to the distance between your eyes), and you get the distance between you
and the barn -- 5,000 feet, or about one mile.
With practice, you can perform a quick thumb-jump estimate in just a few seconds, and the
result will usually be more accurate than an out-and-out guess.

1. You estimate that the small barn is 20 meters wide.
2. You stretch your arm out, put your thumb up and close one eye.
3. You switch closed Example 1

eye with open eye.
20m
4. And find that your
400m
thumb moved the
distance of two barn
lengths.
5. 20 x 2 x 10 = 400m

1. You estimate that the small barn in the far distance is 20 meters wide.
2. You stretch your arm out, put your thumb up and close one eye close.
3. You switch closed Example 2 20m

eye with open eye.
4. And find that your 800m
thumb moved the
distance of four
barn lengths.
5. 20 x 4 x 10 = 800m

Time Method
• Make it a habit of keeping your map and compass handy and refer to them every hour or so to locate your
position (more often in low visibility). Keep track of your starting time, rest breaks and hiking pace. This
will also give you an idea of how far you have traveled over a period of time.
• This is based on knowing the speed at which you are walking and keeping a note of when you left your
last known point. Walking speed varies and is dependent on a range of factors including fitness, weight of
rucksack, length of journey, wind, conditions underfoot, slope angle.
• The simplest formula combines the horizontal distance with the height gained. Allow 5 km per hour on the
flat plus 10 minutes for every 100 meters height gain. But remember that it doesn't allow for rests or
stops. SEE TIMING CHART (next slide)
• Working out timing calculations mentally becomes straightforward with practice - Measure the distance
and allow 1.2 minutes for every 100 meters, at a pace of 5kph (see chart next slide).
 An easy way to work this out is to use the 12 times table and move the decimal point forward.
TWO EXAMPLES –
300 meters
3 x 12 = 36 = 3.6 minutes = 3½ minutes (Round off to the nearest half minute)
650 meters
6 x 12 = 72 = 7.2 minutes = 7 minutes (Round off to the nearest half minute)
Add ½ minute for the extra 50 meters = 7½ minutes
NOTE:
None of this is of any use if you don't have a watch. It is useful to have a
stopwatch so you don't have to remember the time at the start of each leg.

Time Method
Using a Timing Chart for the horizontal component makes the calculations easy.
Although many people prefer to do it mentally.
The timings have been rounded
Timing Chart
to the nearest ½ minute.
For short navigation legs, break it down
to 1.2 minutes per 100 meters horizontal Distance traveled Speed in kilometers per hour
distance and 1 minute for every 10 meters in meters 5kph 4kph 3kph 2kph
of ascent.
1000 m 12 min 15 min 20 min 30 min
You can only travel at the speed of the 900 m 11 min 13½ min 18 min 27 min
slowest person and so you may need to
use a slower formula such as 4 kph which 800 m 9½ min 12 min 16 min 24 min
is calculated at 1.5 minutes per 100 meters. 700 m 8½ min 10½ min 14 min 21 min
600 m 7 min 9 min 12 min 18 min
When going gently downhill, it is best to
ignore the height loss and just use the 500 m 6 min 7½ min 10 min 15 min
horizontal component of the formula. 400 m 5 min 6 min 8 min 12 min
When descending steep ground which 300 m 3½ min 4½ min 6 min 9 min
will slow your rate of travel a rough estimate 200 m 2½ min 3 min 4 min 6 min
can be used – allow 1 minute for every 30
meters of descent, although this is only an 100 m 1min 1½ min 2 min 3 min
approximation. 50 m ½ min ¾ min 1 min 1½ min
Remember to add 1 minute for every 10 meters of ascent.
Any Questions?
Note:


TESTING
• Written exam

THE END OF
LAND NAVIGATION
PRESENTATION
PART 2
PART 3
ADVANCE
LAND NAVIGATION
USING THE
MILITARY
LENSATIC
COMPASS
WARNING
NOTE
Note:


Any Questions?
BREAK TIME
. . . and now on with the . . .
PRESENTATION

LAND NAVIGATION

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Tracking Present Location
 Determining Travel Distance
 Sustainment
Any Questions?
PART 3
ADVANCE LAND NAVIGATION
• Planning to Navigate
– Description
– Planning
• Navigate to Stay on Course

