Int. Journal of Applied Sciences and Engineering Research, Vol. 2, Issue 4, 2013 www.ijaser.

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Research article ISSN 2277 – 9442

Ultrasound classification for recycled glulam sleepers

Carrasco1, E. V. M.,2 Passos, L.B.,3 Bremer, C. F.,4 Alves, R. C.,5 Mantilla, J.N.R
Federal University of Minas Gerais

DOI: 10.6088/ijaser.020400009

Abstract: Nowadays, due to environmental concerns and high market value, the railroads dramatically
decreased the use of native timber sleepers. Aiming to reducing environmental impact, a recycling process
was developed where wooden sleepers that are discarded or sold at low prices by railway companies are
transformed into glulam railway sleepers. Vale Company donated 46 railway sleepers for this study, which
35 of these were transformed into 6 new railway sleepers. In this article, the non-destructive tests on
discarded railway sleepers and on the thin board’s procedures are described. These tests were performed in
order to determine the greater longitudinal moduli of elasticity for the upper and lower boards’ distribution
of the recycled glulam sleepers (RGS) and also for determining the direction of lamination of the sleepers,
to provide a greater reuse of materials. The results indicated that the railway sleepers ultrasound test are not
indicated and should be replaced by testing only one board of each sleeper, which is sufficient to classify
the pieces.

Keywords: Non-destructive tests; ultrassound; recycled sleepers; wood.

1. Introduction

This paper presents the nondestructive testing using the ultrasonic method, performed in railway sleepers
for determining the modulus of elasticity and subsequent distribution of the pieces obtained for RGS
fabrication. There are several non-destructive tests, among them the ultrasound technic, which is based on
the principle of mechanical wave propagation in materials, which can be considered a reliable test, cheap
(when compared to the automatic classification machines) and training of the workers is relatively simple.
According to JAMES INSTRUMENTS INC (4), the method of ultrasound was first developed for use in
concrete in Canada by Leslie and Cheesman between 1945 and 1949 and also independently in Britain by
Jones and Gatfield. The device developed by them was a cation ray oscilloscope for measuring
transmission time. BUCUR (2) states that when a longitudinal wave propagates parallel to the fibers, the
wavelengths and the lengths of the cells are of the same order of magnitude, where the propagation occurs
in stochastic scattering regime. Perpendicularly to the fiber (radial and tangential direction), the
wavelengths are greater than the average dimensions of the cells and spreads occur within a Rayleigh
scattering regime. These two propagation conditions are related to the frequency used.

According to TRINCA and GONÇALVES (7) the general equations presented in studies on the
propagation of waves in solid media, assume that the ideal propagation medium is infinite, that is, the
wavelength (λ) is much smaller than the dimensions of the cross section of the body whereby this wave
crosses. When the dimension of the piece to be tested, according to the propagation direction of the wave,
approaches the wavelength (λ), the medium become known as finite and, in this case, the phenomena of
refraction and reflection of the waves begin to affect propagation and, therefore, the basic theory is no
longer applied directly, being passing the dispersive medium. The transversal section dimension has an
effect on ultrasound wave propagation and longitudinal velocity is strongly affected by transducer
469
Corresponding author (e-mail:mantilla@dees.ufmg.br)
Received on November 23, 2013; Accepted on December 04, 2012; Published on December 07, 2013
 Ultrasound classification for recycled glulam sleepers

frequency below 500 kHz, confirming the importance of adopting during the tests specimen length/wave
length above 3.0. Obstacles occur if there is need to assess wood structures in situ, because in most cases
both ends of a beam or joist, for example, are covered and the measurement cannot be made.
Measurements can only be carried out when placing the transducers parallelly on one side or across the
detail facing each other. This kind of measurement method also provides the local properties of wood
Bucur apud Teder et al. (6).

2. Materials and methods

2.1 Materials
For this study 46 sleepers were used. These railway sleepers were classified into three types: Fence post
(Figure 1.a), refuse (Figure 1.b) and firewood (Figure 1.c).

Figure 1: Railway Sleeper’s classification: (a) fence post; (b) refuse; (c) firewood.

2.2 Tests methods

2.2.1 Railway sleeper’s tabulation
The sleepers were numbered in sequence from 1 to 46 and three dividing lines were marked along the
length of the sleepers, dividing them into 4 equal parts numbered Q1 to Q4 (quadrant 1-4). For each of
these parts, there were four measurements of the height (H) and width (b) (Figure 2.a) and two
measurements the length (L) for each part (Figure 2.b).

