LECTURE UNIT 2

2. Big Issues of our World impacting sustainability/sustainable development

2.1 Introduction

As it was discussed in Unit 1, there is no single explanation to the question: What is

sustainability/sustainable development?

In general terms, it can be said that: “Sustainability/sustainable development has to do with a

complicated and interconnected set of relations and behaviors that span over a wide range of
social, economic and environmental concerns/issues in an effort to create a critical balance
among them (issues) while connecting us with the natural and man-made environment”.

Some of the sustainability issues of the world have to do with the fact that usually we are
overwhelmed by economic issues; we tend to value what we can sell or buy, but what about the
values of: other species, water and waste management, food security, climate change, the right
to live with dignity, and human equity? It appears that worldwide, despite the world economic
performance (globalization, trade agreements, production & distribution of goods, stock markets
growth, etc.) and some success in social equity (reduction of hunger and poverty) the status of
ecology(1) and environment has worsened (continuous loss of biodiversity(2), deforestation(3),
climate change(4), change of water acidity in the oceans/acidification of oceans, etc.).
--------------------------------------------------------------
(1)
Ecology (branch of biology) is the scientific analysis and study of relations and interactions
between organisms and their environment (see-http://www.dictionary.com/browse/ecology)
(2)
Biodiversity is the variety of all life forms on earth - the different plants, animals and micro-
organisms and the ecosystems of which they are a part (after Australian DEP)
(3)
Deforestation is the process whereby natural forests are cleared through logging and/or
burning, either to use the timber or to replace the area for alternative uses (after WWF)
(4)
Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that
change lasts for an extended period of time (i.e., decades to millions of years). Climate change
may refer to a change in average weather conditions, or in the time variation of weather around
longer-term average conditions (i.e., more or fewer extreme weather events). Climate change is
caused by factors such as biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received by earth, plate
tectonics, volcanic eruptions. Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of
ongoing climate change, often referred to as global warming.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change)

After EPA, (Jan. 2017, https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/climatechange/climate-change-

basic-information_.html) climate change refers to any significant change in the measures of
climate lasting for an extended period of time. In other words, climate change includes major

1
changes in temperature, precipitation, or wind patterns, among other effects, that occur over
several decades or longer.

The Earth’s population is rising, people require more goods, consume more and produce more
waste, energy consumption and industrial production deplete natural resources, human activity
results in air and water pollution and climate change with enormous implications to our life,
biodiversity is reduced, and the list goes on. How long can we continue on this course?

It is evident that in order to achieve sustainability, we need to coordinate our capabilities and
channel our technological, scientific knowledge, skills and capacity as well as political and
economic powers in ways that will make a difference from the present status quo.

Sustainability is closely connected to the environment and to global issues such as:

 Population increase
 Urbanization and rise of megacities
 Consumption requirements/demands
 Water and waste management (water shortages, waste production and disposal, etc.)
 Air and water pollution
 Depletion of earth’s natural resources (mineral, fisheries, species diversity, etc.)
 Local and global climate change
 Energy security
 Deforestation
 Food security

Also sustainability is equally close-connected with:

 Our personal development as human beings

 How we relate to each other
 Our attitudes towards equality and opportunity,
 Our abilities as individuals, groups and communities to be proactive in order to achieve
sustenance, balance and endurance

Some of the above issues will be discussed next.

2.2 Population

‘It will be impossible to meet the needs of people and to promote the wellbeing of both current
and future generations, if we do not know how many people are living and will be living on this
planet, where they are living and will be living in the future, and what their age distribution is
now and in a few decades from now. The new development agenda must consider these
population dynamics and address the associated challenges.’ 
(Report of the Global Thematic Consultation on Population Dynamics, 2013- Introduction)-
https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/Population%20Dynamics%20in%20Post-
2015%20FINAL.pdf

2
It took thousands of years for the world population to grow to 1 billion, but almost another 200
years to grow seven times more! Today the world population has surpassed 7 billion; it almost
doubled since 1950 and is expected to grow to over 9 billion by 2050 (see Fig. 2.1). This striking
growth has been driven by lower child mortality accompanied by advances in modern medicine,
sanitation and hygiene, technology, developments of trade and transportation, increased food
availability and agricultural productivity, improvements in living standards and changes in
fertility rates; some argue that high quality energy sources should be included.