– Description
– Staying on Course
• Additional Navigation Skills

– Description
– Additional Skills
PLANNING TO NAVIGATE
DESCRIPTION
EVERY TIME you enter a wilderness area, familiar or not, alone or
in a group, you should prepare as though you were going in alone.
In spite of rules for following the leader’s decisions, or those of
the majority, and rules for keeping the group together (as well as
rules for not going alone) the plain truth is that in the wilderness an
individual is potentially a unit of one.
Always “BE PREPARED”. Leaders have been known to fail, and
the group’s best of intentions do not always keep a group together.
Example, in a group of three - one of them sustains a serious
injury and the other must stay with the injured person, while the
third person goes for help. The third person now becomes a
navigator, regardless of whether or not the person was one.
• Enjoying the great outdoors means navigating, perhaps camping overnight and then moving on again.
• It is important to have all the right equipment, and have a travel plan, with safety always in mind.
Planning ahead (research) can prevent future frustration. To do this, you must think about the following.
– The Group or traveling alone (individual strengths and weaknesses, physical and mental needs)
– Equipment (essentials and comforts)
– Safety (rules to follow, emergency plans)
– Responsibilities (group or traveling alone)
– The terrain (a detailed map study, weather)
– Route selection ( practical routes, alternate routes, the group type)
Any Questions?
GROUP or ALONE
GROUP
• Choose your group carefully (unless it is a family trip) - if people are stubborn, inflexible and finicky at
home, they will be even more so in the wilderness.
• Leader - a group must elect a leader, who should asses the capabilities of each individual before making
plans to travel. A leader must have competence and the skills to lead a group. Above all, the leader must
at all times avoid the appearance of indecision.
• Leadership - is very difficult, especially under the pressure of Life-or-Death situation, and particularly if
some people, within the group, are unwilling to be led.
 There are four types of leadership and all are equally important.
~ Designated Leadership - taking responsibility for the group, motivating and guiding the group
toward its goals, and determining how the group will achieve these goals.
~ Group Leadership (Active Followership) - supporting and following the designated leader,
and participating in ―group decision making‖ by giving input and seeking clarity.
~ Peer Leadership - the team works together and supports each other in achieving group
goals, and each team member sees what needs to be done and does it.
~ Self Leadership - each person takes care of themselves, so they can take care of the group,
and everyone shows personal initiative and character.
• Individual strengths and weaknesses – must be carefully and privately considered by the leader,
whose plan of action will be determined by what the group as a whole is capable of doing. Each individual
must know and except their own strengths and weaknesses.
• Physical and mental needs – the group will have a better time if its needs are met and stays together;
its integrity maintained through good, caring, leadership. Like medications, eyewear, hearing aids,
socializing, feeling needed, eliminate boredom, etc.
GROUP or ALONE
ALONE
• The more experience you have navigating and camping with others, the better qualified you are to go it
alone.
• Remember, all of your experiences, good and bad, become more intense when you are alone.
• Trekking the wilderness alone for any number of reasons entails much greater risks from the
consequences of injury or becoming lost than trekking with a group does.
• These are risks that you personally and willingly accept for the rewards of solitude.
• Ironically, the reward for trekking solo is a heightened awareness of potential dangers and a stricter
adherence to safety concerns.
• A person who has spent a vast amount of time in the wilds alone, is more careful than a person who has
someone to watch their back.
 You look at the cliff a little longer before deciding if it’s safe to climb. Or find a safer spot to cross a
river.
• Individual strengths and weaknesses – you must know and except your own strengths and
weaknesses.
• Physical and mental needs – you must asses your own needs, like medications, eyewear, isolation,
boredom, etc.
• A solitary wanderer becomes more conscious about leaving a note behind.
Any Questions?
EQUIPMENT
ESSENTIALS
• Without a doubt the single most important item in your gear is YOU.
 A clear, cool head (mind) atop a body in good physical and mental condition.
 An adventurous spirit.
 And good common sense.
• How much gear is needed? Just enough to stay dry, warm, and nourished. A light pack will allow for
increased awareness and enjoyment of the surroundings while in route to your destination.
• Individuals - must have these twelve (12) essential items in a daypack.
1. A PLAN - never travel without it. 5. Whistle 9. Emergency rain gear
2. Map 6. Personal first-aid kit 10. Flashlight
3. Compass 7. Insect repellant/sun screen 11. Water
4. Pocket knife 8. Matches, waterproof 12. Food
 Backpacking (campsite essentials)
1. Tent & tarp 4. Individual stove & fuel 7. extra food
2. Sleeping bag & pad 5. Water purifier 8. toiletries
3. Eating / cooking utensils 6. Extra clothing 9. binoculars
• Groups - any additional gear for the group to complete their goals. Carrying these extra items will be
distributed among the group as evenly as possible by weight.
COMFORTS
• What are comforts? Non-essential gear not listed above, such as a chair, radio, pillow, reading book, etc.
• Determine the comfort gear that YOU NEED to maintain your personal level of security and comfort.
Also, note that you must carry your own personal comfort gear.
Any Questions?
SAFETY
• Leave copies of your plans, destination and schedule, with a family member or Ranger Station.
• Always carry your daypack, with the twelve essentials, with you.
• In a group - pace the hike to the slowest member of the group. STAY TOGETHER, start as a group, hike
as a group and end as a group. Always use the buddy system.
• Each member should study the planned route on the map and have their own copy of the map & route.
• The group should come up with safety rules that are adhered to and enforced by all.
• In a group - when navigating, divide responsibilities.
 SCOUT – selecting the best path (footing), avoiding dead falls, loose rocks, etc.
 NAVIGATOR – makes sure the SCOUT stays on course.
 HEAD COUNT – at intervals stops the group and the group does a head count.
 EQUIPMENT – at intervals (during head count) perform group and personal equipment inventory.
 EVERYONE - keep a lookout for hazards, and keeps all persons in visual and talking range.
• When a group or lone navigator cannot know for certain where they are going, they had better be certain
of where they have been. They must in some way remain oriented to their base camp, the trail head, or
some other point which means food and shelter (safety).
 Check your approximate location on the map and try to compare its markings with your
surroundings. Do this every 30 minutes to an hour. Sooner, if the group desires.
• Bad weather or unexpected hazards, turn back and return to base camp (safety). DO NOT take any risk.
• Pre-trip equipment check; make sure everything works and that you know how to use it.
SAFETY
THE RULE OF THREE’S

3 SECONDS – (MIND) the time you have to decide to escape or take action on an immediate danger.
3 MINUTES – (AIR) the average time you can survive without breathable air.
3 HOURS – (SHELTER) without it, time before you start dying from hypothermia (cold) or hyperthermia (heat).
3 DAYS – (WATER) the time before dehydration can claim your life because lack of water.
3 WEEKS – (FOOD) the time before you cannot do any daily necessary task because of lack of food.
3 MONTHS – (HOPE) the time without meeting anybody else before a solid depression catches you.
Any Questions?
RESPONSIBILITIES
• Alone you have the responsibility to keep yourself physically and mentally alert, aware, and safe.
• In a group everyone needs a responsibility; this gives a person the satisfaction of belonging to a team.
• In a group - when navigating, divide responsibilities and rotate the responsibilities.
* * * It is possible for one person to hold more than one position if need be. * * *
 # 1 SCOUT (point man) – selects the best path (footing), avoiding dead falls, loose rocks, hazards.
DOES NOT go fast and after an obstacle waits and allows everyone to catch-up before moving on.
 # 2 NAVIGATOR (compass) – ensures the SCOUT/group stays on course, with map and compass.
 # 3 LEADER – at intervals stops group for rest period, keeps all group members within visual and
talking distance. Makes sound decisions at a moment’s notice, taking into consideration the current
situation as well as all possible contingencies. Consults with the ASSIST LEADER.
 # 4 PACE COUNT – keeps track of how far the group has traveled by pace count and time.
 # 5 ASSIST NAVIGATOR (compass) – ensures the group stay on course, with map and compass.
 # 6 ASSIST PACE COUNT – keeps track of how far the group traveled by pace count and time.
 # 7 HEAD COUNT / EQUIPMENT – during rest period ensures the whole group does a head count,
a personal equipment inventory, and takes in nourishments (water and food).
 # 8 REAR (Assist Leader) – keeps a lookout for hazards from behind and makes sound decisions
at a moment’s notice. If someone in the back of the group needs to stop, relays message to Leader
to halt group. Consults with the LEADER.
NOTE – primary and assistant positions must compare findings with each other, to verify results.
Navigator-to-Navigator (on course) and Pacer-to-Pacer (travel distance)
RESPONSIBILITIES
GROUP OF EIGHT
GROUP OF FOUR
SCOUT
SCOUT / NAVIGAT0R
NAVIGAT0R
LEADER / PACE COUNT
LEADER
ASSIST NAVIGATOR / PACE COUNT
PACE COUNT
HEAD COUNT / EQUIP / REAR
GROUP OF THREE
ASSIST NAVIGATOR
SCOUT / NAVIGAT0R
ASSIST PACE COUNT

