FOR UGC NET PAPER 1

Overview of Arguments
An argument is a set of statements one of which (the conclusion) is taken to be supported by the
remaining statements (the premises). [Note that a “statement” can either be a whole sentence, or
an independent clause within a sentence.]

Three types of Arguments:

1. Deductive

2. Inductive, and
3. Abductive,

1. Deductive Argument: an argument where the conclusion follows validly from the premises. (In
other words, an argument where the truth of the premises guarantees the truth of the
conclusion)

Example:
Premises
All men are mortal

Socrates is a man

Conclusion Socrates is mortal

2. Inductive Argument:
An argument where the premises point several cases of some pattern and the conclusion states
that this pattern will hold in general.

An inductive argument will not be deductively valid, because even if a pattern is found many times,
that doesn’t guarantee it will always be found. Therefore, an inductive argument
provides weaker, less trustworthy support for the conclusion than a deductive argument does.

Example:
Premises

We have seen 1000 swans. , and

All of them have been white.

Conclusion
All swans are white.

3. Abductive (or Hypothetico-Deductive) Argument:

An argument that (i) points out a certain fact, (ii) points out that if a certain hypothesis were true,
we would get this fact, and so (iii) concludes that the hypothesis is indeed true.

Abductive arguments seem to make an even bigger jump than inductive arguments: inductive
arguments generalize, while abductive arguments say that successful predictions prove the theory
is true. Abductive arguments are not deductively valid, because false theories can make true
predictions, so true predictions do not guarantee that the theory is true.

Example:

These coins conduct electricity (fact)

If these coins are made of gold (hypothesis),

then they would conduct electricity (prediction).

—————————————————————————————————

These coins are made of gold.

Venn diagram

A Venn diagram is an illustration of the relationships between and among sets, groups of objects
that share something in common.

The main aim of this section is to test your ability about the relation between some items of a group
by diagrams. In these questions, some figures of circles and some words are given. You have to
choose a figure which represents the given words.
Representation of Some Conditions (Relations) is given below:

Condition 1:
If all the words are of different groups, then they will be shown by the diagram as given below. Dog,
Cow, Horse

All these three are animals but of different groups, there is no relation between them. Hence they
will be represented by three different circles.

Condition 2:

If the first word is related to the second word and the second word is related to the third word.
Then they will be shown by the diagram as given below.

Unit, Tens, Hundreds

Ten units together make one Tens or in one tens, whole unit is available and ten tens together
make one hundreds.

Condition 3:
If two different items are completely related to third item, they will be shown as below. Pen, Pencil,
Stationery

Condition 4:

If there is some relation between two items and these two items are completely related to a third
item they will be shown as given below.

Women, Sisters, Mothers

Some sisters may be mothers and vice-versa. Similarly, some mothers may not be sisters and vice-
versa. But all the sisters and all the mothers belong to women group.

Condition 5:
Two items are related to a third item to some extent but not completely and the first two items
totally different. Students, Boys, Girls
The boys and girls are different items while some boys may be students. Similarly, among girls some
may be students.

Condition 6:
All the three items are related to one another but to some extent not completely. Boys, Students,
Athletes

Some boys may be students and vice-versa. Similarly, some boys may be athletes and vice-versa.
Some students may be athletes and vice-versa.

Condition 7:
Two items are related to each other completely and the third item is entirely different from first
two. Lions, Carnivorous, Cows

All the lions are carnivorous but no cow is lion or carnivorous.

Condition 8:
The first item is completely related to the second and third item is partially related to the first and
second item. Females, Mothers, Doctors

All Mothers belong to Females but some Mothers are Doctors but not all.

Condition 9:

The first item is partially related to second but third is entirely different from the first two. Dogs,
Flesh-eaters, Cows

Some dogs are flesh-eaters but not all while any dog or any flesh-eater cannot be a cow.

Condition 10:

First item is completely related to second and third item is partially related to first and second item.
Males, Fathers, Children

All Fathers belong to Male but Fathers are not Children.

 SYLLOGISM

Deductive reasoning (logical) in which a conclusion is derived from two or more premises.

Eg :
Statements (Premises)
All Dogs are Cats ———-(1)

All Cats are Lions ————(2)

Conclusion :

All Dogs are Lions.

Premise – A premise consists of a subject and a predicate wherein the first term [eg. “Dogs” in
statement (1)] is the subject and the second term [eg. “Cats” in statement (1)] the predicate.

Similarly, in statement (2) “Cats” is called the subject and “Lions” is called the predicate.

The word that occurs in both the premises is known as the “Middle Term”. (“Cat” in the example
above). The premises can be divided into

1. Universal Statements (when “All” is used)

2. Particular Statements (when “Some” is used)

This classification of the premises into the above categories is dependent on the qualifier used in
the premise.

For example, statements where “All” is used are called Universal statements and statements where
“some” is used are called Particular Statements.

Simple Tricks to Solve Syllogism Questions Quickly:

Through the use of Venn Diagrams, you can solve syllogisms problems in an easy manner.
Some Examples of Syllogisms solved using Venn Diagrams are:
 (Example 1) Statements:

1. All Dogs are asses

2. 2.All asses are bulls
Conclusions
1.Some dogs are not bulls. 2.Some bulls are dogs.
2.Some bulls are dogs.

3.All bulls are dogs. 4.All dogs are bulls.

4.All dogs are bulls.

Step 1: forget the solutions and concentrate on the Statements.

Step 2: On the basis of both statements, draw a Venn diagram:

From the diagram, it is clear that (2) and (4) conclusions logically flow.

(Example 2) Statements:
1. All the locks are keys.
2. 2. All the keys are bats.
3. 3. Some watches are
Conclusions:
1. Some bats are
2. Some watches are
3. All the keys are
Only (1) and (2)

Only (1)
Only (2)

Only (1) and (3)

From the Statements, there are 3 possible Venn Diagrams because there is no clarity about the
Bats!

From the diagram, only option (2) only (1) logically satisfies all 3 statements.

RELATIONS OF IDENTITY AND OPPOSITION

Two ideas are identical or different accordingly as they have the same or a different content (the
ideas of man and rational animal; of man and animal).

Opposition is an immediate inference grounded on the relation between propositions which have
the same terms, but differ in quantity or in quality or in both.
In order that there should be any formal opposition between two propositions, it is necessary that
their terms should be the same. There can be no opposition between two such propositions as
these—
 All angels have wings
 No cows are carnivorous

If we are given a pair of terms, say A for subject and B for predicate, and allowed to affix such
quantity and quality as we please, we can, of course, make up the four kinds of proposition
recognized by logic, namely,

A. All Cats are Dogs

E. No Cats are Dogs

I. Some Cats are Dog

O. Some Cats are not Dogs

Now the problem of opposition is this: Given the truth or falsity of any one of the four propositions
A, E, I, O, what can be ascertained with regard to the truth or falsity of the rest, the matter of them
being supposed to be the same?

The relations to one another of these four propositions are usually exhibited in the following
scheme—

(The square of opposition is a chart that was introduced within classical (categorical) logic to
represent the logical relationships holding between certain propositions in virtue of their form. )
1. Contrary: Opposition is between two universals which differ in
2. Sub-contrary: Opposition is between two particulars which differ in
3. Subaltern: Opposition is between two propositions which differ only in
4. Contradictory: Opposition is between two propositions which differ both in quantity and in

Important Points

Contrary – A relation that holds only between the “A” (All Cats are Dogs) and “E” ( No Cats are
Dogs) propositions, which say that, if one is true, the other must be false. Or, in other words, they
cannot BOTH be true.

Subcontrary: A relation that holds only between the “I” (Some Cat are Dogs) and “O” (Some Cats
are not Dogs) propositions, which say that, if one is false, the other must be true. Or, in other
words, they cannot BOTH be false.

Tricks to solve questions of Square of Opposition –

If A be true ——– E is false —– O is false — I true

If A be false ——– E is unknown —— O true —— I unknown

If E be true ——– O is true ——– I false ———- A false

If E be false ——– O is unknown —— I true ——– A unknown

If O be true ——— I is unknown ——–A false —— A unknown

If O be false ——– I is true ———- A true ———- E false

If I be true ———- A is unknown ——- E false —— O unknown
If I be false ——— A is false ———- E True ——- O true

DEFINITIONS
A definition is a statement that gives the meaning of a term.
1. LEXICAL
The purpose of a lexical definition is to report the way a word is standardly used in a language.
Most definitions found in a dictionary are lexical definitions.
Eg. Fossil, reptiles etc.
2. PERSUASIVE
The purpose of a persuasive definition is to influence people’s attitudes, not to neutrally and
objectively capture the standard meaning of a word.