Current population growth trends vary considerably across countries and regions.

Highest population growth is observed in the poorer countries.

The more advanced countries experience rapid population aging, and low and in some cases even
negative population growth.

Fig. 2.1- World Population growth (after IMF)

More of the anticipated growth in global population between now and 2050 is expected to occur
in Africa. Asia is expected to be the second largest contributor to this future growth and will be
followed by Latin America and the Caribbean, North America and Oceania, where growth is
projected to be much more modest. Europe is the only region where it is expected to have
smaller population in 2050 than in 2017. Beyond 2050, Africa and Asia are expected to be the
main contributors to global population growth.
(World Population Prospects - Key findings and advance tables- 2017 Revision , United Nations,
https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Publications/Files/WPP2017_KeyFindings.pdf )

3
With regard to world population growth prospects, the UNPFA (United Nations Population
Fund) developed three population projections called variants: one high, one low, and one in
between, which in reality represent different fertility rates. It can be seen, from Fig 2.2, that
different fertility rates might result in considerably different population predictions which call for
completely different strategies for tackling the problem of sustainable development. The
population projections are corrected frequently depending upon new available information.
Based on available data, scientists expect that in this century the world population is likely to
follow the medium fertility assumption curve.

(http://www.unfpa.org/world-population-trends)

Fig. 2.2 Population growth trends (after UNPFA- 2017 revision)

In the recent past we have experienced enormous changes in fertility rates and life expectancy.
Between 1970s and 2014 the global fertility rate per woman had reduced by about 50% while the
average global lifespan between 1990s and today has risen by almost 8%. (see:
http://www.unfpa.org/world-population-trends)

Bear in mind that: it is expected that the world’s least developed countries, will continue to have
high fertility levels. Based on conservative projections, the population of the least developed
countries in the world will double or even tripled in some countries by 2050. On the contrary
developed and some developing countries (high-income and rising-income countries) will
experience slow or no population growth. Whereas the former countries continue to have large
growing populations of young people, the latter have large, growing populations of older
persons.

Other, worth of mentioning, demographic trends of today’s world are the high levels of
urbanization globally and accelerating migration from poorer to richer countries.

4
Urbanization: In 2007 for the first time more people lived in urban than in rural area. By 2050 it
is expected that about 2/3(two thirds) of the world population will live in cities under great
social, economic and environmental stress (http://www.unfpa.org/world-population-trends).

Fig. 2(a) presents the percent of population living in urban areas, in different regions of the
world, over time.
As cities grow, so does their ecological footprint; they consume more and more natural resources
to meet the rising demand for food, water, energy, and goods and services.

Thus, urbanization results in: the depletion of areas around the cities from extraction of resources
(like water), the conversion of farmland or wetlands for housing, roads and shopping centers and
the spill-over of pollution. In many fast-growing cities, air pollution levels far exceed WHO
(World Health Organization) guidelines; these levels of air pollution cause ill health that might
lead to death of many people each year. Their impact is often worsened because local
governments are failing to provide the necessary facilities, utilities and services for the swelling
numbers.

Fig. 2(a) Percent of population living

in urban areas over time (after IMF,
2016)

(http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2016/03/bloom.htm

Migration: International migration patterns are complicated. The world's fastest growing group
of migrants is the economic migrants. One big migration problem is the increasing amount of
refugees, due to local conflicts and political instability in certain countries and regions of the
world. According to the UN Refugee Agency, by the end of 2014, close to 60 million individuals
had been forcibly displaced as a result of persecution, conflict, generalized violence or human
rights violations. Nowadays, this trend may have even intensified, due to the very large numbers
of refugees and migrants arriving in Europe from areas of conflicts or/and conflict-affected

5
countries in Middle East, Afghanistan, and Africa (Syria, Libya, etc.) - see:
http://www.unfpa.org/migration.
Large number of refugees stresses the socio-economic balance and resources of the host counties
accepting them. The effects on locals may range from social friction (prejudice, xenophobia and
crime concerns) to economic and health issues.

