TOMB ARCHITECTURE

IN THE KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA

PROVINCE (PAKISTAN):
AN ANALYTICAL STUDY

By

Shakirullah

INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND

SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR
2012
 TOMB ARCHITECTURE
IN THE KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA
PROVINCE (PAKISTAN):
AN ANALYTICAL STUDY

A thesis, submitted to the Institute of Archaeology and Social

Anthropology, University of Peshawar in partial / fulfillment of the
requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Archaeology

Approved By:

1. Prof. Dr. Muhammad Nasim Khan ________________

Director, Institute of Archaeology Supervisor
and Social Anthropology,
University of Peshawar

2. ________________
Internal Examiner

3. ________________
External Examiner

INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY

UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR
2012
 Dedicated to:

(Late) Prof. (Dr.) Ahmad Hassan Dani

The founder of Archaeology in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province
 i

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface iii
Acknowledgement v
CHAPTER-I
Introduction 1
CHAPTER-II
Historical Setting 9
CHAPTER-III
Survey of Monuments 22
1. Pre-Muslim Period 22
2. Sultanate Period 23
3. Mughal Period 30
3.1 Early Mughal (1530-1707) 30
3.2 Late Mughal (1707-1857) 50
4. British period 53
5. Chitral (Northern Area) 67
CHAPTER-IV
Architectural and Decorative Features 71
1. Pre-Muslim period 74
2. Sultanate period 76
A. Glazed Tiles Decoration 78
B. Architectural Decoration 79
C. Architectural Features 79
3. Mughal Period 80
3.1 Early Mughal (1530-1707) 81
3.1.1 Reign of Humayun (1530-1538 & 1555-1556) 81
A. Architectural and Decorative Features 81
3.1.2 Reign of Akbar (1556-1605) 83
A. Architectural Features 83
B. Decorative Features 84
C. Painted Decoration 85
3.1.3 Reign of Jahangir (1605-1627) 85
3.1.4 Reign of Shahjahan (1628-1658) 86
 ii

A. Architectural and Decorative Features 86

B. Painted Decoration 88
3.1.5 Reign of Aurangzeb Alamgir (1658-1707) 89
A. Architectural and Decorative Features 89
B. Woodwork 93
C. Painted Decoration 93
D. Calligraphic Decoration 94
3.2 Late Mughal Period (1707-1857) 95
A. Architectural and Decorative Features 95
B. Painted Decoration 97
C. Calligraphic Decoration 97
4. British Period 97
A. Architectural and Decorative Features 98
B. Mirror / Glasswork 102
C. Woodwork 102
D. Lacquer Work 102
E. Painted Decoration 103
F. Calligraphic Decoration 105
5. Chitral (Northern Areas) 105
A. Architectural Features 105
B. Decorative Features 106
CHAPTER-V
Conclusions 108
Appendixes
Appendix-A: List of Monuments brought under discussion 115
Appendix-B: List of Figures 119
Appendix-C: List of Plates 121
Bibliography 124
Index 131
Figures
Plates
 iii

PREFACE
The earliest graves in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (abbreviated as KP) date since the Āryan
advent in this area in about the middle of the second millennium BC1. Both
inhumation and cremation were practised as shown by the evidence of numerous
graves excavated by the Italian Mission in Pakistan and the Department of
Archaeology, University of Peshawar in the Swāt and Dīr districts of this province.
These graves consist merely of rectangular pits dug in the ground with masonry
sidewalls in which uneven stone blocks, easily available in 1the neighbourhood, were
used2.

With the advent of Buddhism in this area in the 3rd century BC during the time of the
celebrated Mauryan King Aśoka3, a new mode for burying the ashes of the founder of
Buddhism, (Siddharta), who, after his enlightenment came to be known as Buddha,
was adopted. Now the grave was built above the level of the ground, which initially
looked like a small heap of earth. With the lapse of time it went on evolving and
changing shape until it developed into an imposing structure comprising a lofty base
under a huge, very often circular, drum which supported a dome of considerable size.
These tombs like domical structures called “Stupa” continued to be built until the
Ephthalite invasions in the 5th century brought about ruin and destruction4. When
Muslims reached KP early in the 11th century the stupas had already decayed.
The Muslims introduced an altogether new way of burying the dead. The dead body
was placed in a pit dug in the ground and covered with soil forming a small

1
For the advent of Āryan tribes and their advance into South Asia, see Asko Parpola, ‘The coming
of the Āryans to Iran and India and the cultural and ethic identity of the Dasas’, Studia Orientalia,
vol. 64, PP. 195-302, Hel Sinki 1988.
2
Ancient graveyards found in Swat and Dir have been attributed to those incoming Āryan tribes.
See G. Staccul, ‘Protohistoric graveyards (c. 1400 – 300 BC)’ and ‘Buner – Chitral Protohistoric
gravyards’ in Italain Archaeological Mission, (IsMEO) Pakistan, Swat – Documentary Exhibition
– 1956 –1981, PP. 16-18. Peshawar, March 1-4. 1982; A. H. Dani, Ancient Pakistan, vol. III,
1967, pp. 1-407.
3
According to the Mahavamsa, the Third Buddhist Council met in the time of Asoka at his capital
Pataliputra and was presided over by the monk Moggaliputta Tissa (Upagupta in the northern
texts). The Council deputed missionaries to different countries. The monk Majjhantika was sent to
Gandhara and Kashmir. See R. C. Majumdar, ed., The History and Culture of Indian Peoples,
Bombay. 5th edn. 1980, P. 84.
4
J. Marshall in his book, The Buddhist Art of Gandhara, (2nd. edn. Karachi, 1973, P.1) remarks
“Finally, the death-blow to its (Gandhara) prosperity was given by the Ephthalites or White Huns,
who swept over the country about AD 465, carrying fire and sword wherever they went and
destroying the Buddhist monasteries”.
 iv

rectangular mound. Enclosing this mound was raised a square room5 having, very
often, domical roof. In some cases flat room is also found. This room embellished in
many different ways is called tomb. It needs to be pointed out that such an ornate
burial was neither recommended by Islam nor could every Muslim aspire for it. It is
only the selected few among the rulers and Sufis (saints) whose dead bodies were
given such an honour. How this tomb architecture developed in KP is stated in the
following pages. The study is based upon an extensive field survey. The monuments
reported by other writers have also been included and their labour duly acknowledge.

A few words are necessary to explain the system of transliteration adopted in this
work. I have not strictly followed the system of the Encyclopaedia of Islam, as it
appears to be only bewildering to the general reader unacquainted with the Arabic
alphabet and pronunciation. I have given the words as commonly pronounced by non-
Arabs, but some of the sounds have been differentiated with the help of dots. The
letter non a ot ‫ث‬-Arab conveys a sound identical with S in ‘sin’ and is accordingly
pronounced as such. Nor, unless an Arabic scholar, does he perceive any difference
between ‫ ث‬and ‫( ص‬sad). He pronounces them all alike. But we have put a dot below

S to indicate ‫ص‬. Similarly, the letters ‫( ذ‬Zal), ‫( ز‬Zay), ‫( ض‬Zad) and ‫( ظ‬Zoi) convey

to the non-Arab almost identical sound. He also perceives no difference between ‫ث‬

and ‫( ط‬toi), or between the hard aspirate ‫( ح‬as in A h mad) and the softer form as in

Hārūn. But we have indicated ‫ ح‬with h. But in the case of words spelt with a ‫ ث‬such
as hadis, I have considered it necessary to denote the Arabic pronunciation with a th.

The ordinary fatha or zabar I have represented by a pronounced as u in ‘cut’ or ‘but’;

the ordinary zamma or pesh by u (pronounced like u in pull; the ordinary kasra or zer
with the letter i, as in gift. Long ū is represented by the u as in Hārūn, long i by ī and
long a by a. Waw ‫ ﻗ‬with fatha I have represented by au as in maudūd. The letter ‫ع‬

(áin) is represented by an inverted comma. The letter ‫( غ‬ghain) is denoted by gh, ‫ ق‬by

q, ‫ خ‬by kh and ‫ د‬by d. The rest of the letters are the same as in English.

5
Only wealthy people could afford such a burial. Common people were satisfied with a simple
grave with no room to cover it.
 v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The compilation of a research work needs many hands and many indeed are the
people, who have been helped me one-way or the other. I gratefully acknowledge
their help, though it is not possible for me to name all of them individually.

I owe a great debt of gratitude to my supervisor Prof. (Dr.) Muhammad Nasim Khan,
Director, Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Peshawar, for his
guidance, help, correction and efficient supervision.

I have always been indebted to my revered teacher Dr. Abdur Rehman, former
Professor and Chairman of the Department of Archaeology, University of Peshawar,
founder of the Department of Archaeology, University of the Punjab, Lahore;
formerly Consultant for the Directorate of Archaeology and Museum, Government of
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, for his guidance, fatherly affection and ever-ready help and
cooperation at the hour of need. I am extremely thankful to him for making necessary
corrections in the initial draft and for useful suggestions for the improvement of this
work.

The author is also thankful to Prof. (Dr.) Muhammad Farooq Swati, Dean Faculty of
Arts and Humanities, University of Peshawar for his cooperation during this work.

The author is grateful to Prof. Farid Khan, former Chairman of the Department of
Archaeology, University of Peshawar and founder Director, Directorate of
Archaeology and Museums, Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, for his valuable
discussions and help and to Dr. Muhammad Asif Khan, Director, Centre for
Excellence in Geology, University of Peshawar for his cooperation.

I shall be failing in my duty, if I do not mention the names of my friends Dr. Gul
Rahim Khan, Dr. Ibrahim Shah, both Associate Professors, Dr. Zakirullah Jan and
Muhammad Naeem Qazi, Assistant Professors, Mr. Muhammad Naeem Bacha
(Survyer-cum Draughtsman), Mr. Asad Ali (Photographer), Mr. Asim Amin, Field
Superintendent – all of the Institute of Archaeology and Social Anthropology,
University of Peshawar. Mr. Fazal Sher, Administrative Officer, Prof. (Dr.)
Hizbullah, Director Admissions, Mr. Fayaz Ali, Assistant Professor of Geology,
University of Peshawar. Dr. Rashid Ahmad, Professor and Chairman, Department of
 vi

Chemistry, University of Malakand (lower Dir). Dr. Lutf ur-Rahman, Lecturer in

Archaeology, Government Degree Collage, Timargarha (Dir). Dr. Badshah Sardar,
Assistant Professor of Archaeology, Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad. Dr.
Abdul Samad, Head, Department of Archaeology, Mr. Fazali Sattar, Head,
Department of Art & Design and Dr. Zain al Wahab, Assistant Professor, Department
of Conservation Studies, Hazara University, Mansehra, missed no opportunity to help
me, whenever I needed them.

The author takes this opportunity to express his thanks to Messers Mr. Muhammad
Daud Kamal (former) Draughtsman, Mr. Khan Faraz (Photographer) and Mr. Tahir
Ali, (Superintendent) of the Directorate of Archaeology and Museum, Government of
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Mr. Muhammad Hanif, Computer Assistant, Office of the
Provost and Mr. Shahid Rabbani, Superintendent, Vice Chancellor’s Office, Hazara
University, Mansehra.

My special thanks are due to Dr. Habib Ahmad (TI), Professor and Chairman,
Department of Genetics, Dr. Muqarrab Shah, Professor and Dean Faculty of Health
sciences, Prof. (Dr.) Muhammad Farid Khan, Director Academic and Provost, Mr.
Akbar Khan, Director Finance, Dr. Syed Iqbal Shah, Professor and Coordinator,
Havelian Campus and Prof. (Dr.) Syed Sakhawat Shah (Pride of Performance), Vice
Chancellor, Hazara University, Mansehra. They all have been very much kind and
pushing me for early completion of this work. I am thankful to them all.

In the end, I must acknowledge the kind help of (Late) Saleh Muhammad Khan,
former Director, Directorate of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa, Peshawar. As he is no longer amongst us, May God bless his sole with
peace and tranquility (Āmin).
Shakirullah
 1

CHAPTER-I

INTRODUCTION

The fertile lands and wealth of India have always been attracting people (both
invaders and traders) from neighbouring regions since the remotest past. The invaders
came and disappeared with the lapse of time, but the cultural vestiges they left behind
can still be seen abundantly. Each time the invaders came, they brought their own
cultural norms, which in due course were moulded and given a local stamp. This
tremendously enriched the cultural repertoire of the land. The same happened in the
case of Muslims, when they occupied India. The northwestern part of the Indian
subcontinent came first in direct contact with the Muslim invaders towards the end of
the 10th century, when Maḥmūd of Ghazna advanced against the Hindu Shāhis of
Gandhāra and put an end to their power. He annexed Gandhāra and Punjāb and
appointed his own governors. He also laid the foundation of Muslim architecture in
the subcontinent.

Muslim architecture is an expression, in beautiful building forms, of the desire of the

Muslims to achieve their spiritual and mundane goals through fascinating structures.
The buildings are erected in a social context and they serve the purposes and
ambitions of a human society. Hence they are not dead but are living monuments of
human endeavour to create beautiful shapes. They are made in accordance with the
resources and technological abilities available at the time. Therefore material
resources and engineering skills are the basic factors, which transform social and
spiritual needs into aesthetically pleasing creations. Through the study of architecture
we can understand the role of man and his society behind all these noble creations.

Muslim architecture of the North West Pakistan encompasses various buildings,

which are associated with different phases of history and may be divided into two
broad groups: (a) Religious and (b) Secular Buildings.

The religious buildings may be further divided into two sub groups: (i) Mosques and
(ii) Tombs. The secular buildings consist of houses, sarais (Inns), gardens, forts and
palaces etc. The present research is however confined merely to the study of tomb
architecture (sub-group of group-I) in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (abbreviated as KP).
 2

In order to prepare a list of such monuments and study their locales a comprehensive
survey was conducted throughout the KP. Monuments were studied on the spot and
their owners were questioned and persuaded to share with us their reminiscences of
the buildings under their control and the persons buried therein. We were not always
successful for the people in general tended to exaggerate the merits of the Babas 1 than
giving a truthful account. Fact and fiction therefore had to be separated first of all.
The result was a comprehensive list of 52 monuments (see Appendix-A). These are
arranged chronologically and related to the well-known periods of the South Asian
history. Such as Pre-Muslim Period, Sultanate Period, Mughal Period and British
Period. Two of the monuments fall in the Pre-Muslim, six in the Sultanate, twenty-
three in the Mughal, and twenty-one in the British period. Six tombs from Chitral are
comparatively recent.

Besides what could be collected in the field regarding the life sketch of each Baba,
substantial help has been taken from historical accounts left behind by their
descendants. The most famous among the Bābās such as Kākā Ṣāḥib found their own
historians, but a large number of these have left nothing behind except a vague
memory of their piety. Similarly some of the buildings erected over the graves of
these saintly figures were properly looked after by the owners, whereas others
collapsed out of sheer negligence and have not been repaired. The problem of
arranging these buildings in a fixed chronological order is no doubt insurmountable
for record dates are available only for a very few examples. But approximate dates
could be worked out on the basis of stylistic analysis. In the absence of record dates
we have frequently made use of this second option.

No exhaustive account of all these monuments have appeared so far, though

individual buildings have been discussed by some scholars. Their help in this regard is
duly acknowledged. The rest is the fruit of our own labour.

1
Bābā literally means an elderly person. In the present context it stands for a “Saint”. Also called
Shaikhs, the Bābās are held in the highest esteem in the Pashtun society and Command great
respect. Their graves are frequently visited by people and are known as Ziarats (Shrines). For their
superior holiness and piety the Bābās acquired the titles of Zburg or Buzurg (saint) and Pīr
(Spiritual guide). The memory of these Zburgs, whether fictitious or real, is perpetuated by shrines
each believed to possess it own peculiar virtues for benefiting both men and brute. Some have the
power of rendering women and cattle of the same gender prolific; others vouchsafe the desires of
intriguing lovers. Some protect their devotees from evil eye, others ensure riches and prosperity.
Some shrines cure fever; others opthalmia , and soon.
 3

Except for the mausoleum of Nawāb Sáīd Khan, which exhibits liberal use of funds,
the rest of the tombs were raised by the families of the saint buried in them or by their
faithful devotees. Paucity of resources therefore stares in the face of the on-lookers.
The provision of a Chahārbāgh, as we find in the case of the tomb of Nawāb Sáīd
Khan; for each of these tombs, was out of the question. There was no money to
undertake such costly adventures. The saint had to be satisfied only with one solitary
room, very often domical in profile, which in most cases does not exhibit the best of
the then available craftsmanship.

The construction of tombs was disapproved in Islam. This is why we do not find any
tomb in the first two centuries of it advent anywhere in the Muslim world. The first
tomb was built in the year 248 H/862 for the Caliph al-Muntasir whose Greek mother
requested and obtained permission to erect a mausoleum for him2. Subsequently two
other Caliphs, namely, al-Mǘtazz and al-Muhtadi were also buried in this tomb. The
place is known as Qubbat as-Sulaibiya and is situated on the west bank of the Tigris
on the top of a hill about a mile south of the Qasr al –´Āshiq near Samarra. The
building consists of an inner octagon of which all the sides are intact, and an outer
octagon of which more than half has collapsed. Between the two is an ambulatory
2.62 m in width, which must have been covered by a tunnel vault, for the springing of
the sixteen transverse arches on which the vault rested are to be observed, two at the
ends of each side of the inner octagon. There is an arched entrance 2.13 m wide in
each remaining face of the outer octagon, but only four, 1.60 m in width, in those
sides of the inner octagon, which face the four cardinal points. On passing into the
interior one is surprised to find that the central chamber, instead of being octagonal
also, is a square averaging 6.31 m a side. The four corners of the square chamber
almost penetrate to the faces of the octagon, there by seriously weakening it. Each
doorway is flanked by a semi circular niche 6.3 cm wide. Just enough remains of the
zone of transition at the southeast corner to show that the square was converted into
an octagon by squinches from which we may safely conclude that it was covered by a
dome. The whole building is constructed of a kind of artificial stone in the form of

2
According to Tabari (1939: vol. VII: 415-16) the name of Muntasir’s mother was Habashiya
(‫)حبثیہ‬. Ibn Kasir (vols. 9-10: 917) has Habasha. Ibn-i Asir (vol. 7: 115) mentions this event but
does not name the Greek lady (Muntasir’s mother). Mas’ud (vol. IV: 134) has Habashiya. He
further says that this tomb was built near Samarra.
 4

bricks measuring 32 x 33 cm square and 10 cm thick; they are mainly composed of

clay, but with a strong admixture of quartz. It is as hard as stone.

Although other octagonal mausoleums of a later date are known, there is no other
example of a mausoleum with an octagonal ambulatory throughout the Middle East.
The only country where such a type at one time enjoyed a certain amount of
popularity in India.

For the other two magnificent examples we have to travel to Central Asia where the
mausoleums of Ismā´il Sāmāni, (c. 907) and that of Tamerlane (1434) still
majestically stand at Bokhara and Samarkand respectively. The mausoleum of Ismail
is “to be classed as a work of art rather than a piece of historical evidence” (Rice
1965: 48). The decorative brickwork of the setting for its dome is of great quality and
originality; it is the earliest example we have of a technique which was to become
very popular in Persia and in which work of great beauty was to be executed. On the
exterior of the mausoleum the patterns of the brickwork seem to have been inspired
by basketwork.

