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1 GENERAL EDUCATION:

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE
Prepared by:
Rodrigo H. Dela Cruz, LPT
Patricia Denise C. Elazegui, RPh, LPT

2 BIOLOGY
From the Greek words -
- Bios - “life”
- Logos - “study”

3 BIOLOGY

● is the study of living organisms, their morphology, physiology, anatomy, behavior, origin and
distribution.

4 BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY

5 ZOOLOGY
- Study of ANIMALS
- ARISTOTLE – Father of Biology and Zoology

6 BOTANY
- Study of PLANTS
- THEOPHRASTUS – Father of Botany

7 Biochemistry
- explores the chemical processes within and related to living organisms
8 CYTOLOGY
- Study of CELLS
- ROBERT HOOKE - Father of Cytology
9

Histology
- study of plant and animal tissues.
- Four types of tissue
- Connective tissue, Epithelial tissue, Muscle tissue and Nerve tissue

10 GENETICS
- The study of how features are passed to offspring from their parents.
- GREGOR MENDEL – Father of Genetics

11 Gene
1 - basic physical and functional unit of heredity.

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2 - inherited factor on the chromosome responsible for a trait.

12 MORPHOLOGY
- concerned with phenotype (appearance) of living things.

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1 GENOTYPE
2 Phenotype
3 - is the set of genes in our DNA which is responsible for a particular trait.

- genetic constitution of an individual.

4 - the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its
genotype with the environment.

14

Taxonomy
- study of the CLASSIFICATION of living organisms.

15 Carolus Linnaeus
●Father of Taxonomy

16 BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
- this formal system of naming organisms consists of two Latinized names, the GENUS and the
SPECIES.
- Genus and species names are always italicized.

17
1 Genus
2 Species
3 - biological classification ranking between family and species, consisting of structurally or
phylogenetically related species.
4 - group of closely related organisms that are very similar to each other and are usually capable of
interbreeding and producing fertile offspring.
18 ECOLOGY
- Study of the RELATIONSHIP between living things with each other and their environment.
- ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT - Father of Ecology

19 microbiology
- study of microscopic life.
- ex. bacteria, viruses, protozoa
- ANTIONIE PHILIPS VAN LEEUWENHOEK – Father of Microbiology
20 parasitology
- study of parasites
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parasites
- An organism that lives in or on another organism (its host) and benefits by deriving nutrients at
the host’s expense.
22 bacteriology
- study of bacteria

23 virology
- Study of viruses

24 mycology
- The study of fungi

25 entomology
- Study of insects

26 insects
●Cold-blooded
●Invertebrates
●Have six (6) legs
●Have three (3) main body parts
●Have an exoskeleton
27 orinthology
- Study of birds

28 Herpetology
- concerned with reptiles and amphibians.

29

30 ANATOMY
- is the study of the inner organs of the body (kidney, heart, liver etc.)
HEROPHILUS – Father of Anatomy
31 Physiology
- concerned with function of tissue, organs and systems.
32 embryology
- studies the developmental patterns of organisms from zygote to birth.
33

Paleontology
- concerned with fossil animals and plants.

34 CELLS

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36 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE

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1. Living things are composed of cells

2. Living things have different levels of organization
3. Living things use energy

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4. Living things respond to their environment
5. Living things grow
6. Living things reproduce
7. Living things adapt to their environment

38 CELL BIOLOGY

39 CELL THEORY

1. All living organisms are made of cells.

2. Cell is the basic functional unit of an organism
3. All cells arise from preexisting cells.

40 Cell Discoveries

41 Robert Hooke
●coined the term cells
42 Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek
●the first person to observe microscopic organisms.
●credited with making the first microscope.

43

44 Robert Brown
●discovered the nucleus.

45 Matthias Schleiden
● found out that all plants consists of cells.
46 Theodor Schwann
●found out that all animals consists of cells.