Another source of immigration is the internal migration, i.e. movement of people within
countries. The internal migration is increasing, either as a response of the people to inequitable
distributions of resources, services and opportunities or when people try to flee violence, natural
disaster or the increasing number of extreme weather events. For instance, previously wet or
fertile areas become drier/arid not capable to support existing population.

The above population dynamics influence development at all levels, i.e. local, national, regional
and finally global. The world is facing the challenge to solve the problem of meeting the
increasing needs and expectations of a growing population while simultaneously modifying the
prevailing production and consumption patterns in order to achieve a more sustainable
development model.

The impacts of growing population on consumption of natural resources, on waste volume

produced, on pollution, on ecosystems and environment are serious; for instance, E. Rosenberg
in the article “Population growth and sustainable development” (2015) presents the
following sustainability issues with regard to water use and consumption as a result of growing
world population:

 Water, is not evenly distributed around our planet. In general, developed countries have
more ample sources of water, or the technology to use water more efficiently

 Fresh water supply is not actually endless; the effectiveness of technology to increase the
supply of fresh water is not without limits.

 At present the earth’s population consumes around 54% of the annual available fresh
water. One may think that we can spare water, but scientists have indicated that we need
to leave a certain amount of water in rivers and wetlands as an ecological 'reserve', in
order to maintain their viability. By consuming this reserve, we destroy the ecosystems
while in the same time we reduce the total available volume of water.

 The previously mentioned level of global water consumption does not entail that it is
equally consumed between different countries in different areas of the planet. Worldwide,
about 1.1 billion people either do not have access to fresh/clean water or consume less
than the basic requirement of 50 liters per person per day.

 Growing population also leads to greater volumes of pollution. In developing countries,

90-95% of sewage and 70% of industrial waste are discharged into surface waters thus
causing pollution of the water supply. In addition to untreated sewage and industrial
waste disposal, the water supply is polluted by chemical run-off from pesticides and
fertilizers as well as acid rain from polluted air; as a result, energy intensive

6
 methods/processes are required to make it suitable for human use. Polluted water causes
health issues to humans and other species.

If our living and consumption habits and behavior do not change, then it is estimated that by the
year 2025 the increased earth population would use almost 70% of the available fresh water. This
amount does not take into account the needs of those who currently do not get enough water.
Furthermore, if water consumption is increased everywhere to current developed-country levels,
then we will use about 90% of available fresh water! The effects on ecosystems would be
disastrous, long lasting and irreversible; springs, rivers and wetlands as well as underground
water sources in many part of the earth would run dry, lakes and estuaries where fish stocks
breed would be irreversibly damaged. On a national and regional level, agriculture and industry
depend on water supplies. As water becomes scarcer, we observe not only a decrease in the
quality of life, but an increase in social conflict.

Population growth in less developed countries and urbanization leads to greater consumption
that is linked to unsustainable production and over-consumption. But also overconsumption
occurs in more developed countries (*). If we want to achieve ecological sustainability and social
justice we cannot deal with over-consumption and over-population as separate issues. Simple
answers such as family planning or reducing the fertility rates are not enough. It is necessary to
understand what will make family planning and fertility control possible and likely, from a social
point of view, and how these factors can be addressed. For example fertility rate depends upon
the age at marriage, access to contraception & family planning, woman’s role and rights in
society and in labor force, child survival and legality of abortion, public leadership and
awareness.