In the context of architecture the period between 1370 and 1500 was the most
outstanding in Persia, even though its beginning was marked by a phase of conquest
under Tamerlane which was little less violent than that of the first Mongol eruption
under Hulagu. But if there were destructions, they were less widespread than in the
thirteenth century, and Tamerlane was almost as outstanding as a patron of
architecture and the arts as he was as a conqueror. The example he set was followed
by his successors, nearly all of whom were active and enlightened patrons. The
Superb Gawhar Shād at Meshad thus dates from between 1405 and 1418 and most of
the buildings at Herat belong to the first quarter of the fifteenth century. Work was
also done at Balkh, Shiraz and in numerous other places.

It was, however, primarily in his beloved country Turkistān that Tamerlane’s own
patronage was most active, and it is here that some of the finest mosquesw of the age
around 1400 are to be found; it was here, too, at Samarkand, that he was buried. His
mausoleum, the Gur Emir, with which we are mainly concerned here, finished in
1434, is one of the world’s most perfect buildings, and there was a series of other
mosques and mausoleum there which are little less superb. Most of them are
 5

distinguished by a new type of dome, lobed and slightly bulbous, but of great beauty.
The use of tile – work on the exteriors was also greatly extended, so that whole
façade, even the domes themselves, came to be decorated. The tile decoration set the
keynote against which the other arts were developed. It is one of unusual richness and
brilliance.

Nearer at hand in India, the earliest tomb was that of Iltutmish (1210 – 1235), one of
the outstanding Turkish Sultans of Delhi. The tomb stands behind the northwest
corner of the mosque known as Quwwat al-Islam at Old Delhi. It is one of the richest
examples of Hindu art applied to Muslim purposes in the sense that Hindu craftsmen
were engaged to work under a Muslim patron who had to take guidance from the
Sharia´ in the selection of decorative motifs. In addition to the beauty of its details it
is interesting as being the oldest tomb known to exist in India. It is a square tomb.

Another memorial in honour of the dead in the mausoleum of the celebrated

Suhrawardiya saint Shaikh Rukn al-Dīn, generally known as Shah Rukni ´Ālam, the
grandson and spiritual successor of Shaikh Bahā al-Dīn Zakariya, at Multan. It was
constructed, according to a popular belief, by Giyas-al-Dīn Tughluq, during the days
of his governorship of Dipalpur for himself (before 720/1320), but was later on given
away by Firuz Shah Tughluq to the descendants of Shaikh Rukn-i ´Ālam for the
latter’s burial.

The mausoleum of Rukn-i ´Ālam has been noticed and admired not only by the
chroniclers and travellers who have visited this historical city of Multan (Khan 1983:
215-36) but also by almost all the art-historians and archaeologists who have dealt
with the history of the medieval architecture in the Subcontinent. It has been argued
that if in the mausoleum of Sher Shāh, which is of the octagonal type, the
Subcontinent possesses the climax of the architecture developed during the Sultanate
period, and the Taj is regarded as the zenith of the sumptuous art of building evolved
and patronized by the Imperial Mughals, the mausoleum of Rukn-i ´Ālam is the most
conspicuous master piece of the early Muslim architecture in Pakistan. Indeed it
continued to influence and impress the architects for more than seven centuries, who
used it as a befitting model for other tombs. The most outstanding feature of this
octagonal tomb, having tapering walls, is the extensive use of glazed tiles. In this
octagonal type also fall the tombs of Bahā ad-Dīn Zakariya, Sultan Áli Akbar, Shams
 6

Sabzwāri, Said Khan Qureshi, Māi Mehrabān and many others with some variation.
All these tombs are located at Multan.

At Uch there is a group of three octagonal tombs. The earliest of these three is that of
Bahā-ad-Dīn Uchi, commonly known as Bahā al-Ḥalīm. Not much is known of the
personage except that he was the teacher of the great Jahāniyān Jahān Gasht and that
according to the common belief, his tomb was erected by the illustrious pupil.
Similarly the adjoining mausoleum of the pious lady, Bībī Jawindī, a great grand
daughter of Jahāniyān Jahān Gasht is said to have been constructed in 900/1494 at the
instance of a certain ruler or prince of Khurāsān whose name has come down to us as
Muḥammad Dilshād (Khan 1980: 64). The architect – mason responsible for the
construction of the mausoleum is also lying buried in the nearby third tomb of the
series (Khan 1980: 64). This style is generally called the Multan style of architecture.
The tomb of Bībī Jawindī is famous for lustrous tile decoration. It is by for the ornate
of the series and entirely depends upon faience revetment for its ornamentation, which
covers almost every inch of its exterior. The lower story is crowned with a parapet
riveted with false crenellation of glazed tiles having the word Allah (‫ )ہللا‬in the upper
boss. The interior of the tomb also presents a unique feast of surface ornamentation.
Here, the interplay of faience and faience mosaic, glazed plaster, cut-brick and wood
is both fascinating as well as fabulous (Khan 1980: 64).

The earliest specimen of this type in Pakistan, still passing through evolutionary
stages, was erected at a place called Bela in Balūchistān. The simple square building
is a tomb of some unknown personality attributed to Muḥammad b. Hārūn, an Arab
general in the army of Muḥammad b. Qāsim. But no epigraphic or literary evidence is
available to confirm this attribution. Stylistically, the construction seems to be of a
later date. It has a low dome based on an octagonal zone of transition created by
simple pendentives raised from the plinth level. This technique is further evolved in
the mud-brick tomb of Shāh Gardez located in a small village called Ādam Wāhan in
Bahawalpur. The zone of transition in this tomb shows regular squinches. It was most
probably after this initial experimentation that the tomb of Bahā al-Dīn Zakariya was
designed in 1262 (Khan 1980: 61).

Among the media of surface decoration, faience and mosaic has been the most
favoured. In general three main types of glazed tiles may be observed: (1) plain
 7

square or rectangular terracotta tiles painted and glazed in various hues, mainly
Persian blue and white, (2) those having floral designs on rectangular terracotta tiles
with foliage design in blue and white created in high relief, (3) terracotta plugs with
their broad ends cut in recess in various geometric patterns and painted white or blue.

Besides the octagonal type there exists at Uch some flat-roofed rectangular or square
–shaped brick tombs decorated with glazed tiles, tile mosaics, woodcarving and
lacquer work. The type appears to be more common as compared to the domed
mausolea. The materials used in these constructions were, however, of less permanent
nature resulting over the time in the collapse of several such buildings (Khan 1980:
54-56).

It may be pointed out that there was no ban on the use of colour in such monuments.
The only thing, which was strictly prohibited, was the representation of animal life.
Although, there is no specific mention of pictures in the Qurān and the only verse
(Qur. V. 92) “O believers, wine and games of chance and statues and (divining)
arrows are an abomination of Satan’s handiwork; then avoid it” quoted by later
generations of theologians in support of their condemnation of pictures has nothing so
specific.

But the Tradition (Hadis) on the subject of painting are uncompromising in their
condemnation and speak with no uncertain voice, e. g. the Prophet (peace be upon
him) is reported to have said that those who will be most severely punished by God on
the day of Judgement will be the painters (Arnold 1965: 5). On the Day of Judgement
the punishment of hell will be meted out to the painter, and he will be called upon to
breathe life into the forms that he fashioned, but he cannot breathe life into any thing
(Arnold 1965: 5).

Strangest of all, in view of the condemnation of such paintings by succeeding

generations of Muslims, is the story that when, after his triumphal entry into Makka,
Muḥammad (PBUH) went inside the Ka´bah, he ordered the pictures in it to be
obliterated, but put his hand over the picture of Mary, with Jesus seated on lap, that
was painted on a pillar, and said, “Rub out all the pictures except these under my
hands, as Azraqi says (Creswell 1958: 97). It was not until years later, in 683, when
the anti-Caliph Ábd Allāh b. Zubair was being besieged in the Holy City by the
 8

Ummayyad troops that these pictures perished in the fire, which destroyed the Ka´bah
(Arnold 1965: 7).

Further, the Prophet (PBUH) does not appear to have objected to the figures of men or
animals on the woven stuffs with which his house in Madina was decorated, so long
as they did not distract his attention while engaged in prayer, and so long as they were
in their proper place, being either sat upon in cushions or trampled underfoot in
carpet, when he found that ´Āisha had hung up a curtain with figures on it at the door
of her room, he exclaimed that those who thus imitated the creative activity of God
would be most severely punished on the Day of Judgement; but he was quite satisfied
when his wife cut up the offending fabric and made cushion covers out of it (Arnold
1965: 7). This hostile attitude on the part of Islam to pictorial art has given to the
whole history of its propaganda, and to the organization of its devout life, a
complexion fundamentally diverse from that of either Buddhism or Christianity, both
of which have made use of paintings in order to attract fresh converts or to instruct
and edify the faithful. It has effectively prevented the admittance of painting into any
part of the religious life of the Muslim world. In no mosque nor in any other religious
building are there to be found either statues or pictures of animal life.

The art most highly valued by the Muslims themselves was that of calligraphy. This
they were proud of cultivating themselves. Even Kings did not think it beneath their
dignity to compete in this art with professional calligraphers, and sought to win
religious merit by writing out copies of the Qurān3.

This brief survey of the tombs and decorative arts shows that there existed a great
repertoire of artistic traditions for the tomb builders of KP to draw upon. How far did
they succeed will be shown in the following chapters.

3
The long list of such pious princes includes the names of many whose busy lives could hardly
have been expected to afford leisure for so toilsome an occupation. In India, Nāsir ad-Dīn
Maḥmūd Shah (1246-1263), one of the Qurān every year (Tabaqāt-i Akbari, Bibl. Ind., P. 77). Of
the Mughal imperial family, Bābur sent a copy to Mecca, transcribed in the special form of script
which he is said to have himself devised (A. S. Beveridge, Bābur Nāma, APP., P. Ixiii ). Prince
Dara Shikoh, son of Shahjahan, is known to have made several copies, and his brother, the
Emperor Aurangzeb (1659-1707) sent to Mecca two sumptuously bound and illuminated copies,
volued at 5000 rupees, finely written out by his own hand (Ma´āthir-i ´Ālamgīri, P. 532) and other
copies he made still exist in India.
 9

CHAPTER-II

HISTORICAL SETTING

Because of its location on the highway linking Central Asia with South Asia, the KP
(Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) had to face the brunt of several foreign invaders. The first
among these were Aryans who entered this area in about the middle of the second
millennium BC and destroyed a highly advanced civilization. They were followed,
respectively by Achaemenians, Alexander the Great, Indo-Greeks, Indo-Scythians,
Parthians, Kushāns, Sāsānians, Hūns and Turks. As a result of Majjhantika’s effort in
the 3rd century BC Gandhāra became the second home of Buddhism. It gave birth to a
peculiar type of art now known as Gandhāra Art. The climax period of this art was
from first to third century AD but it may have continued to exist till about the fifth
century AD when the White Huns wiped it off. Prof. G. Tucci has suggested that
Buddhism lingered on in Swāt till about the thirteenth century AD (Tucci 1940: 9-12).

As Buddhists cremated their dead, they did not need formal tombs but the tomblike
structures they built to bury the ashes, in the course of time, developed the same
features as those of a tomb. Both are domical structures. On the face of it, the tomb
like structure generally known as stupa, in its profile shows a platform, drum and
dome which might be taken to have inspired tomb architecture, for, both exhibit the
same features. That this may really have been the case in KP as well, we have two
good examples in this area belonging to the eighth or ninth century AD (Rahman
1984: 123): the Balo Kili Gumbat near Barikot (Swāt) and the Panjkotai Vihāra in
Buner (Stein 1898: 33-34). Both the shrines have square ground plan, round drum and
bulbous domes as found in stupas. As to the purpose these shrines served, it has been
suggested that the central chamber of the building contained the figure of a colossal
standing Buddha or Boddhisattva modelled in stucco (Rahman 1984: 127).
Apparently, as the stupa became a model for the construction of a shrine, the shrine in
turn, in a wider sense may have become the model for a tomb. Later on tomb
architecture absorbed many different decorative features as Muslim invaders from
different parts of the world brought with them their own experiences regarding
disposal of the dead. This gave birth to a new form of architecture. It may be a curious
coincidence that three earliest monuments – the Dome of Rock, the Qubbat as-
 10

Sulbīya, Balo Kili Gumbat –, situated in distant lands, share with each other as least
one feature and that is the ambulatory running around the central chamber

In AD 977 Sabuktigān, the ruler of Ghazna, defeated Jayapāla, the Shāhi ruler of
Hund (Udabhāndapura) and extended the border of the kingdom to Peshawar
(Rahman 1981: 15). When Sabuktigīn died in AD 997, he was succeeded by his
celebrated son Maḥmūd, who conquered the Hindu Shāhi’s country and appointed his
own governors / commanders. For the first time almost the whole of the Indus basin
(the present day Pakistan) came under the jurisdiction of a single Muslim ruler
(Rahman 1981: 16). But due to uncertain political conditions in the war-hit area, the
environment in general, was incongenial for the growth of architecture. Thus, besides
a mosque in Uḍigrām (Swāt), we have only one tomb building of this period in
Pakistan. This is the tomb of a certain Saif ad – Daula Maḥmūd. Who this Saif ad –
Daula was, tradition has nothing to say. But the location of the tomb in the area of
Kaṛmān, an important halting station for the Ghaznavid armies’ enroute to the Indo-
Pak subcontinent, clearly suggests, its association with one of the descendants of
Sabuktigīn. Now, among the descendants of Sabuktigīn there are at least six persons,
who bear the name Maḥmūd. But out of these six, only two had outstanding
personalities: one was Maḥmūd, the great, b. Sabuktigīn, who is known to have led as
many as seventeen invasions of India, and the other a certain prince known as Saif ad
– Daula Maḥmūd b. Ibrāhīm who was superseded by his brother Maśūd – III on the
throne of Ghazna (Rahman 1989: 80).

The fate of Kaṛmān was indeed closely linked with the rise and fall of Ghazna, due to
its strategic position. The Kaṛmān Fort was one of the strongest forts of the
Ghaznavid Empire. Saif ad-Daula, having been appointed governor in India soon
became suspect in the eyes of his father King Ibrāhīm, who is known to have thrown
him into a prison. It seems Saif ad – Daula Maḥmūd was imprisoned in Kaṛmān. In
any case, he seems to have spent at least the last years of his life in Kaṛmān Fort, the
ruins of which are still visible on the surface, and here he was buried after his death in
the tomb now known as the tomb of Saif ad – Daula Maḥmūd (Rahman 1989: 83).

The Ghaznavid were succeeded by Ghurids in AD 1186. Qutb ad – Dīn Aibak, a

Ghurid slave started a new line of Turkish kings known in AD 1206. This is called the
Slave (Mamlūk) Dynasty. In AD 1290 the Khalji Dynasty occupied the throne of
 11

Delhi. But these dynasties have left no tomb building in KP. In Pakistan, the only
tomb belonging to this period is found near Khanewal in Punjāb.

The Tughlaqs, who succeeded the Khaljis ruled from AD 1320 to 1414. The Tughlaqs
had a strong hold in Sindh and Punjāb. We have some important buildings of this
period in Multan (Punjāb) like the tomb of Shāh Rukn – i ´Ālam (d. 1320 – 24) (Khan
1983: 20-28; 1990: 119), etc. The southern part of KP province was directly
influenced by the rulers of this dynasty as is evidenced in a group of four tombs at
Lāāl Māhra Sharīf, some sixty km from the present city of Derā Ismā´īl Khān.
The successors of the Tughlaqs, namely the Sayyids and Lodis, have left no
architectural remains in KP. It is likely that their rule did not extend to this province.

In the 14th century AD Sayyid Àlī Hamadāni came to Kashmīr and died there
(Hamdāni 1985: 185). On the way back to Central Asia, the people carrying his dead
body stayed for a while at Naukot, Mansehra, in AD 1384. He was finally buried in
Kulyāb (Negmatov 1992: 5-8). A memorial was constructed at Naukot to mark this
event.

After the victory of Zahīr ad – Dīn Bābur at the historic battlefield of Pānipat in AD
1526, the foundation of Mughal dynasty was firmly laid. It opened a new chapter of
great intellectual and artistic activities in the Indian history. It has been aptly
described as the “Indian Summer” of Muslim Art and Architecture (Rahman 1981:
28). This obviously was the result of congenial circumstances, the wealth, the power
of the empire and settled conditions. The art of the Mughals was inspired by the
throne and entirely depended on imperial patronage, rising to the greatest heights
when stimulated by the personal interest of the ruler, but languishing when it
declined. The artistic nature of the Mughals took expression in various architectural
forms such as mosques, palaces, forts, gardens, sarais and tombs. For the sake of
convenience we divide this period into two phases: 1. Early, 2. Late.

Early Mughal: This time bracket includes the reigns of Zahīr ad – Dīn Bābur, Naṣīr
ad Din Humāyūn, Jalāl ad-Dīn Akbar, Nūr ad-Din Jahāngīr, Shāhāb ad-Dīn Shāhjahān
and Muhayy ad-Dīn Aurangzeb Alamgīr. No tomb building of the time of Bābur
(1526-1530) exists in KP. To Humāyūn’s (1530-56) time has been assigned the tomb
of Áṣā – i – Sakhi Shāh – i Mardān in Peshāwar city, which was built by Sayyid Abū
 12

Naṣr’s (Jáffar 1946: 109 – 110), a noble of the court of the emperor Humāyūn, with
his financial assistance (Das 1874: 149). After the death of Humāyūn his son Akbar
(1556-1605) constructed a number of forts and palaces using red sand stone as a
building material. In KP the tombs associated with his reign are those of the Sayyid
Hanānā at Chiṛā (D. I. Khān), Sakhi Ṣāḥib at D. I. Khān and Shaikh Qutb ad – Dīn at
Dilazāk, Peshāwar.

The Emperor Jahāngīr (1605-1527) succeeded his father Akbar. By his temperament
he was pleasure loving and fond of natural beauty. He was little interested in
architecture (Sharma 1964: 313). No tomb exists in this part of the subcontinent of his
reign.

Shāhjahān (1628-1658), the builder king of India, was enthroned after the death of
Jahāngīr. He preferred marble to other materials for construction and decoration. A
number of his monuments still exist in Lahore and Ṭhaṭṭa. An imposing building
belonging to this period in KP is the tomb of the Nawab Sáīd Khan, governor of the
Ṣūba “Kābul and Peshāwar” and also of Lahore, Multan, Qandahār and Bihār at other
occasions. He had a very close association with Peshāwar. The second tomb is that of
the Shaikh Sulṭān Bābā, located at Tira’i Bālā about five kilometres to the north –
west of Peshāwar city (Dani 1969: 190). Another building of this period is the tomb of
the shaikh Imam al – Dīn at Palosi Pirān, Peshāwar. His wife is buried separately in a
small tomb.

Another group of tombs of the same period is located at Thal (namely Tor Gumbat
and Spin Gumbat) on the ancient route along the river Kurram connecting Pāṛāchinār
with Kohat on the one hand and Bannu on the other. This was the main thoroughfare
for the movement of armies from Ghazni to the Indus plain. This area from the time
of Akbar to the invasion of Nādir Shāh (1738) formed part of the Mughal Empire
(Khan 1993: 190).