47 Rudolf Virchow
●proposed that all cells result from the division of previously existing cells.

48 THEORY OF ENDOSYMBIOSIS
1 - Lynn Margulis.

(endo– means within; symbiosis means living together.)

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49

50 PARTS OF A CELL

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●Nucleus - found in the center of the cell; contains chromosomes, which carry genetic materials;

●Ribosomes – the site of protein synthesis

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●Endoplasmic Reticulum

○ Rough E.R. – the site of protein synthesis resulting from the attached ribosomes

○ Smooth E.R. – assists in the synthesis of steroid hormones and other lipids and carries out
various detoxification processes.

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●Golgi apparatus – they “package” substances produced in the rough endoplasmic reticulum and
secrete then to other parts or to the cell surface for export

●Lysosomes – the principal site of intracellular digestion.

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●Mitochondria – site of cellular respiration

●Vacuoles – single, membrane bound structures for storage

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Plastids – found only in plants and algae. They are small organelles that contain pigment or food.
They are three types:
1. Chloroplasts – the site of photosynthesis; contains chlorophyll, a green pigment.
2. Leucoplasts – store starch and are found in roots or in tubers.
3. Chromoplasts – store carotenoid pigments and are responsible for the red-orange-yellow color

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Cell wall – present only in plant cells; a rigid layer of polysaccharide that lies outside of the
plasma membrane.

Cell membrane – a selectively permeable membrane that regulates the steady traffic that enters
and leaves the cell

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59 TYPE OF EUKARYOTIC CELL

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61 How Substances Cross Membranes

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PASSIVE TRANSPORT
-transport across the cell membrane that does not require energy
1. Simple diffusion is the unassisted passage of small molecules from a higher concentration to a
lower concentration.
2. Facilitated diffusion is passive transport that uses integral membrane proteins to help larger,
charged, molecules across a concentration gradient.
63 SIMPLE DIFFUSION

FACILITATED DIFFUSION

64

OSMOSIS
- The movement of water from the area of higher content to an area of lower content.
65 ACTIVE TRANSPORT
●Requires energy usually in the form of ATP.

66 ●Endocytosis - substances are brought into the cell (“endo” = in).

●Exocytosis - substances exit the cell (“exo” = exit).

67 ENDOCYTOSIS

68 MOVEMENT OF MATERIAL

69
Hypotonic - the amount of solute is under the amount of solvent.
Hypertonic - the amount of solute is over the amount of solvent.
Isotonic - the amount of solute is equal to the amount of solvent.

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71 MICROBIOLOGY

72 VIRUS
●Can live only inside another cell.
●Neither classified as living or non living organism.

●Capsid – protective layer of the virus that contains the genetic material.

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73 Some Common Viral Diseases

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1. Colds

1. AIDS
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
- a set of symptoms (or syndrome) caused by the HIV virus. A person is said to have AIDS when
their immune system is too weak to fight off infection, and they develop certain defining
symptoms and illnesses
HIV – Human Immunodeficiency Virus

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3. Hepatitis
4. Dengue – cause by a mosquito (Aedes aegypti)
5. FMD (foot and mouth disease)
✔Coxsackievirus A16
✔Highly contagious viral disease
✔Cloven – hoofed animals
✔blisters on mouth, teats and soft tissues of feet

76 BACTERIA
●Unicellular
●Have cell walls
●Lack membrane – bound organelles
●Lack a nucleus
●Can be both harmful or beneficial

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78 TETANUS
●Clostridium tetani
●Lock jaw
●Affects the brain and the nervous system

79 Prions
●Infectious proteins
●Can cause brain damage (i.e mad cow disease).
●Prions are not bacteria nor virus but since they are seriously infectious entities, they are included
with viruses.
80 Robert Koch
● A microbiologist and the founder of Modern Bacteriology
● ”Germ Theory of Disease”
● Mycobacterium tuberculosis
81

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ADOLF EDUARD

MAYER

Tobacco Mosaic Virus

82 4 Basic

Morphologies
• Coccus - sphere
• Bacillus – rod-shaped
• Spirillum - spiral
• Comma

