Chapter 6

The Skeletal System

LECTURE OUTLINE

I. Functions of Bone and the Skeletal System

A. Support – The skeletal system provides a structural
framework.
B. Protection - Bone protects internal organs from
injury.
C. Assisting in movement – Contracting muscles pull on
bones.
D. Mineral homeostasis – Bone tissue stores and can
release calcium and phosphorus.
E. Production of blood cells – Red bone marrow produces
red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.
F. Triglyceride storage – Yellow bone marrow has adipose
cells that store triglycerides.

II. Types of Bones

A. Bones can be classified on the basis of shape and
location into four main types.
1. Long bones have a greater length than width and a
variable number of ends. Examples include the
femur (thigh bone) and humerus (arm bone).
2. Short bones are somewhat cube-shaped and nearly
equal in length and width. Examples include most
wrist and ankle bones.
3. Flat bones are thin with extensive surfaces for
muscle attachment. Examples are the cranial
bones and sternum (breastbone).
4. Irregular bones have complex shapes and include
vertebrae and some facial bones.

III. Macroscopic Structure of Long Bone

A. Diaphysis - shaft or long cylindrical, main portion of
the bone.
B. Epiphyses - the distal and proximal ends of a long
bone.
C. Metaphyses - the areas where the diaphyses and
epiphyses meet.
1. The metaphyses contain the hyaline cartilage
epiphyseal (growth) plates found in a growing
bone.
2. After growth in length is completed, the
epiphyseal plates are replaced by the bony
epiphyseal line.
D. Articular cartilage - a thin layer of hyaline
cartilage covering the epiphyseal ends at an
articulation point with another bone.
 E. Periosteum - the tough, dense irregular connective
tissue on the outer surface of the bone.
F. Medullary (marrow) cavity - space within the
diaphysis, containing fatty yellow bone marrow in the
adult bone.
G. Endosteum – a thin membrane lining the medullary
cavity. It contains bone-forming cells.

IV. Microscopic Structure of Bone

A. The extracellular matrix of bone is composed of the
following substances:
1. Water
2. Collagen fibers and other organic molecules which
provides bone its tensile strength.
3. Crystallized mineral salts which gives bone its
hardness.
B. Bone cells
1. Osteoprogenitor cells – Bone stem cells that
develop into osteoblasts. Osteoprogenitor cells
are located in the inner part of the periosteum
and endosteum.
2. Osteoblasts – Bone-building cells that produce
and secrete collagen and other components of the
extracellular matrix.
3. Osteocytes – Mature bone cells that maintain bone
tissue’s daily metabolism.
4. Osteoclasts – Large cells that release enzymes
and acids which break down (resorb) bone’s
extracellular matrix.
C. Bone porosity
1. Bone is not solid.
a. It has many small spaces between the cells
and the extracellular matrix.
b. The spaces can be channels for blood
vessels or storage for red bone marrow.
2. Dependent upon the size and distribution of
spaces, bone can be classified as compact or
spongy.
3. Compact bone tissue
a. Compact bone tissue contains few spaces and
forms the external layer of all bones.
b. Compact bone tissue provides protection and
support and aids in the stress of weight
placed upon it.
c. The structural unit of compact bone is the
osteon or haversian system. Each osteon is
characterized by:
1) A central canal containing blood
vessels, nerves, and lymphatic
vessels.
2) Concentric rings of the extracellular
matrix (lamellae).
 3) Small spaces (lacunae) between the
lamellae which contain osteocytes.
4) Tiny channels called canaliculi
radiate between lacunae and connect
the lacunae with the central canal.
Canaliculi are filled with
extracellular fluid and contain
finger-like processes of osteocytes.
d. Blood vessels and nerves penetrate compact
bone through perforating canals. They
connect with central canals and the
medullary cavity.
4. Spongy bone tissue
a. Spongy bone is composed of an irregular
latticework of thin columns of bone called
trabeculae.
b. Contained in the trabeculae are osteocytes.
c. The large spaces between the trabeculae are
filled with red bone marrow.
d. Spongy bone is found primarily in short,
flat, and irregular bones and most of the
epiphyses of long bones.
e. Spongy bone is more lightweight than
compact bone.
f. Spongy bone is the site of red bone marrow
and blood cell production in adults.