The tomb of Sulṭān Maḥmūd Khurd at Guli Bāgh, Mānsehra was built by the ruler of
Pakhli, the last Turk ruler, who succeeded his father the Sulṭān Shādmān Khān in the
reign of Shāhjahān (Pani 2001: 286).

With the advent of the reign of Aurangzeb, the last of the Grand Mughals, the
beginning of the decline of the Mughal style of architecture becomes evident. The
 13

Mahābat Khān Mosque located in the old city of Peshāwar (Ahmad 1993: 145-147),
was built by Mahābat Khān, governor of the “Ṣūba Kābul wa Peshāwar”, (AD 1658 –
1662) (Shah 1993: 151) during this reign.

An important group of tombs of this period in Peshāwar comprise the Roshanāi tombs
at Koṭla Muḥsin Khān. The Koṭla Muḥsin Khān was received as a grant from the
Mughal Emperor Shāhjahān by Muḥibullah Khān, the father of Ma΄zullah Khān, a
Pashto poet contemporary of Άbdul Qādir Khān Khaṭṭak (Bokhāri 1958: 7-12).
Muḥsin Khān was a cousin of the poet and then the Koṭla became known after his
name. The purpose of Shāhjahān behind the grant was to plant somebody in the
neighbourhood of the Roshania colony (Rahman 1987: 391). The Roshania colony
and the Koṭla Muḥsin Khān are very close to each other. The Koṭla had a fortification
wall and a highly embellished two-storeyed gateway now in bad condition. The tombs
belong to the post peace period of the Roshania and the Mughal rulers. One of these
tombs may be ascribed to Άbdal Qādir, who is explicitly mentioned to have been
buried in Peshāwar. The other may belong to Karīm Dād or one of the prominent
descendants of Άbdal Qādir (Rahman 1987: 395). The place is locally known as
“Mohallah Rukhāni” (Roshania Street), which shows that some of the descendants of
Bāyazīd, the Pīr-i Roshan, had lived here. The descendants of Bāyazīd, some of
whom are still living there claim that the tombs belongs to their ancestors.

Another tomb is that of Άbd al – Rashīd, known as Bajauṛi Bābā, on Kohāt road in
Peshāwar. Άbd al – Rashīd, originally belonged to the Bajauṛ Agency, but he
migrated to Peshāwar and settled there (Shah 2004: 117-118). After his death, a tomb
was constructed by his devotees and descendants over his grave. In Kohāt the tombs
belonging to the reign of Aurangzeb are the ones attributed to the Shaikhs Allāh Dād
and Karīm Dād and the tomb of Sayyid Miān Fatḥ Shāh. According to their
descendants, the Shaikhs Allāh Dād and Karīm Dād came from Gardiz and became
the follower of Kākā Ṣāḥib (Shakir 1994: 255-261). It is said that Shaikh Allāh Dād
was the son of Shaikh Rohani Gardezi and Shaikh Karīm Dād a son of the former
(Shakir 1998: 59). After spending some time with Kākā Ṣāḥib, they came to the place,
where they are now buried and settled there for the purpose of teaching and preaching
of Islam. It was the time of Aurangzeb ´Ālamgīr, as tradition goes. After the death of
these two saints, Shaikh Άjāib al – Dīn, the son of Shaikh Kārīm Dād, became
prominent. In AD 1733 Aḥmad Shāh Abdāli came here and met the Shaikh Άjāib al –
 14

Dīn. The king issued a Farmān (order), with his court stamp and exempted the people
of the village from military duty. The sum of money collected through alms (zakāt)
and revenue tax was to be spent on the maintenance of the tombs (Shakir 1998: 59).
The tomb of Sayyid Miān Fatḥ Shāh in Sher Kot, Kohāt, also belongs to this period.
Although the Sayyid has gone unnoticed in history, it is believed that he was an
elderly saint and lived in the late Mughal period. His followers built the said tomb on
his grave through charity.

The Ziārat of Nimawṛae Bābā at Charsada is built on a high mound in Turangzai area.
The place was used by the saint as a Khānqāh (saint’s prayer place), which also
become his burial place. The descendants of the saint are still living in the same area
and are known as Nimawṛae Bābā Miāngān.

In the district Nowshera, we have three tombs of this period: (1) Kākā Ṣāḥib at Ziārat
Kākā Ṣāḥib. His real name was Kastīr Gul (Rashid 1988: 220; Qayyum n.d: 30;
Afghani 1967: 576; Kaka Khel 1986: 67; Quddusi 1966: 268). He is the ancestor of
the present Kākā Khels and died in 1063 H/AD1643, but the tomb was constructed in
AD1661 (Quddusi 1966: 301) in the reign of Aurangzeb under the supervision of the
Shaikh Abd al – Ḥalīm (Kākā Ṣāḥib’s son) by Indian masons. The expenditure was
met by the collection of money from different tribes as charity fund. (2) Ziyā ad – Dīn
Shahīd’s tomb in the same vicinity. Ziyā ad – Dīn was the elder son of Kākā Ṣāḥib
(Uqab 1964: 24; Quddusi 1966: 302) and son-in-law of Khushḥāl Khān Khaṭṭak the
famous poet, patriot and warrior. His real name was Azad Gul, but due to his pious
nature, he first came to be known as Shaikh Ziyā ad – Dīn and then, after his death, as
Shahid Bābā. Ashraf Khān, son of Khushḥāl Khān Khaṭṭak, hatched a plot against him
and poisoned the Baba to death in 1086 H/AD 1675 due to family differences and
attributed the incidence to snake bite. He lies buried in the same graveyard with Kākā
Ṣāḥib in a separate tomb (Shakir 1995: 74). (3) Shaikh Babur Baba’s tomb at Dāg
Ismā΄il Khel also belongs to this period (Shakir 1996: 87-88). His real name was Άli
Gohar Khaṭṭak but he was commonly known as Shaikh Bābur Bābā. He was also a
follower of Kākā Ṣāḥib. His ancestors hailed from Afghānistān and settled in the
piedmont area of Charāṭ hills at Dāg Ismā΄il Khel Village (Rashid 1988: 134), where
he was born in 998 H/AD 1589. After a life full of strenuous struggle, he died in 1079
H/AD 1668 at the age of 69 and was buried in the main graveyard of Dāg Ismā΄il
Khel. A separate tomb was constructed in 1111 H/AD 1699 by Prince Muázzam Shāh
 15

´Ālam Bahādur, son of Aurangzeb, who was at this time governor of Kābul (AD 1699
– 1707) (Shah 1993: 151). This is the only tomb of the area, which got financial
assistance from government functionaries. The provision of financial help in this case
suggests that the Mughal rulers who were against Khushḥāl Khān Khaṭṭak wanted to
take win over the sympathy of the local people of the Khaṭṭak tribe whom Khushḥāl
was urging to take up arms against the Mughals.

Late Mughal: Only a few tombs of this period are known in KP. One of these is the
tomb of Sayyid Άbd al-Wahāb alias Akhūnd Panjū Bābā at Akbarpura near Peshāwar.
He was born in Tarakai village of the District Swābi in 945 H/AD1538 (Qadari 1964:
17). His father Sayyid Burhān al – Dīn was known as Ghāzi Bābā (Afghani 1967:
475). When the family lived in Shāhdand at Peshāwar his father and mother died and
were buried there. At the age of forty-five (Qadari 1964: 17; Quddusi 1966: 209), he
left Shāhdand and permanently settled in Akbarpura (Das 1874: 202 - 203). It is said
that he used to preach under a date Palm. Shortly afterwards this place was converted
into a mosque called “Khajūr wāli Masjid” (Date Mosque) (Nasr 1951: 5). He died in
1040 A.H/A.D 1630. He lived to the ripe age of 99 and was buried at Misripur in
Akbarpura (Shah 1999: 73). In 1221 H/AD 1806 a certain Muṣtafā hailing from
Peshāwar constructed a tomb over the grave and installed a stele of white marble
engraved with couplets in Persian recording the year of the death of the saint and that
of the tomb construction (Quddusi 1966: 223). This tomb, like other religious
buildings of the Muslims, fell victim to the general depredation at the hands of the
Sikhs and was restored in the first quarter of the 20th century (Shah 1999: 73).

The second is the tomb of Dodā Bābā in Bajauṛ in the main graveyard of Dodā village
in the Nāwagai area. The early life of the saint and his real name is nowhere recorded,
but as narrated by the local people, he was an elderly saint when he settled here in the
Mughal period for preaching and teaching of Islam. After his death his followers
erected the tomb upon his grave. The date of the construction is inscribed on the inner
face of the western sidewall, which is 1213 H/AD1798.

British Period: The monuments of this period are scattered all-over the province,
each having different a style, depending upon the resources of the builder and the
environment for construction. The materials used in the construction of these tombs
are varied and include wazīri bricks (like the ones used during the Mughal Period),
 16

locally available stones, British period large size bricks, lime mortar and, in later
constructions, modern cement.

The tombs belonging to this period in Derā Ismā΄il Khān are (1) the tomb of the
Khwāja Miān Muḥammad Baran at Kulāchi, located in the north –west quarter of the
town. Muḥammad Baran was a notable saint of the 19th century. He died in the early
days of the British period. The tomb was constructed by his followers through charity
of the local community. (2) Another building in the same vicinity is the tomb of
Murād Khān at Kulāchi, which is located out side the city wall on the west side. The
saint is also known as Pīr Murād Khān or Faqīr Madad Khān. He served the area as a
preacher of Islam for a long time and died on 14th Sha´bān 1308H/ 23rd March
AD1891. Immediately after his death the mausoleum was erected by his descendants
and followers. (3) The third building is the tomb of Khwāja Muḥammad Āmir, at
Aṭṭal Sharīf tehsil Kulāchi, district D. I. Khān. It is a big modern village located on an
ancient mound. Khwāja Muḥammad Āmir came from Jeḥlum for preaching Islam and
settled there. After his death in 1364 H/AD 1944, his sons erected the building with
the technical help of a local mason from Kulāchi, named Shāh Nazar Khān, who had
received his training in India. The materials consist of typical large size British period
bricks, lime and modern cement.

The next group of tombs of this period is located in the district Nowshera. One of this
group is the tomb of Ghālib Gul Bābā located at Maṛoba in the Niẓāmpur valley.
Ghālib Gul was born in 858 H/AD 1454 (Kaka Khel 1986: 35, 41) and after
completing his education at different places, he went back to his home town called
Karboghā (Kohāt) in 900 H/AD 1494 (Kaka Khel 1986: 42). Afterwards he shifted to
Maṛoba in the Niẓāmpur valley for the purpose of education the masses in that area.
He died in 931 H/AD 1524-25 (Kaka Khel 1986: 35, 42) and was buried at Maṛoba
(Niẓāmpur). A long time after his death, in the last quarter of the 19th century, a tomb
was constructed by his descendants through charity (Shakir 1997-98: 51). The next
tomb in this group is that of Mast Bābā at Shaikhī village in Nowshera. Mast Bābā
was the grand father of Kākā Ṣāḥib and son of Ghālib Gul Bābā. His real name was
Nādir (Afghani 1967: 576). He was born on shawwāl 15, 915 H/AD1509-10 (Rashid
1988: 204) in the reign of Zahir al – Dīn Bābur in Maṛoba (Niẓāmpur). After
completion his education at Delhi, he went to the Khaṭṭak territory and settled near
Shaikhī village, where he died on Ṣafar 2, 969 H/AD 1561-62 at the age of fifty two
 17

(Kaka Khel 1988: 35, 44) His grave was first enclosed by a boundary wall along with
some other buildings such as langar khānā, mosque and rooms for visitors by the
descendants of the Bābā. Later on, in the first quarter of the 20th century, the present
domical roof was added to it by Dost Muḥammad Faqīr Ṣāḥib. It was completed by
Shāh Ṣāḥib of Niẓāmpur (Rashid 1988: 208).

The tomb building erected in 1230 H/AD 1814 on the grave of Bāz Gul Bābā in Ziārat
Kākā Ṣāḥib town (Nowshera) is similarly the work of his descendants. Bāz Gul
Bābā’s real name was Zain al – ΄Ābidīn. He was born on Jamādi al Awwal 23, 1076
H/AD 1665 (Quddusi 1966: 305). He was the fourth son of Ziyā ad – Dīn Shahīd
(Quddusi 1966: 305). He spent most of his life in the way of God by teaching and
preaching Islam. After his death, he was buried in a separate tomb near the tomb of
his father.

Ḥalīm Gul Bābā was the fourth son of Kākā Ṣāḥib. He was a well-known Ṣūfi and the
only scholar in the family, who has left behind something in writing. His real name
was Άbd al – Ḥalīm. He was born on Ramazān 27, 1024 H/AD 1615 (Kaka Khel
1986: 211) in the Khaṭṭak territory at Mela. Ḥalīm Gul spent most of his life in the
pursuit of learning. After completing his education within the family, he travelled to
different parts of the country such as Lahore and Multan etc in search of knowledge.
He was in India when his father died in AD 1643 (Quddusi 1966: 306). On his return,
some time after the death of his father, he started teaching in the madrassa founded by
his late father. Thirteen years before his death he wrote a book (Kaka Khel 1986: 212)
in Persian on the life of Kākā Ṣāḥib, which was later on published in Delhi in two
volumes, under the title, Muqāmāt-i Qutbia wa Muqālāt-i Qudusia in 1318 H/AD
1900-1901. In AD 1661 he built the tomb of his father (Kaka Khel 1988: 213) and
invited Indian masons to do the needful. He died in AD1681 in the reign of
Aurangzeb ΄Ālamgir at the age of 66 and lies buried in a separate graveyard enclosed
on all sides by a wall.

Bahādur Bābā, also known as Abak Bābā was the father of Kākā Ṣāḥib (Khan n.d:
541). He was born on Ramazān 15, 941 H/AD 1524 at Khwaṛa in the Khaṭṭak
territory. After completing his initial education at home, he is said to have spent some
time in the company of other renowned Ṣūfis at Gawalior (India) and in Lahore. After
the death of his father (Mast Bābā), he came to the Kāna Khel and settled there. At
 18

this new abode he busied himself in the teaching and preaching of Islam. After a life
full of strenuous struggle, he died on Sha΄bān 14, 1027 H/AD 1617 and was buried
there in Kāna Khel about 15 km to the south-east of Nowshera. His tomb is situated
on a low hill and can be approached by a flight of 128 steps. The tomb was
constructed by his descendants and followers with modern material in AD 1954.

Mirza Gul Bābā was born in 985 H/AD 1577 (Rashid 1986: 114) at Dāg Ismáīl Khel.
He was a relative of Shaikh Bābur Bābā and belonged to the same Khaṭṭak tribe. He
was one of the prominent followers of Kākā Ṣāḥib (Rashid 1986: 120). After the
death of Kākā Ṣāḥib, he moved to Dāg Ismáīl Khel and then settled at Shaikhāno
village, a kilometre on the east from the main Cherāṭ road, near Pana Koṭe in 1070
H/AD 1659 (Rashid 1986: 116). For 20 years he preached Islam to the people of this
area and at last died there in 1090 H/AD 1679 (Rashid 1986: 114). He is buried in the
main graveyard of Jalozai at Shaikhāno village. The enclosed wall of the graveyard
and a bowli in the same graveyard were built before the death of Mirza Gul Bābā. The
tomb building on the grave of Mirza Gul Bābā was built some time in the last quarter
of the 20th century with recent materials.

Miān Gul Bābā’s real name was Sayyid Gul Muḥammad Miān. He was born in the
house of Sayyid Murād in Dāmān village of Chach, District Aṭṭock (Shah 1996: 49).
Sayyid Murād died in Gul Muḥammad’s infancy. He was brought up by his grand
father Shāh Άbd al – Άzīz Miān. His ancestors are reported to have migrated from
Iraq. They first settled in a village called Shu΄ana in the Chapriāl pass of Ningrahār
(actually Nagara hāra) in Afghānistān. His grand father was born there. He joined the
Army of Aḥmad Shāh Durrāni and rose to the position of a notable military officer,
famous for his wisdom and valour. Having been relieved from service, he settled in
Ḥaẓro, District Aṭṭock. After the death of his grand father, Gul Muḥammad came to
Shaidu and then shifted to the village Bahādur in Peshāwar district. After some time
he proceeded to Shu΄lana in Ningrahār, his ancestral place. After spending some time
there, he came to Torderi in Swābi where he lies buried. At Tordheri a khān endowed
him with six kanal land as serai (Jagir) for his subsistence (Quddusi 1966: 448; Nasr
1952: 4). He built a mosque in one corner of this piece of land. After a long life he
died at the age of 80 or 100 years in 1181 H/AD 1767. His dead body was buried in
the southwest side of the mosque. After a long time an unpaved building was
constructed over the grave by his son Khān Muḥammad (Shah 1996: 49). In 1898, an
 19

architect-mason from Akoṛa Khaṭṭak was commissioned to erect a tomb over the
grave under the supervision of his descendants, but the work was left incomplete. In
1918 a certain Haji Ibrāhīm Memon hailing from Bombay undertook the construction
of this tomb (Shah 1996: 53). He employed a certain Άbd al Ghafūr, architect-mason,
belonging to Haẓro for the construction of the present monumental building. The
present tomb building was completed in 1338 H/AD 1919 (Shah 1996: 54).

The tomb of Sayyid Άbd al-Raḥīm Shāh Bukhāri who was also known as Miān jī
Ṣāḥib is located 40 km to the southeast of Kohāt on Shewaki road in Shakardara. He
was the son of Sayyid Muḥammad Shāh Bukhāri, who came from Bukhārā for
preaching and teaching of Islam in this area. After his death his son Sayyid Άbd al-
Raḥīm Shāh Bukhāri followed the same way and kept himself busy till his death in
1071 H/AD 1660. He was buried in the same place with his father’s grave. For a long
time the grave was nothing beyond a pile of earth under the open sky. But in the last
quarter of 18th century his followers erected the present building on both the graves. It
was renovated and white washed in AD 1993.

Ādam Bābā, the ancestor of the present Kākā Khels was born in Khost (Afghānistān)
in 806 H/ AD 1403 (Kaka Khel 1988: 40) After his early education at home, he came
to Hindustān for further education and a few years after that he went back home
(Khost). Most of his time was spent in teaching and preaching of Islam. After the
death of his father he came to Karbogha (Kohāt) and settled there at a place known as
Mamāṇo Ghundai, where in 872 H/AD 1467, he died at the age of 64 (Quddusi 1966:
269; Uqab 1964: 26). He is buried there on top of the same low mound (Shakir 2006:
119). For a long time there was no tomb building, but in the last quarter of the 19th
century, his descendants built a square tomb, which has survived, though the dome is
now missing. It is located 2 km to the west of Karbogha village on the top of a natural
mound.