83 BIOCHEMISTRY

84 ATOM
● Particle that are the building blocks of all substances
● Basic unit of matter

85 Elements of Life
1 ● Carbon
● Hydrogen
● Phosphorus
● Sulfur
2 ● Oxygen
● Nitrogen

86 BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES

87 Carbohydrates
● Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, Polysaccharides

● Energy storage, receptors, structure of plant cell wall

88
Starch - an energy source in plants
Glycogen - storage form of glucose in the liver and muscles
Chitin - found in the exoskeleton of arthropods
Cellulose - makes up a plants cell wall

89 Lipids
1 ● Membrane structure,
● Concentrated forms of energy storage
● Insulation
2 ● Fats
● Triglycerides

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● Hydrophobic

90 Proteins
● Amino acids
● Enzymes, structures, receptors, transport and more

91 Proteins
● When amino acids bond together to create long chains, the structure is called a protein, it is
also called a polypeptide.
● There are twenty (20) amino acids in human metabolism
92 Nucleic Acids
● Nucleotides
● Information storage and transfer

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97 Organic Molecules
Organic molecules are molecules composed of Carbon and Hydrogen, often containing other
elements such as Phosphorus, Sulfur, Oxygen and Nitrogen.
98 Chemical Bonds
1 Covalent bonds
- form between atoms of nonmetals by sharing of electrons
- molecules bond covalently
2 Ionic bonds
- form between oppositely charged ions after the transfer of electrons
- salts bond ionically

99 CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE

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102 CELLULAR DIVISION

103

CELLULAR DIVISION

Cell division functions in growth, repair and reproduction.

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●CYTOKINESIS – splitting of the cytoplasm

●CONTACT INHIBITION – when cells grow and divide until they become too crowded they stop
dividing. This normal reaction to overcrowding is known as Contact Inhibition.

114

115 GENETICS

116 GENETICS
- It is the study of heredity

117 Gregor Mendel

● Father of Genetics
● Combine math and science in his experiment.
● Used pea plant to determine different characteristics.

118
●Locus – location of a gene in a chromosome
●Allele – alternative forms of a gene
●Dominant – gene exerting full effect despite the presence of another allele of the same gene
●Recessive – gene not expressed in the presence of another allele
●Homozygous – 2 copies of the same allele of a gene
●Heterozygous – 2 different alleles of the same gene
●Punnet square – predicting outcomes in genetics

119

120 Mendelian Law

● Law of Dominance

● Law of Segregation

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● Law of Independent Assortment

121 LAW OF DOMINANCE

● Explains that when a pair of gene is heterozygous, only one of the two genes is express.

● States that one trait will conceal the presence of another trait for the same characteristic

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123 LAW OF SEGREGATION

●This Law explains how genes, which control the expression of hereditary traits, are transmitted to
offspring

●Alleles in a gene pair separate cleanly from each other during meiosis.

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125 LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

●Separate independently with each other and randomly combine during meiosis.

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127 NON-MENDELIAN’S LAW

• Law of Incomplete Dominance

• Law of Codominance
• Multiple Alleles
• Sex-linked Genes

128
LAW OF INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
●One allele for a specific trait is not completely expressed over its paired allele. This results in a
third phenotype in which the expressed physical trait is the combination of both alleles
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130 LAW OF CODOMINANCE

●The products of the two alleles in the heterozygote are present.
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132 MULTIPLE ALLELES

●When there are two or more allelic forms.
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134

135

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136 Sex – linked Genes

●Traits carried on the X chromosome.

137 Most Common X-linked Recessive Disorders

1. Red-green color blindness - known as daltonism.
2. Hemophilia A - a blood clotting disorder caused by a mutation of the Factor VIII gene and
leading to a deficiency of Factor VIII
138 KARYOTYPE
A karyotype is the characteristic chromosome complement of a eukaryote species.

139

140 MOLECULAR GENETICS

141 Watson and Crick

1 ●Nobel prize awardees for correctly describing the structure of DNA as a double helix.

