Anatomy, Hystology and Physiology of Eye

The eyeball comprises three coats: outer (fibrous coat), middle (vascular coat) and
inner (nervous coat).
1. Fibrous coat. It is a dense strong wall which protects the intraocular contents.
Anterior 1/6th of this fibrous coat is transparent and is called cornea. Posterior 5/6th
opaque part is called sclera. Cornea is set into sclera like a watch glass. Junction of the
cornea and sclera is called limbus. Conjunctiva is firmly attached at the limbus.
2. Vascular coat (uveal tissue). It supplies nutrition to the various structures of the
eyeball. It consists of three parts which from anterior to posterior are : iris, ciliary body
and choroid.
3. Nervous coat (retina). It is concerned with visual functions.

The eyeball can be divided into two segments: anterior and posterior.
Anterior segment includes crystalline lens (which is suspended from the ciliary body
by zonules), and structures anterior to it, iris, cornea and two aqueous humour-filled
spaces anterior and posterior chambers. Anterior chamber is bounded anteriorly by the
back of cornea, and posteriorly by the iris and part of ciliary body. The anterior
chamber is about 2.5 mm deep in the centre in normal adults. It is shallower in
hypermetropes and deeper in myopes, but is almost equal in the two eyes of the same
individual. It contains about 0.25 ml of the aqueous humour. Posterior chamber is a
triangular space containing 0.06 ml of aqueous humour. It is bounded anteriorly by the
posterior surface of iris and part of ciliary body, posteriorly by the crystalline lens and
its zonules, and laterally by the ciliary body.
Posterior segment includes the structures posterior to lens, vitreous humour (a gel like
material which fills the space behind the lens), retina, choroid and optic disc.

Structures of eye
1. Conjunctiva

The conjunctiva is a clear mucous membrane that lines the inner surfaces of the
eyelids and and continues on to cover the front surface of the eyeball, except for the
central clear portion of the outer eye (the cornea). The entire conjunctiva is
transparent.

The conjunctiva is composed of 3 sections:

1. palpebral conjunctiva (covers the posterior surface of the eyelids),

2. bulbar conjunctiva (coats the anterior portion of the eyeball), and
3. fornix (the transition portion, forming the junction between the posterior
eyelid and the eyeball).

Histology
The epithel is stratified columnar epithelium 2 – 5 cells.But at limbus change into
stratified squamous non keratinized epithelium.
Within the bulbar conjunctiva are “goblet cells,” which secrete “mucin.” This is an
important component of the pre-corneal tear layer that protects and nourishes the
cornea.
Blood supply of conjunctiva are;
• Posterior conjunctival arteries derived from arterial arcade of lids which is formed
by palpebral branches of nasal and lacrimal arteries
of the lids.
• Anterior conjunctival arteries derived from the anterior ciliary arteries – muscular
br. Of ophthalmic artery to rectus muscles.
Venous drainage; Palpebral and Ophthalmic veins.
Physiology
• Secretes mucin and aqueous component of tear film.
• Highly vascular: supplies nutrition to the peripheral cornea.
• Aqueous veins drains from anterior chamber maintenance of IOP.
• Lymphoid tissue helps in combating infections.

2. Cornea
Cornea is the transparent dome which serves as the outer window of the eye. The
cornea is the primary (most powerful) structure focusing light entering the eye (along
with the secondary focusing structure, the crystalline lens). The cornea is composed,
for the most part, of connective tissue with a thin layer of epithelium on the
surface. Epithelium is the type of tissue that covers all free body surfaces.

Histology

The cornea is composed of 5 layers, from the front to the back:

1. epithelium,
2. Bowman’s (anterior limiting) membrane,
3. stroma (substantia propria),
4. Descemet’s (posterior limiting) membrane, and
5. endothelium (posterior epithelium).

The transparency of the cornea is due to the fact that it contains hardly any cells and
no blood vessels.

The functions of cornea are :

• Refracting surface.
• Protection of intraocular contents.
• Absorption of drugs.

3. Sclera
Along its circumference, the cornea is continuous with the sclera: the white, opaque
portion of the eye. The sclera makes up the back five-sixths of the eye’s outer layer. It
provides protection and serves as an attachment for the extraocular muscles, which
move the eye.
Histology
Histologically, sclera consist of following three layers
 Epicleral tissue (dense vascularised layer of the connective tissue which covers
the sclera proper)
 Sclera proper (avascular structure which consist of dense bundles of collagens
fibres crossing each other in all direction.This arrangement makes the sclera
opaque in contrast to cornea)
 Lamina fusca (the innermost part of sclera which blends with suprachoroidal
and supraciliary lamina of the uveal tract.