LEADER / PACE COUNT
HEAD COUNT / EQUIP

NAVIGATOR / EQUIP / REAR
REAR
Any Questions?
THE TERRAIN
TERRAIN
• Review park brochures, internet photos, maps, and all other sources, to get a visual of the landscape.
• Detailed map study – take a good look at the map before you pack for the wilderness.
 It will show you treasures and obstacles along the way.
~ A great ridge top for a breathtaking view.
~ A challenging water crossing.
• Elevations can tell you where you may encounter snow (high elevations) in early summer.
• Contour lines will show steep or gentle slopes on a planned route.
• Maybe you need special equipment to cross difficult terrain.
• Seasonal considerations.
 Rainy Season – has that small stream turned into a raging flooded uncrossable river?
 Dry Hot Season – that water hole or small stream you planned to take a rest at, is it dried up?
 Are there dangers of seasonal wildfires?
• Timing is everything.
 What can be an easy low water stream crossing in the early morning can become a dangerous or
impassable river by the afternoon.
 That swamp full of bugs in the morning may be easier to navigate in the evening high winds.
ROUTE SELECTION
ROUTE SELECTION
There are two types of routes.
 A route that fits the group or solo person – physical and hiking skills are limited. No experience.
 A group or solo person that fits the route – the route is so challenging and requires special skills.
• Will it be a loop route (point ―A‖ to ―A‖) or a one-way route (point ―A‖ to ―B‖)?
• Select a group and routes with the right qualifications.
 What type of group is it? Informal (friends) or formal (paying customers, educational class)?
 What are the goals of each group member? Do they want to be there or do they have to be there?
 What is the experience level of each member?
 Are there group members that can lead and manage the group?
 What is the physical condition of each member?
 Are there health issues among the group?
 Plan the routes at a level that will be fun, educational, challenging, and safe for everyone.
• Use binoculars –they save a lot of legwork. Survey the area from different vantage points, trying to
understand where streams and rivers flow, lay of the hills, terrain footing and obstacles, etc.
 Scanning – scan very slowly, looking hard into, rather than at, the terrain.
• Expect the unexpected.
 Select routes that can be modified for unseen situations.
~ Bad weather
~ Trail conditions
~ Broken equipment
~ Injuries, etc
Any Questions?
STAYING ON COURSE
DESCRIPTION
The difference from classroom into the
wilderness is the difference between THEORY
and PRACTICE.
The wilderness is not crisscrossed with
reference grid lines, like a map, to aid the
navigator.
There is difficulty encountered in holding to
a selected course under conditions where the
objective cannot be seen.
• Wilderness navigation is a DISCIPLINE when traveling off the beaten path. To stay on course DO NOT
rely on your ―sense‖ of direction. You must rely on your compass and all navigation techniques available
to you.
– Human reference point
– Making a reference point
– Baselines
– Thumbing the map
STAYING ON COURSE
HUMAN REFERENCE POINT
1. Navigator #1 stays stationary, while navigator #2 goes ahead to the limit of visibility.
• With binoculars and walkie-talkies, the distance can be further.
2. Then navigator #1, with compass in hand at desired azimuth, signals navigator #2 to move left or right
till navigator #2 is aligned with compass azimuth bearing.
3. Navigator #1 catches up with navigator #2 and the process is repeated.
NAVIGATOR #2
NAVIGATOR #1
NOTE
By keeping track of distance as well as the direction of each zig & zag while traveling, and doing some careful
map work, the group will have a running assessment of their approximate location.
STAYING ON COURSE
HUMAN REFERENCE POINT
Even though this is a slow process, it is very effective when needed.
NAVIGATOR #2
ON STOP
MOVE MOVE COURSE I WILL
THIS THIS MOVE CATCH
WAY WAY AHEAD UP
WITH
YOU
NAVIGATOR #1
STAYING ON COURSE
MAKING A REFERENCE POINT
As a lone navigator, this is an alternate method to the ―human reference point‖ when resources are available.
However, it is time consuming to assemble.
1. At your current position, pile up rocks or other landscape debris laying around.
2. Ensure it is large enough to be seen from a long distance away on your route.
3. Set your desired azimuth, say 125º and calculate your back azimuth (125º + 180º = 305º back azimuth).
4. Walk as far as you can on your desired azimuth 125º, occasionally looking back to the reference point
and checking the back azimuth 305º to the reference point, as you walk forward.
5. Move left or right to maintain the back azimuth 305º, which keeps you on course, eliminating lateral drift.
REFERENCE POINT
305º BACK
AZIMUTH
Any Questions?
STAYING ON COURSE
BASELINES ADVANCED
Azimuths can serve as baselines that let you explore a ―trail less‖ area from your camp sight.
1. You create a baseline with the first azimuth measured from your camp (starting point) to a landmark (58º peak 1).
2. Taking a second azimuth landmark (340º peak 2) fixes the campsite’s exact location on the first azimuth baseline.
3. With the cross azimuths written down you’re free to wander around the area.
4. You explore the area and sight on peak 1 to find your azimuth is 354º, which puts you east of the baseline.
5. You head west towards the baseline till your azimuth to peak 1 is 58º, which puts you on the baseline.
6. Now you are at the baseline of 58º, but which way to turn, to go to camp? West or east?
7. You sight on peak 2 to find your azimuth is 38º, which puts you west of camp, so you turn east.
8. Walk the 58º baseline till peak 2 is 340º, if you don’t stray off the baseline, you will reach the camp sight.
NOTE
To avoid getting off
course from the
baseline, remember to
make use of
intermediate landmarks
along the baseline,
keeping close track of
deviations as you make
them, and correct for any
detours, get back to the
baseline as soon as
possible.
STAYING ON COURSE
BASELINES ADVANCED
Going somewhere you cannot see - You want to
travel to a destination beyond a group of hills.
START
1. On the map; mark your start and finish points.
2. Choose the best route between them and draw
the route legs.
3. Using a protractor; determine the route leg
azimuths on the map and estimate distance
between each leg of the route.
4. Locate features or landmarks on the map that will
help you identify each leg junction on arrival;
such as junction 1 (hill at 139º and hill at 185º)
MN azimuth on the compass or use ―Pace & Time
Count‖.
5. Write them down on the map or on a paper and
follow your bearings (BASELINES).
NOTE
If you have MN LINES drawn on the map, align the
protractor to a MN LINE and get the MN azimuth, you
DON’T have to do any MN conversions for compass.
STAYING ON COURSE
BASELINES
ADVANCED
HERE IS ANOTHER EXAMPLE
Here you use intermediate landmarks as

LEG ( x ) JUNCTIONS.
• LEG 1 starts at base of hill

• LEG 2 starts between two hills
• LEG 3 starts between three landmarks
( stream, ridge spur, and hill ).
• LEG 4 starts between two orchard fields and
ends at road junction.
• Note: ―CP‖ stands for ―Check Point‖. ANY

visual land mark reference, to ensure you
are still on the right course to your goal.
CP1 = between hills
CP2 = church building
CP3 = orchard field
Any Questions?
STAYING ON COURSE
THUMBING THE MAP
It is a great technique that will keep you from getting lost goal
or confused. As you gain skill, it becomes a great
technique for increasing your travel speed as well! It is
based on maintaining map contact.
1. Fold the map so it is more manageable. (see map folding

techniques – Part 1 Basic land Navigation)
Shift
2. Find your location on the map.
thumb
3. Hold your map in one hand with your thumb close behind
your location (don't cover it up). now
4. Shift your thumb on the map as you progress on the ground. you are
here
5. When you come to an obvious feature on the map and on the
ground, shift your thumb to mark your new location.
6. Keep your thumb on your map as a "You Are Here" marker
and you'll save yourself lots of time and confusion! Shift
thumb X
NOTE
you are
It is mostly used for ―Orienteer Trail Racing‖. But this can be used here
for normal navigation. And there are other ways to thumb the
map, i.e. use a pencil to quickly mark your location, as you travel.
Any Questions?
ADDITIONAL NAVIGATION SKILLS