Eg. Teenagers, Abortion

3. STIPULATIVE
A stipulative definition stipulates (assigns) a meaning to a word by coining a new word or giving an
old word a new meaning. A stipulative definition is neither true nor false; it is neither accurate nor
inaccurate.

Eg. Sugarnecker, Black Holes, etc.

4. THEORITICAL
Theoretical definitions can explain concepts theoretically. Sometimes definitions are given for
terms, not because the word itself is unfamiliar, but because the term is not understood. Such
concepts require theoretical definitions, which are often scientific or philosophical in nature. For
example, when your chemistry teacher defines water by its chemical formula H2O, he is not trying
to increase your vocabulary (you already knew the term water), but to explain its atomic structure.

Accepting a theoretical definition is like accepting a theory about the term being defined. If you
define spirit as “the life-giving principle of physical organisms,” you are inviting others to accept the
idea that life is somehow a spiritual product.

5. PERSUASIVE
A precising definition takes a word that is normally vague and gives it a clear precisely defined
meaning.

Eg. Lite, Low – income, middle aged, etc.

Venn Diagram: Simple And Multiple Use For Establishing

Validity Of Arguments
This topic brings out the important part of categorical syllogism, which helps to determine the
validity of arguments. In this blog post, we have tried to cover the basic concepts of Venn Diagrams
along with the steps of validating the arguments with the help of rules /sets of arguments.

The standard dictionary meaning of the argument is “Discussion where there is disagreement”.
In other words, we can say; if the conclusion of an argument is guaranteed, the argument is valid
and if it’s not guaranteed the argument is invalid.

Saying that an argument is valid does not mean that the conclusion is true: We verify the situation
by an example. Consider two premises 1. All doctors are men, 2. My mother is a doctor. Then the
valid argument “My mother is a man” is not a true conclusion.

Saying that an argument is invalid does not mean that the conclusion is false. We verify the
situation also by an example. Consider two premises 1. All professional wrestlers are actors, 2. The
Rock is an actor. Then the invalid argument “the Rock is a professional wrestler”, may not be false.

We will verify valid and invalid arguments and conclusions with Venn diagram.

Let’s get started …

What are Venn diagrams?

A Venn diagram uses overlapping circles or other shapes to illustrate the logical relationships
between two or more sets of items. Often, they serve to graphically organize things, highlighting
how the items are similar and different.

Venn diagrams are named after British logician John Venn.

Venn diagrams, also called Set diagrams or Logic diagrams, are widely used in mathematics,
statistics, logic, teaching, linguistics, computer science and business. Many people first encounter
them in school as they study math in set theory syllabus.

Venn diagram use cases

1. Math: Venn diagrams are commonly used in school to teach basic math concepts such as
sets, unions and intersections.
2. Statistics and probability: Statistics experts use Venn diagrams to predict the likelihood of
certain occurrences. This ties in with the field of predictive analytics. Different data sets can
be compared to find degrees of commonality and differences.
3. Logic: Venn diagrams are used to determine the validity of particular arguments and
conclusions. In deductive reasoning, if the premises are true and the argument form is
correct, then the conclusion must be true.

Deductive Logic and Validity

Let’s first understand the concept of the validity of deductive arguments.

Deductive arguments are arguments wherein the conclusion is necessarily true (assuming true
premises and a valid form).
In other words, it is impossible to have a situation where:

(1) the premises of the argument are true, and

(2) the form of the argument is valid, and

(3) the conclusion is false.

The reason for this is very simple: the conclusion of a deductive argument does not contain any new
information –it is already contained (in some implicit form) in the premises itself.

Example –

An example of an argument using deductive arguments:

1. All men are mortal. (First premise)

2. Socrates is a man. (Second premise)
3. Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (Conclusion)

The first premise states that all objects classified as “men” have the attribute “mortal.” The second
premise states that “Socrates” is classified as a “man” – a member of the set “men.” The conclusion
then states that “Socrates” must be “mortal” because he inherits this attribute from his
classification as a “man.”

Further, we can see from the above that the concept of validity is very important for deductive
arguments. The conclusion is guaranteed to be true only if the form of the argument is valid and
the premises are true.

Also, NOTE: validity and invalidity apply only to deductive arguments. Inductive arguments are
neither valid nor invalid.

Testing Validity Using Venn’s Diagrams

So, what is validity? Questions of validity are purely formal. In testing for validity, we are not in any
way concerned with the actual content of an argument. We are only concerned with its form –the
way in which the premises are supposed to provide support for the conclusion.

This is usually performed with the help of abstraction step to the replacement of particular content
with variables (In Most Cases Alphabets such as A, B, C, D…) and arrange them in the same specific
form.

Let’s talk above example again –

1. All men are mortal. (First premise)

2. Socrates is a man. (Second premise)

 3. Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (Conclusion)

Note the content of argument we are talking about – > Men = (A), Mortal = (B) and Socrates = (C).

Now arranging the variable in the same form: –

1. All A Are B
2. C is A
3. Therefore C is B.

Once we have the argument translated into the variable form we are going to ask a simple
question: given that the premises are true, does the conclusion necessarily follow?

If you have categorical syllogisms, then you test this question by using Venn Diagrams. If you have
compound statements using logical operators, then you use Truth Tables. We are going to look only
at Venn Diagrams here, but the basic principle is the same: assuming that the premises are true,
does the conclusion necessarily follow?

Venn Diagrams types and Validity

In most of the examination, the question asked from this topic will be based on 2 or 3 term
arguments.

As there are some severe limitations to their usefulness as the number of terms grows. First, while
it is possible to construct a 16 region Venn-type diagram for a 4 term argument, and even a 32
region diagram for a 5 term argument, those diagrams are almost impossible to read or use. What
is more, it is impossible to construct a 64 region diagram for a 6 term argument–there is no way to
get exactly the right 64 regions in a 2-dimensional diagram

You must remember the old school formula –

n ( A ∪ B) = n(A ) + n ( B ) – n ( A∩ B)
n (A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A ) + n ( B ) + n (C) – n ( A ∩ B) – n ( B ∩ C) – n ( C ∩ A) + n (A ∩ B ∩ C )
To test the validity of a categorical syllogism, one can use the method of Venn diagrams. Since a
categorical syllogism has three terms, we need a Venn diagram using three intersecting circles, one
representing each of the three terms in a categorical syllogism.

A three-term diagram has eight regions (the number of regions being 2n where n is the number of
terms).
So far in the NET Examination, we have seen question-based on CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM so we
will restrict our details for solving the Categorical Syllogism based question only.

Covering the entire concept of Syllogism is beyond the scope of this article and we would see only
important concepts such as –

1. Four (and only four) basic categorical claims.

2. Diagramming Categorical Syllogisms (DCS) & Some rules of translation along with shading an
area
3. And Finally; Validate the argument.

Remember –

Four Types of basic categorical claims.

1. Universal Affirmative. – Example- all humans are animals (This is not reversible
relationship)
2. Universal Negative. – Example- No A Are B (Note that this is reversible:e. No B Are A is
also true)
3. Particular Affirmative. Example- Some humans are rational)
4. Particular Negative. Example – Some humans are not reptilian

Diagramming Categorical Syllogisms (DCS).

Step 1-
First, translate the argument into a categorical structure. This involves identifying the categories
that are being related to one another, and the manner of relation (Universal Affirmation, Universal
Negation, Particular Affirmation, and Particular Negation).

The key to categorical syllogisms is to identify the categories being used. This is often seen that the
given premise is not straight forward to identify and this require practice. On the whole, this process
is rather simple and with practice, you will become an expert at it.

Step 2 –
Replace categories with variables.[See example above]

Step 3 –

Then, after step two, we are ready for the process of diagramming. The process of diagramming is
again very simple. We use overlapping circles to represent the various categories and their
interrelation. Since all categorical syllogisms will have three (and only three) categories, there will
always be three circles.

Shading and Putting and X

Shading is only used when dealing with All and No claims (Universal affirmation and negation),
putting an X is used only when dealing with Some are and some are not claims (Particular
affirmation and negation).
In step three we shade the area where all the ALL or NO claims found in the argument, note that you
should always start with ALL and NO claims.