Functions of Sclera
• Protects the intraocular contents from trauma
and mechanical displacement.
• Preserve the shape of the eyeball.
• Provide a rigid insertion for extraocular muscles.

4. Tears and tear glands

Coating the outer surface of the cornea is a “pre-corneal tear film.” People normally
blink the eyelids of their eyes about every six seconds to replenish the tear
film. Tears have four main functions on the eye:

 wetting the corneal epithelium, thereby preventing it from being damaged due
to dryness,
 creating a smooth optical surface on the front of the microscopically irregular
corneal surface,
 acting as the main supplier of oxygen and other nutrients to the cornea,
 containing an enzyme called “lysozyme,” which destroys bacteria and
prevents the growth of microcysts on the cornea, and
 flushing harmful bacteria and other microbes away from the eye, into the
lacrimal canals and then out through the nose.

The tear film resting on the corneal surface has three layers, from front to back:

 lipid or oil layer,

  lacrimal or aqueous layer, and
 mucoid or mucin layer

The most external layer of the tear film is the lipid or oil layer. This layer prevents
the lacrimal layer beneath it from evaporating. It also prevents the tears from flowing
over the edge of the lower eyelid (“epiphora”).

The lipid component of the tear film is produced by sebaceous glands known as
“Meibomian” glands (located in the tarsal plates along the eyelid margins) and the
glands of “Zeis” (which open into the hair follicles of the eyelashes). An
enlargement of a Meibomian gland is known as a “chalazion,” while an infection of a
Zeis gland is known as a “hordeolum” or “sty(e).”

Beneath the lipid layer is located the lacrimal or aqueous layer of the tear film. This
middle layer is the thickest of the three tear layers, and it is formed primarily by the
glands of “Krause” and “Wolfring” and secondarily by the “lacrimal” gland, all of
which are located in the eyelids. The lacrimal gland is the major producer of tears
when one is crying or due to foreign body irritation.

Lacrimal fluid, containing salts, proteins, and lysozyme, has several functions:

 taking the main nutrients (such as oxygen) to the cornea,

 carrying waste products away from the cornea,
 helping to prevent corneal infection, and
 maintaining the tonicity of the tear film.

If the eye’s tears are “isotonic,” there will be no change in water volume in the cornea
and vision will remain normal. (Tears normally have a tonicity equal to .9%
saline.) If the tears are “hypotonic,” water will flow into the cornea (such as when
crying or swimming in a pool) and it will swell, causing it to become more
myopic. If the tears are “hypertonic,” water will flow out of the cornea (such as when
swimming in the ocean) and it will shrink, causing it to become more hyperopic.

The epithelial surface of the cornea is naturally “hydrophobic” (water-

repelling). Therefore, for a tear layer to be able to remain on the corneal surface
without rolling off, the “hydrophilic” (water-attracting) mucoid or mucin layer of the
tear film is laid down onto the surface of the cornea by “goblet cells,” which are
present in the bulbar conjunctiva. In turn, the lacrimal layer of the tear film, located
above the mucoid layer, can defy gravity and remain on the front of the eye.
5. The Vascular Tunic: Choroid, Ciliary Body and Iris

Choroid

The coroid consists of loose connective

tissue, which houses a dense network of
blood vessels. Connective tissue cells and
melanocytes are numerous. The latter give
the choroid its dark colour. Small blood
vessels are especially frequent in the
innermost part of the choroid, which is
called the choriocapillary layer. This layer
supplies the retina with nutrients. Bruch's
membrane is located between the choroid
and the retina. It consists of two layers of
collagen fibres and a network of elastic
fibres between them.

Ciliary body

The ciliary body is an inward extension of the choroidea at the level of the lens.
Ciliary processes are short extensions of the ciliary body towards the lens. A small
amount of loose connective tissue similar to that of the choroid is located between
smooth muscle cells which form the bulk of the ciliary body. They form three
bundles, the ciliary muscle.