V. Bone Formation: Ossification

A. There are two patterns of bone formation:
intramembranous and endochondral.
1. Both involve replacement of preexisting bone-
shaped mesenchymal connective tissue with actual
bone tissue.
2. Ossification begins during the 6th week of
embryonic development and continues throughout
adulthood.
B. Intramembranous ossification
1. This involves the formation of bone within
mesenchyme arranged in sheet-like layers that
resemble membranes.
a. The flat bones of the skull, most facial
bones, part of the clavicle, and the
mandible are formed by intramembranous
ossification.
2. The steps involved include:
a. Development of an ossification center where
osteoblasts secrete the bone’s organic
extracellular matrix.
b. Hardening of the bone by deposition of
calcium and mineral salts into the
extracellular matrix. This is the
calcification of bone.
 c. Formation of trabeculae that fuse to form
spongy bone, and growth of blood vessels
into the bone.
d. Development of the periosteum and
replacement of surface spongy bone with
compact bone.
C. Endochondral ossification
1. Endochondral ossification involves the
replacement of hyaline cartilage by bone.
a. Most of the bones of the body are formed by
this method.
2. The steps involved include:
a. Secretion of the cartilage model by
chrondroblasts and the development of the
perichondrium.
b. Growth of the cartilage model by cell
division of chrondrocytes.
c. Development of the primary ossification
center in the diaphysis. Bone tissue
replaces the cartilage through the action
of osteoblasts.
1) Ossification proceeds from the center
towards the ends of the cartilage
model.
d. Development of the marrow cavity by the
activity of osteoclasts.
1) In the diaphysis, most of the spongy
bone is replaced by compact bone.
e. Development of secondary ossification
centers in the bone’s epiphyses.
1) Spongy bone predominates in these
areas.
f. Formation of articular cartilage and the
epiphyseal plates.
3. The epiphyseal (growth) plates allow the bone to
grow in length.
4. When the ossification process is complete, the
cartilage in the epiphyseal plates ossify and
form the epiphyseal lines.
D. Thickening of bone is due to the activity of the
osteoblasts at the bone’s surface.
E. The medullary cavity is also enlarged through the
action of osteoclasts in the endosteum.

VI. Factors Affecting Bone Remodeling and Growth

A. Bone remodeling replaces old and damaged bone through
bone resorption by osteoclasts, followed by the
deposition of new bone by osteoblasts.
1. This remodeling and replacement can be affected
by exercise, diet, and lifestyle.
 B. Bone growth and remodeling is dependent upon adequate
amounts of calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and
vitamins A, C, and D.
C. Growth and remodeling of bone is also dependent upon
several hormones.
1. Human growth hormone (hGH) from the anterior
pituitary stimulates bone growth.
2. Thyroid hormones and sex hormones also affect
bone’s growth.

VII. Bone’s Role in Calcium Homeostasis

A. Bone stores 99% of the total amount of calcium present
in the body.
B. Calcium becomes available to other tissues when bone
is broken down during remodeling.
1. The body needs to maintain the blood calcium
levels to ensure the proper functioning of the
heart, respiratory system, nervous system and
blood clotting.
C. Calcium levels are controlled by two hormones –
parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin (CT).
1. PTH activates the osteoclasts which will increase
bone resorption and release calcium into the
blood. PTH raises blood calcium levels.
2. CT inhibits osteoclasts, resulting in a decrease
in blood calcium levels.

VIII. Exercise and Bones

A. When placed under mechanical stress, bone tissue
becomes stronger.
B. Absence of mechanical stress weakens bone.
C. The important mechanical stresses result from the pull
of skeletal muscles and the pull of gravity.