Population growth, population decline and population aging, as well as migration and
urbanization, affect national and global development plans and goals. They affect production,
consumption, employment, income distribution, poverty, social benefits; they also impact our
efforts to ensure universal access to education, housing, sanitation/ health, water, food and
energy. Population growth, in particular, exercises pressure on the planet’s resources (water,
land, forests, and atmosphere) contributing to climate change and challenging ecosystems and
environmental sustainability.
‘It is predicted that by 2030 the world will need to produce around 50% more food and energy,
together with 30% more fresh water, whilst mitigating and adapting to climate change. This
threatens to create a ‘perfect storm’ of global events...There’s not going to be a complete
collapse, but things will start getting really worrying if we don’t tackle these problems.’
(Professor Sir John Beddington, former UK Chief Scientific Advisor, 2013)-see “Population
Dynamics and Sustainable development Goals”, 2015 - http://www.appg-
popdevrh.org.uk/Population%20Dynamics%20and%20the%20Sustainable%20Development%20
Goals.pdf

(*) Notice that: Many consider that consumption/overconsumption is the greatest threat to
sustainable development.

7
2.3 Energy
Growing population consumes more energy.
Projections of the world energy consumptions by the U.S. Energy Information Administration
(EIA) indicate that the world energy consumption will grow by almost 50% between 2012 and
2040.
Energy consumption puts stress on energy resources making them scarcer and more difficult to
be extracted. To create energy, forests are depleted, coal mines must be dug deeper, and oil and
gas has to be drilled in more complex conditions and environments. This has led to the
exploitation of new energy sources, i.e. renewable energy (*).
(*) Renewable energy is energy that comes from resources which are naturally replenished on a
human timescale such as sunlight, wind, tides, waves, etc.

Trends of energy consumption per region and type of energy source are given in the following
two figures (Fig. 2.3 and Fig. 2.4).

Fig. 2.3 Regional energy consumption by fuel 2017 (percentage)

(http://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/energy-economics/statistical-review-of-world-
energy/primary-energy.html)

8
Fig. 2.4 World Energy Consumption (2016)
(http://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=26212)

Conventional or Nonrenewable sources of energy – Conventional or nonrenewable energy

comes from sources that will run out or will not be replenished in a lifetime or in many lifetimes
or permanently. In this category of sources belong the fossil fuels, such as coal, petroleum, and
natural gas.

The fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and petroleum) account for almost 85% of the world energy
supplies, while nuclear power and renewable resources account for about 6% and 10%
respectively.
For the United States, fossil fuel sources (coal, natural gas, and petroleum) account for almost
65% of generated electricity; the rest of the electricity is generated by nuclear and renewable
sources (see figure below).

9
(https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/index.cfm?page=electricity_in_the_united_states)

Fossil fuels are relatively inexpensive to extract when someone takes into consideration the
extraction technology developments over the years. Fossil fuels can also be stored, piped, or
transported anywhere in the world. Their availability is not affected by climatic condition. They
are reliable and relatively cheap sources of energy for electricity and transportation. Actually in
many countries they are the main sources of energy to support their economy and population
needs.

Nevertheless, use of fossil fuels does not come without cost; their production and consumption
have a decisive impact on the environment and human health. The burning of coal and oil
releases particles that pollute the air, water, and land. In addition, burning of fossil fuels
disturbs/upsets earth’s “carbon budget,” which balances the carbon in the air, earth and oceans.
Combustion of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and contributes to
weather change and global warming. For coal, mining is one of the most dangerous and
unhealthy jobs in the world (cave-ins, explosions, toxic dust).

Natural gas in terms of emissions from power plant sources is the cleanest fossil fuel. However,
leaks of methane (CH4) from natural gas pipelines may amount to a significant additional source
of greenhouse gas emissions. Lately “hydraulic fracturing or fracking”, which is a process of
extracting natural gas from shale rock deep within the earth is implemented. It uses water under
10
high-pressure and chemicals, which eventually can leak to other sources of water (drinking
water, watersheds) contaminating and making them unsafe.