●DNA – is a double – helix twisted ladder.

2 ●Consists of 4 nitrogenous bases

●Chargaff’s rule – joined together by a hydrogen bond.

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143 Central Dogma

144
●DNA Replication – process by which the DNA makes a copy of itself during cell division

●Transcription – process of making RNA copy of the gene sequence.

- Turning DNA into RNA.

●Translation – production of protein

145 EVOLUTION ENVIRONMENT

146 DARWIN AND EVOLUTION

●Charles Darwin served as naturalist on mapping expedition around coastal South America.

●Proposed that evolution occurs by natural selection

147 DARWIN’S THEORY OF EVOLUTION

1. Evolution occurs. Organisms changed overtime.
2. Evolution occurs by natural selection.

Natural Selection: Individuals with superior physical or behavioral characteristics are more likely to
survive and reproduce than those without such characteristics

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148 The Voyage of the Beagle

149 STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT

●Homologous structures
have same evolutionary origin, but different structure and function.

●Analogous structures
have similar structure and function, but different evolutionary origin.

150 HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES

151 ANALOGOUS STRUCTURES

152 Vestigial Structures

●an anatomical feature that no longer seems to have a purpose in the current form of an
organism of the given species.

Examples – appendix, coccyx, plica luminaris, arrector pili

153 JEAN BAPTISTE DE-LAMARCK

Theory of Use and Disuse

154 CHARLES DARWIN

Natural Selection
Theory of Evolution
“In the Origin of the Species”
155 ECOLOGY

156 Ecology
•the study of the interactions among living things and their surroundings
–Eco: (from Greek oikos, meaning “house”)

157 Organism
An individual living thing

158 Population
A group of the same species living in the same area

159 Community
A group of different species that live together in one area

160 Ecosystem
All of the organisms (biotic) as well as the climate, soil, water, rocks and other nonliving things
(abiotic) in a given area

161 food chain, food web, energy pyramid

162 Producers (Autotrophs)

Photosynthetic organisms

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–Capture energy from sunlight, CO2 and H2O

–Most producers are photosynthetic
Chemosynthetic organisms
–Capture energy from chemical compounds in the surroundings

163 Consumers (Heterotrophs)

1 Herbivores
–Eat only plants and fungi
Omnivores
–Eat both plants/fungi and animals
2 Carnivores
–Eat only animals
Detrivores
–Eat dead organic matter
Decomposers
–Break down organic matter into simpler compounds

164 Movement of Energy

•Trophic Structures
–Manner in which energy moves through an ecosystem
–Each ecosystem has its own unique trophic structure

165 Biotic Energy Movement

1 •Producers
–Autotrophs (Photosynthesizers, Chemosynthetic organisms)

2 •Primary consumers
–Herbivores and omnivores that eat producers
•Secondary consumers
–Carnivores and omnivores that eat herbivores

166 Biotic Energy Movement

1 •Tertiary consumers
–Carnivore eats another carnivore
2 •Decomposers and Detrivores
–Consume decaying producers and consumers

167 Food Chain

● Energy is lost in each step up a food chain
● Only 10 percent of the energy from one level on the food chain is available to the next level

168 Food Webs

•Many consumers and decomposers have more than one food source
•Movement of energy occurs in complex webs rather than in simple chains

169 Energy Pyramids

•Energy pyramids show the reduction of available energy at each higher trophic level

170

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The 10% Rule

171 ecological relationships between organisms

172 Habitat
•All of the biotic and abiotic factors in the area where an organism lives

173 Ecological Niche

•All of the physical, chemical, and biological factors that a species needs to survive, stay healthy,
and reproduce
–Food
–Abiotic conditions
–Behavior

174 Competitive Exclusion

•When two species are competing for the same resources, one species will be better suited to the
niche, and the other species will be pushed into another niche or become extinct

•Invasive species may outcompete organisms that are native to a particular region