DESCRIPTION
You already have been given Land Navigation techniques to give
you a good start in becoming a competent navigator. You have
learned how to operate your own lensatic compass with a map and
other LAND NAVIGATION TECHNIQUES in Parts 1 and 2 of these
lessons, plus “Part 3 Advance Land Navigation” skills.
Here you will find additional wilderness navigation SKILLS THAT
WILL GREATLY AID YOU in navigating the wilderness and improve
your Land Navigation experience level.
• These additional skills, when used, will provide you with essential data. Information that will aid you in
making necessary decisions in various situations.
— Estimating how much daylight is left
— Binoculars with internal compass & rangefinder
— Estimate distance with Lensatic Compass MILS
— Conserve energy
~ Rest break durations, 4 minutes or 30 minutes, and why
~ Rhythmic breathing
~ The ―Rest Step‖
~ Walking sticks
— Blisters
— Weather prediction

ESTIMATING DAYLIGHT
Knowing the TIME of sunrise and sunset for the area you are hiking and having a watch with you is
something you should know and have. Example; sunrise is 6:30am and sunset 7:15pm, you have 12 hrs 45
mins of daylight. And with a watch, while hiking, you can know how much daylight is left before it gets dark.
However, if you do not know the TIME of sunrise and sunset, you can calculate the hours of daylight left
with your hands. Reaching your destination before it gets dark is important. To estimate when the sun will
disappear behind a hill, ridge, horizon, or canyon floor. . .
1. Hold both your hands at arms length, palms facing you and fingers horizontal.
2. Line up the bottom of the sun with the top of the upper finger with one hand, and the other hand lined up to
the bottom of the other hand.
3. Count the number of fingers to the horizon.
4. Every finger is about 15 minutes of daylight left before sunset.
2 hours
30 minutes 1 hour and 30 minutes

Any Questions?

BINOCULARS WITH COMPASS & RANGEFINDER
• This item is a luxury, BUT is a very useful luxury.
• The compass alone is a quick way to find An azimuth to a very far away distant landmark.
• The range finder is very easy to use and the data received from it is invaluable.

IMPORTANT: Always remember that the

Distance and Object Size scales are in a ―ratio‖
to each other. When you add ―0’s‖ to one, you
must add an equal number of ―0’s‖ to the other.
. . .

When the object size is known, its distance is determined as follows:
1. Look through your binocular and place the horizontal reticle line at the base of the object.
2. Count the number of reticle divisions from the base to the top of the object. (In the example on the
previous slide, the top of the lighthouse comes to 2.5 on the Reticle Scale)
3. Rotate the Calculator Dial and place this number (2.5) at the Angle Index Mark
4. Assuming you know that the height of the lighthouse is 100 ft., look below the Angle Index Mark and find
the object size on the scale labeled ―Object Size‖. In this example, use ―10‖.
NOTE
The object size divisions are from 1 to 20. In dealing with an object that is
100 feet, mentally add a zero to the 10 indicator on the object size scale.
5. Now read the distance scale directly beneath the object size. It is 400 but remember, because you added
a ―0‖ to the ―10‖ in Step 4, you must add a zero to the 400. Thus, the distance from you to the lighthouse
is 4000 feet.
When distance to the object is known, its size is determined as follows:
1. Count the reticle divisions occupied by the object
2. Rotate the Calculator Dial, so that the Angle Index Mark points to the number from the reticle scale .
3. Look at the Distance Scale, and find your known distance to the object (for example, 4000 feet, or 400 on
the scale). The number on the Object Size scale that is opposite this distance indicates the size of the
object (for example, 100 feet).

( Using binocular ring calculator )
• Map indicates Landmark is 100 yards wide. • Both hikers are about 5’4‖ tall.
• Landmark covers 4 marks on binocular scale. • Hiker covers 1½ (1.5) marks on binocular scale.
• You are 1000 yards away from landmark. • Hikers are 950 feet (316 yards) away from camp.
• At your current speed, 30-40 minutes away. • 10-15 minutes before they reach camp.
.. ..
2 3 4 5 6
NOTE
drawings and
binocular dial
numbers are
exaggerated
for clarity.
Follow the
. binocular
dinstruction
manual.

( Using binocular tick mark MILS and formula )
• Range (distance) = W .. m
Height
• Width = R x m Each tick
m W (H)
W (H) mark is 5mils
• m= R
R
10mils 5mils
• m is the angular width (height) of the object in MILS.
Width
• W (H) is the width (height) of the object in meters.
• R is the range or distance in thousand (1000) meters.
Landmark is 92 meters (100yds) Width

binocular total tick mils is 40mils
92W .. 40m = 2.3 x 1000 meters = 2300 meters (2.3Km or 1½ miles)
Any Questions?

ESTIMATING DISTANCE WITH COMPASS MILS (Technique 1)
This technique is used with landmark information • Range (distance) = W .. m
Landmark is 92 meters (100yds) Width • Width = R x m
m W (H)
Azimuth of the left side of landmark is 5200mils W (H)
• m= R
R
Azimuth of the right side of landmark is 5300mils
• m is the angular width (height) of the object in MILS.
Compass mils is 5300 – 5200 = 100mils
• W (H) is the width (height) of the object in meters.
92 100 = 0.92 x 1000 meters = 920m (1,006yds) • R is the range or distance in thousand (1000) meters.
5200mils 5300mils
Any Questions?

ESTIMATING DISTANCE WITH COMPASS DEGREES
This technique is good to use when you DO NOT HAVE A MAP. A Lensatic Compass is the best type of compass to use, it is easy to sight a landmark and is accurate.
1. You see a far away hill that you want to know the distance to, so you take a bearing reading to a spot on the hill. (Example 75 degrees)
2. You then walk perpendicular (right angle) to a measured distance. (Example 100 meters)
3. Then take another bearing reading to the exact same spot on the hill. (Example 80 degrees)
4. Next find degree difference and use the calculation to get the distance to the hill.
Deg Tangent Deg Tangent Deg Tangent d = ((Tan (90 - (A -B))) x Ref ) d = ((Tan (90 - (A -B))) x Ref )
1 0.017 31 0.601 61 1.804
2 0.035 32 0.625 62 1.881 80 degrees A = Greater value of measured bearing angles 1. (A – B) 80 – 75 = 5
3 0.052 33 0.649 63 1.963 75 degrees B = Lower value of measured bearing angles 2. (90 - (A-B)) 90 – 5 = 85 Deg
4 0.070 34 0.675 64 2.060 11.430 (85 deg) Tan = Tangent value (of the resultant angle) 3. View chart and find 85 Deg to locate
5 0.087 35 0.700 65 2.145 100 meters Ref = Measured reference distance Tangent. 11.430
6 0.105 36 0.727 66 2.246 1143 meters d = Distance (to be calculated) 4. (Tangent x Ref) 11.430 x 100 = 1143
7 0.123 37 0.754 67 2.356 5. d = 1,143 meters (1.1 Km)
8 0.141 38 0.781 68 2.475 1143 meters (1.1 Km) = ((11.430 (90 – (80 – 83))) x 100 meters)
9 0.158 39 0.810 69 2.605 Note: When you have a degree that reads less that 360 and the other more that 360 (0 degrees), example
10 0.176 40 0.839 70 2.747 358 degrees and 3 degrees, all you are looking for is the degree difference, just like the above example.
11 0.194 41 0.869 71 2.904 3 + 360 = 363, so you subtract 363 – 358 = 5. Tangent would be the same as above; 90 – 5 = 85 so the
12 0.213 42 0.900 72 3.078 Tangent is Tan = 11.430 (85 deg).
13 0.231 43 0.933 73 3.271
14 0.249 44 0.966 74 3.487
15 0.268 45 1 75 3.732
16 0.287 46 1.036 76 4.011
17 0.306 47 1.072 77 4.331
18 0.325 48 1.111 78 4.705
19 0.344 49 1.150 79 5.145
20 0.364 50 1.192 80 5.671
21 0.384 51 1.235 81 6.314 80 degrees
22 0.404 52 1.280 82 7.115
23 0.424 53 1.327 83 8.144
24 0.445 54 1.376 84 9.514 100 meters HILL
25 0.466 55 1.428 85 11.430
26 0.488 56 1.483 86 14.301
27 0.510 57 1.540 87 19.081 75 degrees
28 0.532 58 1.600 88 28.636
29 0.554 59 1.664 89 57.290
30 0.577 60 1.732 90

