Stress-Corrosion Cracking

Materials Performance
and Evaluation  Seco n d E d i ti o n
E d i t e d b y R u ss e l l H . J o n e s

ASM International
Materials Park, OH 44073-0002
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ISBN-13: 978-1-62708-118-4
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Stress-Corrosion Cracking, Materials Performance and Evaluation, Second Edition Copyright © 2017 ASM International®
R. Jones, editor All rights reserved.
www.asminternational.org

Contents

Preface to the Second Edition v

Preface to the First Edition vii

Chapter 1 Mechanisms of Stress-­Corrosion Cracking 1

Revised by R.H. Jones

Chapter 2 Stress-­Corrosion Cracking of Carbon and Low-­Alloy Steels

(Yield Strengths Less Than 1241 MPa) 43
Revised by D.M. Norfleet and J.A. Beavers

Chapter 3 Stress-­Corrosion Cracking of High-­Strength Steels

(Yield Strengths Greater Than 1240 MPa) 67
Revised by R.H. Jones

Chapter 4 Stress-­Corrosion Cracking of Stainless Steels 95

Revised by A.J. Sedriks

Chapter 5 Stress-­Corrosion Cracking of Nickel-­Base Alloys 135

Revised by N. Sridhar

Chapter 6 Irradiation-­Assisted Stress-­Corrosion Cracking 191

Chapter 7 Stress-­Corrosion Cracking of Copper Alloys 221

Revised by D.M. Norfleet and J.A. Beavers

Chapter 8 Stress-­Corrosion Cracking of Aluminum Alloys 241

Revised by R.H. Jones

Chapter 9 Stress-­Corrosion Cracking of Magnesium Alloys 257

Chapter 10 Stress-­Corrosion Cracking of Titanium Alloys 271

Chapter 11 Stress-­Corrosion Cracking of Zirconium Alloys 303

Revised by Te-­Lin Yau

Chapter 12 Environmentally Assisted Cracking of Uranium Alloys 317

Chapter 13 Stress-­Corrosion Cracking of Amorphous Alloys 333

Chapter 14 Stress-­Corrosion Cracking of Glasses and Ceramics 341

iv  /  Stress-Corrosion Cracking, Materials Performance and Evaluation, Second Edition

Chapter 15 Stress-­Corrosion Cracking of Weldments in Boiling Water

Reactor Service 349

Chapter 16 Detection and Sizing of Stress-­Corrosion Cracks in Boiling

Water Reactor Environments 359

Chapter 17 Evaluation of Stress-­Corrosion Cracking 367

Revised by Russell Jones

Chapter 18 Failure Analysis of Stress-­Corrosion Cracking 419

Revised by M.A. Torres, S.W. Stafford, and S.L. Smith

Appendix: Stress Corrosion Testing Methods and Standards 443

Index445
Stress-Corrosion Cracking, Materials Performance and Evaluation, Second Edition Copyright © 2017 ASM International®
R. Jones, editor All rights reserved.
www.asminternational.org

Preface to the Second Edition

Research activity in the field of stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) was fairly robust in
the 1970’s and 1980’s. Although research efforts continued beyond 1990, they were
more focused and funding for large research groups dropped considerably. The publica-
tion of the first edition of this book coincided with 20 years of significant research activ-
ity so that there was a considerable amount of data available to warrant a book on this
subject. It has now been more than 20 years since the first edition and sufficient selec-
tive research has accumulated to the point that a revision of this book is warranted.
However, not all subjects have received sufficient new data and analysis to warrant a
revision, thus the revision covers selective chapters.
Some of the selective research includes the development of crack tip chemistry analy-
sis and modeling covered in Chapter 1; stress-corrosion cracking of low-strength steels
in alcohol covered in Chapter 2; additional research of SCC in a few newer high-strength
steels covered in Chapter 3; a significant amount of new data in SCC of stainless steels
and nickel-base alloys covered in Chapters 4 and 5; the inclusion of SCC of copper al-
loys in potable water covered in Chapter 7; and hydrogen induced cracking of alumi-
num alloys covered in Chapter 8. The text and references of Chapter 11 were updated.
Additional case studies and a section on high-strength low-alloy steels were added to
Chapter 18. Also, included in this second edition is an appendix of relevant standards
pertaining to SCC.
A special thanks to John Sedriks who passed away before he was able to see this edi-
tion published. Chapter 4, Stress-Corrosion Cracking of Stainless Steels, was revised by
John.