175 Predation
•The process by which one species captures and feeds upon another
–Heterotrophs can prey on autotrophs and other heterotrophs

176 Predator – Prey Cycles

•Prey outnumber predators

•Increasing numbers of prey promote increases in predator populations

177 Symbiosis
•A close ecological relationship between two or more organisms of different species that live in
direct contact with one another

–Mutualism
–Commensalism
–Parasitism

178 Mutualism
•An interspecies interaction in which both species benefit
–Flowers and pollinating insects
–Humans and intestinal E. coli
–Clown fish and anemones

179 Commensalism
•A relationship between two organisms in which one receives an ecological benefit from another,
while the other neither benefits or is harmed
180 Parasitism
•A relationship in which one species benefits while the other is harmed.

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•Many parasites have complex lifecycles involving more than one host
181 World Biomes

182 Biomes
•Regions of the world with similar physical environments

•Named for most conspicuous types of vegetation

183
•Climate factors
● Rainfall (precipitation)
● Temperature
● Altitude
● Latitude

•Boundaries are indistinct

184 Six Major Biomes

1 •Tropical Rain Forests
•Grassland
–Tropical/Subtropical Grassland
–Temperate Grassland
•Desert

2 •Temperate
–Temperate Deciduous Forest
–Temperate Rain Forest
•Taiga
•Tundra

185 •Tropical Rain Forests

1 Equatorial lowlands
•Constant temperature and abundant rainfall all year long

2 •Many arboreal animals

•Few terrestrial animals

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187 Tropical and Subtropical Grassland

•Warm temperatures throughout the year
•Well defined dry season and rainy season
•Large herbivores
•High grasses

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•Scattered trees and shrubs

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189 Temperate Grassland

•Hot, humid summer and cold winter

•Precipitation as winter snow and heavy spring and summer rain

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•Short and tall grasses; trees found only near streams

•Wide variety of animal life

–Large herbivores
–Smaller animals build burrows
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192 DESERTS
•Identified by lack of precipitation
•Deserts can be cold or hot
–Antarctica is a cold desert
•Nocturnal animal life in hot deserts
•Plants are well adapted to short water supply

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194 Temperate Deciduous Forests

•Deciduous forests of mid-latitude regions
•Cold winters and hot summers
•Abundant rain and snowfall
•Wide variety of animal life
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196 Temperate Rain Forests

•Cold winters and hot summers

•Abundant rain and snowfall

•Conifers (redwood, firs, pines, spruce) retain their needles.

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–Needles conserve water in dry summer and shed snow in cold winter

•Wide variety of animal life

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199 Taiga (Boreal Forest)

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•Coniferous (Evergreen) Forests

•Found at high elevations and/or far northern latitudes
•Snow accounts for most of the precipitation
•Animals are adapted to long, cold winters
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201 Tundra
•Areas with continuously frozen ground (permafrost)
•Near polar regions
•Small plants limited by frozen soil and prolonged dark season
•Animals adapted to extreme cold; birds often migrate
202

203 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

204 Ecological Succession

the process by which the structure of a biological community evolves over time.

205
1 • In primary succession, newly exposed or newly formed rock is colonized by living things for the
first time.
2 • In secondary succession, an area previously occupied by living things is disturbed—disrupted—
then recolonized following the disturbance.

206 TAXONOMY

207 LEVELS OF CLASSIFICATION

208 Levels of Classification for Humans

Domain: Eukarya
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Hominidae
Genus: Homo
Species: sapiens

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1 3 DOMAINS
Archaebacteria
Bacteria
Eukarya

2 5 KINGDOMS
Monera
Animalia
Plantae

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Fungi
Protist
210 Kingdom Animalia

211 Animals
- Are multicellular with well-developed tissues and are heterotrophic by ingestion. Animals cannot
manufacture their own food.