ESTIMATING DISTANCE WITH COMPASS DEGREES
THIS TECHNIQUE IS A SIMPLIFIED VERSION OF THE PREVIOUS SLIDE.
NOTE: You can use any degree that is at least 1 degree or more.
1. You see a far away hill that you want to know the distance to, so you take a bearing reading to a spot on the hill.
2. You then walk perpendicular (right angle) till you reach an off-set of at least 1 degree. (This example is 2 degrees)
NOTE: The further the landmark, the more distanced walked is needed to get a minimum of 1 degree difference
and the closer the landmark, the less distance walked is needed.
3. Then measure the distance walked from start to finish. (This example is 18 meters)
NOTE: you can use centimeters, meters, feet, yards or any measurement value.
4. Next use the calculation to get the distance to the hill.
5. Use this information to plot your location on the map, using one of the azimuths and distance on your calculation.
Deg Tangent
1 57.290
2 28.636
3 19.081
4 14.301
5 11.430
d = (Tan [Deg difference]) x Ref 18 meters HILL

Reference
28.636 [2 deg] Tan = Tangent value [of the resultant angle]
18 meters Ref = Measured walked reference distance
515 meters d = Distance (to be calculated)
515 meters (0.5 Km) = 28.636 x 18 meters

Any Questions?

ESTIMATING DISTANCE WITH COMPASS MILS (Technique 2)
This technique is good to use when you DO NOT HAVE A MAP. And a Lensatic Compass is the best type of compass to use, because it is easy to sight a landmark and
is more accurate when you use the MILS scale.
Use the same technique from the previous slide.
1. Take a bearing reading to a spot on the hill. (Example 1330 mils)
Mil Tan Mil Tan Mil Tan Mil Tan Mil Tan 2. walk perpendicular to a measured distance. (Example 100 meters)
10 0.01 330 0.336 650 0.741 970 1.406 1290 3.184 3. Take another bearing to the same spot on the hill. (Example 1420 mils)
20 0.02 340 0.347 660 0.757 980 1.435 1300 3.297 4. Find mils difference and use the calculation to get the distance to the hill.
30 0.029 350 0.358 670 0.773 990 1.466 1310 3.417
40 0.039 360 0.369 680 0.788 1000 1.497 1320 3.546 d = (((Tan (1600 - (A -B))) x Ref )
50 0.049 370 0.38 690 0.805 1010 1.53 1330 3.684
60 0.059 380 0.391 700 0.821 1020 1.562 1340 3.832 1420 mils A = Greater value of the two measured bearing angles
70 0.069 390 0.403 710 0.837 1030 1.597 1350 3.992 1330 mils B = Lower value of the two measured bearing angles
80 0.079 400 0.414 720 0.854 1040 1.632 1360 4.165 11.288(1510 mils) Tan = Tangent value (of the resultant angle)
90 0.089 410 0.426 730 0.871 1050 1.669 1370 4.353 100 meters Ref = Measured reference distance
100 0.098 420 0.437 740 0.889 1060 1.707 1380 4.558 1128.8 meters d = Distance (to be calculated)
110 0.108 430 0.449 750 0.907 1070 1.745 1390 4.782
120 0.118 440 0.461 760 0.924 1080 1.786 1400 5.027 1128 meters (1.1 Km) = ((11.288 (1600 – (1420 – 1330))) x 100 meters)
130 0.128 450 0.473 770 0.943 1090 1.827 1410 5.299 Note: When you have mils that read less that 6400 and the other more than 6400
140 0.138 460 0.485 780 0.961 1100 1.871 1420 5.600 (0 mils), example 6360 mils and 50 mils, all you are looking for is the mils
150 0.148 470 0.497 790 0.981 1110 1.917 1430 5.936 difference, just like the above example. 50 + 6400 = 6450, so you subtract
160 0.158 480 0.51 800 1 1120 1.963 1440 6.314 6450 – 6360 = 90, so the Tangent is the same as above; 1600 – 90 = 1510 mils so
170 0.168 490 0.522 810 1.02 1130 2.011 1450 6.741 the Tangent is Tan = 11.288 (1510 mils).
180 0.179 500 0.535 820 1.04 1140 2.062 1460 7.230
190 0.189 510 0.547 830 1.061 1150 2.12 1470 7.793
200 0.199 520 0.56 840 1.082 1160 2.17 1480 8.449
210 0.209 530 0.573 850 1.104 1170 2.226 1490 9.224
220 0.219 540 0.585 860 1.125 1180 2.287 1500 10.153
230 0.23 550 0.599 870 1.148 1190 2.35 1510 11.288
240 0.24 560 0.613 880 1.171 1200 2.415 1520 12.706
250 0.25 570 0.626 890 1.195 1210 2.483 1530 14.528 1420 mils
260 0.261 580 0.64 900 1.219 1220 2.555 1540 16.957
270 0.271 590 0.654 910 1.244 1230 2.631 1550 20.355 HILL
280 0.282 600 0.668 920 1.269 1240 2.712 1560 25.452 100meters
290 0.293 610 0.683 930 1.295 1250 2.795 1570 33.943
300 0.303 620 0.697 940 1.321 1260 2.884 1580 50.923 1330 mils
310 0.314 630 0.711 950 1.349 1270 2.978 1590 101.86
320 0.325 640 0.726 960 1.376 1280 3.078 1600 0