Step 4 –

In step four we put ‘X’ in the area where the ‘Some’ or ‘Some are NOT’ claims found in the
argument, note that you should always start with ALL and NO claims.

Step 5 –

Now, you check for validity. Note, that you only diagram the premises. After having diagramed the
premises, the conclusion should be evident. If it is not evident, if you have to do more work to make
the conclusion evident, then the argument is clearly invalid.

So, Determining Validity with Venn Diagrams works through

 Diagram the premises

 Look to see if the conclusion is true in the resulting diagram

If the conclusion is true in the diagram, the syllogism is valid; if not, not.

Solved Question Paper Based on UGC NET EXAM JULY 2018

Superiority of intellect depends upon its power of concentration on one theme in the same way
as a concave mirror collects all the rays that strike upon it into one point.

(1) Mathematical

(2) Psychological

(3) Analogical

(4) Deductive

Answer:3

Given below are two premises (A and B). Four conclusions are drawn from them. Select the code
that states validity drawn conclusion (s) (taking the premises individually or jointly). Premises:

(A) Most of the dancers are physically fit.

(B) Most of the singers are dancers.

Conclusions:

(a) Most of the singers are physically fit.

(b) Most of the dancers are singers.

(c) Most of the physically fit persons are dancers.

(d) Most of the physically fit persons are singers.

Code:

(1) (a) and (b)

(2) (b) and (c)

(3) (c) and (d)

(4) (d) and (a)

Answer:2

Which one among the following is a presupposition in inductive reasoning?

(1) Law of identity

(2) Unchangeability in nature

(3) Harmony in nature

(4) Uniformity of nature

Answer:4

If the proposition ‘domestic animals are hardly ferocious’ is taken to be false, which of the
following proposition/propositions can be claimed to be certainly true? Select the correct code:

Propositions:

(a) All domestic animals are ferocious.

(b) Most of the domestic animals are ferocious.

(c) No domestic animal is ferocious.

(d) Some domestic animals are non-ferocious.

Code:

(1) (a) and (b)

(2) (a) only

(3) (c) and (d)

(4) (b) only

Answer:1

Which one of the following statements is not correct in the context of Venn diagram method?

(1) It is a method of testing the validity of arguments.

(2) It represents both the premises of a syllogism in one diagram.

(3) It requires two overlapping circles for the two premises of a standard-form categorical syllogism.

(4) It can be used to represent classes as well as propositions.

Answer:3

Solved Question Paper Based on UGC NET EXAM NOVEMBER 2017

It is Truism to say that no one was there when life first appeared on earth. Any assertion about
life’s origin thus, should be treated as a theory. The above two statements constitute:

(1) A narrative (2) An argument (3) A conjecture (4) A historical explanation

Answer:2

Given below are four statements. Among them, two are related in such a way that they can both
be true but they cannot both be false. Select the code that indicates those two statements:
Statements: (a) Honest people never suffer. (b) Almost all honest people do suffer. (c) Honest
people hardly suffer. (d) Each and every honest person suffers. Code:

(1) (a) and (c) (2) (a) and (d) (3) (b) and (c) (4) (a) and (b)
Answer:3

A deductive argument is invalid if:

(a) Its premises and conclusion are all false

(b) Its premises are all false but its conclusion is true.

(c) Its premises are all true but its conclusion is false.

(d) Its premises and conclusion are all true.

Answer:3

Given below are two premises (a and b), from those two premises four conclusions (i), (ii), (iii)
and (iv) are drawn. Select the code that states the conclusion/conclusions drawn validity (taking
the premises singularly or jointly). Premises:

(a) All bats are mammals

(b) No birds are bats

Conclusion: (i) No birds are mammals

(ii) Some birds are not mammals

(iii) No bats are birds

(iv) All mammals are bats

Code: (1) (i) and (ii) only (2) (iii) only (3) (iii) and (iv) only (4) (i) only

Answer:2
Just melting ice-cubes do not change a glass of water to overflow. Melting sea – ice does not
increase change volume. What type of argument is it?
(1) Hypothetical (2) Psychological (3) Statistical (4) Analogical
Answer:4

Solved Question Paper Based on UGC NET EXAM JANUARY 2017

Given below are some characteristics of reasoning. Select the code that states a characteristic
which is not of deductive reasoning:

(1) The conclusion must be based on observation and experiment.

(2) The conclusion should be supported by the premise/premises.

(3) The conclusion must follow from the premise/premises necessarily.

(4) The argument may be valid or invalid.

Answer:1

The missing term in the series 1, 4, 27, 16, ?, 36, 343, … is

(1) 30

(2) 49

(3) 125

(4) 81

Answer:3

Men and woman may have different reproductive strategies but neither can be considered
inferior or superior to the other, any more than a bird’s wings can be considered superior or
inferior to a fish’s fins. What type of argument it is ?

(1) Biological

(2) Physiological

(3) Analogical

(4) Hypothetical

Answer:3
Among the following propositions two are related in such a way that they cannot both be true
but can both be false. Select the code that states those two propositions.

Propositions:

(a) Every student is attentive.

(b) Some students are attentive.

(c) Students are never attentive.

(d) Some students are not attentive.

Codes:

(1) (a) and (b)

(2) (a) and (c)

(3) (b) and (c)

(4) (c) and (d)

Answer:3

Given below are two premises ((a) and (b)). From those two premises four conclusions (i), (ii), (iii)
& (iv) are drawn. Select the code that states the conclusions validly drawn from the premises
(taking singly or jointly.)

Premises:

(a) Untouchability is a curse.

(b) All hot pans are untouchable.

Conclusions:

(i) All hot pans are curse.

(ii) Some untouchable things are hot pans.

(iii) All curses are untouchability.

(iv) Some curses are untouchability.

Codes:

(1) (i) and (ii)

(2) (ii) and (iii)

(3) (iii) and (iv)

(4) (ii) and (iv)

Answer:4

If the statement ‘None but the brave wins the race’ is false which of the following statements can
be claimed to be true?

Select the correct code:

(1) All brave persons win the race.

(2) Some persons who win the race are not brave.

(3) Some persons who win the race are brave.

(4) No person who wins the race is brave.

Answer:2

Solved Question Paper Based on UGC NET EXAM JULY 2016

Among the following propositions, two are related in such a way that one is the denial of the
other. Which are those propositions? Select the correct code:
Propositions:
(a) All women are equal to men
(b) Some women are equal to men
(c) Some women are not equal to men
(d) No women are equal to men
Codes:
(1) (a)and(b)
(2) (a)and(d)
(3) (c)and(d)
4) (a)and(c)

Answer:4

If the proposition ‘All thieves are poor’ is false, which of the following propositions can be
claimed certainly to be true ?
Propositions:
(1) Some thieves are poor.
2) Some thieves are not poor.
(3) No thief is poor.
(4) No poor person is a thief.

Answer:2

Consider the following statement and select the correct code stating the nature of the argument
involved in it:
To suppose that the earth is the only populated world in the infinite space is as absurd as to
assert that in an entire field of millet only one grain will grow.
(1) Astronomical (2) Anthropological (3) Deductive 4) Analogical

Answer:4

Select the code which is not correct about Venn diagram:

(1) Venn diagram represents propositions as well as classes.
(2) It can provide clear method of notation.
3) It can be either valid or invalid.
(4) It can provide the direct method of testing the validity.

Answer:3

Select the code which is not correct in the context of a deductive argument with two
premises:
(1) An argument with one true premise, one false premise and a false conclusion may be valid.
2) An argument with two true premises and a false conclusion may be valid.
(3) An argument with one true premise, one false premise and a true conclusion may be valid.
(4) An argument with two false premises and a false conclusion may be valid.