The Durrāni tombs at the Kiyāni graveyard in Shāpur area of Kohāt, belongs to the
Durrāni princes. After the death of Taimūr Shāh the Durrāni kingdom fell prey to
hostilities between the Sadozai and Bārakzai tribes, which opened the way for the
establishment of the Sikh rule (Ali 2000: 126). The Sikhs occupied Peshāwar and the
adjacent areas in the beginning of the 19th century. In the second Sikh battle of 1848,
Prince Muḥammad Jamhūr Jān Sadozai helped the British and in return, he was
 20

appointed Extra Assistant Commissioner in Kohāt in November 1849 (Ali 2000: 127).
His descendants are till today known as the Shāhzadgān of Kohāt. He was a very
influential person and had a strong hold in Kohāt and the adjoining territories. After
his death in 1285 H/AD 1868, Shāhzāda Sulṭān Jān, became the head of the family.
He also served as tehsildar of Peshāwar and Kohāt from 1277 H/AD 1860 to 1289
H/AD 1872. The Durrāni Shāhzadgān got Kohāt as a Jagir, where they built palatial
houses, buildings and gardens. The area is still known as Mohala i – Shāhzadgan. To
the west of the city near Shāpur village is a graveyard with numerous graves, a
mosque and three tombs built on the graves of the Sadozai Durrāni Princes.
Tomb-I belongs to Sulṭān Muḥammad Jamhūr Sadozai, who died in 1286 H/AD 1869.
The tomb on his grave was completed in 1305 H/AD 1887, under the supervision of
Sulṭān Jān Sadozai as per inscription found on this tomb. It reads:
‫ھذا مقبرہ شھزادہ محمد جمھور سدوزی ابدالی کہ‬
‫ ھجری‬۵۶۳۱‫ سال وفات یافتہ اند۔در سال‬۳۶‫بعمر‬
‫تعمیرفت باھتمام شھزادہ محمد سلطان جان‬
The other two tombs-tomb-II and tomb-III-are comparatively more decorated and
well built with proper domes. Tomb-I has flat roof of wooden rafters, which has fallen
down. The latter two tombs are properly plastered and show that both were built
earlier than the one belonging to Sulṭān Muḥammad Jamhūr Sadozai. The graves in
these two tombs belong to the same Shāhzadgān.

Chitral (Northern Area): Tomb architecture of Chitral forms a separate group. For
the development of architecture some basic requirements such as wealth, political
peace and good environment are very essential. Till the last quarter of the 19th
century, Chitral had none of these. In 1313 H/AD 1895 (Aziz 1991: 208) the British
army of India cleaned the area from terrorists / local warriors and appointed Shujā΄
ul–Mulk as Mihtar of Chitral on September 2 (1895). With this the Sunnis, Shi΄as,
Isma΄īlies and Nūrbakhshi sects integrated with each other. That is why we find
religious buildings such as mosques and tombs not earlier than the 19th century AD.

Three types of structures are noteworthy with reference to their building material: (1)
mud with stones, (2) mud with wooden courses and (3) wooden structures. The
Gumbazi Ziārat at Ghast Bālā and Muḥammad Ziā Wali Mazārāt at Sanoghar fall in
the first group as they are built of mud with stones. The Gumbazi ziārat is the tomb of
 21

a well-known saint of the area located at Ghast Bālā village in the Sur Lāspur area.
After his death the local people of the village from their own resources built the said
tomb. Muḥammad Ziā Wali Mazārāt at Sanoghar are built over two graves, one
belongs to the saint Muḥammad Ziā Wali and the other to his son. Muḥammad Ziā
Wali was a saintly person who migrated to this village before the arrival of the British
and spent most of the time in prayers taking no interest in worldly affairs. One of his
sons died in childhood and was buried in the same tomb. After his death a tomb was
built by his descendants on both the graves with the help of other villagers.

Room Pāpo tomb at Reshon, is built of mud with wooden courses on regular interval.
The tomb is known to have been there even before the arrival of the British Army in
this area. People of this village have no other information regarding this tomb. The
structure seems to be of the first quarter of the 19th century AD.

The third type shows wooden structures of which the first and the earliest is that of
Shabor Wali tomb at Jang Bāzār in the main Chitral city. This well-preserved and
nicely built tomb was raised by the first Mihtar (Shujā´ul – Mulk) of Chitral during
the British Rāj in the last quarter of the 19th century AD. Shabor Wali is known as a
saintly person who came to this area for the propagation of Islam in the 18 th century
and spent his entire life in this area at different places. He had a number of followers
in Central Asia besides Chitral. He died in about the third quarter of the 19th century
AD. After some time his descendants from Central Asia arrived and took his remains
back home. Nevertheless, his Chitrali followers still retain a grave on the same spot.
When Shujā´ul – Mulk became the Mihtar of Chitral, he ordered to build a nice tomb
on the said grave, because the family of Shujā´ul – Mulk also had some respect for the
saint.

The wooden tomb at Warkop village known as Warkop Wooden tomb is built on two
graves (one small and one large). Another in this type is the tomb of Nayat Zarīn
Chārdalo at Rāin. It is built on a single grave of an unknown origin. It is said that the
burial belongs to the Kathor family who ruled Chitral for so many years and that the
tomb was also erected in the mid 19th century by the same family when they were in
power.
 22

CHAPTER-III

SURVEY OF THE MONUMENTS

1. PRE-MUSLIM PERIOD: The architectural remains of the pre-Muslim period,

although subjected to extensive spoliation and pillage, lie scattered almost everywhere
in Gandhāra and the adjacent hills. But none of these has been identified as a tomb.
Nevertheless they mark a very important stage in the development of architecture in
these areas. Most important among these are: (1) Balo Kili Gumbat and (2) Panjkotai
Vihāra.

1.1. Balo Kili Gumbat (Appx-A, No. 1): The shrine is situated seven to eight km
from Barikot in the Jahāngīr-Kandak valley. Externally the building shows three
stages in its elevation: stage 1 marks ground story, stage 2, drum or neck of the dome
and stage 3 the dome proper (Pl.IIb). The actual shrine comprises a central chamber or
(cella) and a narrow vaulted ambulatory, which runs around the main chamber
(Fig.1a). The extant remains show that the structure was coated with thick lime plaster
in yellowish colour.

The cella is rectangular in plan (Fig.1b), 3.50 x 3.55 m, and the walls are 0.90 m
thick. To admit light and air, at a height of 1.85 m from the floor level, the walls of
the cella and also of the ambulatory are pierced on three sides forming ventilators of
0.55 m height. The ambulatory is one metre wide; its vaulted roof, showing corbelled
courses of stone slabs, springs from a projected cornice at a height of 3 m from the
floor level. The vaulted roof of the corridor is externally sloped. Above this and the
central chamber rises a high bulbous dome, with a diameter equal to the width of the
cella, at a height of 6.15 m from the floor level. The phase of transition is effected by
a very simple method: the walls of the cella are gradually sloped inwards, then the
corners are bridged by horizontal stone slabs.

State of Preservation: Late diaper masonry approaching ashlar is used. The eastern
outer wall of the corridor, which accommodated the entrance, had completely fallen
down, while the rest of the building due to its solid structure is well preserved.

1.2. The Panjkoti Vihāra (Appx-A, No. 2): (Pl.II) Describing the ruins in the
vicinity of Sūnigrām near the well-known Krappa defile, Sir Aurel Stein remarks:
 23

immediately above the village Panjkotai, a rocky hill range rises to a height of about
400 ft above the bottom of the valley. The crest of this spur is fairly level and bears
the ruins of a large number of buildings – scattered over large terraces. At the south
end of these terraces rise a block of vaulted rooms with attached courts constructed of
solid and carefully set masonry. These rooms show high pointed vaults of overlapping
stones, which spring from a projecting cornice (Stein 1898: 33-34: fig. VII). These
structures have recently disappeared (Khattak 1997: 80).

2. SULTANATE PERIOD: Very few tomb buildings are known to represent this
period. The first in this group is the tomb of Saif ad-Daula Maḥmūd (No.3) in Zairān
near Pārāchināṛ, belonging to the Ghaznavid period. The second is a group of four
tombs at Lāl Māhṛa Sharif in D. I. Khan (Nos.4-7), datable approximately between
12th to 14th centuries. The third is the alleged death place of Shah Hamadan (No.8) at
Naukot village, Mansehra, belonging to about the 14th century A.D.

2.1. Saif ad-Daula Maḥmūd’s Tomb (Appx-A, No. 3): About 5 km from
Pārāchināṛ, the tomb is built on a raised square platform 16 m a side and 3 m in
height. The tomb building is also square in plan measuring 6.75 m a side (Fig.2b).
Externally the western side of the tomb consists of a high pointed sunk arch in which
opens an entrance measuring 3 x 0.85 m under a ventilator measuring 0.77 x 0.55 m
(Fig.2a). The entrance is separated from the ventilator by a fixed wooden beam, which
spans horizontally almost the whole width of the arch (Pl.IIIa). This arrangement was
almost repeated on all the four sides. The structure was superimposed by a cup-shaped
low dome. The arched portion is made up of thin stone slabs set in lime mortar but the
rest of the building shows dressed stone blocks set in regular courses of dry masonry
(Pl.IIIb).

State of Preservation: The tomb building under discussion is in a very bad state of
preservation. Only the western sidewall has survived, the rest of the building has
unfortunately collapsed.

2.2. Lāl Māhṛa Sharif Tombs (Appx-A, Nos. 4-7): this is a group of four tombs
located 60 km from Derā Ismā΄il Khān City.

2.2.1. Lāl Māhṛa I (Appx-A, No. 4) (south west side of the graveyard): This is a
simple kiln-burnt brick structure (Pl. IV) placed on a 0.80 m high podium. It is square
 24

(Fig. 3a) in plan measuring 7.22 m a side. The bricks are fixed in mud-mortar. The
square chamber has four walls with a thickness of 0.80 m each, sharp corners and one
narrow arched opening used as entrance on all the sides except on the western wall
which is marked by a rectangular frame of flat bricks. On south side 0.80 m wide
entrance has a frame and atop is a double flat panel of cut bricks interrupted by glazed
tiles, while in the centre is another frame, slightly recessed and filled with leaf pattern.
The top row, comparatively thinner and having three courses of cut bricks, is crowned
by an other row of glazed tiles, in a series of terra-cotta plugs so arranged as to create
star shaped patterns in relief. The narrow entrance has a pointed arch, which with in
the frame has dentil series.

The wall surface on each side 3.25 m from the doorframe is decorated with horizontal
bands of cut bricks and faience mosaic series. The decorative rows are eight in all, the
lowest consisting of a complex leaf pattern divided by two flat borders of glazed tiles.
The third row is only differentiated by a double flat band of glazed tiles. It is toped by
an elaborate band composed of arched panels with cut brick tiles, one smaller and one
bigger, two bricks placed horizontally which creates a row of oblong arched panels
filled by flat bricks in recess. The flat parapet possesses a regular series of chain
pattern placed within a border of flat glazed tile. Surface decoration, of each opening,
is different from each other.

Internally the tomb walls, 5.50 m each side, are devoid of decoration except the
mihrāb (or deep sunk arch) in the centre of the western wall which has a recessed
arched panel 80cm in width. These cut bricks consist of a broad panel of faience
mosaics. The design is created by putting two terracotta plugs together, square and
star shaped, within a flat border of glazed brick tiles. The series runs on sides and atop
within which is again a panel of flat bricks, which accommodates the recessed
rectangular arch of the mihrāb. The back of it is decorated with lozenges placed one
upon the other.

The 2.75 m high square chamber walls are toped by the phase of transition; simple
corner quinches create space for receiving the round base of the missing dome. The
dome has completely fallen and it is difficult now to visualize the exact shape and
finishing of the dome apex and finical.
 25

2.2.2. Lāl Māhṛa II (Appx-A, No. 5): This tomb is built on a raised plinth about 0.95
m from the present ground level. It is square (Fig. 3b) in plan, 8.45 m each side
externally, built with slightly battered walls and sharp corners (Pl. V). As per usual
practice this tomb building also has three arched openings in the shape of narrow
rectangular frames on three sides, except the western wall. Each is 0.90 m wide and
marked by frames treated with faience revetment. The main entrance on the east side
has faience and cut brick decoration consisting of a three-panelled frame. The outer
frame is created with the help of a combination of simulated bricklayers within a flat
border of glazed tiles. The second inner panel, running only on sides, is composed of
flat cut bricks interconnected with two carved brick tiles interval, while the third panel
is again of flat cut bricks topped by the outer arched face decorated with glazed
bricks. The central panel, which runs on both side and top of the arch, consists of
simulated brick plugs having a leaf design, while the spandrels are filled with cut-
brick layer enlarged a by horizontal frame of flat glazed brick tiles. Similarly, the
series topping the doorframe is a simple row of glazed tiles having diapers with flat
glazed borders. The rest of the other two entrances on the south and north are rather
simple having only one panel with identical decoration.

The spaces on either side of the rectangular openings for entrance, 3.65 m in width,
are finished off with a series of multiple designs of various thicknesses. Starting from
just above the plinth is a band of leaf design made of glazed brick tiles arranged
within glazed flat border. The upper border has a series of diapers placed in a row.
The second row is a simple series of which the intervening portions are decorated
with cut bricks. The third row is rather more elaborate and consists of lozenges (3 in
number) arranged within a flat border. The fourth band is composed of chain pattern,
placed within a flat glazed border. The next upper row is mostly missing but shows
rectangular tiles having interlaced honey combed pattern, while the next is filled with
star pattern and flat glazed tiles border. The eight rows are filled with rectangular tiles
faced with different geometrical and floral patterns. The tiles are fixed in recess with
flat glazed tile border. The top most band, which serves the purpose of providing a
flat moulding below the parapet, is merely a line of chain pattern with double course
border of faience faced tiles.

The western wall is also treated with a similar ornamental scheme except the solid and
flat rectangular panel 1.50 m in width, indicating the back of the Mihrāb. Internally
 26

the tomb building is simply decorated and consists of diapers in rows placed one upon
the other, intervened with yet another row of lozenges, while the centre has a band of
leaf pattern of bricks within a flat border of glazed tiles. The western wall
accommodates a deep recessed arch within a rectangular but highly decorated 0.90 m
wide frame representing the Mihrāb. The glazed and unglazed brick plugs and inlays
are so arranged as to create usual patterns.

The 3.35 m high walls of the square chamber are topped by an octagon through corner
squinches. This octagon has been converted into a sixteen sided pattern again by
arched squinches which receive the circular base of the dome, most of which is
missing, but seems to be faced with cut bricks. The octagonal drum is externally
finished with cut brick facing, while the parapet is marked by a crenellation consisting
of a series of merlons within brick masonry and below it is a running band of faience
bricks and chain pattern.

2.2.3. Lāl Māhṛa III (Appx-A, No. 6): This tomb building is square (Fig. 4a) in plan
located about 4.60 m on the north east of the earlier two. It is different in execution
and planning from the above examples. Each side externally measures 5.65 m. The
tomb shows with corner turrets (Pl. VIa), one in each corner, and three usual
entrances within rectangular arched openings. These are decorated with three line-
projected panels, while the actual arched entrance is slightly recessed. The tomb
building is erected on a low platform with cut brick tile facing. All the three entrances
are faced with identical decoration. The frames running on inner and outer sides are of
flat bricks with a regular interval of faience brick courses. The central panel is slightly
recessed with the help of horizontal and vertical panels placed in a schematic way. A
flat border crowns the entire framework with a dentil cornice, while the inner frame is
topped by a double dentil frieze. The frame below takes the shape of a slightly
recessed flat arch. The spandrels of the inner arch are crowned by a frieze of
geometrical designs and lozenges on each side and with a diaper at the apex. The
frame is further decorated with a series of lozenges arranged in a row, and above is a
battlemented frieze of parapet. The spaces on either side of the entrance, each
measuring 2.45 m, is decorated with bands of enamelled tiles of cut bricks. These
bands are nine in number and are topped by a parapet and a missing projected
moulding, which creates intervening friezes of cut brickwork. Starting from below,
 27

just above the plinth, the first series consists of a row of chevron pattern and
composite leaves with a flat border of glazed tiles. Above it is a flat border of glazed
tiles, in two courses, while the third series is decorated with geometric designs. The
segments of the geometric circles are of unglazed terracotta inlays, while the border
and central line are of Azuri blue glazed tiles. The next series is more elaborate and
broader and consists of arched panels in recess. The arches are created by corbelling
of bricks. Each panel has a lozenge below and above a geometrical design and the
intervening space is filled by glazed inlay. The panels are connected by two courses
of glazed bricks. Above the series is a pattern of geometrical designs in repetition,
while the next higher series repeat the chevrons and composite leaves as in the first
series. The seventh series has a row of lozenges in relief, while the tenth has
geometrical designs.

The corner turrets have twelve decorative bands of glazed and unglazed terracotta
tiles. Some of these bands are the continuation of the existing series of the square
chamber walls exterior face and some are independent bands, but most of them are
carrying identical decorative patterns. The cupolas of the corner turrets and parapet of
the dome are missing. The western wall of the square chamber has a flat panel of 1.15
m width, indicating the back of the mihrāb (PL.VIb).

Externally, the square chamber of the tomb building is completely faced with brick
tiles and regular interval of glazed tile bands within rows of diapers and lozenges.
Other series are composed by chevron, crosses and leaf designs. The centre of the
western wall has a 0.46 m wide deep recessed arched mihrāb with an elaborate
rectangular frame having a double running panel on sides and top. The outer flat brick
panel is faced with decorative pattern forming lozenges within a flat border. The
pattern is created in relief by glazed bricks and X-shaped brick plugs. A double
composite leaf pattern runs on the sides of the inner panel with regular intervals. The
top of the arch has a dentil series, while the frame below is fitted with cut bricks and
the series below has a border of glazed tiles in the shape of brick plugs to create a star
shaped design. The double arch and its spandrels have glazed tile frame, while within
the arch the facing has a pattern of X-shaped brick plugs with a rectangular panel of
flat bricks.
 28

The square chamber, of a height of 3.35 m, is turned into an octagon by corners

quinches (Pl.VIb), the back of which is built in corbelling. The double arch is created
to receive the load of the massive dome, while wooden beams are also inserted in the
masonry. The interior is decorated with double dentil rings at intervals and the
exterior is finished off with cut brick tiles.

2.2.4. Lāl Māhṛa IV (Appx-A, No. 7) The last tomb of the group, marked, as tomb
IV, is standing further north of the preceding tombs. It is square (Fig.4b) in plan, 9.15
x 9.15 m externally and internally 8.40 x 8.4 m, and stand upon a 0.90 m high
platform with sloping corner turrets (Pl.VIIa) and narrow rectangular arched entrances
in 1.0 m thick wall of bricks on all the three sides (south, north & east). The 0.86 m
wide entrances are marked with 3.94 m projected panels decorated with flat bricks
and faience brick courses, while the central panel is sunk and faced with tile mosaics
in various geometrical patterns. The projected frame is topped with a crenellation of
cut bricks alternating with glazed brick merlons and a dentil moulding below. The
inner frame of arched openings has a combination of three series of geometrical
designs, dentils and star shaped plugs, while the spandrels are filled with faience tiles
and, in the centre of each spandrel is a diaper. The spaces on either side of the
projected frame, 2.60 m in width, are filled with eight series. From bottom to top, the
series have composite leaf pattern with border of flat glazed tiles. The second has a
series of lozenges, put in a row. Above it two arched panels are created in corbelling
with recess. Crowing the panel is a series consisting of a row of geometrical designs
and another row of lozenges above. The decorative scheme on the corner turrets is
almost the continuation of the bands on the square chamber walls except the arch
panels. The space is filled with a band of geometrical designs and chevron patterns.

Externally the tomb chamber wall surfaces are decorated with cut brick bands of
glazed tiles at regular intervals while the space in between is filled with lozenges,
chevrons and diapers. The mihrāb is marked by a double rectangular panel, the outer
panel is decorated in brick inlays of “X” with a faience brick border, and an inner area
of simple flat bricks. The upper portion of the arched panel up to the phase of
transition is adorned with six series. On top of the panel is a band of composite double
leaf pattern with a flat border of glazed tiles, while above is a band of geometrical
designs. The 3rd band set within a course of glazed tiles of diaper, five in number, is
 29

created in recess. The next band placed under the row of merlons is a composite of
double leaf. In fact the merlons are cut brick arch panels created in corbelling.