(a) (b)
Figure 2: Measurements of the sleepers dimensions: (a) height and width; (b) length.

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To obtain the density of each sleeper, it was still necessary to determine their weights: a scale of maximum
capacity of 200 kg with an accuracy of 10g was used. Any imperfections, fractures, cracks and defects
caused by insects or fungi were measured and cataloged.

2.2.2 Sleepers ultrasound tests

To determine the wave propagation velocities in the main directions of the sleepers ultrasound devices
manufactured by James Instruments and Sylvatest were used, Figure 3.

(a) (b)
Figure 3: Ultrasound devices: (a) James Instruments 150 kHz transducer; (b) Sylvatest 30 kHz transducer.

In the measurement of pulse propagation time along the sleeper Sylvatest device was used with 30kHz
transducers positioned directly (Figure 4) at four points on each sleeper. This device was chosen because
according to DUARTE (3), the minimum distance between the transducers is 30cm, if lower, the readings
of the ultrasonic pulses propagation time do not stabilize.

(a) (b)
Figure 4: Positioning of Sylvatest transducers along the sleeper length: (a) Proposed scheme (b) In loco test.

To determine the pulse propagation time in the length (L1) of each quadrant ultrasound device of James
Instruments was used, with 150 kHz transducers positioned in indirect way (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Positioning of the transducers in indirect way MK II along the length of each quadrant of the
sleeper (a) Proposed scheme (b) In loco test.

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Direct measurements were also carried out along the height and width of the sleepers in order to determine
the best direction of the boards cutting. The device MK II was chosen because according to Duarte (3), the
distance between transducers should be 10 to 60cm, otherwise, ultrasonic pulses would not be
stabilize.Using James Instrument device it is indispensable to use a smoothing surface between the
transducers and the wood, with the intention of eliminating the presence of air. In these tests the silicone
type "Dow Corning 111 Lubricant and Valu Sealast" was used.

2.2.3 Sleepers boards ultrasound tests

After cutting the sleepers, size and weight measurements and ultrasound test in at least two pieces of each
sleeper were performed. Each piece was weighed on a scale with a capacity of 50 kg (Figure 6.a). Then
two measurements in length (Figure 6.b), three in width (Figure 6.c) and in thickness measurements were
made. In this case the measurement in the volumes of existing defects was also performed.

Figure 6: Measurements: (a) weight; (b) length; (c) width.

The specimens were tested measuring only the velocities along their lengths (Figure 7) using Sylvatest
device and 30 kHz transducers.

Figure 7: Measuring the propagation time of the pulse along the length of the piece

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3 Discussion and results

3.1 Sleepers ultrasound tests

In the ultrasound tests performed with Sylvatest and James Instruments devices, various readings were not
obtained due to the fact that the pulses were not transmitted through the air large voids. When there was a
change in reading on a particular point, the reading was performed twice for verification. If this variation
persisted, it was ignored.Table 1 shows the number of measurements in each direction and quantities of
readings obtained. It can be seen that Sylvatest as the James devices obtained approximately 92% of the
readings. It was observed that 60.90% of the readings not obtained by James device occurred along the
width of the sleepers. Due to this fact, it was decided that, to obtain greater use of recycled material, that
the sleepers had to be cut along the width.
Table 1: Number of readings obtained and not obtained in each direction

number of readings number of readings

Measurements
Direction obtained not obtained
James Sylvatest James Sylvatest James Sylvatest
Length 552 184 536 171 16 13
Width 552 - 471 - 81 -
Height 552 - 516 - 36 -
Total 1656 184 1523 171 133 13

Table 2 shows the average velocity obtained from Equation (1), for both devices.

Table 2: Average propagation velocities of the pulses in the railway sleepers

Average velocities (m/s)

Sleepe
Sylvatest (30 kHz) James (150 KHz)
r
L L1 b a
1 4353 3200 2158 1776
2 4711 3892 1677 1633
3 4765 3934 1749 1856
4 5039 4507 1482 1289
5 4681 4304 1476 1672
6 5324 3476 1691 1564
7 3521 4264 2107 1989
8 4528 4152 1838 1789
9 4602 4259 - 1725
10 4609 4803 1736 1925
11 3969 4085 - 1890
12 4175 4483 - 2280
13 3800 4190 1887 1663
14 3980 4439 1745 1788
15 4563 3260 1671 1540