ESTIMATING DISTANCE WITH COMPASS MILS
NOTE: THIS TECHNIQUE IS A SIMPLIFIED VERSION OF THE PREVIOUS SLIDE.
NOTE: You can use any mils that is at least 10 Mils or more.
1. You see a far away hill that you want to know the distance to, so you take a bearing reading to a spot on the hill.
2. You then walk perpendicular (right angle) till you reach an off-set of at least 10 Mils. (This example is 20 Mils)
NOTE: The further the landmark, the more distance walked is needed to get a minimum of 10 Mils difference
and the closer the landmark, the less distance walked is needed.
3. Then measure the distance walked from start to finish. (This example is 30 feet or 10 yards)
NOTE: you can use centimeters, meters, feet, yards or any measurement value.
4. Next use the calculation to get the distance to the hill.
5. Use this information to plot your location on the map, using one of the azimuths and distance on your calculation.
Mil Tangent
10 101.86
20 50.923
30 33.943
40 25.452
d = (Tan [Deg difference]) x Ref 10 yards HILL

Reference
50.923 [20 Mil ] Tan = Tangent value [of the resultant angle]
10 yards Ref = Measured walked reference distance
509 yards d = Distance (to be calculated)
509 yards (0.3 Miles) = 50.923 x 10 yards


ESTIMATING DISTANCE WITH COMPASS
Here is some charts that simplify it even more. You can print and attach to the map margin or keep as laminated cards.
Distance to a landmark is already calculated. Calculate distance to a landmark manually.

1. Select ANGLE ( Mil or Deg ) used.
MIL TAN D = TAN x REF DEG TAN
2. Select REF (distance walked in feet or meter, etc)
10 101.86 1 57.290
3. Where it intersects is DISTANCE (feet or meter, etc) DISTANCE
20 50.923 2 28.636
MIL (ANGLE) DEGREE (ANGLE) equals 3 19.081
3 to get 30 and also add a ZERO to the DISTANCE value. 30 33.943
NOTE: If REF is greater than 20… example 30, add a ZERO to the
TANGENT 4 14.301
REF 10 20 30 40 REF 1 2 3 4 5 40 25.452 times
1 102 51 34 25 1 57 29 19 14 11 5 11.430
REFERENCE
2 204 102 68 51 2 115 57 38 29 23
Example : MIL 20 REF 30 DISTANCE 1530
3 306 153 102 76 3 172 86 57 43 34 D is distance from you to landmark

4 407 204 136 102 4 229 115 76 57 46 TANgent is the ANGLE difference in MIL or DEG
5 509 255 170 127 5 286 143 95 72 57 REFerence is distance walked to get ANGLE difference
6 611 306 204 153 6 344 172 114 86 69
Distance
7 713 356 238 178 7 401 200 134 100 80 Walked ANGLE Landmark
8 815 407 272 204 8 458 229 153 114 91 (Feet or meter)
9 917 458 305 229 9 516 258 172 129 103
10 1019 509 339 255 10 573 286 191 143 114 NOTE:
11 1120 560 373 280 11 630 315 210 157 126 1. If you use feet , use feet for all calculations.
2. If you use meter, use meter for all calculations.
12 1222 611 407 305 12 687 344 229 172 137
3. If you use other unit of measurement, use it for
13 1324 662 441 331 13 745 372 248 186 149 all calculations.
14 1426 713 475 356 14 802 401 267 200 160
1 mile = 1760 yard = 5280 feet 1 yard = 3 feet
15 1528 764 509 382 15 859 430 286 215 171
1 Km = 1000 meter = 100,000 cm 1 m = 100 cm
16 1630 815 543 407 16 917 458 305 229 183
17 1732 866 577 433 17 974 487 324 243 194 1 feet = 30.5 cm 1 cm = 0.03 feet
1 yard = 0.9 meters 1 meter = 1.09 yards
18 1833 917 611 458 18 1031 515 343 257 206
1 mile = 1.6 Km 1 Km = 0.6 mile
19 1935 968 645 484 19 1089 544 363 272 217
20 2037 1018 679 509 20 1146 573 382 286 229

Plotting location on the map, using one azimuth reference to a landmark. NOTE:
1. If you use feet , use feet for all calculations.
MIL TAN 2. If you use meter, use meter for all calculations.
10 101.86 D = TAN x REF 3. If you use other unit of measurement, use it for all calculations.
20 50.923
30 33.943 ( 1528 = 101.86 x 15 ) MAP SCALE BAR
40 25.452
1000 500 0 1000 FEET
Distance
ANGLE Landmark
Walked
1500 Feet
MAP
?
REF ?
15 Feet X
?
Distance = 1528 feet from hill

(509 Yards)
HILL
HILL

NOTE: If REF is greater than 20… example 30, add a ZERO to the Distance to a landmark is already calculated.
3 to get 30 and also add a ZERO to the DISTANCE value. 1. Select ANGLE ( Mil or Deg ) used.
Example : MIL 20 REF 30 DISTANCE 1530 2. Select REF (distance walked in feet or meter, etc)
3. Where it intersects is DISTANCE (feet or meter, etc)
For calculations use the same (feet or meters or other) for all measurements MIL (ANGLE) DEGREE (ANGLE)
3 to get 30 and al
NOTE: If REF i
1. Use the actual measurement (feet or meter, etc) used to walk your distance. REF 10 20 30 40 REF 1 2 3 4 5
2. Use the actual ANGLE ( mil or degree ) achieved for distance walked.
1 102 51 34 25 1 57 29 19 14 11
3. Select the REF in feet or meters actually used in step one above.
2 204 102 68 51 2 115 57 38 29 23
Examp
BELOW is an example. As you can see REF 30 Feet is very different from 3 306 153 102 76 3 172 86 57 43 34
REF 30 Meters, with the same ANGLE 20 Mils. Distances are different. 4 407 204 136 102 4 229 115 76 57 46
REF
30 Meter LAKE LAKE
REF
30 Feet
REF
30 Feet FOREST
FOREST
Distance = 1530 feet from hill

Distance = 1530 meters from hill
(510 Yards)
(1673 Yards)
( 1 mile ) ( 1/3 mile ) HILL
HILL
Any Questions?
ADDITIONAL NAVIGATION SKI LLS

DRAWING A MAP USING THE PREVIOUS SLIDE TECHNIQUES
This technique is good to use when you DO NOT HAVE A MAP and you what to draw a map of the local wilderness area. Here is an example.
1. From your campsite (select landmarks that standout and can be seen) take two bearing readings each; to the Hill, Lake, Tower, and River - one bearing
from the campsite and the other from a perpendicular (right angle) to a measured distance.
2. With the bearing readings calculate the distance from your campsite to each landmark selected. Hill, Lake, Tower, and River.
3. On a sheet of paper draw the camp site as a starting point and Magnetic North on top of the map. With MN there is no need to do any GN conversions.
4. With a protractor covering the campsite and using the campsite bearings, draw light tick marks on the paper at the edge of the protractor bearing.
5. With the Lensatic Compass on the paper, measure from the campsite, thru the bearing, to a determined distance for each landmark and draw the
landmark at the measured distance.
NOTE: When using the Lensatic Compass Graduated Straight Edge, decide which measurement scale you want to use… it can be any value.
6. Add trees and any other information to the map.
When finished, you will have a useful map
to explore and navigate the local area.
Scale measurement examples
d = ((Tan (1600 - (A -B))) x Ref )
HILL distance 861.4 meters. ((17.288 (1600 – (5580 – 5520))) x 50 meters)

