Basic Physical Metallurgy

MM2107

Debasis Chaira

Department of Metallurgical & Materials Engineering

National Institute of Technology Rourkela
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 Materials: Crystalline and Amorphous
Crystalline: All metals and ceramics
Amorphous: Glass, plastics, various polymers and
wax

• Crystalline materials have orderly arrangements of

atoms (long range ordering).

• Amorphous materials have random arrangement of

atoms (short range ordering).

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 Materials: Crystalline vs. Amorphous
• Crystals have an orderly arrangement of their constituent
particles. Amorphous solids have no such arrangement.
Their particles are randomly organized.
• Crystals have a specific geometric shape with definite edges.
Amorphous solids have no geometry in their shapes.
• Crystalline solids have a sharp melting point on which they
will definitely melt. An amorphous solid will have a range of
temperature over which it will melt, but no definite
temperature as such.
• Crystals have a long order arrangement of their particles.
This means the particles will show the same arrangement
indefinitely. Amorphous solids have a short order
arrangement. Their particles show a lot of variety in their
arrangement. 3
Common materials: with various ‘viewpoints’

Graphite
Glass: amorphous
Ceramics

Crystal
Metals Polymers

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 Common materials: examples
 Metals and alloys  Cu, Ni, Fe, NiAl (intermetallic compound), Brass (Cu-Zn alloys)
 Ceramics & glasses (usually oxides, nitrides, carbides)  Alumina (Al2O3), Zirconia (ZrO2)
 Polymers (thermoplasts, thermosets) (Elastomers) Polythene, Polyvinyl chloride, Polypropylene

Thermoplastic materials are types of plastic which become soft when they are
heated and hard when they cool down
A thermosetting plastic is a polymer that irreversibly becomes rigid when heated.
Vulcanized rubber and fiberglass are thermosetting plastics.
Examples of thermoplastics are polypropylene, polystyrene, cellulose acetate,
PTFE (Teflon), nylon.
Elastomer- a natural or synthetic polymer having elastic properties, e.g. rubber.
Based on Electrical Conduction
 Conductors  Cu, Al, NiAl
 Semiconductors  Ge, Si, GaAs
 Insulators  Alumina, Polythene*

Based on Ductility
 Ductile  Metals, Alloys
 Brittle  Ceramics, Inorganic Glasses, Ge, Si 5
* some special polymers could be conducting
The Materials Tetrahedron
 A materials scientist has to consider four ‘intertwined’ concepts, which are schematically shown
as the ‘Materials Tetrahedron’.
  When a certain performance is expected from a component (and hence the material
constituting the same), the ‘expectation’ is put forth as a set of properties.
 The material is synthesized and further made into a component by a set of processing methods
(casting, forming, welding, powder metallurgy etc.).
 The structure (at various length scales) is determined by this processing.
 The structure in turn determines the properties, which will dictate the performance of the
component.
 Hence each of these aspects is dependent on the others.

The broad goal of Materials Science &

Engineering is to understand and
‘engineer’ this tetrahedron The Materials Tetrahedron

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 What determines the properties of materials?
 Cannot just be the composition!
 Few 10s of ppm of Oxygen in Cu can degrade its conductivity (that is why we have Oxygen free high conductivity
copper (OFHC))

 Cannot just be the amount of phases present!

 A small amount of cementite along grain boundaries can cause the material to have poor impact
toughness
 Cannot just be the distribution of phases!
 Dislocations can severely weaken a crystal
 Cannot just be the defect structure in the phases present!
 The presence of surface compressive stress toughens glass

 The following factors put together determines the properties of a material:

 Composition
 Phases present and their distribution
 Defect Structure (in the phases and between the phases)
 Residual stress (can have multiple origins and one may have to travel across lengthscales)
 These factors do NOT act independent of one another (there is an interdependency)

Phases & Their

Distribution
Composition Residual Stress
Defect Structure
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Hence, one has to traverse across lengthscales and look at various aspects to understand the properties of materials.
 Diamond cubic • Casting
• Metal Forming
• Welding
Thermo-mechanical • Powder Processing
Crystal Treatments • Machining

Atom Structure Microstructure Component

Electro-
magnetic

Processing determines shape and microstructure of

a component
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 Materials Science • Casting
Thermo-mechanical
• Metal Forming
Treatments
• Welding
Crystal • Powder Processing
• Machining

Atom Structure Microstructure Component

Electro-
magnetic Phases + Defects + Residual Stress
& their distributions
• Vacancies
• Dislocations
• Twins
• Stacking Faults
• Grain Boundaries
• Voids
• Cracks
Processing determines shape and microstructure of a component
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 What are the four founding pillars of materials science?