The square chamber, at a height of 4.27 m, is converted into an octagon by corner

squinches, while the octagon is further converted into sixteen sides by rudimentary
type of corbelled pendentives. This is made out of a series of three double courses of
brick tiles put obliquely in the masonry. The interior of the zone of transition has rings
of decorative dental and chevron patterns (Pl.VIIb); while, the outer surface is
decorated, with cut brick tiles.

State of Preservation: The tombs under discussion were in a very bad state of
preservation, but shortly ago conservation, restoration and renovation work was
carried out by the Department of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Pakistan
and are now well preserved. These monuments are protected under the Antiquity Act
1975.

The building material consists of burnt bricks. The tombs buildings have been dated
to the 13th to 14th century A.D.

2.3. Memorial at the Death Place of Shāh Hamadān (Appx-A, No. 8): The
building constructed to commemorate the death place of Shāh Hamadān, is situated in
Naukot village on the left bank of river Siren 18 km north of Mansehra city. It is a
fortified (Pl. VIIIa & b) square enclosure, 14.94 x 14.94 m. Each corner of the
enclosure is marked by an engaged semi circular tower. Two of them stand to a height
of 4.94 m. Only the northern wall of the enclosure is intact, the eastern and southern
walls have been rebuilt using old bricks; the western wall is a recently rebuilt concrete
structure.

Approach to the enclosure is provided with a rectangular opening in the western

corner of northern side. The two towers at either end of the eastern wall have domed
chambers. From the enclosed area, an entrance, 1.85 x 1.05 m wide, is provided to
each tower chamber. The other two towers are solid and project into the interior. They
are devoid of any architectural decoration (Pl. VIIId) except the corner tower, which
shows some decoration in brick masonry. The extant height of the northwestern tower
gives us a clear picture of its decorative details. Each tower is divided into various
horizontal bands. The pattern is rotated and each band is separated from the other by a
 30

vertically laid course of bricks. The lower band is constructed in plain masonry, while
the upper two bands depict some recessed cross designs worked out in the masonry.
Similar arrangements of decoration are also executed on the other tower. These
decorative motifs on the bastion are extended to all the four walls. There is clear
evidence that the upper band is runs all round the enclosure wall probably making the
parapet of the wall. The centre of the enclosed area has the cenotaph commemorating
his death at Naukot in 1384 A.D. The building material used in the construction (Pl.
VIIIc) is large size burnt brick 0.23 x 0.23 x 0.05 m and 0.03x 0.21 x 0.05 m.

A commemorative tablet installed in 1993 says that Shah Hamadan died in 786 A.H/
1384 AD and that the present structure was raised by the local people in 1983. A
detailed analysis and study of the architectural remains show that the original
construction of the memorial is datable to the 15th century AD.

State of Preservation: Presently the memorial is in a very bad state. Some renovation
and reconstruction was carried out by the local people in 1983.

3. MUGHAL PERIOD: No tomb of the time of Zahir ud – Dīn Bābur and Humāyun
exists in the present day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa except the tomb of Άṣā-i-Sakh-i-Shāh-i
Mardān at Peshawar city. In the rest of the province tomb buildings of the Mughal
period start from the reign of Jalāl ud –Dīn Akbar (1556 - 1605) and end in the reign
of Aurangzeb ΄Ālamgīr (1658 - 1707). The Mughal period is further divided into to
main phases: 1. Early Mughal (1526-1707) and 2. Later Mughal (1707-1857).

3.1. Early Mughal (1526-1707):

3.1.1 The Tomb of Άṣā-i-Sakh-i-Shāh-i Mardān at Peshāwar (Appx-A, No. 9):

The tomb building is situated inside the Sar Āsia Gate of the old walled city of
Peshawar. It was originally built as Khānqāh by Emperor Humāyun for his preceptor
and spiritual teacher Sayyid Darwesh known as Mīr Abu Nāṣir in his life time and
when in 970 H/ 1562-63, he died, he was buried along with his sceptre (Άṣā) placed
upon his chest in the under ground chamber of the same Khānqāh. This is how it
came to be known as much.

Tomb Building: (Pl.IX) It is square (Fig.5c) in plan, 10x10 m, and is built in three
stages: square chamber, octagonal drum and hemispherical dome. Externally the
 31

square chamber is adorned by sunk panels of which the central tallest accommodates
a window blinded with a stucco screen (Fig.5a). This central tallest sunk pointed
panel is flanked by three registers of superimposed panels in which the lower register
starting from the dado level shows smaller sunk pointed arches. The middle register
has square panels, while the upper one has the same sunk pointed arches, like the
lower register, but these are larger in size. An entrance, 2.02 x 1.01 m, is provided in
the south side wall. There is a staircase to the roof in the western wall. The walls of
the square chamber are topped by a recently built parapet in the form of a broad band
with a facing of cemented grill.

The square chamber is superimposed by an octagonal drum. Each side of the drum
has a lozenge pattern, which is worked out in the masonry. This octagon receives the
hemispherical dome of which the summit has an inverted lotus in relief with pinnacle
having metallic crescent at the top. The outer decorations on the drum and the dome
are later additions. Originally the tomb was white washed.

Internally the square chamber on each side shows a tall arched alcove the upper part
of which has an arched window blocked with a stucco grill (Fig. 5b). The wooden
almirah in the western wall just above the dado level seems to be a later addition. The
south side alcove accommodates the entrance. This square chamber is converted into
a circle with corner pendentives arranged as ornamental sunk arches and other designs
in high relief. A narrow band runs around the top of the pendentives reducing the size
of the square chamber.

The phase of transition shows two stages, the lower one is octagonal and is marked by
deep sunk squinch arches just above the corner pendentives with alternating
intermediary arches of even size (Fig. 5b). Each arch is separated from the other by
elongated narrow decorative arch in relief. Empty spaces within the squinch arches
are filled by receding pointed arches in a series. This lower stage is topped by a
sixteen-sided portion. The second stage shows sunk panels of equal dimension,
rectangular sunk panels each having a small pointed arch.
The floor of the tomb chamber is paved with modern marbles and chips with cement,
having five graves, in which the central one is associated with the Asa and Shah-i
Mardan.
 32

State of Preservation: The tomb building is kept well preserved by the descendants
and followers of the saint with some later addition and decoration.

3.1.2. Shaikh Qutb ad – Dīn Tomb at Dilazāk (Appx-A, No. 10): The tomb
building is situated on Dilazāk road about 2 km from Peshawar city in Gumbat Kili
(meaning village of dome).

Tomb Building: (Pl.XII) It stands upon a 12 x 12 m raised platform. It is a solid brick

structure showing traces of lime plaster and is built in three stages to a height of 14.30
m. Externally the lower portion is octagonal, the second is sixteen sided drum, which
is superimposed by a low hemispherical dome. The sides of the octagonal chamber
are not equal, the larger ones measuring 6.90 m each, face the four cardinal points and
alternate with smaller sides measuring 3.40 m each. Four entrances are provided to
the grave chamber, one in each of the large sides. The façade of each entrance is
divided into three vertical zones. The middle one is 3.45 m wide and contains a high
recessed arch within a rectangular frame topped by a stylized gul-e nau design. Each
of the flanking zones, 1. 70 m on the left and 1.75 m on the right, is relieved by a
vertical row of five panels showing multi–cusps, trefoil design and flat arches. In the
centre of the middle zone an entrance of 2.22 x 1.18 m is topped by a 1.35 m high
arched opening. The smaller sides of the grave chamber are divided into two zones,
each consisting of a rectangular frame work which contains an alcove and is topped
by stylized gul-e nau design as mentioned above. The same arrangement is repeated
on all the sides. This octagonal chamber is topped by a battlemented parapet of
acanthus leaf design running on all the eight sides, but most of it is missing and only a
small portion still exists. The exterior of the second stage in each side of the sixteen
sided drum is relieved by an arched panel. The apex of the low hemispherical dome
shows inverted lotus flower of lime mortar with a missing pinnacle of which only a
hole remains there. Approach to the second stage is provided by a staircase in the
thickness of the western side wall.

Internally the tomb chamber make a square, 6.82 x 6.82 m, with four vertical walls
each relieved by a tall arched panel, 4.62 m in height, topped by a horizontal
moulding in the form of cornice at a distance of 5.20 m from the floor level. The
phase of transition is effected by means of squinch and intermediate arches. The floor
is unpaved and centred by the shaikh’s grave, now bereft of stones. The interior of the
 33

tomb building seems to have originally been decorated with painted designs in green,
yellow and dark red colours above the dado level now extant only above the cornice
moulding. The cornice is decorated in the form of a running scroll of two intersecting
strings which have a bell shaped motif alternating with a broad leaf suspended at each
intersection. The tympanum of the arches in the phase of transition is divided into
different zones by lines and each sub division has a floral pattern like poppy, lily and
others along with intricate geometrical designs. The soffit of the dome is decorated by
eight conjoined garland patterns, which separately descend from the top to its
springing point.

State of Preservation: The tomb building of Shaikh Qutb ad–Dīn is a protected

monument under the antiquity 1975. Conservation work needs to be carried out in
time to protect the building. The painted decorations in the square chamber are
covered with recent white wash, but the rest of the building is mostly preserved. The
tomb under discussion is dated to the 16th century AD in the reign of Akbar.

3.1.3. Tomb of Sayyid Hanāna at Chiṛa (Appx-A, No. 11): Chiṛa village is located
in the south west of Lāl Māhṛa Sharif a few kilometres away. In the vicinity of the
village, 2 km to the south in the fields are four tombs of which only one is extant, the
dome is missing. It is said to be the tomb of Sayyid Hanāna. Of the other three only
foundations exist.

Tomb Building of Sayyid Hanāna: This tomb is rectangular in plan (Fig. 6c)
measuring 7.40 x 6.20 m. The walls of the chamber are slightly tapering. The
difference in thickness has turned the rectangle into a square. Four entrances are
provided, each measuring 2.60 x 0.75 m with in a rectangular frame placed under a
pointed arch (Fig. 6a & b). Each side of the chamber, measuring 4.80 m, has a
rectangular frame topped with a dental frieze (Pl. Xa) and a tall sunk pointed arch of
4.30 x 2.70 x 0.35 m in size. The corners of the chamber are spanned by several
courses of bricks in horizontal and oblique form as corner pendentives to support the
phase of transition (Pl.Xb) which shows corner squinches and intermediate arches.
The intermediate arch of each side has a rectangular opening (Fig.6b) for receiving
fresh air and natural light. The phase of transition partly and the dome completely are
missing. The floor was originally paved with bricks as suggested by several extant
patches.
 34

State of Preservation: The tomb building is in a very bad state of preservation. Due to
lack of attention on the part of the concerned government agencies so that three tombs
in this group of four are completely lost. The tomb may be dated in the Mughal period
not earlier than the reign of Akbar or Jahangir.

3.1.4. Sakhi Ṣaḥib Tomb (Appx-A, No. 12): The tomb building is located to the west
of Chiṛa village at a distance of 2 km.

It is square in plan measuring 6x6 m. Only the eastern sidewall of the square chamber
still exists up to 2.20 m in height; the rest of the building has totally collapsed. The
present eastern wall externally shows (Pl.XIa) a central entrance under a missing
pointed arch, 2.00 x 0.90 m, flanked by four sunk pointed arches (Pl.XIb) of low
height 1.50 x 0.75 m.

Material used in the construction is 0.34 x 0.25 x 0.17 m brick; cut bricks were used
as a decorative element and are now lying on the ground. As per analysis of the
materials and of architectural features the tomb building may be dated between 15th –
16th centuries AD.

State of Preservation: The tomb building is in a very bad state of preservation and
mostly destroyed.

3.1.5. Nawab Sa΄īd Khān’s Tomb (Appx-A, No. 13): The tomb of Nawab Sa΄īd
Khan, Mughal governor of Peshāwar under Shāhjahān is located in the Mission
Hospital in Dabgari Garden in Peshawar city.

Tomb Building: It is octagonal in plan (Pl.XIII), north – south 17.90 m and east –
west 17.75 m. The sides facing the four cardinal points are larger with uniform length
of 10.40 m. Those in the corners are in clockwise order from north – east measuring
5.20 m, 5.25 m, 5.23 m and 5.22 m, respectively. The total height of the tomb
building is a little over than its total breath and from the floor level to the base of the
final; it is 19.60 m in height. The building originally had four entrances, one each in
the large side of the octagon. Now only the north side entrance 2 x 1 m is open, the
other three have been blocked. The façade (Fig.7a) of each entrance is divided into
three vertical zones, the middle one is broader measuring 4.50 m and contains a high
 35

recessed arch within a rectangular framework. It is relieved by nine sunk panels and
shows a window in the tympanum. The flanking zones each 2.90 m in breath show
decoration of four similar arched panels in a vertical row. To the right of the entrance
arch is a water shoot.

The smaller sides of the octagon are divided in two zones, each consisting of a
rectangular frame, which contains a deep pentagonal alcove. The alcoves in the
ground story are relieved by sunk panels. While the alcoves of the upper story are
plain and open in the corridor that runs in the thickness of the wall all around. The
alcoves on the north – west and southwest sides of the ground storey have staircases
each comprises 25 steps, which lead first to the corridor and then to the top of the
building. The corners of each octagonal side are round and marked out with two deep
parallel slots. The parapet is 8.90 m from the ground floor.

This is a double dome (Fig. 7b) of which the outer shell is 3.40 m higher than the top
of the inner shell. The hollow space in-between the two shells can be approached
through a narrow opening provided on the west side. The dome covers a sixteen-sided
drum marked out by a boldly projecting cornice at the top. Each side of the drum has
a height of 3.50 m and is decorated by a sunk rectangular panel showing multifoil
arches slightly constricted at the springing point. Each panel in the centre has a socket
hole. The gul-e nau design in plaster is the main decorative feature.

Internally the tomb building consists of a square room with tall arches one on each
side. The phase of transition is effected by corner squinches and intermediate arches
open to the narrow corridor, which runs all-around the phase of transition (Fig.7b).
The external piers of the corridor have recessed niches.

State of Preservation: The tomb building under discussion is an attractive and the
only double domed building of its kind in Peshawar. It was added to and damaged
during the Sikh and British regimes and needs to be preserved in its original shape. It
may be dated some where in the 3rd quarter of the 17th century AD.

3.1.6. Shaikh Sultān Bābā’s tomb at Tirai Bālā (Appx-A, No. 14): This tomb is
situated in the main graveyard of Tirai Bālā village located 5km northwest of
Peshawar city.
 36

Tomb Building: It is square (Fig.11c) in plan measuring 8 x 8 m internally and 10.25

x 10.25 m externally. Each external (Pl.XVIII) side shows (Fig.11a) two
superimposed rectangular panels in the middle portion of the wall. The lower one is
larger and accommodates the entrance, while the upper forms an arched window. The
same is repeated on all the other three sides. Either side of the doorway and window is
relieved by three rows, each one composed of three panels. The lower two rows of
panels are square, while the upper panels are rectangular in shape. Each corner
(Pl.XVIII) of the tomb building has corner turrets tapering upwards. A flight of steps
is provided in the thickness of the wall in the northwest corner (Fig. 11a) of the grave
chamber. The square chamber is topped by a sixteen-sided drum, which received a
huge dome.

Internally, the tomb building accommodates a large size cement coated grave of the
saint. Each side of the tomb chamber (Fig. 11b) has a spacious arched alcove
containing rectangular panel below and square panel above. The rectangular one
accommodates an entrance and the square an arched window as mentioned above.
The same is repeated on all the three other sides of the chamber. The arched alcoves
are flanked by three superimposed arched panels on each side. This square chamber is
topped by a projected cornice. The phase of transition shows four squinch arches with
four intermediate arches, and is surmounted by a huge dome, but two tie-beams above
the springing point of the dome in east-west orientation are fixed into the side walls.

State of Preservation: The construction material is lime mortar and small size bricks.
But the tomb building is in a very bad state of preservation. Some patchy repairs have
been carried out by devotees of the saint. Originally, the exterior and interior of the
tomb was completely lime plastered. Now only traces of the same plaster can be seen.
The tomb may be dated somewhere in the reign of Shahjahan (1627-56).

3.1.7. Shaikh Imām al–Dīn and His wife’s Tombs at Palosi Pīrān, Peshāwar:
These tomb buildings are located at Palosi Pīrān on old Michni road near Narai
Khwaṛ, at the back of the Agriculture University, Peshāwar.

3.1.7.1. Shaikh Imām al–Dīn’s Tomb (Appx-A, No. 15): The tomb building
(Pl.XVI) stands upon a raised square platform, 28.80 x 28.80 m, to the height of 2.20
m from the ground level, having corner turrets. It seems that originally the platform
 37

was topped by a metre high curtain wall, but with the lapse of time it has completely
disappeared. The platform is plastered with lime mortar on all the four sides; only the
south side has a horizontal moulding wrought in lime plaster, which shows traces of
painted flowerpot designs. In order to drain off rainwater it has five hidden water
shoots on each side. The platform gently slopes to the north except for the middle
portion, which contains the grave chamber, approached through a vaulted passage.
The southwest and southeast corners of the platform have square side chambers of 3 x
3 m with squat domical roofs.

Access to the grave chamber is provided through a vaulted passage 5.40 x 2.57 x 2.20
m having a gateway on the south side, which leads to the grave chamber (tahkhānā).
On each longer side of the passage is a group of two interconnected rooms of unequal
size, 4 x 3.50 m and 4 x2 m. The longer room opens directly into the passage. They
have the same type of squat domical roof as mentioned above.

The tahkhānā comprises a single room 8.60 x 9.00 m internally and 14.25 x 14.25 m
externally. The sidewall, 11 m high from the floor level, slightly tapers inward and
ends in a projected cornice moulding topped by a metre high parapet with false
merlons. Each side has a tall sunk arch, which contains two superimposed windows of
different size and shape, blocked with terracotta grill. In the southeast corner of the
grave chamber, in the thickness of the wall, is a flight of steps of 23 treads in height,
which leads from the platform to the roof. There are four water shoots of terracotta
pipes, two each on the south and north sides. The sixteen-sided drum is 3 m high and
has a metre wide path that runs around it. Above is a low dome with a massive
pinnacle.

The inner face of the walls of the tahkhānā shows the same cusped arches as in the
external face. These arches are carried to a great height and end under a boldly
projected cornice. The phase of transition (Fig.10) has four squinch arches, which
span the corners of the room and four intermediate arches, one on each side. The
plaster coating of the interior is still preserved. In middle of the room on a beaten
earth clay floor is the grave of Shaikh Imām al – Dīn with six other graves smaller in
size. There is no marble cenotaph.
 38

The tahkhānā (basement) is richly decorated with painted designs in tempera,

confined mostly to the frontal sides of the arches, dados, spandrels, cornice and
squinches. The predominant colours are red, yellow and green. Decorative motifs are
flower pots, fruit dishes, cusped arches, scrolls, hanging flowers, birds, fishes, net
patterns, geometrical designs, cypresses and other floral designs.