Answer:2

Given below are two premises and four conclusions are drawn from them (taking singly or
together). Select the code that states the conclusions validly drawn.
Premises:(i) All religious persons are emotional.
(ii) Ram is a religious person.
Conclusions :(a) Ram is emotional.
(b) All emotional persons are religious.
(c) Ram is not a non-religious person.
(d) Some religious persons are not emotional.
Codes:
(1) (a),(b),(c)and(d)
(2) (a)only
3) (a) and (c) only
(4) (b) and (c) only

Answer:3
Solved Question Paper Based on UGC NET EXAM DECEMBER 2015

Consider the argument given below ;

‘Pre-employment testing of teachers is quite fair because doctors; architects and engineers who
are now employed had to face such a testing.’
What type of argument it is ?
(1) Deductive 2) Analogical (3) Psychological (4) Biological

Answer:2

Among the following propositions two are related in such a way thai, they can both be true
although they cannot both be false. Which are those propositions? Select the correct code.
Propositions :
(a) Some priests are cunning.
(b) No priest is cunning.
(c) All priests are cunning.
(d) Some priests are not cunning.
Codes :
(1) (a) and (b) (2) (c) and (d)
(3) (a) and (c) 4) (a) and (d)

Answer:4

A Cluster of propositions with a structure that exhibits some inference is called :

(1) An inference 2) An argument
(3) An explanation (4) A valid argument

Answer:2

Consider the following assertion (A)and reason (R) and select the correct code given below :
(A) : No man is perfect.
(R) : Some men are not perfect.
1) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) does not provide sufficient reason for (A).
(2) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) provides sufficient reason for (A).
(3) (A) is true but (R) is false
(4) (A) is false but (R) is true

Answer:1

A definition that has a meaning that is deliberately assigned to some symbol is called :
(1) Lexical (2) Precising 3) Stipulative (4) Persuasive

Answer:3
If the proposition ‘No men are honest’ is taken to be false which of the following proposition/
propositions can be claimed certainly to be true?
Propositions :
(1) All men are honest 2) Some men are honest
(3) Some men are not honest (4) No honest person is man

Answer:2

Solved Question Paper Based on UGC NET EXAM JULY 2015

If we want to seek new knowledge of facts about the world, we must rely on reason of the
type:
1) Inductive(2) Deductive (3) Demonstrative (4) Physiological

Answer:1

A deductive argument is invalid if:

(1) Its premises and conclusions are all false

2) Its premises are true but its conclusion is false

(3) Its premises are false but its conclusion is true
(4) Its premises and conclusions are all true

Answer:2

Inductive reasoning is grounded on :

(1) Integrity of nature (2) Unity of nature
3) Uniformity of nature(4) Harmony of nature

Answer:3

Among the following statements two are contradictory to each other. Select the correct code that
represents them :
Statements :
(a) All poets are philosophers.
(b) Some poets are philosophers.
(c) Some poets are not philosophers.
(d) No philosopher is a poet.
Codes :
(1) (a)and(b)
(2) (a) and (d)
3) (a) and (c)
(4) (b) and (c)

Answer:3
Which of the codes given below contains only the correct statements?
Select the code :
Statements :
(a) Venn diagram represents the arguments graphically.
(b) Venn diagram can enhance our understanding.
(c) Venn diagram may be called valid or invalid.
(d) Venn diagram is clear method of notation.
Codes :
(1) (a), (b) and (c)
2) (a), (b) and (d)
(3) (b), (c) and (d)
(4) (a), (c) and (d)

Answer:2

When the purpose of a definition is to explain the use or to eliminate ambiguity the definition
is called:
(1) Stipulative
(2) Theoretical
(3) Lexical
(4) Persuasive
Codes:
(1) (a), (b), (c) and (d)
(2) (a), (b) and (c)
3) (a), (b) and (d)
(4) (b), (c) and (d)

Answer:3

Solved Question Paper Based on UGC NET EXAM DECEMBER 2014

“A man ought no more to value himself for being wiser than a woman if he owes his advantage to
a better education than he ought to boast of his courage for beating a man when his hands were
tied.”
The above passage is an instance of
(A) Deductive argument (B) Hypothetical argument
(C) Analogical argument (D) Factual argument

Answer:3

By which of the following proposition, the proposition wise men are hardly afraid death is
contradicted?
(A) Some wise men are afraid of death.
(B) All wise men are afraid of death.
(C) No wise men is afraid of death.
(D) Some wise men are not afraid of death.

Answer:2

When in a group of propositions, one proposition is claimed to follow from the others, the group
of propositions is called
(A) An argument (B) A valid argument
(C) An explanation (D) An invalid argument

Answer:1

Namita and Samita are brilliant and studious. Anita and Karabi are obedient and irregular Babita
and Namita are irregular but brilliant. Samita and Kabita are regular and obedient. Who among
them is/are brilliant, obedient, regular and studious?
A) Samita alone (B) Namita and Samita
(C) Kabita alone (D) Anita alone

Answer:1

Solved Question Paper Based on UGC NET EXAM JUNE 2014

If two propositions having the same subject and predicate terms can both be true but can not both
be false, the relation between those two propositions is called
(A) contradictory
(B) contrary
C) sub-contrary
(D) subaltern

Answer:3

One writes all numbers from 50 to 99 without the digits 2 and 7. How many numbers have been
written?
A) 32(B) 36
(C) 40 (D) 38

Answer:1

“If a large diamond is cut up into little bits, it will lose its value just as an army is divided up into
small units of soldiers, it loses its strength.” The argument put above may be called as
A) Analogical(B) Deductive
(C) Statistical (D) Causal

Answer:1
Given below are some characteristics of logical argument. Select the code which expresses a
characteristic which is not of inductive in character.
(A) The conclusion is claimed to follow from its premises.
(B) The conclusion is based on causal relation.
C)The conclusion conclusively follows from its premises.
(D) The conclusion is based on observation and experiment.

Answer:3

Given below is a diagram of three circles A, B & C inter-related with each other. The circle A
represents the class of Indians, circle B represents the class of scientists and circle C represents
the class of politicians, p, q, r, s … represent different regions. Select the code containing the
region that indicates the class of Indian scientists who are not politicians.
Codes:
(A) q and s only
B) s only
(C) s and r only
(D) p, q and s only

Answer:2

Given below are two premises and four conclusions drawn from those premises. Select the code
that expresses conclusion drawn validly from the premises (separately or jointly).
Premises:
(a) All dogs are mammals.
(b) No cats are dogs.
Conclusions:
(i) No cats are mammals.
(ii) Some cats are mammals.
(iii) No dogs are cats.
(iv) No dogs are non-mammals.
Codes:
(A) (i) only (B) (i) and (ii)
C) (iii) and (iv)(D) (ii) and (iii)

Answer:3

Solved Question Paper Based on UGC NET EXAM DECEMBER 2013

If two propositions having the same subject and predicate terms are such that one is the denial of
the other, the relationship between them is called
A) Contradictory
(B) Contrary
(C) Sub-contrary
(D) Sub-alternation

Answer:1

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Ananya and Krishna can speak and follow English. Bulbul can write and speak Hindi as Archana
does. Archana talks with Ananya also in Bengali. Krishna can not follow Bengali. Bulbul talks with
Ananya in Hindi. Who can speak and follow English, Hindi, and Bengali?
(A) Archana
(B) Bulbul
C) Ananya
(D) Krishna

Answer:3

A stipulative definition may be said to be

(A) Always true
(B) Always false
(C) Sometimes true, sometimes false
D) Neither true nor false

Answer:4

When the conclusion of an argument follows from its premise/premises conclusively, the
argument is called
(A) Circular argument
(B) Inductive argument
C) Deductive argument
(D) Analogical argument

Answer:3

Saturn and Mars are planets like the earth. They borrow light from the Sun and moves around the
Sun as the Earth does. So those planets are inhabited by various orders of creatures as the earth
is. What type of argument is contained in the above passage?
(A) Deductive (B) Astrological
C) Analogical (D) Mathematical\

Answer:3
Given below are two premises. Four conclusions are drawn from those two premises in four
codes. Select the code that states the conclusion validly drawn.
Premises:
(i) All saints are religious, (major)
(ii) Some honest persons are saints. (minor)
Codes :
(A) All saints are honest.
(B) Some saints are honest.
(C) Some honest persons are religious.
D) All religious persons are honest

Answer:3

Solved Question Paper Based on UGC NET EXAM JUNE 2013

If the statement ‘some men are honest’ is false, which among the following statements will be
true Choose the correct code given below
(i) All men are honest
(ii) No men are honest
(iii) Some men are not honest
(iv) All men are dishonest

Codes:
(A) (i), (ii) and (iii)
B) (ii), (iii) and (iv)
(C) (i), (iii) and (iv)
(D) (ii), (i) and (iv)

Answer:2

Choose the proper alternative given in the codes to replace the question Bee – Honey, Cow –
Milk, Teacher–?
(A) Intelligence (B) Marks
(C) LessonsD) Wisdom

Answer:4

P is the father of R and S is the son of Q and T is the brother of P, If R is the sister of S, how is Q
related to T?
(A) Wife
B) Sister-in-law
(C) Brother-in-law
(D) Daughter-in-law
Answer:2

A definition put forward to resolve a dispute by influencing attitudes or stirring emotions is called
(A)LexicalB) Persuasive
(C) Stipulative (D)Precisions

Answer:2

Which of the codes given below contains only the correct statements?
Statements:
(i) Venn diagram is a clear method of notation
(ii) Venn diagram is the most direct method of testing the validity of categorical syllogisms
(iii) In Venn diagram method the premises and the conclusion of a categorical syllogism is
diagrammed.
(iv) In Venn diagram method the three overlapping circles are drawn for testing a categorical
syllogism

Codes:
(A) (i) (ii) & (iii)
B) (i) (ii) &(iv)
(C) (ii) (iii)& (iv)
(D) (i) (iii) &(iv)

Answer:2

Inductive reasoning presupposes

(A) Unity in human nature
(B) Integrity in human nature
C) Uniformity in human nature
(D) Harmony in human nature

Answer:3

Solved Question Paper Based on UGC NET EXAM DECEMBER 2012

By which of the following proposition, the proposition ‘some men are not honest’ is
contradicted?
A) All men are honest.
(B) Some men are honest.
(C) No men are honest.
(D) All of the above.