 The four pillars of Materials Science and Engineering are:

(i) Physical structure→ Atomic structure (+ Microstructure)
(ii) Electromagnetic Structure→ Electronic and Magnetic structure
(iii) Thermodynamics
(iv) Kinetics
 If one gains understanding of these four pillars, one can comprehend most aspects of
Material behaviour and engineer materials for applications.
Physical Structure

Electromagnetic structure

Kinetics
Thermodynamics

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Crystal Structure

2
dimension
al array of
points-
square
lattice 11
Crystal Systems and Bravais lattices

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14 Bravais lattices

Total = 14

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Crystal Systems and Bravais Lattices

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 Atomic Packing Factor (APF) Calculation of simple cubic

Atomic packing factor (APF)

= Total volume occupied by the atoms in unit cell
Total volume of unit cell

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 Atomic Packing Factor (APF) Calculation

4r = 2a
4  4r 3
APF = = 0.74
3a 3

FCC
BCC
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 APF calculation of HCP structure
Effective number of atoms in the unit cell
=2x1/6x6+2x1/2+3 =6
Volume of 6 atoms, v = 6  4/3 r3
r = a/2
v = a3
3 3a 2
a
Area of the base =
2

a
V = Area of the base × height

v a 3
The atomic radius, r = a/2

V 3 3 a2 c
23
c 8 2a
 =
a 3 3 3a 2 c
 2 a
APF =  0.74 APF=
3 2 3 3 c 17
 Crystallographic Planes

Interplanar angle is given by

h1h 2  k1k 2  l1l2
cos  
h1  k1  l1 h 2  k 2  l2
2 2 2 2 2 2

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Crystallographic Directions

How to locate a direction:

Example: [231] direction would

be
1/3 intercept on cell a-length
1/2 intercept on cell b-length
and
1/6 intercept on cell c-length

Directions are always denoted

with [uvw] with square brackets
and family of directios in the
form <uvw>

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Phase and Phase Rule

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 2 external variables- temp. and pressure

Component: The component of a system may be elements, ions or compounds-

independent chemical species. Examples: In ice-water-steam system, component is H2O (1).
In Cu-Ni and Fe-C systems, C= 2.
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Equilibrium Phase Diagram: It is a “map” of the information about the control of
microstructure or phase structure of a particular material system. The relationships between
temperature and the compositions and the quantities of phases present at equilibrium are
represented.
Unary phase diagram-single component There is no composition variable and only other
variables temperature and pressure.
At triple point
C= 1 (H2O)
P= 3 (water, ice, steam)
So, F = 1-3+2=0, Fixed point
Along the curves,
C= 1
P= 2
So, F = 1-2+2=1, not fixed , One
variable- either temp. or pressure can
be varied independently.)
In single phase region,
P=1
C=1
So, F= 1-1+2=2 (both temp. and
pressure can be varied
independently)
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Schematic representation of the one-component phase diagram for H2O.
 Unary phase diagram of iron

Allotropes of iron:
α-iron (ferrite)-BCC
-iron (austenite)-FCC
-iron-BCC

(a) Schematic representation of the one-component phase diagram for pure iron. (b) A
projection of the phase diagram information at 1 atm. generates a temperature scale labeled
with important transformation temperatures for iron.
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 Gibb’s phase rule

For metallic system,

pressure changes often
produces no significant
effect on equilibrium and
hence, pressure variable is
ignored.
In binary diagram phase,
variation of temperature
and composition are
shown here.

Gibb’s phase rule for binary

metallic system,
F= C-P+1, pressure is ignored.

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Solid Solution

Substitutional Solid Solution: Cu-Ni, Cu-Zn, Cu-Sn

Interstitial Solid Solution: Steel (Fe-C)
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 Conditions for Substitutional Solid Solutions
Hume – Rothery Rules
1. r (atomic radius) < 15%. For complete solid solubility r
should be <8%
2. Proximity in periodic table
i.e., similar electronegativities. If the difference in electronegativity is
too great will tend to form intermetallic compounds instead of solid
solutions
3. Same crystal structure for pure metals
4. Similar Valency
Metals have a greater tendency to dissolve metals of higher valency
than lower valency
William Hume-Rothery was a British Metallurgist who founded the
Metallurgy Department at Oxford in the 1950s