212
Invertebrates – animals without backbones
1. Phylum Porifera – with holes or pores in their body
Osculum – a large opening for the entry and exit of materials such as food and water.
Ex. sponges
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2. Phylum Cnidaria
-Coelenterates
-Stinging animals
-They have nematocysts which they used to paralyze their prey and to collect food.
Ex. Jellyfish, corals, sea anemone

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3. Phylum Mollusca
-Mollusks
-Soft – bodied animals and have hard outer shells
-Not all mollusks have outer shells
-Ex. Clams, oysters, squids, octopus

215 CLASSES OF PHYUM MOLLUSKA

1. Gastropods
- one-shelled
- ex. Snails
2. Bi – valves
- two-shelled
- ex. Oysters
3. Cephalopods
- no shell
- ex. Squid, octopus

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4. Phylum Arthropoda
-Have jointed legs or appendages
-The exoskeleton of arthropods have chitin which is responsible for the hardness of its
exoskeleton.
-Ex. Spider, crustaceans, crabs, lobsters

217 CLASSES OF Phylum Arthropoda

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• Insecta – insects
– 3 pairs of legs
• Arachnida – arachnids
– 4 pairs of legs
• Crustacea – crustaceans
– 5 pairs of legs

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5. Phylum Echinodermata
-Spine – bearing animals
Ex. Sea cucumber, sea urchin, star fish
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7. Phylum Nematoda
-Roundworms
-Ex. Ascaris, Hookworms

8. Phylum Annelida
-Segmented worms
-Ex. Earthworms, leeches
220
Phylum Chordata
With notochord develop later into backbone, gave rise to vertebrates
Ex. Lancelets, tunicates

221
Vertebrates – animals with backbones

1. Agnatha - jawless fishes

Ex. Lampreys, hagfish
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2. Osteichthyes – bony fishes
Ex. Sea horse, milk fish

3. Chondrichthyes – cartilaginous fishes

Ex. Sharks, manta rays

4. Amphibia – amphibians
Ex. Toads, frogs, salamanders

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1 5. Reptilia – reptiles
Ex. Turtles, snakes, crocodiles
6. Aves – birds
They have wings for flight, feathers and beak

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2 7. Mammalia – mammals
Have hair or fur, mammary glands
• Monotremes – egg laying mammals
• Marsupials – abdominal pouch to carry the young
• Placentals – presence of placenta

224 KINGDOM PLANTAE

225 Parts of the Plant

226 The Four Basic Parts of Plants

● Leaves
● Stems
● Roots
● Flowers

227 Leaves
Functions
○ Make food through photosynthesis
○ Site of gas exchange
○ Respiration
○ Photosynthesis
○ Store food

228 Tissues of the Leaf (Epidermis)

1 • Cuticle
– Waxy substance that covers the leaves & stems
– Waterproof layer that keeps water in plants

2 • Stomata
– Openings in the epidermis mainly located on the underside of leaves
– Exchange of gases

229 Tissues of the Leaf (Epidermis)

• Guard Cells
– Two cells located on each side of stomata
– Open and closes stomata

230 External Parts of the Leaf

● Petiole
○ Leaf stalk or part that connects the leaf to the stem.
● Blade
○ The large, flat part of a leaf.
● Midrib
○ The large center vein.

231 Stems

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● Functions
○ Movement of materials
○ Water & minerals from roots to leaves
○ Manufactured food from leaves to roots
○ Support leaves & reproductive structures
○ Food storage

232 External Stem Structure

● Lenticels
○ Breathing pores.
● Bud Scale Scars
○ Show where terminal buds have been located.
● Leaf Scars
○ Show where leaves were attached.

233 Internal Stem Structure

● Xylem
○ The tissue that transports water & nutrients up from roots to stems & leaves.
○
● Phloem
○ Tissue that transports food down from leaves to roots.

● Cambium
○ Thin, green, actively growing tissue located between bark & wood and produces all new
stems cells.

234 Internal Stem Structure

● Bark
○ Old, inactive phloem.

● Heartwood
○ Old, inactive xylem.

● Sapwood
○ New, active xylem.