Answer:1
A stipulative definition is
(A) always true
(B) always false
(C) sometimes true sometimes false
D) neither true nor false

Answer:4

Choose the appropriate alternative given in the codes to replace the question mark.
Examiner – Examinee, Pleader – Client, Preceptor–?
(A) Customer (B) Path-finder
(C) Perceiver D) Disciple

Answer:4

.If the statement ‘most of the students are obedient’ is taken to be true, which one of the
following pair of statements can be claimed to be true?
I. All obedient persons are students.
II. All students are obedient.
III. Some students are obedient.
IV. Some students are not disobedient.
Codes :
(A) I&II (B) II & III
C) III & IV (D) II&IV

Answer:3

Choose the right code :

A deductive argument claims that :
I. The conclusion does not claim something more than that which is contained in the premises.
II. The conclusion is supported by the premise/premises conclusively.
III. If the conclusion is false, then premise/premises may be either true or false.
IV If premise/combination of premises is true, then conclusion must be true.
Codes :
A) I and II (B) I and III
(C) II and III (D) All the above

Answer:1

Solved Question Paper Based on UGC NET EXAM JUNE 2012

The basis of the following classification is :

‘first President of India’ ‘author of Godan’ ‘books in my library’, ‘blue things’ and ‘students who
work hard’
(A) Common names
(B) Proper names
C) Descriptive phrases
(D) Indefinite description

Answer:3

In the expression ‘Nothing is larger than itself’ the relation ‘is larger than’ is
(A) antisymmetric
(B) asymmetrical
(C) intransitive
D) irreflexive

Answer:4

Assertion (A) : There are more laws on the books today than ever before, and more crimes being
committed than ever before.
Reason (R) : Because to reduce crime we must eliminate the laws.
Choose the correct answer from below :
A) (A) is true, (R) is doubtful and (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).
(B) (A) is false, (R) is true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(C) (A) is doubtful, (R) is doubtful and (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).
(D) (A) is doubtful, (R) is true and (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).

Answer:1

If the proposition “All men are not mortal” is true then which of the following inferences is correct?
Choose from the code given below :
1. “All men are mortal” is true.
2. “Some men are mortal” is false.
3. “No men are mortal” is doubtful.
4. “All men are mortal” is false.
Code :
(A) 1, 2 and 3
B) 2, 3 and 4
(C) 1, 3 and 4
(D) 1 and 3

Answer:2

Determine the nature of the following

definition : “Abortion” means the ruthless murdering of innocent beings.
(A) LexicalB) Persuasive(C) Stipulative (D) Theoretical

Answer:2
Which one of the following is not an argument?
(A) Devadutt does not eat in the day so he must be eating at night.
B) If Devadutt is growing fat and if he does not eat during the day, he will be eating at night.
(C) Devadutt eats in the night so he does not eat during the day.
(D) Since Devadutt does not eat in the day, he must be eating in the night.

Answer:2

Venn diagram is a kind of diagram to

A) represent and assess the validity of elementary inferences of syllogistic form.
(B) represent but not assess the validity of elementary inferences of syllogistic form.
(C) represent and assess the truth of elementary inferences of syllogistic form.
(D) assess but not represent the truth of elementary inferences of syllogistic form.

Answer:1

Reasoning by analogy leads to

(A) certainty
(B) definite conclusion
C) predictive conjecture
(D) surety

Answer:3

Which of the following statements are false? Choose from the code given below :
1. Inductive arguments always proceed from the particular to the general.
2. A cogent argument must be inductively strong.
3. A valid argument may have a false premise and a false conclusion.
4. An argument may legitimately be spoken of as ‘true’ or ‘false’.
Code :
(A) 2, 3 and 4
(B) 1 and 3
C) 2 and 4
(D) 1 and 2

Answer:3

Six persons A, B, C, D, E, and F are standing in a circle. B is between F and C, A is between E and D,
F is to the left of D. Who is between A and F?
(A) B
(B) C
C) D
(D) E

Answer:3
The price of petrol increases by 25%. By what percentage must a customer reduce the
consumption so that the earlier bill on petrol does not alter?
A) 20%(B) 25% (C) 30% (D) 33.33%

Answer:1

If Ram knows that y is an integer greater than 2 and less than 7 and Hari knows that y is an
integer greater than 5 and less than 10, then they may correctly conclude that
A) y can be exactly determined
(B) y may be either of two values
(C) y may be any of three values
(D) there is no value of y satisfying these conditions

Answer:1

Four pipes can fill a reservoir in 15, 20, 30 and 60 hours respectively. The first one was opened at
6 AM, second at 7 AM, third at 8 AM and the fourth at 9 AM. When will the reservoir be filled?
(A) 11 AM (B) 12 Noon C) 1 PM(D) 1:30 PM

Answer:3

Solved Question Paper Based on UGC NET EXAM DECEMBER 2011

The basis of the following classification is ‘animal’, ‘man’, ‘house’, ‘book’, and ‘student’ :
(A) Definite descriptions
(B) Proper names
(C) Descriptive phrases
D) Common names

Answer:4

Assertion (A) : The coin when flipped next time will come up tails.
Reason (R) : Because the coin was flipped five times in a row, and each time it came up heads.
Choose the correct answer from below :
(A) Both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is the correct explanationof (A)
(B) Both (A) and (R) are false, and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
C) (A) is doubtful, (R) is true, and (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).
(D) (A) is doubtful, (R) is false, and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).

Answer:4

The relation ‘is a sister of ’ is

(A) non-symmetrical
(B) symmetrical
(C) asymmetrical
D) transitive
Answer:2

If the proposition “Vegetarians are not meat eaters” is false, then which of the following
inferences is
correct? Choose from the codes given below :
1. “Some vegetarians are meat eaters” is true.
2. “All vegetarians are meat eaters” is doubtful.
3. “Some vegetarians are not meat eaters” is true.
4. “Some vegetarians are not meat eaters” is doubtful.
Codes :
A) 1, 2 and 3
(B) 2, 3 and 4
(C) 1, 3 and 4
(D) 1, 2 and 4

Answer:1

Determine the nature of the following definition :

‘Poor’ means having an annual income of ` 10,000.
(A) persuasiveB) precising(C) lexical (D) stipulative

Answer:4

Which one of the following is not an argument?

A) If today is Tuesday, tomorrow will be Wednesday.
(B) Since today is Tuesday, tomorrow will be Wednesday.
(C) Ram insulted me so I punched him in the nose.
(D) Ram is not at home, so he must have gone to town.

Answer:4

Venn diagram is a kind of diagram to

(A) represent and assess the truth of elementary inferences with the help of Boolean Algebra of
classes.
B) represent and assess the validity of elementary inferences with the help of Boolean Algebra of
classes.
(C) represent but not assess the validity of elementary inferences with the help of Boolean Algebra
of classes.
(D) assess but not represent the validity of elementary inferences with the help of Boolean Algebra
of classes.