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 Conditions for Interstitial Solid Solutions
Hume – Rothery Rules
1. Solute atoms must be similar in size to the interstitial
locations in lattice structure
2. Proximity in periodic table
i.e., similar electronegativities
Application of Hume–Rothery Rules
Element Atomic Crystal Electro- Valence
Radius Structure nega-
(nm) tivity
1. Would you predict Cu 0.1278 FCC 1.9 +2
more Al or Ag C 0.071
to dissolve in Zn? H 0.046
O 0.060
2. More Zn or Al Ag 0.1445 FCC 1.9 +1
Al 0.1431 FCC 1.5 +3
in Cu? Co 0.1253 HCP 1.8 +2
3. Will C form substitutional Cr 0.1249 BCC 1.6 +3
Fe 0.1241 BCC 1.8 +2
or interstitial solid solution Ni 0.1246 FCC 1.8 +2
with iron? Pd 0.1376 FCC 2.2 +2
Zn 0.1332 HCP 1.6 +2
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 Phase Transformation

Solid stable Liquid stable

G
Solid (GS)

G → ve
G →

T Liquid (GL)
G → +ve
Tm
T →
T - Undercooling 38
 Solidification = Nucleation + Growth

Nucleation
Homogenous
 Liquid → solid
Nucleation walls of container, inclusions
of foreign particles
Heterogenous  Solid → solid
inclusions, grain boundaries,
dislocations, stacking faults

 The probability of nucleation occurring at point in the parent phase is

same throughout the parent phase
 In heterogeneous nucleation there are some preferred sites in the
parent phase where nucleation can occur
Homogenous nucleation Δf  (Volume).(g )  (Surface).( )
4 3
Δf   r .(g )  4r .( )
2
  r 
* 2
g
3 
 3
4 3
 
Δf   r .(g )  4r 2 .( )
16
f *  
3  3 f 2

 By setting df/dr = 0 the critical ddfG  0

values (corresponding to the dr
0
dr
maximum) are obtained (denoted fG 0
0
by superscript *)
 Reduction in free energy is r*
f→
r0
obtained only after r0 is obtained
Embryos Supercritical nuclei

r →
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 IRON-CARBON PHASE DIAGRAM
Eutectic
eutectoid
Pearlite and
Cementine

Austenite

Ferrite
Pearlite and
Carbide
Pearlite

Steel
Cast iron
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 Definition of structures

Various phases that appear on the Iron-

Carbon equilibrium phase diagram are
as under:
•Austenite
•Ferrite
•Pearlite
•Cementite
•Martensite*
•Ledeburite
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Microstructure of different phases of steel

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 Definition of structures
• Ferrite is known as α solid solution.
• It derives from Latin word “Ferrum”
• It is an interstitial solid solution of a small amount
of carbon dissolved in α (BCC) iron.
• Stable form of iron below 912 C
• The maximum solubility is 0.025 % C at 723C and
it dissolves only 0.008 % C at room temperature.
• It is the softest structure that appears on the
diagram.

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 Definition of structures

Ferrite
• Average properties are:
– Tensile strength = 245 MN/m2
– Elongation = 40 %
– Hardness = 95 VHN

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 Definition of structures

• Austenite is an interstitial solid solution of Carbon

dissolved in  (F.C.C.) iron.
• It derives from the name “Sir Austin”.
• Maximum solubility is 2.0 % C at 1130°C.
• High formability, most of heat treatments begin with
this single phase.
• It is normally not stable at room temperature. But,
under certain conditions it is possible to obtain
austenite at room temperature.
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 Definition of structures

Austenite
• Average properties are:
– Tensile strength = 1035 MN/m2
– Elongation = 10 %
– Hardness = 395 VHN
– Toughness = high

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 Definition of structures
• Pearlite is the eutectoid mixture
containing 0.80 % C and is formed
at 723°C on very slow cooling.
• It is a very fine platelike or lamellar
mixture of ferrite and cementite.
• The white ferritic background or
matrix contains thin plates of
cementite (dark).

48
 Definition of structures

Pearlite
• Average properties are:
– Tensile strength = 120,000 psi;
– Elongation = 20 % in 2 in.;
– Hardness = Rockwell C 20, Rockwell B
95-100, or BHN 250-300.