Nuclear energy is another non-renewable energy source. The material used in nuclear power
plants is not renewable. An energy source to be considered renewable must use resources that
can be replenished. The US Energy Information Administration classified nuclear energy as a
non-renewable source of energy.
Nuclear energy appears to be a popular way of generating electricity around the world; nuclear
power plants do not pollute the air or emit greenhouse gases while producing enough electricity
for the industry and consumers. There are challenges that nuclear energy has to overcome in
order to gain public support: eliminate nuclear insecurity to reduce the risks associated with
nuclear power, minimize the environmental impact during mining and operation works,
implement efficient, very secure and reliable management of operational procedures and waste
disposal. Accidents associated with operation and maintenance procedures in a nuclear power
station have detrimental and permanent effects on all forms of life in the area of the accident as
well as in much wider areas. For instance during the Chernobyl nuclear disaster in Ukraine the
health impact from the accident in many European countries in a radius of thousand of
kilometers away from the station was very high to disastrous for years. Similarly, the Fukushima
nuclear station disaster impacted the lives and health of thousands of people in Japan. In
addition, nuclear power requires mining and nuclear fuel waste disposal both very dangerous
operations for humans and environment.

Renewable energy sources appear to be the less harmful and to have many advantages compared
to conventional energy sources. Renewable energy sources count almost 17% US electricity
generation. In 2017, after the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), the largest share of
electricity generated by renewable sources came from hydroelectric power, followed by wind,
biomass, solar, and geothermal.
(http://www.eia.gov/energy_in_brief/article/renewable_electricity.cfm).

Electricity generation from wind has increased considerably in the past eight years due mainly to
improved turbine technologies and federal as well state policies that encouraged the development
of renewable energy sources.

Private enterprises show ever growing interest in using renewable energy to power their
operations. For instance, some technology companies, including Google, have pledged to power
their operations worldwide using renewable energy (Associated Press , M. Liedtke, 2016) - also
see: https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/06/technology/google-says-it-will-run-entirely-on-
renewable-energy-in-2017.html?mcubz=0 ).

As of 2015, wind and solar energy generation almost tripled since 2008;
(https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/energy-environment/wp/2015/02/04/report-wind-and-
solar-energy-have-tripled-since-2008/?utm_term=.f61c67002414)

Below we will discuss three types of renewable energy, namely hydropower, solar energy and
wind energy resources.

11
Hydropower: Hydropower is energy harnessed, for useful purposes, from falling and running
water. For the production of the energy, a hydropower plant is required. A typical hydropower
plant is a system with three components: an electric plant where the electricity is produced; a
dam with gates that can be opened or closed to control water flow; and a reservoir where water
can be stored. A list of advantages and disadvantages of hydropower is given below.

Advantages
 Has relatively long life; Many hydropower plants built 50 to 100 years ago are fully
amortized and still operate efficiently.
(http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/hydropower_essentials.pdf)
 Has relatively low operational costs

Disadvantages
 Relatively expensive construction
 Can have significant environmental consequences, such as flooding of natural habitats
destroying ecosystems and displacing populations for creating the water reservoir (for
example, 2 million people were displaced by the flooding of the Yangtze river in China,
for a hydroelectric dam).
 Its output is influenced considerably by seasonal variations in water supply.

Solar energy: Solar energy is the energy obtained by technology used to harness the sun's
energy and make it usable. Many of you have heard about the photovoltaic cells or solar panels,
items used in spacecrafts, rooftops, traffic signs, and handheld calculators. Below, are listed the
advantages and disadvantages of solar energy:

Advantages:
 No pollution emitted, relatively durable, require little maintenance
 Solar panels can be installed in remote locations; solar energy does not need power lines
 Has long life

Disadvantages:
 Relative costly construction/manufacture
 Low energy yield, solar energy storage (batteries) is expensive
 Construction requires use of toxic elements, issue of disposal after lifetime of elements is
over
 Produced amount of energy is relatively small and usually is used locally

Wind energy: It is the energy produced by wind turbines and depends on wind speed. If the speed
is not sufficient, no electricity is produced. Therefore, wind turbines are not in general a reliable
source of electricity.

Advantages:
 Wind farms (many wind turbines together) can be successfully used in remote areas.
 Wind turbines can be placed in the sea.

12
  Once turbines and energy centers have been installed, the cost of maintaining turbines
and generating wind power is low

Disadvantages:
 Manufacturing turbines and installation of wind facilities is expensive
 Wind turbines cause noise pollution because of the noise during operation and visual
pollution due to their size.
 They can have an impact on wild life (birds, bats, etc.)
 Wind farms require large areas.