Answer:2

Inductive logic studies the way in which a premise may

(A) support and entail a conclusion
(B) not support but entail a conclusion
(C) neither support nor entail a conclusion
D) support a conclusion without entailing it

Answer:4

Which of the following statements are true? Choose from the codes given below.
1. Some arguments, while not completely valid, are almost valid.
2. A sound argument may be invalid.
3. A cogent argument may have a probably false conclusion.
4. A statement may be true or false.
Codes :
(A) 1 and 2 (B) 1, 3 and 4 (C) 4 aloneD) 3 and 4

Answer:3

If the side of the square increases by 40%, then the area of the square increases by
(A) 60 % (B) 40 % (C) 196 %D) 96 %

Answer:4

There are 10 lamps in a hall. Each one of them can be switched on independently. The number of
ways in which hall can be illuminated is
(A) 102 B) 1023(C) 210 (D) 10 !

Answer:4

How many numbers between 100 and 300 begin or end with 2?
(A) 100 B) 110(C) 120 (D) 180

Answer:2

In a college having 300 students, every student reads 5 newspapers and every newspaper is read
by 60 students. The number of newspapers required is
(A) at least 30 (B) at most 20 C) exactly 25 (D) exactly 5

Answer:4

Solved Question Paper Based on UGC NET EXAM JUNE 2011

If the statement ‘some men are cruel’ is false, which of the following statements/statement are/is
true ?
(i) All men are cruel.
(ii) No men are cruel.
(iii) Some men are not cruel.
(A) (i) and (iii) (B) (i) and (ii) (C) (ii) and (iii) D) (iii) only

Answer:2

Solved Question Paper Based on UGC NET EXAM DECEMBER 2010

Two statements I and II given below are followed by two conclusions (a) and (b).
Supposing the statements are true, which of the following conclusions can logically follow?
Statements :
I. Some flowers are red.
II. Some flowers are blue.
Conclusions :
(a) Some flowers are neither red nor blue.
(b) Some flowers are both red and blue.
Codes:
(A) Only (a) follows.
(B) Only (b) follows.
(C) Both (a) and (b) follow.
D) Neither (a) nor (b) follows.

Answer:2

If the statement ‘all students are intelligent’ is true, which of the following statements are false?
(i) No students are intelligent.
(ii) Some students are intelligent.
(iii) Some students are not intelligent.
(A) (i) and (ii)
B) (i) and (iii)
(C) (ii) and (iii)
(D) (i) only

Answer:2

A reasoning where we start with certain particular statements and conclude with a universal
statement is called
(A) Deductive Reasoning
(B) Inductive Reasoning
(C) Abnormal Reasoning
D) Transcendental Reasoning

Answer:1
What is the smallest number of ducks that could swim in this formation – two ducks in front of a
duck, two ducks behind a duck and a duck between two ducks?
(A) 5 (B) 7 (C) 4 D) 3

Answer:4

Mr. A, Miss B, Mr. C and Miss D are sitting around a table and discussing their trades.
(i) Mr. A sits opposite to the cook.
(ii) Miss B sits right to the barber
(iii) The washerman sits right to the barber
(iv) Miss D sits opposite to Mr. C
What are the trades of A and B ?
(A) Tailor and barber (B) Barber and cook C) Tailor and cook(D) Tailor and washerman

Answer:3

Solved Question Paper Based on UGC NET EXAM JUNE 2010

Which of the following is an example of circular argument?

(A) God created man in his image and man created God in his own image.
(B) God is the source of a scripture and the scripture is the source of our knowledge of God.
(C) Some of the Indians are great because India is great.
(D) Rama is great because he is Rama.

Answer:2

Lakshmana is a morally good person because

(A) he is religious
(B) he is educated
(C) he is rich
(D) he is rational

Answer:1

Two statements I and II given below are followed by two conclusions (a) and (b). Supposing the
statements are true, which of the following conclusions can logically follow?
I. Some religious people are morally good.
II. Some religious people are rational.
Conclusions :
(a) Rationally religious people are good morally.
(b) Non-rational religious persons are not morally good.
(A) Only (a) follows.
(B) Only (b) follows.
(C) Both (a) and (b) follow.
(D) Neither (a) nor (b) follows.

Answer:1

Certainty is
(A) an objective fact
(B) emotionally satisfying
(C) logical
(D) ontological

Answer:2

Solved Question Paper Based on UGC NET EXAM JUNE 2009

In a deductive argument conclusion is :

(A) Summing up of the premises
(B) Not necessarily based on premises
C) Entailed by the premises
(D) Additional to the premises

Answer:3

‘No man are mortal’ is contradictory of :

A) Some man are mortal(B) Some man are not mortal
(C) All men are mortal (D) No mortal is man

Answer:1

A deductive argument is valid if:

(A) premises are false and conclusion true
(B) premises are false and conclusion is also false
(C) premises are true and conclusion is false
D) premises are true and conclusion is true

Answer:4

Structure of logical argument is based on :

A) Formal validity(B) Material truth
(C) Linguistic expression (D) Aptness of examples

Answer:1

Two ladies and two men are playing bridge and seated at North, East, South and West of a table.
No lady is facing East. Persons sitting opposite to each other are not of the same sex. One man is
facing South. Which direction are the ladies facing to ?
(A) East and WestB) North and West
(C) South and East (D) None of these

Answer:2

Solved Question Paper Based on UGC NET EXAM DECEMBER 2008

There are five books A, B, C, D and E. The book C lies above D, the book E is below A and B is
below E. Which is at the bottom?
(A) E B) B (C) A (D) C

Answer:2

Logical reasoning is based on:

(A) Truth of involved propositions
B) Valid relation among the involved propositions
(C) Employment of symbolic language
(D) Employment of ordinary language

Answer:2

Two propositions with the same subject and predicate terms but different in quality are:
(A) Contradictory (B) Contrary (C) Subaltern (D) Identical

Answer:3

The premises of a valid deductive argument:

(A) Provide some evidence for its conclusion
(B) Provide no evidence for its conclusion
(C) Are irrelevant for its conclusion
(D) Provide conclusive evidence for its conclusion

Answer:4

Syllogistic reasoning is:

(A) Deductive (B) Inductive
(C) Experimental (D) Hypothetical

Answer:1

Solved Question Paper Based on UGC NET EXAM JUNE 2008

The statement, ‘To be non-violent is good’ is a :
(A) Moral judgement (B) Factual judgement
(C) Religious judgement (D) Value judgement

Answer:1

Assertion (A) : Man is a rational being.

Reason (R): Man is a social being.
(A) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
(B) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
(C) (A) is true but (R) is false
(D) (A) is false but (R) is true

Answer:2

Value Judgements are:

(A) Factual Judgements
(B) Ordinary Judgements
(C) Normative Judgements
(D) Expression of public opinion

Answer:3

Deductive reasoning proceeds from :

(A) general to particular
(B) particular to general
(C) one general conclusion to another general conclusion
(D) one particular conclusion to another particular conclusion

Answer:1

AGARTALA is written in code as 14168171, the code for AGRA is :

(A) 1641 (B) 1416 (C) 1441 D) 1461

Answer:4

Solved Question Paper Based on UGC NET EXAM DECEMBER 2007

Logical arguments are based on:

(A) Scientific reasoning (B) Customary reasoning
(C) Mathematical reasoning D) Syllogistic reasoning

Answer:4
Insert the missing number:
4 : 17 : : 7 : ?
(A) 48 (B) 49
C) 50 (D) 51

Answer:3

Choose the odd word:

(A) Nun B) Knight
(C) Monk (D) Priest

Answer:2

Choose the number which is different from others in the group :

(A) 49 (B) 63
(C) 77 D) 81

Answer:4

Solved Question Paper Based on UGC NET EXAM JUNE 2007

From the given four statements, select the two which cannot be true but yet both can be false.
Choose the right pair :
(i) All men are mortal
(ii) Some men are mortal
(iii) No man is mortal
(iv) Some men are not mortal
(A) (i)and(ii) (B) (iii) and (iv)
(C) (i)and(iii) D) (ii)and(iv)

Answer:4

A Syllogism must have:

(A) Three terms B) Four terms
(C) Six terms (D) Five terms

Answer:2

Copula is that part of proposition which denotes the relationship between :

A) Subject and predicate
(B) Known and unknown
(C) Major premise and minor premise
(D) Subject and object

Answer:1
“E” denotes:
A) Universal Negative Proposition
(B) Particular Affirmative Proposition
(C) Universal Affirmative Proposition
(D) Particular Negative Proposition

Answer:1

‘A’ is the father of ‘C, and ‘D’ is the son of ‘B’. ‘E’ is the brother of ‘A’. If ‘C is the sister of ‘D’, how
is
‘B’ related to ‘E’?
(A) daughter (B) husband
C) sister-in-law (D) brother-in-law

Answer:3

Solved Question Paper Based on UGC NET EXAM DECEMBER 2006

Which one of the following statements is completely non-sensical ?