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 Definition of structures
• Cementite or iron carbide, is very hard, brittle
intermetallic compound of iron & carbon, as Fe3C,
contains 6.67 % C.
• It is the hardest structure that appears on the diagram,
exact melting point unknown.
• Its crystal structure is orthorhombic.
• It has
– low tensile strength (35 MN/m2), but
– high compressive strength.
– High hardness 1000 VHN
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 Definition of structures
• Ledeburite is the eutectic mixture of austenite and
cementite.
• It contains 4.3 percent C and is formed at 1130°C.
Martensite - a super-saturated solid solution of
carbon in ferrite.
It is formed when steel is cooled so rapidly that the
change from austenite to pearlite is suppressed.
The interstitial carbon atoms distort the BCC ferrite
into a BC-tetragonal structure (BCT).; responsible for
the hardness of quenched steel
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 The Iron-Iron Carbide Diagram
• A map of the temperature at which different phase
changes occur on very slow heating and cooling in
relation to Carbon, is called Iron- Carbon Diagram.
• Iron- Carbon diagram shows
– the type of alloys formed under very slow cooling,
– proper heat-treatment temperature and
– how the properties of steels and cast irons can be
radically changed by heat-treatment.

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 Three Phase Reactions

• Peritectic, at 1490 C, with low wt.% C alloys

(almost no engineering importance).
• Eutectic, at 1130 C, with 4.3 wt.% C, alloys
called cast irons.
• Eutectoid, at 723 C with eutectoid
composition of 0.8 wt.% C, two-phase mixture
(ferrite & cementite). They are steels.

53
 The Iron-Iron Carbide Diagram
The diagram shows three horizontal lines which indicate
isothermal reactions (on cooling / heating):
• First horizontal line is at 1490°C, where peritectic
reaction takes place:
Liquid +  ↔ austenite
• Second horizontal line is at 1130°C, where eutectic
reaction takes place:
liquid ↔ austenite + cementite
• Third horizontal line is at 723°C, where eutectoid
reaction takes place:
austenite ↔ pearlite (mixture of ferrite &
cementite)
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Delta region of Fe-Fe carbide diagram
Liquid +  ↔ austenite

55
Ferrite region of
Fe-Fe Carbide
diagram

56
 Simplified Iron-Carbon phase diagram
austenite ↔ pearlite (mixture of ferrite & cementite)

57
The Austenite to ferrite / cementite transformation in
relation to Fe-C diagram

Hypo eutectoid steel Hyper eutectoid steel

58
 Phase transformations: Kinetics
(kinetics  time dependence)
Transformations do not occur instantaneously
Three categories
 Diffusion-dependent with no change in composition or number
of phases present (melting/solidification of pure metal,
allotropic transformations, recrystallization)
 Diffusion-dependent but changes in composition or number of
phase (eutectoid transformations)
 Diffusionless  metastable phase by small displacements of
atoms in structure
Diffusion-dependent phase transformations can be slow Final structure
often depends on rate of cooling/heating

59
 Kinetics of phase transformations
Most phase transformations involve a change in composition 
redistribution via diffusion
Phase transformation involves:
 Nucleation - formation of small particles (nuclei) of the new phase.
Often formed at grain boundaries.

 Growth of new phase at the expense of the original phase.

S-shape curve: percent of material

transformed vs. the logarithm of time

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 Eutectoid reaction: example
eutectoid reaction:
(0.76 wt% C)

 (0.022 wt% C)
+
Fe3C

Higher T S-shaped curves shifted to longer times  transformation dominated by

nucleation
61 (rate increases with supercooling) and not by diffusion (occurs faster at higher T).
 Isothermal Transformation (or TTT) Diagrams
(Temperature, Time, and % Transformation)

62
 TTT Diagrams

Eutectoid
Austenite (stable)
temperature

 ferrite Coarse pearlite

Fe3C
Fine pearlite

Austenite  pearlite
Denotes that a transformation
transformation is occurring

Thickness of ferrite and cementite layers in pearlite is ~ 8:1. Absolute

layer thickness depends on temperature of transformation.
Higher temperature  thicker layers
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 TTT Diagrams

Family of S-shaped curves at different T

 Isothermal (constant T) transformation  material is cooled
quickly to T THEN transformation occurs)
 Low T  Transformation occurs sooner (controlled by rate of
nucleation). Grain growth reduced (controlled by diffusion)
Slow diffusion leads to fine grains + thin- layers (fine pearlite)
 High T  diffusion rates allow for larger grain growth + formation
of thick layers (coarse pearlite)
 Compositions other than eutectoid, proeutectoid phase (ferrite or
cementite) coexists with pearlite.