LAKE distance 468 meters. ((9.36 (1600 – (590 – 480))) x 50 meters)
120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 2 TOWER distance 393.25 meters. ((7.865 (1600 – (1810 – 1680))) x 50 meters)
300 275 250 225 200 175 150 125 100 75 50 25 5 RIVER distance 1088.4 meters. ((21.768 (1600 – (4680 – 4630))) x 50 meters)
1200 1100 1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 20 Zero
100
200
Magnetic North
0
Meters
HILL
Lake
Hill
LAKE
Campsite
CAMP
Tower
Trail TRAIL
River 50 meter 1680
Reference
RIVER TOWER
Distance

STEP ONE
• From your campsite (select landmarks that standout and can be seen) take two bearing readings each; to the Hill, Lake, Tower, and River - one bearing
from the campsite and the other from a perpendicular (right angle) to a measured distance.
HILL
LAKE
CAMP
TRAIL
50 meter 1680
Reference
Distance TOWER
RIVER

STEP TWO
• With the bearing readings calculate the distance from your campsite to each landmark selected. Hill, Lake, Tower, and River.
d = ((Tan (1600 - (A -B))) x Ref )

Mil Tan
1540 17.288 HILL distance 861.4 meters. ((17.288 (1600 – (5580 – 5520))) x 50 meters)
1490 9.36 LAKE distance 468 meters. ((9.36 (1600 – (590 – 480))) x 50 meters)
1470 7.865 TOWER distance 393.25 meters. ((7.865 (1600 – (1810 – 1680))) x 50 meters)
1550 21.768 RIVER distance 1088.4 meters. ((21.768 (1600 – (4680 – 4630))) x 50 meters)
HILL
LAKE
CAMP
TRAIL
50 meter 1680
Reference
RIVER Distance TOWER

STEP THREE
• On a sheet of paper draw the campsite as a starting point and Magnetic North on top of the map. With MN there is no need to do any GN conversions.
See Part 2 Intermediate Land Navigation – “Make map speak compass language”.
Magnetic North
Campsite

STEP FOUR
• With a protractor covering the campsite and using the campsite bearings, draw light tick marks on the paper at the edge of the protractor bearing.
Magnetic North
Lake 590 mils
Hill 5520 mils
River 4630 mils

Tower
1810 mils

STEP FOUR ( A closer look )
• With a protractor covering the campsite and using the campsite bearings, draw light tick marks on the paper at the edge of the protractor bearing.
Hill 5520 mils

Lake 590 mils
Tower 1810 mils
River 4630 mils

STEP FIVE
• With the Lensatic Compass on the paper, measure

from the campsite, thru the bearing tick marks, to a
determined distance for each landmark and draw the
landmark at the measured distance
NOTE
When using the Lensatic
Compass Graduated
Magnetic North
Straight Edge, decide which
measurement scale you
want to use.
In this example the scale used is

Yellow = 20m
Red = 100m
861meters
Protractor tick marks from STEP FOUR


STEP SIX
• With all the landmarks (Hill, Lake, Tower, and River) drawn in, you can then add the following – Trees, Trails, Landmark names, and any other
information you want to add. Such as the scale ruler.
• When finished, you will have a useful map to explore and navigate the local wilderness. And keep track of your position on your drawn map.
Magnetic North
100
200
0
Meters
Hill Lake
Campsite
Tower
Trail
River
Any Questions?

Here is a summary of making a map.
Magnetic North
100
200
0
468 meters
Meters
HILL
d = ((Tan (1600 - (A -B))) x Ref )
Hill
Lake
HILL distance 861.4 meters. ((17.228 (1600 – (5580 – 5520))) x 50 meters)
861meters
LAKE
LAKE distance 468 meters. ((9.36 (1600 – (590 – 480))) x 50 meters)
TOWER distance 393.25 meters. ((7.865 (1600 – (1810 – 1680))) x 50 meters)
RIVER distance 1088.4 meters. ((21.768 (1600 – (4680 – 4630))) x 50 meters)
CAMPCampsite 393 meters
Tower
TRAIL
Trail
50 meter 1680
River Reference
1088 meters Distance TOWER
RIVER
Any Questions?

CONSERVE ENERGY – REST BREAKS
All groups need to take regular rest breaks in order to hike effectively throughout the day.
• A good schedule is about 5 minutes of rest for every hour of hiking, which will minimize lactic acid buildup
in the body.
• Lactic acid is the by-product created when your muscles burn glucose while you exercise, it’s what
causes your muscles to feel sore.
• When you stop, lactic acid continues to be produced and remains in the system.
• If you stop for less than 5 minutes, this buildup is not a problem.
• If you stop for more than 5 minutes, you may begin to feel muscle soreness and tightening.
• In that case it is best to extend the stop to 25 minutes to allow the excess lactic acid to be cleared out of
your system.
Lactic Acid during REST BREAK
Less than 5 minutes – no problem
More than 5 minutes – muscle soreness and tightening
25 minutes or more – body clears the lactic acid
• Encourage everyone to re-hydrate at every break.


CONSERVE ENERGY – RYTHMIC BREATHING
• Keeping a breathing rate and pattern is one of the best ways to monitor and control your energy output
while hiking.
• RYTHMIC BREATHING - you should move at a pace that allows you to breathe comfortably and be able
to speak.
• If you are constantly gasping for breath or if you can’t keep up a conversation, then you are hiking too fast
for your conditioning level.
• The best way to control your pace is to synchronize the rhythm of your walking (REST STEP) with the
rhythm of your breathing.
• As the hiking load increases from steep terrain, humid weather, or a heavier pack, your breathing rate will
increase.
 Slow your pace to regain that controlled breathing rate.
 When the load is reduced, you can pick up your pace again.
• This technique, when used with the REST STEP (next slide), will maintain a high endurance output over a
long period of time.

CONSERVE ENERGY – THE REST STEP
The mountaineer's ―REST STEP" is your greatest ally on steep ascents. With every step, you briefly transfer weight from your
leg muscles to the skeletal system. It takes a bit of practice, but if done correctly allows you to climb farther without excessive
tiring. Here is how it works:
Step forward with your right leg while keeping your weight on your back (left) leg and momentarily "locking" the back leg in a
straight position. Pause for a split second on your locked left leg. This allows your bones, rather than your leg muscles, to
support your weight.
Swing your left leg forward to take the next step, while locking and transferring your weight to your right (now the back) leg.
Repeat the process with each step, always putting your weight on your locked rear leg.
It's not really a short rest. Instead it's a pause while sinking into the hip deeply. It's more of a stop motion to the continuous
fluid swing of the leg movement that usually happens. This will also allow
you to breathe more evenly and less heavily.
You can tell if you are doing the REST STEP, if
your step is heavy on the terrain and you aren't
breathing too hard.
You need to get into a steady rhythm of doing that for each step you take.
You may feel like a robot walking slowly up the mountain, but you'll feel much
better when you get there.
The REST STEP should be used in conjunction with rhythmic breathing.
The REST STEP keeps your breathing rate easy.