U.S. Department of Energy's Wind Energy Technologies Office (WETO),

(http://energy.gov/eere/wind/offshore-wind-research-and-development) funds research programs
nationwide for the development and deployment of offshore wind technologies that can convert
wind off the coast of the United States into electricity.

Wind energy in Maine- The University of Maine's Advanced Structures and Composites Center
in partnership with Emera Inc. and Cianbro Corporation are leading a demonstration project
called New England Aqua Ventus I, which is a 12 MW floating offshore wind pilot project to
develop clean, renewable energy source off Maine’s shores.
(https://composites.umaine.edu/offshorewind/).

In 2016 wind power generated almost 14% of the state's total electricity.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_power_in_Maine

Wind energy appears to be a very promising source of relatively cheap energy in Maine, due to
frequent winds in certain areas onshore and offshore the state. On the other hand, though
renewable energy is sustainable energy, it is important to consider wind energy location and
installation areas in relation with other sustainable development issues in Maine. For instance,
one has to consider the wind power benefits versus the impact of wind turbines on issues like the
environment/ecosystems, property values even tourism (many tourists love the pristine
countryside of Maine), i.e. to examine what is required for wind turbines installation/operation to
fit into the triple bottom line sustainability model.

Advantages and Disadvantages of renewable energy sources

Advantages of renewable energy sources

 Practically inexhaustible, reduce dependence on conventional sources of energy

 Renewable sources of energy do not pollute the environment. This is because no burning
is required during usage of the energy.
 Operate on local scale, allow energy independence
 They are usually scatter geographically, they lead to decentralization of the energy supply
system, reduce strain on infrastructure systems, and reduce losses from the transfer of
energy

13
  Low operation cost, they are not greatly influenced from the prices of the conventional
sources of energy
 Their carbon payback can be short (Carbon payback is a term referring to the time taken
for the carbon used in the manufacture of the renewable energy technology to be saved
by the carbon free energy this renewable energy technology produces). For instance, for a
wind turbine, the carbon payback can be as short as 6 months.
 Renewable sources of energy can boost economic growth and increase job opportunities.

Renewable Energy Drawbacks

 Production of renewable energy is not continuous and is affected by the weather thus
reducing its reliability; for instance, the sun is not always shining and the wind does not
always blow. It is difficult to produce the energy quantity that is equivalent to that
produced by nonrenewable fuels
 There can be high initial capital costs with large scale renewable energy projects such as
wind or hydroelectric power. However those costs can be offset by the fact that there are
comparably lower ongoing/maintaining costs as there isn't a constant need to purchase
fuel.
 Some renewable technologies can have environmental consequences ( see disadvantages
of wind and solar energy and hydropower)

Use of energy- Energy Conservation

The challenge is to meet energy demands in the future not just to produce more, but using much
more efficiently what we can produce while having full understanding of the competing
requirements of environmental, natural resources and energy needs. Becoming more efficient
implies also energy conservation. This can be accomplished by many different ways and means.
For example, energy efficient solutions require us to change how our buildings are made, how we
heat our homes and how we light our classrooms. Energy efficient houses might take advantage
of new materials and insulation systems. By redesigning our homes and buildings, energy from
the sun can be captured to heat rooms or the water we use in our showers and kitchens. We can
conserve energy by making more efficient light bulbs, cars, home air condition units, electronic
devices, etc. Engineers are going to be on the forefront of such innovation, helping to reduce our
reliance on conventional fuels and their impact on the environment.

2.4 Materials (construction materials, minerals, metals, and organics)

As population grows, so has materials’ use.

These materials are among others construction materials, industrial minerals, metals, plastics,
and agricultural and forestry products.
Many of the materials mentioned above are limited and non-renewable natural resources. For
instance industrial minerals that can be recovered from ores and mines have economically
recoverable reserves that would last for a couple of centuries (possibly couple of centuries). In
addition, many of these resources are located in politically unstable regions and in many cases in
war zones. Some of the industrial minerals are necessary for the electronic industry.
Scarcity of the materials drives engineering design towards reuse and recycling.