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16 2923 3030 1833 2061

17 3691 3796 1870 2039
18 4143 4593 1558 1885
19 2853 4295 - -
20 4391 3575 1624 1835
21 4499 4763 1988 1033
22 3809 3097 2124 1402
23 4447 4353 1867 1917
24 4426 2829 949 1692
25 5125 1416 1400 1752
26 4443 2631 4475 1645
27 4519 3468 1195 1546
28 4464 4714 1338 1823
29 3717 3368 1721 1594
30 4640 5011 1652 1344
31 4304 2450 1892 1905
32 4676 4312 1664 1859
33 4184 3432 1867 1986
34 4602 2467 1476 1334
35 4078 3316 - 802
36 2247 3788 1631 1875
37 4132 3168 - 1585
38 3324 1572 1313 1699
39 4806 3705 1292 1293
40 4269 4452 - 1529
41 4704 4806 1272 1419
42 1525 2500 1661 873
43 4346 4821 1820 1687
44 4947 2781 - 1167
45 4294 3173 1461 1166
46 4316 3881 3010 1176
d
V = (1)
t

Where:
V: velocity of wave propagation, in meters per second;
d: distance traveled by the wave in the material, in meters;
t: time traveled by the wave in the material given by the device in microseconds, which should be
transformed in seconds (x 10-6).
The values of the dynamic longitudinal moduli of elasticity for both devices were obtained by
Equation (2), given by HALABE et al. apud MINÁ (5), Table 3.

Ed
V = (2)
ρ

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Where:
V: velocity of wave propagation, in meters per second;
Ed: dynamic moduli of elasticity, in mega pascal (x 10-6);
ρ: wood density, in kilograms per cubic meter.

Table 3: Comparison of the longitudinal elasticity moduli obtained by the 2 ultrasonic devices

E (MPa) E (MPa)
Sleeper Sleeper
James Sylvatest Difference James Sylvatest Difference
1 12148 22471 10323 24 6273 15357 9083
2 12670 18564 5893 25 1692 22172 20480
3 16829 24697 7867 26 5029 14335 9305
4 12066 15087 3021 27 12620 21417 8797
5 14363 16994 2630 28 18554 16643 -1910
6 11875 27864 15988 29 10356 12611 2255
7 19622 13379 -6242 30 20878 17900 -2.978
8 18020 21427 3406 31 6090 18797 12706
9 15938 18609 2670 32 17479 20546 3067
10 24273 22354 -1918 33 13294 19756 6462
11 17526 16550 -975 34 5193 18070 12876
12 21378 18539 -2839 35 9853 14900 5046
13 16460 13538 -2922 36 11367 4000 -7367
14 16417 13201 -3215 37 10801 18379 7578
15 9664 18929 9265 38 2088 9327 7239
16 10771 10022 -748 39 11086 18656 7570
17 16195 15311 -884 40 20225 18596 -1629
18 17040 13866 -3173 41 20979 20094 -884
19 9476 4180 -5296 42 7295 2713 -4582
20 13243 19973 6730 43 25448 20686 -4762
21 24953 22262 -2691 44 8500 26899 18399
22 9607 14526 4919 45 8295 15186 6891
23 18553 19365 812 46 16453 20345 3891

The statistical hypothesis of null difference with uncertainty of 95% was used. The range considered was
between 1079 MPa and 5008 MPa, indicating that the elasticity moduli obtained from two devices may not
be considered statistically equal. Then one of these devices did not provide reliable results. As Sylvatest
device showed a small variation during the readings of pulse propagation time and the design of its
transducers allowed a faster work and confidence in the results, it was decided that the longitudinal moduli
of elasticity to be considered in study would be obtained through this device.

The values obtained by James device was discarded because it provided more difficulties during readings,
with difficult contact between transducers and the irregular surface of the sleepers, thus, presenting large
variations in readings. Three sleepers showed longitudinal elastic moduli values below 5000 MPa,
probably due to an incorrect measurement of the waves propagation time, caused by internal defects.