3.1.7.2. Tomb of Shaikh Imām al–Dīn’s Wife (Appx-A, No. 16): it is situated on
the left bank of a Khwaṛ (Seasonal Stream). It is a pavilion type structure (Pl.XVII)
comprising a single room, accessible from all the four sides with door openings 2 m
high and 1.04 m wide. This modest structure is 5.82 x 5.18 m externally and 4.07 x
3.32 m internally. Its total height from the floor level to the top is 4.35 m. The
material used in the construction is small size brick fixed in lime mortar with
yellowish lime plaster. The walls externally and internally are relieved with sunk
rectangular panels ending in a projected cornice, which is topped by a straight parapet
showing false merlons (Pl.XVII) in the form of conjoined flower pots under a squat
domical roof. The floor is unpaved. There is no trace of any kind of painted design or
decoration. These buildings (Nos. 15-16) were raised in 1063 H/AD 1652-53, in the
reign of Shahjahan.

State of Preservation: Both the tombs buildings are preserved and protected
monuments. Some conservation work was carried out in 1995-96 under a Norwegian
Government Funded Project for Environment by the Department of Archaeology,
University of Peshāwar.

3.1.8. Tor Gumbat and Spin Gumbat at Ṭhal: Both the tombs stand on the right
bank of the river Kurram near the bridge on a low mound. One of the tombs is called
Tor Gumbat and the other Spin Gumbat on account of their colour.

3.1.8.1. Tor Gumbat (Appx-A, No. 17): The tomb building is square (Fig. 8c) in
plan 7.20 x 7.20 m externally (Pl.XIVa) and is constructed of dressed stones, kanjur
blocks, river pebbles, cobbles and burnt bricks fixed in lime mortar. The total height
of the building from the present ground level is 8.29 m and each side is relieved by a
tall pointed arch (Pl.XIVb), which accommodates the entrance in a rectangular frame
of about 1.70 x 1.00 x 0.40 m.
 39

Internally, the square tomb chamber, on each side is relieved by an alcove (Fig. 8b &
Pl.XIVc) within a 4.70 cm deep rectangular frame. The arches up to the springing
point are made of kanjur blocks fixed in lime mortar, while from the springing point
upwards they are made of burnt bricks. Above the rectangular frame is a slightly
projected cornice (Pl. XIVd) showing some traces of lime plaster. The phase of
transition (Fig. 8b) consists of four corner squinches with intermediate arches in-
between having squattish clerestory windows. The middle portion of each represents
the area of the keystone. The phase of transition is topped by a series of rectangular
holes at a regular interval, which suggests that these holes were used for fixing
wooden cross beams to strengthen the side of the building which have been originally
lime plastered both internally and externally as traces are still visible at various spot.

The bricks are mainly used in the arched entrance and the dome with occasional use
in the walls, but the size of these bricks is not uniform and varies from 24 x 19 x 5 to
30 x 21 x 5 and 19 x 17 x 3 cm. The floor is full of debris of the fallen dome and other
collapsed portions. Therefore it is not clear whether there is one or more graves paved
with bricks or stone.

State of Preservation: The tomb building is in a very bad state of preservation. Most
of the portions have collapsed along with the dome. It may be dated to the time of
Shahjahan.

3.1.8.2. Spin Gumbat (Appx-A, No. 18): This building is located just a few metres to
the south east of Tor Gumbat. Externally it is square (Fig. 9c) in plan. The entrance
(Pl. XVa & b) is provided on 30 cm height from the ground in the eastern side with a
pointed arch and a metre above the entrance is an arched opening for light and
ventilation (Fig. 9a). Similar openings can be seen on all the other three sides. The
rest of the walls are plain. The south side of the chamber has two water shoots. This
square chamber has a metre high round drum with a running moulding in plaster and
is topped by a pointed dome with inverted lotus-like moulding.

Internally, the chamber walls have pointed sunk arches one on each side with a small
projected cornice on the top. This square chamber is converted into an octagon by
corner squinches and intermediate arches (Fig. 9b) topped by a projected cornice
 40

(moulding) all around to received a pointed dome. The grave chamber accommodates
four graves, one large and three smaller in size with paved floor.

Externally and internally the building has a thick coat of lime plaster which has
recently been white washed. Above the phase of transition is a running floral design
painted in red and green, but mostly hidden under the white wash. The material used
in the construction is locally available stone, kanjur blocks, small size bricks and lime
mortar.

State of Preservation: The tomb building is well preserved and probably belongs to
the same period as Tor Gumbat; both seem to be contemporary, though the one
mentioned earlier is in a dilapidated condition.

3.1.9. Sultan Maḥmūd Khurd, the last Turk Ruler of Pakhli, Tomb Building at
Guli Bāgh (Mansehra) (Appx-A, No. 19): The tomb is located at Guli Bāgh village
in Fort Feroza about 23 km from Mansehra city. It was built by the last Turk ruler of
Pakhli, Sultan Maḥmūd Khurd for himself during his life time, but he could not be
buried in it as he died on his way back from Delhi Where was he buried is not known.

The building (Pl.XIX) stands upon a raised platform, square in plan, 9.07 x 9.07 m,
with 1.37 m thick walls. The square chamber (Pl.XXa) with a height 4.88 m is
surmounted by a low squat dome.

Externally each side of the square chamber is relieved by three rows (Pl.XXb) of
rectangular panels. The lowest row contains three such panels on each side of the
entrance, which itself is relieved by a pointed sunk arch. The top most row is similar
to the lowest register.

The centre of each side is pierced by a 1.83 x 0.91 m rectangular entrance, which is
topped by a stone lintel. The dressed stone blocks of a very huge size are used at
regular points from bottom to top at the corners of the building.

Internally the building is octagonal from the floor level and each octagonal side is
relieved by a tall pointed arch. The octagon is converted into sixteen-sided structure
by means of arched squinches, which make a circular base for the domical ceiling.
The building, externally and internally was coated with plaster, 0.05 m in thickness of
 41

which traces are seen at different points. The building material shows two different
size bricks 0.25 x 0.15 x 0.04 m, 0.33 x 0.23 x 0.04 m and stones. The floor is now
paved with modern cement plaster, but originally it was paved with large size bricks
(Chawka) with a white marble cenotaph in the centre marking the grave. The
cenotaph was stolen by some antiquity robbers but recovered by the Police and
handed over to Hazara University. It is on display in the Garden Campus, Mansehra
University Museum.

State of Preservation: The building under discussion is a rare monument and the sole
example of Muslim tomb architecture in the area. As per detailed analysis the tomb
was built by the Sultan during his lifetime and therefore may be dated some where in
the 17th Century AD. Now the building is in a very bad state of preservation, cracks
have developed at different points especially after the earthquake disaster of 5th
October 2005. It needs immediate attention of the government and other donor
agencies

3.1.10. Rushnāi Tombs at Koṭla Muḥsin Khān, Peshāwar: This is a group of

monuments located at Koṭla Muḥsin Khān in Peshāwar, which can be approached
from the Kohāt road near Civil Quarters leading to Koṭla Muḥsin Khān. The
monuments consist of a gateway and two tombs, known as Rushnāi Tombs.

3.1.10.1. Tomb No. I (Appx-A, No. 20): This tomb is situated in the eastern half of
the platform and shows a rectangular (Fig.12c) grave chamber 10.90 x 8.70 m as
measured along the external face. The walls are covered with a thick coat of lime
plaster. Inside, the grave chamber has five graves in north – south orientation.
Originally, there was only one entrance on the south side marked by a marble
doorframe, which still remains intact. The other three sides were blocked with
terracotta grills.

On the south side the façade (Fig. 12a & Pl. XXIa) is divided horizontally into two
and vertically into five rows of sunk-panels, each containing a decorative cusped arch,
five on each side. While each horizontal row contains seven such panels smaller at the
margins and larger in the middle each larger panel is equal in size to two smaller
panels. These decorative arches are shown in many different shapes and the most
frequent is a stylized variety of the multifoil arch constricted at the springing point.
 42

The doorway opens in the middle panel of the lower horizontal row under a deep
alcove and shows on the tympanum a small niche with geometrical design in stucco.
The effect of the design seems to have been augmented by painted lines. Just above
the doorway is a grilled window comprising six horizontal and nine vertical rows of
astral designs, one each on all the sides. The external face of the north wall is almost
identical except water shoots and a staircase opening. The east and west walls are
similar and are relieved by two horizontal and three vertical rows of sunk panels with
some more water shoots.

The 8.3 m high parapet is raised slightly above the drum level and has hidden that part
of the dome from view. The decoration shows false merlons. The apex of the dome,
from inside the grave chamber is 10.6 m high, from the floor level. The finial is
missing.

Internally the building is almost square (Fig. 12b) measuring 4.30 x 4.25 m. The
phase of transition consists of squinch arches and four intermediate arches one on
each side. Each intermediate arch has a grilled window for admitting air and light to
the grave chamber. Around the drum runs a corridor, which can be approached
through a flight of steps provided in the thickness of the wall from the north side. The
tomb building and the graves it contains have a thick coat of lime plaster.

3.1.10.2. Tomb No. II (Appx-A, No. 21): This tomb building like-wise comprises a
single grave chamber externally (Fig. 12f) measuring 10.40 x 8.70 m with a height of
10.80 m. The thickness of walls varies from 0.70 to one metre at different points. The
grave chamber is approached from the south side through a doorway under a
rectangular frame of polished white marble.

The entire façade (Fig. 12d & Pl. XXIb) of south side above the dado level is divided
into three vertical zones and each zone is relieved by two parallel rows of five panels
containing decorative cusped or multifoil arches. The middle zone is occupied by a
similar, but larger panel, which accommodates the entrance and an arched, grilled
window of astral design having thirteen vertical and nine horizontal rows. The 7.05 m
high parapet (marked at the bottom by a moulded cornice) is topped by a curtain wall,
which runs all around and shows false crenellations. The same arrangement is
repeated on the backside (north wall) with the exception of the grilled window and the
 43

doorway. The east and west walls also show the same arrangement of panels except
that there is only one row of smaller panels flanking the middle zone.

Above the parapet a 1.60 m high twelve sided drum can be seen. It covers the grave
chamber and leaves some space open on all the sides. Each side of the drum has sunk
panels, decorated by a cusped arch. The drum is based upon a projected moulding and
superimposed by a low dome with a missing pinnacle.

Internally the grave chamber forms a rectangular room measuring 7.50 x 6.80 m, with
some additional space in the shape of pentagonal alcoves on the east and the west
sides. It has only one grave. The phase of transition (Fig. 12e) shows squinch arches
with four intermediate arches on each side of the same height. Both of the tombs may
be dated between 1658 to 1702 in the Mughal period.

State of Preservation: The tombs buildings are well preserved but needs some minor
repair work to arrest further decay. Both the buildings need to be cleared of bats
whose dung, giving out nauseating smell, has filed the floors.

3.1.11. The Tomb of Άbd al-Rashīd known as Bajauṛi Bābā, (Appx-A, No. 22):
The mausoleum is located on the Kohāt road near Dabgari. It is square in plan 4 x 4
m, internally. All the four sides are identical in every detail. Each side (Pl.XXII)
shows a spacious rectangular sunk panel containing a cusped arched alcove. On either
side of the main alcove are three superimposed recessed panels, square in the middle
and flanked above and below by vertically laid rectangular ones. The square chamber,
from the floor level at a height of 4.25 m, is marked by a concave projected cornice,
which supports the corner squinches, and intermediate arches converting the square
chamber into an octagon in the phase of transition. The intermediate arches on the
east and west side have arched windows for fresh air and light. The octagonal phase
of transition is topped by a dome. Internally the dome rises to a height of 7.40 m from
the floor level. Externally the tomb building shows arched entrances on each of the
cardinal points, but originally the entrance was provided only on the south side, the
rest were blocked by terracotta grills, as traces of them are still discernible at the floor
level. A flight of steps provided in the thickness of the wall is marked by a low
rectangular panel containing a tall and narrow arched opening. Each wall is relieved
by a tall rectangular sunk panel, carried to the height of the parapet lines and
 44

containing cinquefoil-arched alcove, which further accommodate the arched

entrances. On either side of the main alcove the space is relieved with three
superimposed pairs of cinquefoil arched panels contained within vertically laid
rectangular recessed panels. The parapet is marked by a projected brick course above
which a 0.50 m high wall of the parapet is raised. Two water shoots are provided on
the eastern and western walls. Then the sixteen-sided drum is superimposed by a low
dome. The mausoleum was decorated with mural paintings, but now, it is completely
white washed and only traces of the original painted designs can be seen on both the
external and internal faces of the walls. The building material consists of small size
burnt bricks and lime mortar with a thick coat of lime plaster. The tomb building can
be dated in the last quarter of the 17th century AD in the reign of Aurangzeb ΄Ālamgīr
(1660 – 1707 AD).

State of Preservation: The building is in a very bad state of preservation and is being
precariously looked after by the descendants of the saint.

3.1.12. The Tomb of Kākā Ṣāḥib (Appx-A, No. 23): The tomb building of Kākā
Ṣāḥib is situated about 10 km to the south of Nowshera at Ziārat Kākā Ṣāḥib town.

Tomb Building: It is square (Fig. 16b) in plan, 6.7 x 6.7 m, with an entrance on the
east side. On the northeastern side there is a flight of steps, provided in the thickness
of the wall. The walls are 80 cm thick. Each side is internally relieved by three niches
of which the middle one is 75 cm wide, while each niche measures 50 cm in width.
The east side has two niches flanking the entrance. There are three graves within the
square chamber. Of these the central one, 5 x 1.60 m, marks the resting place of the
saint, while the other two belong to his son and a follower.

The tomb building shows three stages in elevation and comprises a square chamber
topped by an octagonal drum superimposed by a hemispherical dome (Pl. XXVIa)
having a tall pinnacle. The square chamber is 5.50 m high. In the façade (Pl. XXVIb)
of the chamber has been provided a doorway under a cusped arch. Above the doorway
on each side is a balcony type structure, which is projected and topped by a domical
design. In the middle of these balconies is a rectangular opening provided for
ventilation. The square chamber is topped by a low projected parapet. The corners of
the façade show octagonal minarets of 4.25 m height. In the second stage of the
 45

building, the octagonal drum is 2.25 m high; each corner of the octagon is crowned by
a small minaret of 1.50 m height. The third stage is marked by the hemispherical
ribbed dome, 4.75 m high with a 3.28 m tall pinnacle.

In sectional elevation (Fig. 16a) the square chamber shows 4.45m tall sunk arches one
each on all the four walls. Within these sunk arches, except for the one on the eastern
side, are six deep decorative panels. On the north eastern side there is a flight of steps
built in the thickness of the wall. The square chamber is converted into a round shape
in the zone of transition, which is 2.25 m high and shows intermediate and squinch
arches supporting the base of the dome measuring 75 cm in thickness at the springing
point.

The interior is richly decorated with a variety of floral and geometrical motifs in
polychrome. The most prominent colours are red, greenish, dark blue, silver white,
yellow and grey. The style of painting is dull and mediocre which was carried out in
1305 H/A.D. 1887.

The tomb was constructed in the reign of Aurangzeb ΄Ālamgīr in AD1661 while the
decoration work was completed in AD 1887. The material used in the construction is
locally available irregular blocks of limestone fixed in thick layers of yellowish lime
mortar. The arched portions of the walls and the dome however show small waziri
bricks fixed in lime mortar.

State of Preservation: The tomb building of Kākā Ṣāḥib is well preserved and looked
after by his descendants.

3.1.13. Tomb of Ziyā ad-Dīn Shahid (Appx-A, No. 24): It is located to the east of
Kākā Ṣāḥib’s tomb but in the same graveyard. This building is a flat roofed
rectangular hall (Fig. 18b) measuring 9.80 x 4.50 m. The entrance has a 2 x 1 m
wooden frame in the southeast corner of the east wall. The east side corners of the hall
have one minaret each.

Internally the west wall is relieved by a large niche in the middle. The decoration
scheme is very simple and comprises (Fig. 18a) rectangular and square panels sunk in
plaster in two rows above the dado level. The ceiling is made up of modern bricks and
steel girders.
 46

External decoration is exactly the same as in side the tomb chamber. The door and its
wooden frame are painted with different floral designs. This tomb is connected with
the tomb of Bāz Gul Bābā by a large arch in the eastern side. The grave chamber
accommodates 13 graves of which the one in the middle, which is also comparatively
larger in size, belongs to Ziyā ad-Dīn Shahid, while the other graves are of his
relatives. The floor and graves are paved with modern cement. The material used in
the construction is locally available stones, lime mortar, iron, modern cement and
wood, while arched portions show the use of small size waziri bricks. The actual
roofless tomb structure was built some time in the 17th century AD. It was renovated
in 1309 H/AD 1891.

State of Preservation: The building is in a good state of preservation now and is

looked after by the descendants and followers of the saint.

3.1.14. Shaikh Bābur Bābā’s Tomb (Appx-A, No. 25): The tomb building of Shaikh
Bābur Bābā is situated in the main graveyard of Dāg Ismā΄il Khel village, District
Nowshera, about ½ km from the village.

Tomb Building: It is square (Fig. 17c) in plan shows three stages in elevation (Fig.
17a) grave chamber, octagonal drum and dome. Externally each side of the square
chamber (Pl. XXVIIa) above the dado level shows sunk cusped arches in a
rectangular panel flanked by a vertical row of two sunk arches, each 1.80 x 1.30 m in
size. On the north side are six small openings for ventilation. The entrance opens
under the main arch on the south side. In the southwest corner a staircase is provided
in the thickness of the wall. There are four minarets of considerable size one in each
corner of the square chamber. The whole chamber has two parallel water shoots on
the north side.

The square chamber of the tomb is surmounted by 1.90 m high octagonal drum
characterized by two small arched openings provided on the north and south sides for
ventilation and light. The octagonal drum is superimposed by a squat dome having
three rectangular openings for the same purpose. The apex of the dome shows an
inverted lotus in relief with a tall pinnacle.
 47

Internally the chamber measuring 8.25 x 8.25 m is similarly relieved by tall sunk
arches 3.75 x 3.35 m, in rectangular sunk panels. The cornice of the chamber is
adorned by a running design of acanthus leaves in stucco.

The phase of transition is marked by intermediate and squinch arches (Fig. 17b) on
the cardinal points turning the square into a circle to receive the dome. Above the
squinches runs a moulded band of stucco.
The decoration scheme is very simple. The square chamber is decorated with modern
paint in blue and green colours. Only the dome on the under side shows a lotus with
fringes in polychrome (Pl. XXVIIb). Externally the dome has recently been white
washed.

There are three graves in the chamber. Of these the north side grave is the resting
place of the Shaikh Bābur Bābā, the middle one that of his son and the south side
grave belongs to one of his grand sons. All the graves and the floor have recently been
paved.

The tomb was constructed in 1111 H/AD 1699 by prince Mua´ẓẓam Shāh ΄Ālam
Baḥādur, son of Aurangzeb ΄Ālamgīr. He was the governor of Kābul from 1699 to
1707 A.D. The material used in the construction is locally available irregular blocks
of limestone fixed in thick layers of yellowish lime mortar. The arched portions of the
walls and the dome however show small waziri bricks fixed in lime mortar.

State of Preservation: The building is well preserved and looked after by his
descendants.

3.1.15. Sayyid Miān Fatḥ Shāh’s Tomb (Appx-A, No. 26): The tomb building is
located at Sher Koṭ village 12 km from the Kohāt – Hangu road.