14
Fig 2.6 below shows use of materials trends, for the USA, over many decades.
Notice the amount of construction materials as compared to that of other materials.

Fig. 2.6. US nonfuel material consumption in the period 1900-2014

(http://css.umich.edu/factsheets/us-material-use-factsheet)

Steel and cement, which are used for the construction industry, are two of the most utilized
materials worldwide. Both are indispensable for the construction industry, particularly in rapidly
developing countries. Both require a large amount of energy for their production. Steel and
cement are used in the production of reinforced concrete for construction of buildings, bridges,
etc. Cement and steel production and use in construction industry are responsible of nearly half
of all global CO2 emissions. Greater demand of steel and cement is observed in quickly
developing countries such as India and China.

Plastic types and properties may vary tremendously, leading to a large variety of end-uses for the
plastics. Some of the properties of the plastic are attractive for the industry, such as its electrical
and thermal resistance, corrosion resistance, resistance to humidity, glossy shiny finish, and
chemical resistance but mainly of its flexibility of being injection molded into different shapes.

15
The latter makes it considerably versatile and really extremely cheap to manufacture (taken into
consideration the present energy and oil prices). Its versatility and low construction price allow
plastic to be used for one off use such as packing and wrapping products and goods.
Because of its corrosion, chemical and thermal resistance, it can be used in the construction
industry (in pipes, electrical fittings and fixtures) as well as the automobile industry. The use of
plastic has burst in the last century. Plastic production doubles every 15-20 years and CO2
emissions from plastic are expected to double from 2005 to 2050. As a result, plastic waste
became a huge issue to deal with, particularly in developing countries. In these countries the
plastic industry and trade of plastic goods has increased at a much faster rate than its waste
management schemes. Recycling of plastic is possible only for certain types of plastic; in such
case plastic has first to be separated from other forms of waste and cleaned.

At present, the majority of plastics together with e-waste (waste from electronic devices) are not
recyclable and require special landfill areas for their disposal.

2.5 Water

The importance of water for the life on planet is paramount.

Problems of water consumption associated with the increasing of the earth’s population were
discussed above. The sources of water include surface water (lakes, rivers), groundwater and
lately water through desalination.

While surface water can be renewed depending upon the climate conditions (cycles of wet
seasons, snow) groundwater takes much more time (even century (-ies)) to be replaced once it is
pumped out of the ground. If the amount of ground water withdrawn/pumped for consumption
exceeds natural inflow, then there is a water debt. In that case, water pumping should be
considered as a non-renewable resource mining operation. Many Middle East and North Africa
countries are countries in water debt.

The largest user of water is agriculture, followed by industry and public (see Fig. 2.6(a) - after:
http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/water_use/index.stm).

Water consumption/withdrawal ratios vary for different parts of the world (see Fig. 2.6 (b) -
after: http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/water_use/index.stm).
Our engineered systems are using extensively water. The economies around the world depend on
available, inexpensive, clean water. Extraction of minerals, the construction industry, chemical
factories, and automobile and semiconductors industries are some examples of heavy water
consumers.

16
 Fig. 2.6 (a)

Fig. 2.6 (b)

(http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/water_use/index.stm)

Polluted/contaminated water (from industrial activities, agriculture, and public) is a health

hazard for human and ecosystems. Climate change and water consumption beyond rates of
recharge can cause a survival crisis and enhance the potential for geopolitical conflicts.
Harvesting of water sources in neighboring counties could be reason for friction; i.e. case of
rivers crossing different countries with the countries upstream taking unilaterally steps to harvest
more water by building dams or extensive water channels thus leaving countries downstream
with less available water.

Climate change affects the distribution, quality, and quantity of water resources.