CONSERVE ENERGY – WALKING STICKS
WHY CARRY A WALKING STICK?
IT WILL HELP YOU KEEP YOUR BALANCE IT WILL REDUCE STRESS ON BACK & LEGS
• Crossing creeks, streams, rivers • Provides extra power & balance going uphill
• Traversing hillsides • Reduces shock on knees, going downhill
• Crossing shale, scree • Takes pressure off back and hips (mainly uphill)
• Carrying heavy loads
• Resting en route OTHER USES
• Center or side pole for a tarp
IT WILL HELP YOU MANEUVER • To prop up your pack
• Crossing downed trees over trails • To lean on when resting
• To break or prevent a fall • Pushing aside spider webs and brush
• Self defense against animals, snakes, etc.
SHOULD YOU USE TWO SKI POLES, ONE SKI POLE, ONE WOODEN STAFF, OR SOMETHING ELSE?
• It boils down to what is your preference, or more specifically, what feels right on the trail.
• Hikers use two snow poles when on snow.
• On the trail hikers use one or two poles.
• It takes some time to get use to walking sticks.
• Experiment using both.
• Do what's comfortable, what ever works for you.
Any Questions?

PREVENTING BLISTERS
• Blisters demand attention. If you ignore them, you will pay dearly later.
• Always carry a blister kit, even on day hikes.
• Once you hit the trail, you’ll want to pay particular attention to your feet.
• Blisters happen fast, but they do give you a warning.
• If you feel a hot spot, stop immediately.
• Don’t worry about holding up your hiking partners. A short break to check your feet is far better than
limping around on blisters.
• If you do get a blister, first aid treatment makes it possible to walk on a blister, in varying degrees of
comfort.
BLISTER BUSTING TIPS
• Make sure boots fit properly
• Treat boots with oils
• Wear non-cotton sock liners
• Keep feet dry
• Go easy on walking mileage
• Pay attention, any rubbing or soreness, stop immediately and check for foot problems
• If you get blisters in certain areas of feet, put moleskin over it in advance, prior to starting your walk
Any Questions?

Not all of these sayings hold true every time under every circumstance,
but you might be surprised at just how accurate they tend to be.
THE MOON
• If you can see the dark part of the crescent moon, it means 24 to
48 hours of good weather.
• A ring around the moon brings rain. By counting the number of stars contained within the ring, you can
fairly accurately predict how long away the rain will be. Each star represents 24 hours, faint star 12 hours.
• If the moon's face is red, of water she speaks. The red color is due to the presence of dust being pushed
ahead of a low pressure front bringing in moisture.
THE SUN
• rainbow or white band around the sun, look for a drastic change in the weather within 12-24 hours. If the
weather is clear, plan on stormy weather; if the weather is dreary, plan on fair weather to arrive.
• Red Sun: A red sun at dusk or dawn indicates dry weather (fair). Don't confuse a red sky in the
morning with a red sun in the morning. If the sun itself is red and the sky is a normal blue color,
the day will be fair.
• Red Sky: A red sky at night, hikers delight, Red sky at morning, hikers take warning.
RAINBOWS
• Rainbows in the morning to the west indicate approaching rain.
• A rainbow at sunset indicates that the rain is leaving and fair weather is on the way.

ATMOSPHERIC LOW PRESSURE (rain)
• If you find yourself out in a marsh or swamp and the air really
seems to stink more than normal, expect rainy weather.
• Birds and bats have a tendency to fly much lower to the ground
right before a rain due to the ―thinning‖ of the air.
• Smoke hanging low means rain is on the way.
ATMOSPHERIC HIGH PRESSURE (fair)
• Things won't smell quite so strong, fair weather.
• The atmosphere becomes more dense and birds can easily fly at higher altitudes, dry air.
• Smoke rising straight into the air means fair weather.
CLOUDS
• An ability to accurately read cloud formations is invaluable in predicting the weather. For a more detailed
look into this, consult a good book on the weather. Each type of cloud is caused by specific actions in
nature building up to fair weather or rainy weather.
PLANTS
• Pine cones - One of the most reliable of all natural weather indicators are pine cones. In dry weather, pine
cones open out as the scales shrivel up and stand out stiffly. When it is damp, they absorb moisture and
as the scales become flexible again, the cone returns to its normal shape.
• Flowers - flowers bloom in fair weather and close when rain is approaching.
• Grass – dew on the grass, rain will never come to pass. When grass is dry at morning light, look for rain
before the night.
Any Questions?
Note:


TESTING
• Written exam

THE END OF
LAND NAVIGATION
PRESENTATION
PART 3
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PART 1

All items will be inspected and inventoried prior to

If you do not intend to sign this statement, then you

LAND NAVIGATION WITH MAP

THIS PRESENTATION IS DIVIDED INTO FOUR PARTS

PART 1 Basic Land Navigation

• The Topographic Map

THE LENSATIC COMPASS

Buy the Genuine Article

FLOATING DIAL SCALE BLACK RING

FLOATING DIAL SCALE BLACK RING

Degrees – common unit of measure is

Approximately 1 inch (every 13 ticks)

Exactly 1 cm (every 5 ticks)

• Lens - used to read the dial.

When traveling make sure that the rear sight is

SIGHTING A LENSATIC COMPASS

SIGHTING A LENSATIC COMPASS

SIGHTING A LENSATIC COMPASS

SIGHTING A LENSATIC COMPASS

THE TOPOGRAPHIC MAP

Without ever having been

However, the finest maps

Map Margin Information

Map Margin Information

Map Margin Information

Map Margin Information

Map Margin Information

Map Margin Information

Map Margin Information

(1) (1) (1)

Medium-scale topo map (1:150,000)

Large-scale topo map (1:24,000)

Small-scale map (1:100,000,000) Medium-scale map (1:250,000)

Large-scale map (1:24,000)

Perennial stream Intermittent lake or pond

Intermittent river Dry lake

Small falls; small rapids Dam

Large falls; large rapids Canal

Buildings Land Grids

Landing Strip Foot Bridge

Cemetery cem Trail

Gravel Pit Railroad

CONTOUR LINES A=700 ft

• This is the vertical dimension. On a map it is referred to as ―relief‖.

Terrain Relief Features

Map Information – Direction

Map Information – Direction

When using the ground – use a Compass to Measure

Map Information – Direction

Left to Right SUBTRACT WEST to EAST is least ( - ) SUBTRACT

Map Information – Direction

2. The G-M ANGLE on the Map is 24°

3. So MN to GN SUBTRACT 49°- 24° = 25° GN (Draw this

2. The G-M ANGLE on the Map is 24°

3. So GN to MN ADD 25°+ 24° = 49° MN (Put this on your compass)

Map Information – Direction

Left to Right SUBTRACT

3. So MN to GN ADD 322°+ 9° = 331° GN (Draw this

2. The G-M ANGLE on the Map is 9°

3. So GN to MN SUBTRACT 331°- 9° = 322° MN (Put this on your

Map Information – Direction

1. With a protractor the map does

Map Information – Direction