(A) He was a bachelor, but he married recently.
(B) He is a bachelor, but he married recently.
(C) When he married, he was not a bachelor.
(D) When he was a bachelor, he was not married.

Answer:2

Which of the following statements are mutually contradictory?

(i) All flowers are not fragrant.
(ii) Most flowers are not fragrant.
(iii) None of the flowers is fragrant.
(iv) Most flowers are fragrant.
Choose the correct answer from the code given below :
Code :
(A) (i) and (ii)
(B) (i) and (iii)
(C) (ii) and (iii)
(D) (iii) and (iv)

Answer:4

Which of the following statements say the same thing ?

(i) “I am a teacher” (said by Arvind)
(ii) “I am a teacher” (said by Binod)
(iii) “My son is a teacher” (said by Binod’s father)
(iv) “My brother is a teacher” (said by Binod’s sister)
(v) “My brother is a teacher” (said by Binod’s only sister)
(vi) “My sole enemy is a teacher” (said by Binod’s only enemy)
Choose the correct answer from the code given below :
Code :
(A) (i) and (ii)
(B) (ii), (iii), (iv) and (v)
(C) (ii) and (vi)
(D) (v) and (vi)

Answer:2

Which of the following are correct ways of arguing ?

(i) There can be no second husband without a second wife.
(ii) Anil is a friend of Bob, Bob is a friend of Raj, hence Anil is a friend of Raj.
(iii) A is equal to B, B is equal to C, hence A is equal to C.
(iv) If everyone is a liar, then we cannot prove it.
Choose the correct answer from the code given below :
Code :
(A) (iii) and (iv)
(B) (i), (iii) and (iv)
(C) (ii), (iii) and (iv)
(D) (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv)

Answer:1

Which of the following statement/s are ALWAYS FALSE ?

(i) The sun will not rise in the East some day.
(ii) A wooden table is not a table.
(iii) Delhi city will be drowned under water.
(iv) Cars run on water as fuel.
Choose the correct answer from the code given below :
Code :
(A) (i), (iii) and (iv)
(B) Only (iii)
(C) (i), (ii) and (iii)
(D) (ii) alone

Answer:1

Solved Question Paper Based on UGC NET EXAM JUNE 2006

Which of the following conclusions is logically valid based on statement given below?
Statement: Most teachers are hard working.
Conclusions: (I) Some teachers are hard working.
(II)Some teachers are not hard working.
(A) Only (I) is implied
(B) Only (II) is implied
C) Both (I) and (II) are implied
(D) Neither (I) nor (II) is implied

Answer:3

Who among the following can be asked to make a statement in Indian Parliament ?
(A) Any MLA
(B) Chief of Army Staff
C) Solicitor General of India
(D) Mayor of Delhi

Answer:3

Which of the following conclusions is logically valid based on statement given below ?
Statement : Most of the Indian states existed before independence.
Conclusions : (I) Some Indian States existed before independence.
(II) All Indian States did not exist before independence.
(A) only (I) is implied
B) only (II) is implied
(C) Both (I) and (II) are implied
(D) Neither (I) nor (II) is implied

Answer:2

Water is always involved with landslides. This is because it:

(A) reduces the shear strength of rocks
B) increases the weight of the overburden
(C) enhances chemical weathering
(D) is a universal solvent

Answer:2

Direction for this question:

Given below are two statements (a) and (b) followed by two conclusions (i) and (ii). Considering
the statements to be true, indicate which of the following conclusions logically follow from the
given statements by selecting one of the four response alternatives given below the conclusion :
Statements : (a) all businessmen are wealthy.
(b) all wealthy people are hard working.
Conclusions : (i) All businessmen are hard working.
(ii) All hardly working people are not wealthy
A) Only (i) follows
(B) Only (ii) follows
(C) Only (i) and (ii) follows
(D) Neither (i) nor (ii) follows

Answer:1

UGC NET Syllabus of Logical Reasoning

 Understanding the structure of arguments: argument forms, structure of categorical

propositions, Mood and Figure, Formal and Informal fallacies, Uses of language,
Connotations and denotations of terms, Classical square of opposition.(Covered in this
article )
 Evaluating and distinguishing deductive and inductive reasoning.
 Analogies.
 Venn diagram: Simple and multiple use for establishing validity of arguments.
 Indian Logic: Means of knowledge.
 Pramanas: Pratyaksha (Perception), Anumana (Inference), Upamana(Comparison), Shabda
(Verbal testimony), Arthapatti (Implication) and Anupalabddhi (Non-apprehension).
 Structure and kinds of Anumana (inference), Vyapti (invariable relation),Hetvabhasas
(fallacies of inference).

Logical Reasoning Study Material

Structuring an Argument

In this section, we will look at the structure of an argument

“I see what your premises are,” says the philosopher, “and I see your conclusion. But I just don’t
see how you get there. I don’t see the argument.”

What is an argument?

– Basically, an argument is a claim defended with reasons. It is composed of a group of statements

with one or more statements (premises) supporting another statement (conclusion).

 An argument is an act of presenting reasons to support an individual’s position or point of

view.
 It is not quarrel or dispute. Or simply, as Bassham’s definition of an argument: A claim
defended with reasons.
Arguments are the basis of persuasive communication. They are combinations of statements made
that are intended to change the minds of other people.

All arguments have structure, which can be either deliberately designed or may be discovered
through analysis.

At its simplest, an argument has premises and a conclusion.

Main components in an argument. (a) Premises, (b) Conclusion:

– A simple argument must have a conclusion and at least two premises.

– Premises or propositions are statements that directly support the conclusion.
– A conclusion is what an author or an individual wants me to believe, accept or do.

Premise
A premise (or premiss) of an argument is something that is put forward as a truth, but which is not
proven. Although it is not proven, it is assumed to be true (although how universally accepted this
truth is may be another matter).

It is hot in here.

This is a beautiful car.

The people of this town are angry.

If you want to attack another person’s argument, you can challenge the truth of their premises. If
you are making an argument, you should be ready to defend any of your own premises.

The more complex the premise, the more opportunity there is to challenge it, so if you expect a
challenge, keep your premises both short and non-controversial.

As premises are the building blocks of the argument, there may well be two or more premises in
any argument.

Conclusion
The conclusion (or claim) is the statement with which you want the other person to agree. It is
drawn from the premises of the argument, of which there may be many.

We need to get out.

You should buy this car.

The new housing should be sited elsewhere.

A useful way of spotting a conclusion is that it may well be a statement of necessity, saying what
must or should happen. It may well be framed to persuade the other person to do something or
make some decision.
Inference

– Between the conclusion and the premises are further statements which translate the premises
into the conclusion. This is the reasoning process, and in a formal argument uses careful logic (in
informal arguments, emotional reasoning and assumptive leaps may well be used).

A particular aspect of the logical argument is that inferential statements have true-false qualities —
that is, they are either true or false and nothing in between. Thus a sentence can contain many
statements.

 If we stay here, we will not only get uncomfortable, we will also start to smell.
 There are other people interested in this car who will be here later.
 If we don’t do something, the peasants will revolt.

Inferential arguments seek to prove. Thus commands, explanations and other statements may not
directly add to the inference, although they may be a useful component of persuasion.

 Look at this. (command)

 The people are angry because we did not listen to them. (explanation)
 I hate it when cars don’t start. (emotion)

Implicit conclusion & implicit premise:

– An implicit conclusion is when the conclusion is not stated outright and the arguer assumes that
you will know it.
– An implicit premise is when the premise is not stated outright and the arguer assumes that you
will know it.

On the basis of the above fact generally, three types of Question were asked in UGC NET exam in
logical reasoning section –

 Statement & Assumption Test

 Statement & Argument Test
 Statement & Inference Test
Statement & Assumption Test
Paper Pattern – Questions are givens with the statement and you need to identify which of
assumption is implicit

How to solve –

In each question below is given a statement followed by two assumptions numbered I and II. You
have to consider the statement and the following assumptions and decide which of the
assumptions is implicit in the statement.
Give answer

 (A) If only assumption I is implicit

 (B) If only assumption II is implicit
 (C) If either I or II is implicit
 (D) If neither I nor II is implicit
 (E) If both I and II are implicit.

