Basic Operational Concepts

o The primary function of a computer system is to execute a program,

sequence of instructions. These instructions are stored in computer
memory.
o These instructions are executed to process data which are already loaded
in the computer memory through some input devices.
o After processing the data, the result is either stored in the memory for
further reference, or it is sent to the outside world through some output
port.
o To perform the execution of an instruction, in addition to the arithmetic
logic unit, and control unit, the processor contains a number of registers
used for temporary storage of data and some special function registers.
o The special function registers include program counters (PC), instruction
registers (IR), memory address registers (MAR) and memory and memory
data registers (MDR).
o The Program counter is one of the most critical registers in CPU.
o The Program counter monitors the execution of instructions. It keeps track
on which instruction is being executed and what the next instruction will
be.
o The instruction register IR is used to hold the instruction that is currently
being executed.
o The contents of IR are available to the control unit, which generate the
timing signals that control, the various processing elements involved in
executing the instruction.
o The two registers MAR and MDR are used to handle the data transfer
between the main memory and the processor.
o The MAR holds the address of the main memory to or from which data is
to be transferred.
o The MDR contains the data to be written into or read from the addressed
word of the main memory.
o Whenever the processor is asked to communicate with devices, we say that
the processor is servicing the devices. The processor can service these
devices in one of the two ways.
o One way is to use the polling routine, and the other way is to use an
interrupt.
o Polling enables the processor software to check each of the input and
output devices frequently. During this check, the processor tests to see if
any devices need servicing or not.
 o Interrupt method provides an external asynchronous input that informs the
processor that it should complete whatever instruction that is currently
being executed and fetch a new routine that will service the requesting
device.

Computer Architecture Vs Computer Organisation

 Computer Architecture is concerned with the way hardware components
are connected together to form a computer system. Computer
Organization is concerned with the structure and behaviour of a computer
system as seen by the user.
 Computer Architecture acts as the interface between hardware and
software. Computer Organization deals with the components of a
connection in a system.
 Computer Architecture helps us to understand the functionalities of a
system. Computer Organization tells us how exactly all the units in
the system are arranged and interconnected.
 A programmer can view architecture in terms of instructions, addressing
modes and registers. Whereas Organization expresses the realization
of architecture.
 While designing a computer system architecture is considered first. An
organization is done on the basis of architecture.
 Computer Architecture deals with high-level design issues.
Computer Organization deals with low-level design issues.
 Architecture involves Logic (Instruction sets, Addressing modes, Data
types, Cache optimization) .Organization involves Physical
Components (Circuit design, Adders, Signals, Peripherals)

Interrupt

When a Process is executed by the CPU and when a user Request for another
Process then this will create disturbance for the Running Process. This is also
called as the Interrupt. Interrupts can be generated by User, Some Error
Conditions and also by Software’s and the hardware’s.
Hardware Interrupts
Hardware interrupt is caused by any peripheral device by sending a signal
through a specified pin to the microprocessor.

Software Interrupts
Some instructions are inserted at the desired position into the program to create
interrupts
Maskable Interrupt : An Interrupt that can be disabled or ignored by the
instructions of CPU are called as Maskable Interrupt .Eg RST 6.5
Non Maskable Interrupt : An Interrupt that cannot be disabled or ignored by
the instructions of CPU are called as Non Maskable Interrupt Ex TRAP

Types of Computer System

The four basic types of computers are as under:
 Supercomputer : The most powerful computers in terms of
performance and data processing are the Supercomputers. These are
specialized and task specific computers used by large organizations.
These computers are used for research and exploration purposes, like
NASA uses supercomputers for launching space shuttles, controlling
them and for space exploration purpose. The supercomputers are very
expensive and very large in size. It can be accommodated in large air-
 conditioned rooms; some super computers can span an entire building.
Presently, China’s “Tianhe – 2” is the world’s faster Supercomputer.
 Mainframe Computer : Although Mainframes are not as powerful as
supercomputers, but certainly they are quite expensive nonetheless, and
many large firms & government organizations uses Mainframes to run
their business operations. The Mainframe computers can be
accommodated in large air-conditioned rooms because of its size. Super-
computers are the fastest computers with large data storage capacity,
Mainframes can also process & store large amount of data. Banks
educational institutions & insurance companies use mainframe
computers to store data about their customers, students & insurance
policy holders.Ex Hitachi’s Z800.
 Minicomputer : Minicomputers are used by small businesses & firms.
Minicomputers are also called as “Midrange Computers”. These are
small machines and can be accommodated on a disk with not as
processing and data storage capabilities as super-computers &
Mainframes. These computers are not designed for a single user.
Individual departments of a large company or organizations use Mini-
computers for specific purposes. For example, a production department
can use Mini-computers for monitoring certain production process.Ex
K-202
 Microcomputer : Desktop computers, laptops, personal digital assistant
(PDA), tablets & smartphones are all types of microcomputers. The
micro-computers are widely used & the fastest growing computers.
These computers are the cheapest among the other three types of
computers.