“According to a 2011 analysis, 15% of the world’s population that relies on runoff from glacial
melt may experience a water crisis once the glaciers have melted away. On the other hand 1.5

17
billion people across different parts of the earth that draw their water from aquifers may see a
surplus from heavier rainfalls due to a changing climate (after: International Debates, Jan 2011,
Vol. 9 Issue 1, p7-10, 4p).” (http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/sustainability/chapters/ch07/ch07-
p01.asp)

“Agriculture, as the single largest user of freshwater on a global basis and as a major cause of
degradation of surface and groundwater resources through erosion and chemical runoff has
reasons to be concerned about the global implications of water quality. The associated
agricultural food-processing industry is also a significant source of organic pollution in most
countries. Aquaculture is now recognized as a major problem in freshwater, estuarine and
coastal environments, leading to eutrophication(*) and ecosystem damage.

The main environmental and public health dimensions of the freshwater quality problem, in
global scale, are highlighted below:

· Five million people die annually from water-borne diseases.

· Ecosystem dysfunction and loss of biodiversity.
· Contamination of marine ecosystems from land-based activities.
· Contamination of groundwater resources.
· Global contamination by persistent organic pollutants.

Experts predict that, because pollution can no longer be remedied by dilution (i.e. the flow
regime is fully utilized) in many countries, freshwater quality will become the principal
limitation for sustainable development in these countries early in the next century. This "crisis"
is predicted to have the following global dimensions:

· Decline in sustainable food resources (e.g. freshwater and coastal fisheries) due to pollution.
· Cumulative effect of poor water resource management decisions because of inadequate water
quality data in many countries.
· Many countries can no longer manage pollution by dilution, leading to higher levels of aquatic
pollution. ·
- Escalating cost of remediation and potential loss of "creditworthiness".

(after, Control of water pollution from agriculture - FAO irrigation and drainage paper 55,
Chapter 1: Introduction to agricultural water pollution,- Water quality as global issue:
http://www.fao.org/docrep/w2598e/w2598e04.htm)

(*)
eutrofication: a process by which pollution from such sources as sewage effluent or leachate
from fertilized fields causes a lake, pond, or fen to become over rich in organic and mineral
nutrients, so that algae and cyanobacteria grow rapidly and deplete the oxygen supply
(https://www.thefreedictionary.com/eutrophication).

18
Long term sustainability of water is not certain. Freshwater resources are limited in supply and
not readily available worldwide. Freshwater resources can be easily polluted, and often are not
available or not found in the areas where they are needed most. With a large percent of the world
population (more than 1 billion) without access to clean water and with a continually increasing
population, water demand is expected to grow considerably in the future. In this regard, smarter
water use, effective pollution control, and improved water reuse and recycling capabilities will
become essential tools to resolve how we will confront the challenges ahead in order to achieve
sustainable development. The Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6, “Ensure availability and
sustainable management of water and sanitation for all”, which is part of the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development that UN Member States adopted in September 2015, (see Lecture /Unit
1) acknowledges the crucial role of freshwater in sustainable development.
(https://www.unenvironment.org/explore-topics/water/what-we-do/mainstreaming-freshwater-
ecosystem-health)

Effective wastewater treatment which actually results in recyclable water, or reusable water,
becomes increasingly important in developed and developing countries where growth and
development outstrips a plentiful water supply.

Assigned Readings

Read carefully the assigned articles below and keep notes of the most important concepts
and issues:

1) “Knowledge and Destruction” in Int. Herald Tribune by J. Carroll (see attached pdf file)

2) Non renewable energy: http://nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/non-renewable-energy/

3) Water and sustainable development-

http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/waterandsustainabledevelopment2015/images/sustainable
_development_eng.pdf

4a) Materials in the Economy— Material Flows, Scarcity, and the Environment by Lorie
A. Wagner, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1221,
https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/2002/c1221/c1221-508.pdf
Read ONLY sections: “Introduction”, “Materials in Economy”, “Material Flows”
“Scarcity” and “Environment”- including side bar- Point & Nonpoint Sources of
Contamination (pages 1-23)

4b) http://css.umich.edu/factsheets/us-material-use-factsheet

5) “Population Growth and Sustainable Development” by Eureta Rosenberg,

http://www.enviropaedia.com/topic/default.php?topic_id=198

19