The inner surface of the ciliary body and its processes are lined by two layers of
columnar cells which belong to the retina - the ciliary epithelium formed by the pars
ciliaris of the retina. The outer cell layer is pigmented, whereas the inner cell layer,
i.e. the layer that faces the posterior chamber of the eye, is nonpigmented.

The ciliary processes contain a dense network of capillaries. The cells of the inner
layer of the ciliary epithelium generate the aqueous humor of the eye. , i.e. they
transport the plasma filtrate generated by the capillaries in the ciliary processes into
the posterior chamber of the eye. Thight junctions between the cells form the blood -
aqueous humor barrier.

Fibers, which consist of fibrillin, extend from the ciliary processes towards the lens
and form the suspensory ligament of the lens. These fibres are also called zonule
fibres. Two of the bundles of the ciliary muscles attach to the sclera and strech the
ciliary body when they contract, thereby regulating the tension of the zonule fibres.
The reduced tension will result in a thickening of the lens which focusses the lens on
close objects - a process called accomodation.

Iris

The posterior surface of the iris is covered by the retina. The inner layer of the retina,
i.e. the layer facing the posterior chamber, is called the posterior epithelium of the
iris. Both layers of the retina are pigmented, but pigmentation is heavier in the inner
layer. In the region of the central opening of the iris, the pupil, the retina extends for a
very short distance onto the anterior surface of the iris. The iridial stroma consists of
a vascularized loose connective tissue rich in melanocytes in addition to macrophages
and fibrocytes, which are all surrounded by a loose meshwork of fine collagen fibers.
The anterior surface of the iris is not covered by an epithelium - instead of we find a
condensation of fibrocytes and melanocytes, the anterior border layer of the iris.

6. Lens

The transparent crystalline lens of the eye is located immediately behind the iris. It is
composed of fibers that come from epithelial (hormone-producing) cells. In fact, the
cytoplasm of these cells makes up the transparent substance of the lens.

The crystalline lens is composed of 4

layers, from the surface to the center:

1. capsule,
2. subcapsular epithelium,
3. cortex, and
4. nucleus.

The lens capsule is a clear, membrane-like structure that is quite elastic, a quality that
keeps it under constant tension. As a result, the lens naturally tends towards a
rounder or more globular configuration, a shape it must assume for the eye to focus at
a near distance.
Slender but very strong suspensory ligaments, also known as zonules or zonules of
Zinn, attach at one end to the lens capsule and at the other end to the ciliary processes
of the circular ciliary body, around the inside of the eye. These thin ligaments or
zonules hold the lens in place.

Physiology

Process of vision
Light waves from an object (such as a tree) enter the eye first through the cornea, which
is the clear dome at the front of the eye. It is like a window that allows light to enter
the eye. The light then progresses through the pupil, the circular opening in the center
of the colored iris.

Fluctuations in the intensity of incoming light change the size of the eye’s pupil. As
the light entering the eye becomes brighter, the pupil will constrict (get smaller), due
to the pupillary light response. As the entering light becomes dimmer, the pupil will
dilate (get larger).

Initially, the light waves are bent or converged first by the cornea, and then further by
the crystalline lens (located immediately behind the iris and the pupil), to a nodal point
(N) located immediately behind the back surface of the lens. At that point, the image
becomes reversed (turned backwards) and inverted (turned upside-down). The light
impulses of the image are reoriented before reaching the visual center at the back of
the brain.

The light continues through the vitreous humor, the clear gel that makes up about 80%
of the eye’s volume, and then, ideally, back to a clear focus on the retina, behind the
vitreous. The small central area of the retina is the macula, which provides the best
vision of any location in the retina. If the eye is considered to be a type of camera
(albeit, an extremely complex one), the retina is equivalent to the film inside of the
camera, registering the tiny photons of light interacting with it.
Within the layers of the retina, light impulses are changed into electrical signals. Then
they are sent through the optic nerve, along the visual pathway, to the occipital cortex
at the posterior (back) of the brain. Here, the electrical signals are interpreted or “seen”
by the brain as a visual image.

Reference :
http://prime.edu.pk/4th_Year_Eye_Lectures/ConjunctivaAnatomyPhysiology.pdf
http ://prime.edu.pk/4th_Year_Eye_Lectures/Cornea AND SCLERA-1, Anatomy and
Physiology (2).pdf
http://www.lab.anhb.uwa.edu.au/eye.
Khurana AK, Comprehensive Ophtalmology 4th edition. 2007. New Age
International.