64
 Formation of Bainite Microstructure (I)

Transformation T low enough (540°C)

65
Bainite rather than fine pearlite forms
 Formation of Bainite Microstructure (II)

 T ~ 300-540°C, upper bainite consists of needles of ferrite separated

by long cementite particles
 T ~ 200-300°C, lower bainite has thin plates of ferrite and fine rods
or blades of cementite
 Bainite: transformation rate controlled by microstructure growth
(diffusion) rather than nucleation. Diffusion is slow at low T, It has a
very fine (microscopic) microstructure.
 Pearlite and bainite transformations are competitive.
Upper bainite Lower bainite

66
67
What is a martensitic transformation?
Most phase transformations studied in this course have been
diffusional transformations where long range diffusion is required for
the (nucleation and) growth of the new phase(s).
There is a whole other class of military transformations which are
diffusionless transformations in which the atoms move only short
distances in order to join the new phase (on the order of the
interatomic spacing).
In martensitic transformation, the change in phase involves a definite
orientation relationship because the atoms have to move in a
coordinated manner. There is always a change in shape which means
that there is a strain associated with the transformation. 68
 Martensite

• Martensite: austenite quenched to room T

• Nearly instantaneous at required T
• Austenite martensite does not involve diffusion  no
activation: athermal transformation
• Each atom displaces small (sub-atomic) distance to
transform FCC -Fe (austenite) to martensite, a Body
Centered Tetragonal (BCT) unit cell (like BCC, but one
unit cell axis longer than other two)
• Martensite is metastable - persists indefinitely at room T:
transforms to equilibrium phases on at elevated temperature
• Martensite can coexist with other phases and microstructures
• Since martensite is a metastable phase, it does not appear in
phase
69
Fe-C phase diagram
70
 TTT Diagram including Martensite

A: Austenite P: Pearlite
B: Bainite M: Martensite

71 Austenite-to-martensite is diffusionless and fast. Amount of

 Time-temperature path – microstructure

72
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 Summary of austenite transformations
Austenite

Slow Rapid
cooling quench
Moderate
cooling

Pearlite ( + Fe3C) + a proeutectoid Bainite

phase ( + Fe3C)

Martensite
(BCT phase)

Solid lines are diffusional transformations, dashed is diffusionless

martensitic
74 transformation
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83
 HEAT TREATMENT

 Bulk and Surface Treatments

 Annealing, Normalizing, Hardening, Tempering
 Hardenability 84
 Heat Treatment
A combination of heating and cooling operations, timed and applied to a metal, or alloy in
the solid state in a way that will produce desired properties.
It is an operation or combination of operations of heating and cooling of a solid metal or
alloy to induce in it certain predetermined physical and mechanical properties.
These properties are dependent on the microstructure of the alloy, i.e., nature, shape, size,
distribution and the amount of micro-constituents (phases), which are controlled by the
changes in the alloy composition, and mainly by heat treatment.

The heat treatment process consists of:

1. Heating the steel to a high predetermined temperature, called austenization
temperature.
2. Soaking, i.e. holding the steel at this temperature for some period of time to obtain a
homogeneous austenite throughout the cross section of the steel part.
3. The steel is then cooled to room temperature at a particular cooling rate which
depends on the properties to be developed in the steel. 85
Heat Treatment of Steels
 We have noted that how TTT and CCT diagrams can help us design heat treatments to
design the microstructure of steels and hence engineer the properties. In some cases a
gradation in properties may be desired (usually from the surface to the interior- a hard
surface with a ductile/tough interior/bulk).
 In general three kinds of treatments are: (i) Thermal (heat treatment), (ii) Mechanical
(working), (iii) Chemical (alteration of composition). A combination of these treatments are
also possible (e.g. thermo-mechanical treatments, thermo-chemical treatments).
 The treatment may affect the whole sample or only the surface.
 A typical industrial treatment cycle may be complicated with many steps (i.e. a combination
of the simple steps which are outlined in the chapter).

Thermal (heat treatment)

E.g. heat and quench
Or a combination
Treatments Mechanical (Thermo-mechanical,
E.g. shot peening thermo-chemical)
E.g. case carburizing
Chemical
Bulk

Surface 86
An overview of important heat treatments
 A broad classification of heat treatments possible are given below. Many more specialized
treatments or combinations of these are possible.