Externally the tomb building consists of an octagonal (Fig. 14c) chamber, a thirty-two
sided drum and a low hemispherical dome. Each alternate side of the octagonal (Fig.
14a) chamber has a pointed sunk arch within a tall rectangular sunk panel. Another
similar panel accommodates the window. The main entrance is on the south side and
opens under a sunk cusped arch. On the left of the entrance within the thickness of the
wall a staircase leads to the top. Above is a projected parapet. Each corner of the
 48

octagon (Pl.XXVa) is topped by a small minaret. The thirty-two sided drum has a
moulding on the top. It is from this moulding that the hemispherical dome springs. On
top of the dome is a pinnacle.

Internally, the chamber marks a square of which each side, except the south, which
accommodates the entrance, has three-centred arch. The square chamber is topped by
a projected cornice showing stucco and mirror work. The phase of transition (Fig.
14b) has corner squinches alternating with sunk-arches in plaster. The walls up to the
dado level are decorated with recent tiles while the dome is richly decorated with
colourful mirrors of different designs.

The material used in the construction is locally available stone, lime mortar and small
size bricks. All the decoration and mirror work is very recent. The actual building can
be dated sometime in the 17th century AD.

State of Preservation: The building is well preserved and is looked after by the
descendants and followers of the saint.

3.1.16. Shaikh Allāh Dād and Shaikh Karīm Dād’s Tombs (Appx-A, Nos. 27-28):
The village Ziārat Shaikh Allāh Dād is situated 6 km to the west of the Niẓām Pur –
Kohāt road. Both of the tombs stand in close proximity of each other at a distance of
8.70 m facing to the east.

Tombs Buildings: Both of the tombs are identical and show the same square (Fig.
13c & f) plan. The entrances are provided in the eastern (Pl. XXIIIa) sides under
cusped arches enclosed within rectangular frames. In each case the facades (Fig.13a)
shows arched designs and acanthus leaves running in high relief below the parapets.
Each corner of the square chambers is topped by a minaret, while the roofs comprise
high domes with tall pinnacles.

Internally the square chambers (Fig. 13b) show tall sunk arches one on each side. On
the north side a sunk arch, above the dado level, has a domical niche (Pl. XXIVa) for
oil lamps and candles. Each sunk arch is divided into square and rectangular panels by
stamped stucco bands for the sake of decoration. The decorative panels are topped by
stucco domical (ribbed) designs in a series of acanthus leaves.
 49

The square chambers are converted into a circle by corner pendentives adorned with
vases and stylized acanthus leaves in stucco (Pl. XXIVb), topped by pilasters with
painted arches. Externally the tomb buildings are only white washed with lime, but
internally these are richly decorated with paintings. Each panel in the sunk arches has
stylized flower vases topped by a running band of floral scroll design in different
colours. Some of these panels have flower plants in vases flanked by fruits like
mangoes, melons and strawberries with knives all arranged in a tray, but some time
with a tea pot and cups. The phase of transition is also richly decorated with floral
scrolls and flowerpots in vases. The domes (Pls.XXIIId & XXIVc) are nicely painted
with floral designs, some having vases in dishes and scrolls. In the centre is a large
flower in polychrome.

The most pre dominant colours used in the decoration scheme are blue, red, green,
yellow, golden and chocolate etc. Material used for the construction of these tombs
comprises mainly locally available uneven stone blocks fixed in thick layers of
mortar, while the arched portions and domes show small waziri bricks fixed in lime
mortar mixed with grits and fragments of crushed stones.

From the analysis of the architectural style and building material, it is reasonable to
assume that the tombs under discussion were built in the last quarter of the 17th
century AD while the surface decoration of Shaikh Allāh Dād’s tomb was renovated
in 1994. Shaikh Karīm Dād’s tomb is still its original shape.

State of Preservation: Both the tombs are well preserved and properly looked after
by the descendants of the Shaikh.

3.1.17. Nimawṛae Bābā Ziārat (Appx-A, No. 29): It is located to the south –west of
Turangzai village, Charsada upon a 12 to 13 metres high mound, in the form of a
recent tomb chamber of the saint and an old domical structure. The tomb chamber is
recently built as its modern materials show. The older part of the structure was the
saint’s prayers place.

Externally, it is octagonal in plan (Fig. 15b) and shows pointed arch within
rectangular frame. The chamber has a projected parapet with running acanthus leaf
design in stucco. It is topped by a sixteen-sided drum, supporting the neck of a ribbed
dome. The dome is topped by an inverted lotus with a wooden pinnacle. Each side of
 50

the square (Fig.15a) chamber has a doorway, which opens under a pointed arch
contained within a sunk rectangular panel. The square chamber is topped by a
projected moulding. The phase of transition consists of corner squinches and
intermediate arches to support the dome.

The foundations are filled up with locally available stones; the rest of the building
shows small size waziri bricks fixed in lime mortar. Externally and internally the
building is coated with a thick layer of lime plaster. The structure may be dated in the
3nd quarter of the 17th Century AD.

State of Preservation: The domical structure is in a good state of preservation and is

looked after by the owner and the followers of the saint.

3.2. Late Mughal Phase (1707-1857): With the death of Aurangzeb ΄Ālamgir in 1707
AD the decline of the Mughal Empire accelerated. Due to political uncertainty
building activity was also slowed down so that we can see only a few buildings of this
period.

3.2.1. Akhūnd Panjū Bābā’s Tomb (Appx-A, No. 30): The tomb of Sayyid Άbd al
– Wahāb, known as Akhūnd Panjū Bābā, is located in the main graveyard of Akbar
Pura village in Peshāwar District.

Tomb Building: It is square (Fig. 20c) in plan measuring 9.80 x 9.80 m and consists
of a square chamber, octagonal drum and heavy ribbed dome (Pl. XXXI). Externally
the south, east and west sides are identical in execution, each having an arched
opening with wooden frame and two leaves. While the north side, is marked as façade
(Fig. 20a) of the tomb building. It is relieved by five vertical panels, the central being
larger. A rectangular panel has a cusped arch marking the main entrance. This lower
panel is topped by a projected cornice decorated with three pairs of rectangular
panels. The lower two rows have sunk arches while the upper pair is adorned with
gul-e nau design in relief. The panels flanking the central one show in each case, two
superimposed rectangular panels containing sunk arches. It is provide with an alcove
with another pair of recessed panels topped by a pair of gul-e nau design in relief.

The spandrels of the main entrance arch are decorated with full lotus flowers in stucco
relief. The wooden door is carved with floral designs. The parapet is marked by a
 51

projected moulding in high relief showing acanthus leaves. All the other three sides of
the square chamber are similarly treated and designed. Each side shows five rows of
sunk panels in which the lower most row has a large central panel in the middle with
wooden door flanked on either side by a pair of tall rectangular panels containing a
recessed arch in each case. Adjacent to each pair is a long and narrow panel. The
second row shows horizontally executed sunk panels. The extreme end of this row
shows a small sunk panel in either case. The third row is also relieved with
rectangular panel showing sunk arches on the sides, while the central panel is
decorated with a peculiar design. All these four rows are enclosed by a spacious
recessed panel covering the entire surface of the wall which above is divided into five
rectangular panels showing curved cornice in the middle supported by ornamental
pilaster. A projected moulding marks the parapet. Each corner shows three sided
engaged pilaster topped by inverted leaves. Each corner of the square chamber is
marked by a small minaret with domed pavilion.

The square chamber is topped by a circular drum in two tiers separated by a projected
moulding. The drum received the heavy hemispherical ribbed dome, which is
decorated by a series of acanthus leaves in high relief. The summit of the dome shows
an inverted lotus crowned by a finial.

Internally, the square chamber 6.75 x 6.75 m, shows a central large rectangular panel
with pointed arch marking the entrance of the tomb. On either side of this arch is a
smaller panel relieved with sunk arches. The main arch spandrels are decorated with
two leaves and a lotus flower. The smaller are flanked by upright rectangular sunk
panels ornamented with circles showing flower in low relief. Stucco tracery bands in
low relief separate these panels. This zone is also topped by horizontally laid
rectangular and square sunk panels.

This square chamber is converted into an octagonal phase (Fig.20b) of transition by

means of corner squinches and intermediate arches. Each squinch arch shows three
full and two half small arches within rectangular panels. These decorative sunk arches
are surmounted by ornamental ribbed half domes with the finial adorned in relief. The
entire squinch arch is decorated with multifoil floral and geometrical designs and each
intermediate arch contains another recessed arch, both being decorated with painted
floral and geometrical designs. The intermediate arch on the south side in front of the
 52

main entrance contains an Arabic inscription in Tughra. It is executed in blue colour

paint. The spandrels of squinches and intermediate arches are decorated with floral
scrolls and flower plants. At some places is a leaf motif showing the word Allah in
Naskh in blue colour. Some motifs show the surah al Ikhlas. The phase of transition is
demarcated above by a projected moulding with rope pattern in paint.

The springing point of the dome is marked by a series of acanthus leaf decoration in
high relief. While the soffit of the dome is decorated above the springing point with a
series of ornamental arches having flower plants in brown, blue and green colours.
The rest of the dome is decorated with painted geometrical designs, star patterns,
fruits such as melon, mango, grapes, apple and pineapple. The painted decorations are
only restricted to the phase of transition and soffit of the dome, while the square
chamber shows merely stucco relief. In the middle of the chamber is the grave of
Akhūnd Panjū Bābā with two other graves. The floor is recently flagged with white
marble large size tiles with a line of black marble.

This building was first built in 1806 AD and then rebuilt some time in between 1915
and 1920. The material used in the construction is small size bricks, stucco mortar,
mural plaster, timber and iron.

State of Preservation: The building is well preserved and is looked after by the
descendants and followers of the saint.

3.2.2. Doda Bābā’s Tomb (Appx-A, No. 31): This tomb building is located in the
central part of the main graveyard of Doda village in Nawagai area, Bajauṛ Agency.

Tomb Building: It is (Pl. XXXb) square in plan, 5.50 x 5.50 m, externally. All the
four sides are simply plainly plastered and white washed. Each corner of the square
chamber shows corner turrets, above the parapet, which are topped by 1.83 m high
tapering cylindrical minarets. The square chamber (Pl. XXXa), at a height of 5.50 m,
is topped by a projected parapet of stone slabs, under a 2.75 m bell shape dome and a
metre high pointed pinnacle.

The entrance to the grave chamber (Pl. XXXa) is provided in the centre of the south
sidewall under a cusped arch with a rectangular wooden frame and door. A metre
above the entrance arch, in the centre is a six sided star shaped sunk design. The
 53

western side, in the middle, has a low arched rectangular blind window of wooden
grill for air and light.

Internally, the grave chamber is square in plan 4.57 x 4.57 m. The centre of the
chamber accommodates the grave of Doda Bābā. The floor of the chamber and the
grave itself has been recently paved. The dado level is marked by a running band of
plaster in relief with applied blue paint. Above the dado level, walls have tall sunk
pointed arches, while the south side in the centre has the entrance. The square
chamber (Pl. XXXc) is converted into octagon to receive the round base of the dome
by corner pendentives topped by a 0.50 m wide running band.

The decoration (Pl. XXXd) is confined only to the interior of the tomb chamber. The
phase of transition, top of the pointed sunk arches of the square chamber and soffit of
the dome are decorated in blue and yellow colours with floral and stylized leaf
designs. The wooden frame is decorated with a running series of saw tooth design in
relief. The western sidewall on the inner face shows an inscribed date. The tomb was
built in 1213 H/AD 1798 The inscription is in a very poor state of conservation and
cannot be photographed. The materials used in the construction are locally available
rough stones fixed in lime mortar, plastered internally and externally with a 0.91 m
thick layer of lime mortar.

State of Preservation: The tomb building is not in a very good state of preservation
and needs proper attention. Some cracks have developed in the dome and, as a
temporary arrangement; the dome has been covered with metal sheets. The rest of the
building is white washed from time to time; the floor and grave of the saint were
paved recently. The painted decoration is original, not retouched.

4. BRITISH PERIOD: Tomb buildings of this period are known in the Nowshera,
Derā Ismā΄il Khān and Kohāt districts and belong to saints of the area or to the tribal
chiefs. They were erected by their descendants or the government of that time.

4.1. Tomb of Ghālib Gul Bābā (Appx-A, No. 32): The building rises in three stages
as square chamber, octagonal drum and the hemispherical dome. Externally the
square chamber (Pl.XXXII) has an octagonal minaret in each corner. The eastern side
of the chamber above the parapet has 17 merlons in a series with two small cupolas.
On the southeast side there is a flight of steps built in the thickness of the wall.
 54

Entrance to the chamber is provided on the eastern side through a wooden doorway
under a projected balcony. The walls are externally plain – plastered. The building has
two water shoots on the western side.

The square chamber is surmounted by an octagonal drum, which shows a miniature

minaret in each corner. The drum is covered by a hemispherical ribbed dome having
three-square openings for ventilation and light. The summit of the dome shows an
inverted lotus in relief with a tall pinnacle.

Internally the square chamber, 4.25 x 4.25 m, both on the north and south sides has
sunk arches flanked by large size arched niches one on each side. The remaining
portion of the wall surface is divided into square and rectangular sunk panels for the
sake of decoration. The southern side niches are covered by wooden cupboards,
whereas those on the north are filled up by bricks with small square openings for
ventilation. The western side has an arched niche in the middle covered by a wooden
cupboard, which is flanked by decorative sunk panels. All the four sides are topped by
a running design of an acanthus leaf in stucco.

The phase of transition is marked by intermediate and squinch arches, which turn it
into a circle to receive the dome. Above the squinches runs a moulded band of stucco
containing a running series of small sunk arches.

There are four graves within the square chamber. Of these the larger one marks the
resting place of Ghālib Gul Bābā, while the others belongs to his two sons and a
certain Hayātullāh Ṣāḥib (Imam of the mosque). All the graves are plastered with
modern cement. The floor is paved with modern tiles.

Internally, the tomb is richly decorated with a variety of floral and geometrical motifs
in polychrome. The stucco decoration shows stamped rosette patterns. The north and
south side sunk arches have glass work in the form of small niches covered with
different colours. Some rectangular small size panels within the decorative designs
show surāh al-Ikhlās and Kalima written in Tughra with the words Allāh and
Muḥammad (PBUH). The colour scheme of the decoration fringing upon mediocrity
suggests last quarter of the 19th century as a probable date of construction.
 55

State of Preservation: The building is well preserved and is looked after by his
descendants and followers.

4.2. Mast Bābā’s Tomb (Appx-A, No. 33): It looks like a rectangular (Pl. XXXIII)
hall from the outside. It is said that till about seventy or eighty years ago it had no
dome and that the construction of the present domical roof was started by Dost
Muḥammad Faqīr Ṣāḥib, and was completed by Shāh Ṣāḥib of Niẓāmpur. The grave
chamber has three doorways, two on the southern side and one on the eastern side. All
of them have wooden frames of the same size, 1.80 x 1.15 m.

Each corner of the chamber is externally relieved by a pillar imitation (Pl.XXXIII).

The rectangular chamber has been provided with four minarets – one on each corner.
Above the parapet is a series of merlons going all around the roof. On the frontal side
(southern), above the parapet, in the middle, is a rectangular structure topped in turn
by a domical feature. The roof consists of two ribbed domes with round drums. On
the north side is a flight of steps built in the thickness of the wall. The building has
three water chutes – one on the west and two on the north side. The domes are topped
by pinnacles.

Internally the rectangular chamber is divided into two square chambers 7.5 x 7.5 m
connected with each other through an arched entrance. In the western chamber is the
grave of Mast Bābā, while the eastern chamber accommodates the burials of his sons.
The square chamber, in each case, is topped by squinches and intermediate arches that
turn it into a circle to receive the dome. Above the squinches runs a moulding of
stucco having three rectangular openings for air and light in the north, south and west
sides. Three-square holes for the same purpose have been provided at the apex of the
domes. Externally only the front side of the building shows some kind of decoration.
Internally it shows stamped stucco floral designs, mirror work and painted decoration.

The material used in the construction is locally available irregular blocks of stones
fixed in a thick layer of yellowish lime mortar. The arched portions of the walls and
the dome however show small waziri bricks fixed in lime mortar. The tomb building
is dated to the first quarter of the twentieth century AD.

State of Preservation: The tomb is well preserved and is looked after by the
descendants and followers of Mast Baba.
 56

4.3. Tomb of Ḥalīm Gul Bābā (Appx-A, No. 34): This tomb is located in the same
vicinity (Ziārat Kākā Ṣāḥib) in a separate graveyard enclosed on all sides by a wall.

Tomb Building: It is rectangular in plan, 10.40 x 5. 20 m, and has a flat wooden

roof. In the entrance wall a wooden doorway, 1.9 x 1.2 m, provides access to the
grave chamber. The ceiling is made up of four wooden beams and, placed at regular
intervals, are several rafters, which cover the intervening spaces. The walls are 80 cm
in thickness.

In elevation the tomb building (Pl. XXXVI) is a rectangular hall 4.80 m high. The
façade is relieved with plain rectangular panels disposed in two rows sunk in plaster.
Above the row of panels is a projected stone eaves (chajja). The corners are topped by
2.80 m tall octagonal minarets. Two more octagonal minarets measuring about one
metre high stand just above the entrance and are joined with the rest by a horizontal
row of ornamental merlons.

The sectional elevation shows on the western wall two rows of sunk-panels in plaster.
Of these the bottom row is interspersed with four arched niches flanked by small
rectangular panels. But the north side has a different arrangement and shows a
window for ventilation and light.

There are seventeen additional graves of his descendants, besides the main grave of
the saint in the same chamber. All these graves and the floor are paved with modern
cement.

Internally the tomb was richly decorated with stamped star-shaped designs
(Pl.XXXVIIa) in stucco executed on the dado level. Above this level, is a horizontal
row of large rectangular panels sunk into plaster and topped with a running acanthus
leaf pattern in stucco relief (Pl.XXXVIIc). There is another row of acanthus leaves
above it, but this time nicely carved in wooden superstructure. The panels are
decorated with different types of flower plants in vases and fruit dishes. The most
typical of the decorative scheme (Pl.XXXVIId,e,f) is the west side where almost the
entire surface of the wall, demarcated by the large panels referred to above, shows
two rows of painted designs.
 57

The material used in the construction is locally available irregular blocks of stones
fixed in thick layers of yellowish lime mortar. The arched portions of the walls show
small waziri bricks fixed in lime mortar. The ceiling consists of wooden beams and
rafters. The tomb building may be dated to the late 19th or early 20th century AD.

State of Preservation: The building is well preserved and is looked after by his
descendants and followers.

4.4. Tomb of Bāz Gul Bābā (Appx-A, No. 35): This tomb is situated adjacent to the
tomb building of Ziyā ad-Dīn Shahid and is connected with it by an archway.

The building is square (Fig. 18b) in plan measuring 4.90 x 4.90 m. In the northeast
corner a flight of steps, 50 cm wide, has been provided in the thickness of 80 cm thick
wall. The entrance is provided on the south side. Internally the square chamber on the
western side opens to the burial chamber of Ziyā ad-Dīn Shahid. In the northern and
eastern sides have been provided one-metre wide windows for ventilation. There are
niches of 50 cm and 75 cm dimension, four in the eastern side, two in the western and
two each in the northern and southern sides.