IX. Divisions of the Skeletal System

A. The adult human skeleton consists of 206 bones in two
principal divisions.
1. The axial skeleton is composed of 80 bones.
2. The appendicular skeleton consists of 126 bones.
B. Axial skeleton
1. Skull
a. The skull rests atop the vertebral column
and consists of the cranial bones (8) and
facial bones (14).
b. The cranial bones are the frontal bone (1),
parietal bones (2), temporal bones (2),
occipital bone (1), sphenoid bone (1), and
ethmoid bone (1).
c. The facial bones are the nasal bones (2),
maxillae (2), zygomatic bones (2), mandible
(1), lacrimal bones (2), palatine bones
 (2), inferior nasal conchae (2), and the
vomer (1).
d. Sutures
1) Sutures are immovable joints in an
adult that hold the skull bones
together.
2) The sutures are represented by the
following:
a) Coronal suture - unites the
frontal bone with the two
parietal bones.
b) Sagittal suture - unites the two
parietal bones.
c) Lambdoid suture - unites the
occipital bone with the two
parietal bones.
d) Squamous sutures - unite the
parietal bones with the temporal
bones.
e. Paranasal sinuses and fontanels
1) Certain skull bones near the nasal
cavity contain paranasal sinuses,
which serve as resonating chambers and
produce mucus.
2) Fontanels are mesenchyme-filled spaces
found between cranial bones. They
enable the fetal skull to compress
during birth and allow rapid growth of
the brain during infancy.
2. Hyoid bone
a. The hyoid bone is unique in that it does
not articulate with any other bone in the
body.
b. It acts as attachment sites for several
muscles and ligaments of the tongue, neck,
and pharynx.
3. Vertebral column
a. The vertebral column is composed of 26
bones, distributed into five regions.
1) The cervical region in the neck
contains 7 bones.
2) The thoracic region contains 12 bones.
3) The lumbar region contains 5 bones.
4) The sacral region contains 5 bones
fused into one.
5) The coccygeal region can contain up to
4 bones fused into one.
b. There are four curves found in the normal
vertebral column. They aid to increase
strength, maintain balance, absorb shocks,
and prevent fracturing of the vertebral
column bones.
 1) The thoracic and sacral curves are
primary curves; they are remnants of
the fetus’s single concave curve.
2) The cervical and lumbar curves are
anteriorly convex. These secondary
curves develop as a child begins to
hold the head up (cervical curve) and
assumes an upright position (lumbar
curve).
c. Between each vertebra there is a disc of
fibrocartilage called the intervertebral
disc, which serves to act as a shock
absorber.
d. The typical vertebra can be characterized
by specific components.
1) These are a body, vertebral arch
(pedicle & lamina), and seven
processes.
2) Some exceptions do occur in the
cervical and sacral regions.
4. Thorax
a. The thoracic cage consists of the sternum
(breastbone), ribs (and associated costal
cartilages), and the bodies of the thoracic
vertebrae. It protects the organs in the
thoracic and upper abdominal cavity.
b. The sternum is composed of three major
areas - the manubrium, body, and the
xiphoid process.
c. Twelve pairs of ribs make up the sides of
the thoracic cavity. They attach
posteriorly to the thoracic vertebrae.
1) The first seven pairs of ribs are
attached directly to the sternum via
costal cartilage and are called the
true ribs.
2) The remaining five pairs of ribs are
referred to as the false ribs because
their costal cartilages do not
directly attach to the sternum.
3) The eleventh and twelfth false ribs
are also called the floating ribs
because their anterior ends do not
attach to the sternum at all.
C. Appendicular Skeleton
1. The appendicular skeleton consists of the
pectoral (shoulder) girdles, upper limbs, pelvic
(hip) girdle, and the lower limbs.
2. Pectoral girdles
a. The pectoral or shoulder girdles attach the
bones of the upper limbs to the axial
skeleton.
 b. Each of the two pectoral girdles consists
of two bones: a clavicle (collarbone) and