235 Roots
● Functions
○ Anchor the plant
○ Absorb water & minerals
○ Store food
○ Propagate or reproduce some plants
236 Flowers
● Function
○ Contain the sexual organs for the plant.
○ Produces fruit, which protects, nourishes and carries seeds.

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○ Attracts insects for pollination.

237 Parts of the Flower

1 • Sepals
– Outer covering of the flower bud.
– Protects the stamens and pistils when flower is in bud stage.
– Collectively known as the calyx.

2 • Petals
– Brightly colored
– Protects stamen & pistils.
– Attracts pollinating insects.
– Collectively called the corolla.

238 Parts of the Flower

1 • Stamen
– Male reproductive part
– Anther
• Produces pollen
– Filament
• Supports the anther

2 • Pistil
– Female reproductive part
– Ovary
• Enlarged portion at base of pistil
• Produces ovules which develop into seeds
– Stigma
• Holds the pollen grain
– Style
• Connects the stigma with the ovary
• Supports the stigma so that it can be pollinated

239

240 PERFECT AND IMPERFECT FLOWERS

1 • Imperfect Flower
– Male or female reproductive organs is present, but not both.
– Example:
• A male flower has sepals, petals, and stamen, but no pistils.
• A female flower has sepals, petals, and pistils, but no stamen.
2 • Perfect Flowers
– Contains both male and female reproductive structures.

241 COMPLETE AND INCOMPLETE FLOWERS

1 • Complete Flowers

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– Contains male and female reproductive organs along with petals and sepals.
2 • Incomplete Flowers
– Missing one of the four major parts of the flower.
• Stamen
• Pistil
• Sepal
• Petal
242 CELLULAR RESPIRATION
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
AND TRANSPIRATION

243

244

245 TRANSPIRATION

246 VASCULAR AND NON-VASCULAR PLANTS

247 VASCULAR PLANTS

• Tracheophytes

• Subdivided into two groups –

– Seedless vascular plants
– Seed-bearing vascular plants

248 Main Parts of Vascular Plants

1 Shoots
-Found above ground
-Have leaves attached
- Photosynthetic part of plant
2 Roots
-Found below ground
-Absorb water & minerals
-Anchor the plant

249 Seed-Producing Vascular Plants

1 Gymnosperms
2 Gymnosperms have naked seeds in cones.

3 Angiosperms
4 Angiosperms have flowers that produce seeds to attract pollinators and produce seeds.

250 Gymnosperms
1 • Coniferophyta are known as conifers
– Includes pine, cedar, spruce, and fir

• Cycadophyta – cycads

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• Ginkgophyta - ginkgo
2 Contains the OLDEST living plant – Bristle cone pine

Contains the TALLEST living plant – Sequoia or redwood

251 Angiosperms
1 Monocots
- have a single seed cotyledon
2 Anthophyta
3 Dicots
- have two seed cotyledons

252 MONOCOT VS DICOT

253 Seedless Vascular Plants

Includes
● club moss (Lycophyta)
● horsetails (Sphenophyta)
● whisk ferns (Psilophyta)
● ferns (Pterophyta)

254 Nonvascular Plants

1 • Do not have vascular tissue for support or conduction of materials

• Called Bryophytes

• Require a constantly moist environment

2 • Plants can’t grow as tall

• Cells must be in direct contact with moisture

• Materials move by diffusion cell-to-cell

• Sperm must swim to egg through water droplets

255 Nonvascular Plants

Includes
• Mosses (Bryophyta)
• Liverworts (Hepatophyta)
• Hornworts (Antherophyta)
256 ANATOMY
AND
PHYSIOLOGY

257 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

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258 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

259 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

260 SKELETAL SYSTEM

261 MUSCULAR SYSTEM

262 NERVOUS SYSTEM

263 INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

264 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

265 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

• Responsible or hormone production and regulation

266 EXCRETORY SYSTEM

• is the system of an organism's body that performs the function of excretion, the bodily process
of discharging wastes.
267 Thank You!

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