Statement:

The GOI has decided to pay compensation to the tune of Rs. 10 lakh to the family members of
those who are killed in major railway accidents.

Assumptions:

The government has enough funds to meet the expenses due to compensation.
There may be a reduction in incidents of railway accidents in near future.

1. (A) If the only assumption I is implicit

2. (B) If only assumption II is implicit
3. (C) If either I or II is implicit
4. (D) If neither I nor II is implicit
5. (E) If both I and II are implicit.

Heads up! These type of Question are commonly asked you need to give attention to details. You
might not able to identify that given assumption is implicit or not in the first few attempts however
one you practise more questions based on the same pattern you will be able to identify them.
There is no shortcut to solving these problems.

If you consider the statement given that Gov of India has decided to pay 10 lakh compensation for
railway accidents that means it must have been discussed in minister councils and subsequently
rules has been provisioned after considering the amount that might need to allocate for this fund.

Means- The government has enough funds to meet the expenses due to compensation.

However, The no of train incidents are unpredictable and this cant guarantee that there will be a
reduction in incidents of railway accidents in near future.

Hence – only assumption I is implicit

Statement & Argument Test

Paper Pattern – Questions are givens with the statement and you need to identify which
of argument is strong & week
How to solve –

Each question given below consists of a statement, followed by two arguments numbered I and II.
You have to decide which of the arguments is a ‘strong’ argument and which is a ‘weak’ argument.

Give answer:

* (A) If only argument I is strong

* (B) If only argument II is strong

* (C) If either I or II is strong

* (D) If neither I nor II is strong and

* (E) If both I and II are strong.

Usually, in these questions, a statement is given which is followed by two arguments. An individual
is required to differentiate between the strong and weak arguments.

You will see many different types of questions in this section. Usually, confusing questions will be
asked. The arguments that will be provided will generally be contrary to each other.

You have to choose the strong argument which satisfies the Statement.

 Strong Arguments may contain the universal truth, decisions taken by the Government etc.,
 Weak Arguments may contain simple logic, superfluous and ambiguous.

Example 1-

Statement:

Should taxes on colour television be further increased?

Arguments:

 Yes, Colour television is a luxury item and only rich people buy them.
 No, Televisions are bought by the poor too.

1. Only argument I is strong

2. Only argument II is strong
3. Either I or II is strong
4. Neither I nor II is strong
5. Both I and II are strong

Answer: Option 4

Explanation:
Clearly, taxes on an item cannot be increased or decreased on the basis of the financial position of
the people who buy it. So, both arguments I and II do not hold strong.

Example 2-

Statement:

Should India become a permanent member of UN’s Security Council?

Arguments:

 Yes. India has emerged as a country which loves peace and amity.
 No. Let us first solve problems of our own people like poverty, malnutrition.

1. Only argument I is strong

2. Only argument II is strong
3. Either I or II is strong
4. Neither I nor II is strong
5. Both I and II are strong

Answer: Option 1

Explanation:

A peace-loving nation like India can well join an international forum which seeks to bring different
nations on friendly terms with each other. So, the argument I hold strong.

Argument II highlights a different aspect. The internal problems of a nation should not debar it from
strengthening international ties. So, argument II is vague.

Statement & Inference Test

Paper Pattern – Questions are givens with the statement and you need to identify which of
inference/Conclusion is correct.

How to solve –

In each question below is given a statement followed by two conclusions numbered I and II. You
have to assume everything in the statement to be true, then consider the two conclusions together
and decide which of them logically follows beyond a reasonable doubt from the information given
in the statement.

Give answer:

(A) If only conclusion I follows

(B) If only conclusion II follows
(C) If either I or II follows
(D) If neither I nor II follows and
(E) If both I and II follow
Statements:

The government has spoiled many top ranking financial institutions by appointing bureaucrats as
Directors of these institutions.

Conclusions:

 The government should appoint Directors of the financial institutes taking into
consideration the expertise of the person in the area of finance.
 The Director of the financial institutions should have expertise commensurate with the
financial work carried out by the institute.

A. Only conclusion I follows

B. Only conclusion II follows
C. Either I or II follows
D. Neither I nor II follows
E. Both I and II follow

Answer: Option E

Explanation:

According to the statement, Government has spoiled financial institutions by the appointing
bureaucrats as Directors. This means that only those persons should be appointed as Directors who
are experts in finance and are acquainted with the financial work of the institute. So, both I and II
follow.

Statement:

Should an organization like UNO be dissolved?

Arguments:

 Yes. With cold war coming to an end, such organizations have no role to play
 No, In the absence of such organizations there may be a world war.

A. Only argument I is strong

B. Only argument II is strong
C. Either I or II is strong
D. Neither I nor II is strong
E. Both I and II are strong

Answer: Option B

Explanation:
An organization like UNO is meant to maintain peace all over and will always serve to prevent
conflicts between countries. So, its role never ends. So, the argument I do not hold. Also, lack of such
an organization may in future lead to increased mutual conflicts and international wars, on account
of lack of a common platform for mutual discussions. So, argument II holds.

Study Notes on Indian Logical Reasoning

To start with the topic of Indian Logical Reasoning we must first understand the meaning of Logical
Reasoning.

A logical reasoning is an analysis of a test that checks the particular ability. It could have verbal or
numerical questions. It is a process were one tries to apply several reasons to come to a conclusion.

Indian Logical Reasoning has made its place in UGC’s syllabus. They have introduced Different
Types of Pramanas and its uses in the new syllabus. Pramana, a Sanskrit word, which literally
means “proof” and “means of knowledge”. The study of Pramanas is called Nyaya. It is a very
critical topic to understand the laws of Indian Logic and the philosophy of knowledge. It has a
different school of thought and philosophies through which a person can understand the world.

Different Types of Pramanasindian logic Pramana

According to the Vedic philosophy, there are 6 types of Pramanas. They are as follows:

Pratyaksha Pramana (Perception) – By Pratyaksha Pramana we mean the knowledge based

through perception. It can be direct or indirect to any person.

 Direct perception – It takes place through our sensory organs directly. Like… nose (smell),
skin (touch), eyes (see), ears (sound), tongue (taste). Here the knowledge takes place when
it is in direct contact with the sensory organs. It is also known as anubhava or experience.
 Indirect perception – The knowledge happens based upon smriti or memory. For example,
we all know how an apple looks like. This knowledge gets feed into our memory. So,
whenever we see red-coloured and round shaped fruit, we can easily associate it with
apple. Our memory directly categorizes it.
Anumana Pramana (Assumption) – Here the knowledge is gained not through any sense organs but
through anumana or assumption. We assume knowledge of what we don’t see from what we see.

For example, we can assume the physical or emotional pain when we see someone crying or we
can relate fire with the smell of smoke.

Upamana Pramana (Comparison) – It is a kind of knowledge we get by the assumption of similarity

between the two different types of knowledge. It is basically based on comparison and not just only
perception and assumptions.
For example, a person knows a four-legged animal which barks is called a dog. Therefore, when he
goes to a jungle and see a similar looking animal he can relate that it’s a wild dog which has also
four leg and barks.

This knowledge is possible when there is an earlier similarity with a particular thing which helps the
person to compare both the similar things.

Arthapatti Pramana (Assumption or Implication) – By Arthapatti Pramana, we understand the

knowledge which we get through the relation and its implications. It includes supposition, belief
and presumption.

We get this type of knowledge either what we have seen or heard and by pure assumption.

For example, if a healthy person says that he does not sleep at night, with this supposition, belief
and presumption, we can think that he sleeps during the day. Without assumption, it is difficult to
explain how a man can be healthy without sleeping.

Assumption and implication are thus are very useful theory which make logical arguments.

Anupalabdhi Pramana (Apprehension and Non- Apprehension) – It is basically based on the

apprehension of a non-existent thing which is based on non-perception.

For example, if there are no students in the class, as we cannot see any student in the class at that
moment we conclude that there are no students in the class.

Shabda Pramana (Word or Verbal Statement) – This is mainly through verbal indication. We get lot
of knowledge through verbal statements, symbols, texts or words. We either say this or write.
Verbal statement must have a valid cause for its information to be true. Earlier in Indian philosophy
Vedas were considered to be the most reliable source of knowledge.

But, western philosophers discarded this idea and named it context-based knowledge. In modern
times, we rely on books, newspapers, TV news, etc. to form our opinion.