Russell H. Jones
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (Retired)
GT-Engineering
Stress-Corrosion Cracking, Materials Performance and Evaluation, Second Edition Copyright © 2017 ASM International®
R. Jones, editor All rights reserved.
www.asminternational.org

Preface to the First Edition

The earliest reports of environment-induced cracking or embrittlement of materials

include that of “season cracking” of brass, first observed more than 80 years ago (Ref
1), and the suggestion by W.H. Johnson in 1873 that hydrogen was a major cause of
embrittlement in iron and steels (Ref 2). The incident of season cracking was discovered
to result from the practice of storing cartridge cases in horse barns, where contact with
ammonia vapors occurred. Hydrogen embrittlement was probably suspected by users of
iron and steel products long before Johnson presented important details of this phenom-
enon. Many more cases of stress-corrosion or environment-induced cracking have been
observed since these early studies.
Unfortunately, discovery of a particular stress-corrosion mechanism has often oc-
curred because of a component failure that resulted in physical hazard or great eco-
nomic cost. Early examples include the intergranular failure of a ferritic steel boiler (Ref
3), which was explained as hydrogen embrittlement (Ref 4), the explosion of a boiler by
caustic “embrittlement” (Ref 5), and the failure of a steel hook (Ref 6) that caused the
side of a building to fall on the street below. More recent examples include stress corro-
sion of steam turbine blading and rotors, nuclear piping, aircraft structures, and gas
pipelines.
Stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) undoubtedly occurred prior to the earliest explana-
tions cited above; however, the incidence of SCC has clearly increased since the begin-
ning of the 20th century. This can be attributed to the use of more corrosion-resistant
materials (which leads to increased susceptibility to localized corrosion), the use of
higher stresses, and the complications caused by welding and complex forming opera-
tions. Our phenomenological understanding of SCC has also increased substantially
since the beginning of the 20th century, as witnessed by the comprehensive nature of
this book. Much is understood about the environmental, microstructural, microchemi-
cal, and mechanistic aspects that control stress corrosion, and it is often possible to
avoid SCC failure of a particular component if these parameters are sufficiently well
known. Unfortunately, relatively small alterations in environment or composition can
easily place a material within the “susceptible zone,” resulting in failure rather than
extended life. Boundaries between susceptibility and resistance tend to be very distinct,
so the exclusive use of phenomenological data to avoid SCC is often insufficient.
A mechanistic understanding of SCC can be used in conjunction with phenomeno-
logical data to identify whether environmental or material changes will increase the
probability of failure. However, the present level of mechanistic understanding, while
greatly increased over the last several decades, is still inadequate for prediction of com-
ponent life. To underscore this point, the mechanisms for ammonia-induced stress cor-
rosion of brass and hydrogen-induced crack growth of iron and steel, two of the earliest
observations of environment-induced cracking, continue to be debated. Recent work by
Pugh and his coworkers (Ref 7–9) and by Newman and Sieradzki (Ref 10, 11) has done
much to settle the issue for transgranular SCC of brasses. The number of advances made
in our mechanistic understanding of hydrogen- induced cracking is far too extensive to
list, but includes models that describe atomistics, energetics, surface adsorption/mobil-
ity, fracture mechanics, dislocation, and cohesive energy concepts. For some aspects,
viii  /  Stress-Corrosion Cracking, Materials Performance and Evaluation, Second Edition

modeling of hydrogen-induced cracking is sufficiently quantitative that crack growth

rate predictions are possible. Yet discussion continues as to whether hydrogen-induced
crack growth occurs by a cleavage or a slip mechanism.
This book thoroughly covers the phenomenological aspects of stress-corrosion crack-
ing for a wide range of materials. An overview of SCC mechanisms is presented in
Chapter 1, followed by chapters describing SCC of ferritic and austenitic steels and of
nickel, copper, aluminum, magnesium, titanium, zirconium, and uranium alloys. Also
included are chapters on irradiation-assisted stress corrosion, SCC of glasses, ceramics,
and weldments, detection and sizing of cracks in boiling water reactors, evaluation of
SCC, and failure analysis methods.

Russell H. Jones,
Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories

References

 1. E.S. Sperry, Brass World, Vol 2, 1906, p 39

  2.  WH. Johnson, Iron, Vol 1, 1873, p 291, 452–453
 3. C.E. Stromeyer, J. Iron Steel Inst., Vol 79, 1909, p 404
 4. J.H. Andrew, Trans. Faraday Soc., Vol 9, 1913, p 316
  5.  F.G. Straub, Illinois Experimental Station Bull. No. 216, 1930, p 8, 12
 6. H.L. Logan, J. Res., Natl. Bur. Stand., Vol 66c, 1962, p 347
 7. E.N. Pugh, in Theory of Stress Corrosion Cracking in Alloys, J.C. Scully, Ed.,
NATO Science Affairs Division, 1971, p 418
  8.  J.A. Beavers and E.N. Pugh, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 11, 1980, p 809
  9.  M.T. Hahn and E.N. Pugh, Corrosion, Vol 36, 1980, p 380
10.  R.C. Newman and K. Sieradzki, Scr. Metall., Vol 17, 1983, p 621
11.  K. Sieradzki and RC. Newman, Philos. Mag. A, Vol 51, 1985, p 95