a scapula (shoulder blade).
c. The clavicle articulates with the sternum.
d. The scapula articulates with the clavicle
and the humerus.
3. Upper limb
a. Each upper extremity consists of 30 bones
(60 total). They include the humerus,
radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals and
phalanges.
b. The humerus, or arm bone, is the longest
and largest bone in the upper extremity.
c. The forearm contains the radius and the
ulna, which lie parallel to one another.
1) The ulna is on the medial aspect of
the forearm.
2) The radius is on the lateral aspect of
the forearm.
3) The radius and ulna articulate
proximally with the humerus and
distally with the carpus (wrist).
d. Eight carpal bones comprise each wrist and
are bound together by ligaments.
e. Distal to the carpal bones are five
metacarpal bones comprising the palm of
each hand.
f. A total of 14 phalanges comprise the five
digits of each hand. Each digit contains a
proximal, medial, and distal phalanx except
the thumb, which lacks a medial phalanx.
4. Pelvic (hip) girdle
a. The pelvic girdle consists of two hip
(coxal) bones and provides a strong and
stable support for the lower extremities on
which the weight of the body is carried.
b. Together with the sacrum and coccyx, the
two coxal bones form the pelvis.
1) The pelvis is anatomically subdivided
into the false pelvis and the true
pelvis.
c. Each coxal bone of a newborn is composed of
three separate bones - the ilium, ischium,
and pubis. These bones eventually fuse at
the acetabulum.
d. The two coxal bones articulate posteriorly
with the sacrum and are united anteriorly
at a region called the pubic symphysis.
5. Lower limb
a. Each lower limb is composed of 30 bones (60
in total).
 b. The femur, or thigh bone, is the longest,
strongest, and heaviest bone in the body.
Its proximal end articulates with the hip
bone and the distal end with the tibia and
patella.
c. The patella (kneecap) lies anterior to the
knee joint.
d. Distal to the patella are the tibia and
fibula. They are parallel bones in the
lower leg.
1) The tibia (shin bone) is larger and
medial and bears the major portion of
weight in the leg.
e. The tarsus is a collective term for the
seven bones of the ankle called the
tarsals.
1) The two largest ones, the talus and
the calcaneus, are located on the
posterior part of the foot. The talus
articulates with the tibia and the
fibula.
f. The metatarsus consists of five metatarsal
bones which are analogous to the
metacarpals of the palm of the hand.
g. The phalanges of the foot resemble those of
the hand in both number and arrangement.
All are comprised of three bones except for
the big toe, which consists of two bones.
h. Arches of the foot
1) The bones of the foot are arranged in
two flexible arches that enable the
foot to support the weight of the
body, provide an ideal distribution of
body weight over the hard and soft
tissues of the foot, and provide
leverage while walking.
2) The two arches are the longitudinal
arch and the transverse arch.
3) The longitudinal arch runs from the
front to the back of the foot and
consists of a medial and lateral part.
4) The transverse arch is formed by the
navicular, three cuneiforms, and the
bases of the metatarsals.

X. Comparison: Female and Male Skeletons

A. Male bones are generally larger and heavier than those
of the female.
B. The male joint surfaces also tend to be larger.
C. Muscle attachment points are more well-defined in the
bones of the male than in the female due to the larger
size of muscles in the male.
 D. A number of anatomical differences exist between the
male and female pelvic girdles.
1. In order to accommodate childbirth, the female’s
pelvis is wider and more shallow than a male’s.

XI. Aging and the Skeletal System

A. Aging causes bones to become more brittle and lose
mass.
B. Bone loss usually begins after the age of 30 in
females and accelerates around age 45 as the estrogen
levels decrease.
C. In the male, calcium loss does not generally begin
until after the age of 60.