HEAT TREATMENT

BULK SURFACE

ANNEALING NORMALIZING HARDENING

THERMAL THERMO-
& CHEMICAL
TEMPERING
Full Annealing Carburizing
MARTEMPERING Flame
Recrystallization Annealing Induction Nitriding

Stress Relief Annealing AUSTEMPERING LASER Carbo-nitriding

Spheroidization Annealing Electron Beam 87

 Ranges of temperature where Annealing, Normalizing and Spheroidization treatment are
carried out for hypo- and hyper-eutectoid steels.
 Details are in the coming slides.

910C Acm

A3

723C Full Annealing

A1

Spheroidization Stress Relief Annealing


T Recrystallization Annealing

Wt% C
0.8 %
88
Full Annealing

 The purpose of this heat treatment is to obtain a material with high ductility. A microstructure
with coarse pearlite (i.e. pearlite having high interlamellar spacing) is endowed with such
properties.
 The range of temperatures used is given in the figure below.
 The steel is heated above A3 (for hypo-eutectoid steels) & A1 (for hyper-eutectoid steels) → (hold) → then the
steel is furnace cooled to obtain Coarse Pearlite.
 Coarse Pearlite has low (↓) Hardness but high (↑) Ductility.
 For hyper-eutectoid steels the heating is not done above Acm to avoid a continuous network of
proeutectoid cementite along prior Austenite grain boundaries (presence of cementite along grain boundaries
provides easy path for crack propagation).

910C Acm
Ful
l An
A3 nea
ling

723C Full Annealing

A1


T

Wt% C
89
0.8 %
Recrystallization Annealing

 During any cold working operation (say cold rolling), the material becomes harder (due to
work hardening), but loses its ductility. This implies that to continue deformation the material
needs to be recrystallized (wherein strain free grains replace the ‘cold worked grains’).
 Hence, recrystallization annealing is used as an intermediate step in (cold) deformation
processing.
 To
Heatachieve 1 → the
below Athis Sufficient
sampletime → Recrystallization
is heated below A1 and held there for sufficient time for
recrystallization to be completed.

910C Acm

A3

723C
Recrystallization Annealing A1


T

Wt% C
90
0.8 %
Stress Relief Annealing

 Due to various processes like quenching (differential cooling of surface and interior),
machining, phase transformations (like martensitic transformation), welding, etc. the residual
stresses develop in the sample. Residual stress can lead to undesirable effects like warpage of
the component.
 The annealing is carried out just below A1 , wherein ‘recovery*’ processes are active
(Annihilation of dislocations, polygonization).

Residual stresses → Heat below A1 → Recovery Annihilation of dislocations,

polygonization

Differential cooling 910C

Machining and cold working 723C

Stress Relief Annealing A1

Martensite formation

Welding T

Wt% C 91
* It is to be noted that ‘recovery’ is a technical term. 0.8 %
Spheroidization Annealing

 This is a very specific heat treatment given to high carbon steel requiring extensive
machining prior to final hardening & tempering. The main purpose of the treatment is to
increase the ductility of the sample.
 Like stress relief annealing the treatment is done just below A1.
 Long time heating leads cementite plates to form cementite spheroids. The driving force for
this (microstructural) transformation is the reduction in interfacial energy.

910C Acm

A3

723C
Spheroidization A1


T

Wt% C
92
0.8 %
NORMALIZING
 The sample is heat above A3 | Acm to complete Austenization. The sample is then air cooled to
obtain Fine pearlite. Fine pearlite has a reasonably good hardness and ductility.
 In hypo-eutectoid steels normalizing is done 50C above the annealing temperature.
 In hyper-eutectoid steels normalizing done above Acm → due to faster cooling cementite does
not form a continuous film along GB.
 The list of uses of normalizing are listed below.

910C on
z ati Acm
No
rma ali
liza Norm
A3 tion

723C
A1


T

Wt% C
0.8 %

Refine grain structure prior to hardening

Purposes To harden the steel slightly

To reduce segregation in casting or forgings

93
94
HARDENING
 The sample is heated above A3 | Acm to cause Austenization. The sample is then quenched at a
cooling rate higher than the critical cooling rate (i.e. to avoid the nose of the CCT diagram).
 The quenching process produces residual strains (thermal, phase transformation).
 The transformation to Martensite is usually not complete and the sample will have some
retained
Heat A3 | Acm → Austenization → Quench (higher than critical cooling rate)
Austenite.
above
 The Martensite produced is hard and brittle and tempering operation usually follows
hardening. This gives a good combination of strength and toughness.

910C n ing Acm

Har rde
den
ing Ha
A3

723C Full Annealing

A1


T

Wt% C
0.8 %
95
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97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105