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4. Sleepers boards ultrasound tests

Thirty five sleepers were cut, and all the pieces obtained were measured and weighed. Table 4 compares
the values of density and elastic moduli obtained from the sleepers and the sleepers boards. It was also
used the statistical analysis of null difference with uncertainty of 95%. For the density, the interval was
between -14.37 kg/m3 and 18.68 kg/m3 and for the elasticity moduli between -1401 MPa to 74.10 MPa,
indicating that the values obtained in the sleepers before and after being cut can be regarded as statistically
equal.
Table 4: Comparison of sleepers and sleepers boards ultrasonic tests

Density (Kg/m3) E (MPa)

#
Sleeper Sleeper board Difference Sleeper Sleeper board Difference

1 1185 1164 21.10 22471 18058 4412

2 836 823 12.69 18564 18941 -377
3 1087 1086 0.84 24697 23752 944
4 593 627 -33.99 15087 15201 -113
5 775 773 2.16 16994 17844 -850
7 1078 983 95.27 13379 15424 -2044
8 1044 1043 1.51 21427 22276 -849
9 878 894 -15.73 18609 19819 -1210
10 1052 1037 14.20 22354 23491 -1136
11 1050 1137 -87.44 16550 20057 -3507
12 1063 1162 -98.92 18539 22789 -4249
15 908 925 -16.80 18929 20179 -1249
16 1172 1171 0.95 10022 17166 -7143
17 1123 1162 -38.72 15311 17281 -1969
18 807 790 17.58 13866 15152 -1285
20 1035 997 38.38 19973 20193 -219
21 1099 1039 59.71 22262 21062 1200
22 1001 1030 -29.51 14526 17195 -2669
23 978 1014 -35.39 19365 21762 -2397
24 783 787 -3.73 15357 15705 -347
25 844 794 49.12 22172 17480 4692
27 1048 1066 -17.92 21417 18988 2429
29 912 880 32.67 12611 16804 -4192
30 831 743 87.49 17900 17086 814
31 1014 1014 -0.38 18797 19751 -954
32 939 883 55.80 20546 20475 71
33 1128 1035 92.81 19756 16780 2976
34 853 879 -26.11 18070 21859 -3789
37 1076 1018 57.36 18379 18956 -576
39 807 738 69.49 18656 18676 -20

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42 1166 1075 91.37 2713 21493 -18780

43 1094 1082 12.04 20686 20659 27
44 1098 1110 -11.24 26899 29410 -2510
45 823 746 77.31 15186 16718 -1532
46 1091 1105 -13.45 20345 21752 -1407

The sleepers 16 and 42 showed inconsistent and widely dispersed values, therefore were not incorporated
into the analysis. As can be seen in Figure 8, the modulus of elasticity found in the sleeper 42 ultrasound
test was equal to 2713 MPa, and in the sleeper board 21493 MPa, indicating that the first measurement was
impaired by a defect in the board.

Figure 8: Elasticity moduli

5. Conclusions

In the analysis it is concluded that measuring the elastic modulus can be performed only in one board of
sleeper to simplify and streamline the process of manufacturing glulam railway sleepers. The elasticity
moduli values presented indicated that sleepers ultrasonic measurements is not suitable because that there
are many defects that affect the propagation of the pulses. Through this study, the boards with higher
elasticities moduli were placed in the upper and lower blades of the sleepers, due to the fact these boards
have best behavior when under tensile stresses. Intermediate boards should be assembled just concerning
with a better use of the boards, because each had, in this case, different values of width and length.

6. References

1. Associação Brasileira de normas técnicas. 1997. NBR-7190: Projeto de estruturas de madeira. Rio
de Janeiro.

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2. Bucur, V., 1995. Acoustics of Wood. Florida, USA: Boca Raton: CRC Press.
3. Duarte, R. de S. 2004. Avaliação do comportamento de ligações com parafusos auto-atarraxantes
em vigas de MLC. 2004. Dissertação (Mestrado em Engenharia de Estruturas) – Escola de
Engenharia – Departamento de Engenharia de Estruturas - Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais.
4. James instruments inc. Non Destructive Testing Systems. V - Meter instruction manual – Mark II.
Chicago, EUA.
5. Miná, A. J. S. Oliveira, F. G. R. Júnior, C. C. Dias, A. A. Sales, A. 2004. Avaliação não-destrutiva
de postes de madeira por meio de ultra-som. IPEF - Scientia Forestalis, 65, p. 188-196.
6. Teder, M. et alii. 2012. Investigation of the physical-mechanical properties of timber using
ultrasound examination, Journal of Civil Engineering and Management, pp.795-801
7. Trinca and Gonçalves. 2009. Efeito das dimensões da seção transversale da frequência do
transdutor na velocidade de propagação de ondas de ultrassom na madeira. Revista Árvore, 33, pp
177-184.

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