In elevation (Fig.18a) the square chamber of the tomb is 9.60 m high. In the façade
opens a rectangular entrance, 2 x 1 m, in a cusped arched panel. The façade is topped
by a low projected parapet. Back corner of the façade is marked by a rectangular tall
minaret 2.75 m in height. The second stage of the building is represented by a 1.80 m
high octagonal drum. Each corner of the octagon is topped by a 1.75 m high minaret.
The drum is crowned by a hemispherical 3.50 m high dome with a 2.40 m tall
pinnacle.

The doorway opens under an alcove placed within a rectangular framework. A similar
alcove (Pl. XXXVIII) is found on the north side. The eastern side has a tall sunk
pointed arch while the western side opens to the burial chamber of Ziyā ad-Dīn
through a pointed arch. Within the alcoves in each case are four small arched niches.
The undersides of the alcoves show geometrical designs in plaster. The eastern side
alcove accommodates a window for ventilation and is marked by intermediate and
squinch arches topped by a plaster moulding under the dome, which shows a square
 58

opening for ventilation on the eastern side. The floor and the graves are paved with
modern cement.

The material used in the construction is locally available irregular blocks of stone
fixed in thick layers of yellowish lime mortar and modern marble. The arched
portions of the walls show small waziri bricks fixed in lime mortar. The tomb
building accommodates 13 graves of which the middle one and the largest, 4.50 x
1.50 m, enshrines the remains of Bāz Gul Bābā. The other 12 graves are of his
descendants. This tomb building was constructed by his descendants in 1230 H/AD
1814 as recorded.

State of Preservation: The building is well preserved and is looked after by his
descendants and followers.

4.5. Tomb building of Bahādur Bābā (Appx-A, No. 36): The actual tomb is situated
on a low hill and can be approached by a flight of 128 steps. The grave chamber (Pl.
XXXX) is a rectangular hall and shows modern cement and steel girders in its
construction. This hall is topped by a steel dome with pinnacle. There are three
doorways. The main entrance is on the eastern side.

Internally the tomb building is decorated by rectangular panels with painted floral
designs and flowerpots in polychrome. Some stamped stuccowork can also be seen.
All this work is very recent.

There are four graves in the chamber. The larger grave in the middle belongs to
Bahādur Bābā. It is enclosed by a steel railing. In the remaining three graves are the
remains of the Bābā’s wife, his grandson and one of his followers. As inscribed tablet
in relief above the main archway records, the tomb was constructed in AD1954.

State of Preservation: The building is well preserved and is looked after by his
descendants and followers.

4.6. Mirzā Gul Bābā Tomb (Appx-A, No. 37): It was built shortly ago somewhere in
the last quarter of the 20th century and shows recent material such as burnt bricks of
the British period, cement and iron. The floor is paved with modern tiles. The tomb
(Pl.XXXXI) consists of a rectangular hall, 13.15 x 6.05 m, and is topped by a ribbed
 59

dome having a tall pinnacle. There is only one grave 4.75 x 1.69 m, plastered with
modern cement, which belongs to Mirzā Gul Bābā. The building shows recent white
wash and some painted decoration.

4.7. Khwaja Miān Muḥammad Baran’s Tomb (Appx-A, No. 38): Externally, the
tomb building is octagonal in plan, 3.85 m a side. Each side of the octagon has a deep
sunk pointed arch flanked by rectangular panels, except the southern side, which has a
rectangular opening for the entrance. The entrance is fixed in a wooden rectangular
frame. All the side arches and flanking panels of the entrance are topped by square
sunk panels centred by larger and flanked by smaller ones. The octagonal chamber is
topped by a projected eve and each corner of the octagon has a minaret. The same
style is repeated in the high octagonal drum, except the minarets, which receive a low
hemispherical ribbed dome with running acanthus leaf decoration in stucco on the
neck. The dome is topped by a tall pinnacle having an inverted lotus base. A staircase
is provided in the thickness of the north sidewall leading to the upper story.

Internally the tomb is square in plan, 4.30 x 4.30 m. Each side is relieved by a 3.50 m
deep alcove. The southern side provides an entrance to the tomb and the western side
accommodates a 45 cm sunk mihrāb. The phase of transition shows squinch arches.

Internally and externally the tomb has a thick lime plaster coat, which covers the
whole building. It has traces of white wash. Only the soffit of the dome is adorned
with painted floral and geometrical designs. The material used in the construction is
small size bricks fixed in lime mortar. The saint lived in the 19th century; his
descendants and followers erected the mausoleum on his grave after his death. The
mausoleum may be dated in the 3rd quarter of the 19th century AD.

State of Preservation: The building is well preserved and is looked after by his
descendants and followers.

4.8. Murād Khān’s Tomb (Appx-A, No. 39): It is rectangular in plan, 10.70 x 6.10
m, externally and shows a flat roof. The tomb walls are relieved with geometrical
designs and rectangular panels. Below the parapet is a running pattern of a
geometrical design all around the chamber topped by a moulding. The parapet, 0.50 m
high, above the projected eve is decorated with acanthus leaves in high relief. Main
entrance is provided in the southern side, while a small door in the east side opening
 60

under a cusped arch also provides access. The corners of the chamber are topped by
octagonal minarets decorated in stucco relief. The centre of the south side parapet is
also topped by a small ribbed cupola. The ceiling of the flat roof is made of fixed
wooden planks, adorned with fret work in wood and is lavishly decorated in lacquer
work (Pl.XXXIV) in addition to glass work, producing nice geometrical designs.

The saint Pīr Murād Khān is also known as Faqīr Madad Khān and as per record he
died on 23rd March AD 1891 / AH 1308, 14th Sha΄bān. The mausoleum was erected
immediately after the saint’s death by his descendants and followers.
The material used in the construction is small size bricks fixed in lime mortar and
wood used in doors and roof ceiling.

State of Preservation: The mausoleum is well preserved and is looked after by his
descendants.

4.9. Khwaja Muḥammad Āmir’s Tomb (Appx-A, No. 40): The tomb building is
square (Fig. 21) in plan 6.60 x 6.60 m externally and 4.50 x 4.50 m internally.
Externally, each side of the square chamber up to the dado level is coated with
modern cement and chips. Three entrances are provided to the grave chamber in
north, east and south sides each measuring 1.50 m in width, while the western side is
plain and has three trefoil arches sunk into plaster. These entrances opening under
trefoil cusped arches have wooden frames and doorways. Similar sunk trefoil arches
may be seen flanking the entrances. The grave chamber is toped by a projected
moulding with running series of merlons. Each corner of the chamber received a small
octagonal minaret of a 1.50 m height.

Above the square chamber is a metre high octagonal drum, each corner of which
shows a small minaret, about a metre high, painted with running series of merlons.
Above the drum is a ribbed dome with inverted lotus flower in relief and a tall
pinnacle on the top.

Internally the chamber walls have tall pointed alcoves in the north, east, and south
sides to support the octagonal phase of transition. The western sidewall receives a
metre wide niche above the dado level, while the rest of the wall is plain. Each corner
of the grave chamber above the alcove is marked by corner pendentives. The
 61

octagonal phase of transition is marked by pointed arches. These arches are separated
from each other by stucco mouldings.

The tomb building, internally, above the dado level, is decorated with modern ceramic
tiles of red and white colour. While the alcove bosses, spandrels and pendentives are
decorated with scroll pattern in high relief. Each pointed arch in the phase of
transition contains three small arches sunk into plaster with a round hole on the top
for light and air. The phase of transition also shows calligraphic specimens of Arabic
in Khat-e Tāj, besides flower plants in vases in polychrome. The soffit of the dome
has loop pattern and a star in the centre with scrolls dangling to the springing point of
the dome in blue and chocolate colours.

The floor, paved with modern cement, has two graves; one of the saint and the other
of his son. The building was raised by the saint’s son in 1944 AD with the help of
some local and Indian masons, while the painted decorations were added by a local
painter subsequently.

State of Preservation: This building is well preserved and is looked after by his
descendents.

4.10. Miān Gul Bābā’s Tomb (Appx-A, No. 41): (Pl. XXVIIIa) It is square in plan,
8.5 x 8.5 m, and faces to the east as marked by the façade of the tomb. In the middle,
it has two sunk rectangular panels, the inner one has the entrance opening under a
cusped arch with rectangular wooden frame. These rectangular panels are flanked by
vertical rows of rectangular and square panels. Below the parapet and above the
entrance a rectangular sunk panel provides space for a ventilator. In-between the
ventilator and the sunk panel is a marble slab inscription in Arabic and Persian
inscribed in Naskh and Nastaliq styles. The south side of the square chamber also
accommodates a small doorway under a cusped arch with wooden frame and door. All
the four sides are relieved similarly.

The square chamber, 6.5 m high, is marked by a concave projected cornice and a
metre high parapet which is embellished by a series of boldly projected acanthus leaf
patterns and a series of floriated leaf-shaped merlons. Each corner of the square
chamber is provided with an engaged fluted pilaster, which is visible only on three
sides. Each corner shows a three-faceted engaged pilaster with a base having double
 62

tier of four leaves in high relief. The base of the pilaster has four inverted leaves at the
bottom just above the ground level and four upright leaves above. Each corner of the
square chamber is topped by a pillared kiosk showing decorative balcony with
miniature dome and finial.

The square chamber is topped by a two-tiered circular 1.2 m high drum leaving a
passage around. Above is a double dome of 21.33 m circumference at the shoulder
with a 6.82 m diameter. The dome is ribbed and its springing point is executed in high
relief. The dome is topped by an inverted lotus in relief with a beautiful finial having
a gold crescent and a five-pointed star. The crescent and star are engraved with Arabic
legends in Naskh style.

Internally, the square chamber, measuring 6.6 x 6.6 m, shows a paved floor of modern
marble tiles. The chamber walls up to the dado level are covered with colourful
ceramic tiles. Above the dado level each side shows a spacious rectangular panel
covering almost the entire surface of the wall, enclosing a comparatively smaller
rectangular sunk panel in the middle flanked by semi circular arched panel. The
rectangular sunk panel in the middle accommodates a doorway, which opens under a
horseshoe arch. The north side in the middle accommodates a wooden almirah.

The square chamber is converted into an octagon by two phases of transition: one
shows squinch arches and recessed ventilators in between and the second has corner
pendentives executed in relief in the form of Corinthian capitals in relief. It is topped
by a circular band, which marks the springing point of the double dome’s inner shell.
A small opening was provided to the space in-between the two shells of the double
dome, but now it has recently been blocked. The springing point is demarcated by a
running series of acanthus leaves in relief. The ventilators of the intermediate arches
are screened by coloured glass panes fixed in wooden frame. This octagonal phase of
transition is surmounted by the lower shell of double dome. The soffit of the dome is
plainly white washed, while the middle portion is decorated with three-tired flower in
polychrome. The grave chamber accommodates two graves; the larger one in the
middle belongs to the saint, the one on the west side to his son. The grave is screened
off by an iron grill with an entrance on the east side. The grill is topped by a wooden
canopy, which shows square and rectangular panels decorated with mirrors.
Externally the eastern side of the chamber is treated as its façade. The decoration
 63

consists of stucco relief work in green and brown painted upon yellow background. It
shows geometrical and floral designs in relief, glass mosaics, scroll decoration, mirror
work and acanthus leaf designs, on dome ribs. Internally, up to the dado level the
walls are covered with colourful ceramic tiles while the corner pendentives of the
phase of transition are adorned with Corinthian capitals in stucco relief and painted
decoration on dome soffit is polychrome.

The tomb building of Miān Gul Bābā was constructed as per inscriptional record on
Sha΄bān 15, 1338 H/A.D. 1919. But a unique feature of this late period tomb is the
double dome, which is very rarely seen in the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The
only early and first example is of the tomb of Nawab Sáīd Khān at Peshāwar built
during the 17th century in the reign of Shāhjahān (1628 - 1658). Miān Gul Bābā at
Tordheri, Swābi of the 20th century is the second example.

State of Preservation: The building is well preserved. Some renovation work is

carried out from time to time by his descendants and followers.

4.11. Άbdur Raḥīm Shāh Bukhāri’s Tomb (Appx-A, No. 42): The tomb is square
(Fig. 19d) in plan and is built on a metre high platform. It has a sixteen-sided drum
and a huge ribbed dome. Externally each side of the square chamber (Fig. 19a) is
relieved by a tall sunk pointed arch. On the western side a doorway opens under a
rectangular wooden frame decorated with fretwork. The western side arch is flanked
by two pointed arches one on each side. The southwest corner has a flight of steps,
which leads to the top of the square chamber. The corners of the chamber (Pl. XXIXa)
are topped by minarets, while the facade (western side) is marked out by two more
minarets. Each corner of the sixteen-sided drum shows a miniature minaret and
copulas. The main dome is topped by a tall pinnacle.

Internally, the square chamber has tall sunk cusped arches with vertical rows of
rectangular panels three on each side and is topped by a projection. The phase of
transition (Fig. 19b) is marked by corner squinches and intermediate arches, which is
topped by a moulding in plaster (Fig. 19c). Small sunk arches in stucco are added to
the squinch arches, three in each. The phase of transition is richly decorated with
painted designs comprising vases, flower plants, dishes, fruits and geometrical
designs. Among the fruits grapes, mangoes, melons and pomegranates are very
 64

prominent. The main colours are red, blue, yellow and green. All this painted
decoration was retouched, as the building was white washed in 1993. The actual tomb
was built some time in the first quarter of 19th century AD as per analysis of the
architectural features. The materials used in the construction are locally available
stone, small sizes waziri bricks and lime mortar. The building is coated with a thick
layer of lime plaster.

State of Preservation: The building is well preserved and is looked after by his
descendants and followers.

4.12. Ādam Bābā Tomb (Appx-A, No. 43): The building is square (Pl. XXXVa) in
plan, externally marked by sunk tall pointed arches, one on each side. The eastern side
in the middle has an entrance (Pl. XXXVb), which opens under a segmental arch,
with wooden frame, and door leaves. This chamber has four round minarets one in
each corner, while the dome is missing. Internally the square chamber accommodates
two graves, the longer one in the centre belongs to the saint. Another grave smaller in
size in the northeast corner belongs to some one else. The walls are relieved by
pointed sunk arches one on each side.

The phase of transition (Pl. XXXVc) shows four deep corner squinches, which are
topped by a projected cornice to receive the dome. But unfortunately the dome is
missing. The material used in the construction is locally available stone fixed in mud,
but in the arched portions and the missing dome, kanjur stone with mud was used.
The building internally and externally has a thick coat of lime plaster.

The decoration is only confined to the wooden frame of the doorway, which has a
running series of rosettes and tiny acanthus leaves in relief.

The analysis of its architectural style and building material shows that the tomb is
dated sometime in the last quarter of 18th century or the 1st quarter of 19th century AD.

State of Preservation: The building is in a very bad state of preservation. Dangerous

cracks have developed in different portions

4.13. Durrāni’s Tombs at Kayāni Graveyard, Kohāt: The building complex at the
Kayāni graveyard consists of a mosque, a bowli, a huge rock inscription and three
 65

tombs, known as Durrāni tombs. The graveyard is located in the Shāhpur area, about
3 km from Kohāt city.

4.13.1. Durrāni Tomb I (Appx-A, No. 44): It stands to the west of other two tombs
and belongs to Sultān Muḥammad Jamhūr Sadozai, a Durrāni prince, as inscribed
thereupon. It is rectangular (Fig. 22a) in plan, 11.40 x 5.00 m externally. A 3.50 x
3.00 m doorway is provided on the south side. Each corner (Fig. 22b) of the
rectangular structure has a minaret topped by a parapet, which is decorated with a row
of merlons. Above the entrance is a tall square column (Fig. 22b) built in five stages
with a pyramidal crown on the top. There are stone slabs bearing inscriptions on the
first and the last stage.

Internally, the tomb was divided into two parts. The front chamber is rectangular in
plan, 5.70 x 3.50 m, while the back chamber is square in shape, 3.50 x 3.30 m. Both
the portions were topped by a flat roof comprising wooden beams and rafters, which
no longer exists and has fallen down. The front portion accommodates the grave of
Sultān Muḥammad Jamhūr. It is now buried under the fallen roof debris. The inner
side of the walls is made of mud bricks, while certain portions show the use of burnt
bricks as well on the inner side. Three arched niches, 2.55 x 1.55m wide, of burnt
bricks are provided in the eastern, western and northern, partition wall of the two
chambers. A 0.90 m wide entrance is provided in the partition wall to connect them.
On either side of this entrance an arched niche is executed in burnt bricks.

Several inscriptions of Persian and Arabic in Naskh and Nastaliq styles were installed
on the main entrance. As per one of the Persian inscription in Nastaliq carved on
white marble slab on the main entrance “Sultān Muḥammad Jamhūr Sadozai died in
1286 H/AD 1870. The construction work of the tomb was completed in 1305 H/AD
1887 under the supervision of Sultān Jān Sadozai”.

Material used in the construction of this building is burnt bricks fixed in lime mortar
and sun dried bricks fixed in mud in the interior of the grave chamber.

4.13.2. Durrāni Tomb II (Appx-A, No. 45): This tomb lies to the east of the tomb of
Sultān Muḥammad Jamhūr and shares the eastern wall of the grave chamber with
tomb no. III. It is square (Fig. 22g) in plan, 5.40 x 5.40 m. A single entrance, 2.20 m
in width, is provided on the south side (Fig. 22c). The grave chamber has a prominent
 66

parapet with false decorative merlons, while each corner of the chamber is topped by
octagonal minarets rising in three stages with a cupola on the top (Pl. XXXIX). The
square chamber is covered by a huge ribbed dome with foliated collar.

Internally the chamber is 4.20 x 4.20 m and shows a projected cornice worked out in
brick as a support for the squinch arches of the octagonal phase of transition (Fig.
22e). The base of the drum is marked (Fig. 22f) by a circular line, which runs above
the squinch arches. The north sidewall of the square chamber has 1.50 m deep alcove
with 0.85 m wide arched window. The eastern side has a recessed rectangular panel
with an arched window while the western side has an arched opening of 1.20 m width.
The grave chamber has two white marble cenotaphs of almost equal size. Internally
and externally the grave chamber is plastered with lime mortar, while the interior
walls surface was once adorned with inscribed stone slabs, but now only the fixing
hooks can be seen. The building material consists of large size British period bricks
and lime mortar.

4.13.3. Durrāni Tomb III (Appx-A, No. 46): It is adjacent to (No.45) on the east and
was built earlier than it. The building is square (Fig. 22g) in plan, 4.75 x 4.75 m, and
is constructed of large size bricks fixed in lime mortar. There are four arched
openings, one on each side. The southern archway, 1.80 x 1.60 m, is used as the main
entrance (Fig. 22d). The other two sides’ arches have the same size. The western is
almost closed and has a small arched way connected to (No.45). The square chamber
is 3.00 m high with a stringcourse parapet. A low drum is superimposed by a
hemispherical dome. These are hidden behind the façade of the south side entrance. A
cusped arch wrought in lime plaster marks the outline of the façade, which is topped
by a series of foliated merlons. The façade (Fig. 22d) has carved slabs bearing
inscriptions in Persian and Arabic, but these are mostly missing. Marking the ends of
the façade and also the corners of the square chamber are minarets in multilateral
shape built in two stages and crowned with small cupolas.

Internally the grave chamber measures 3.30 x 3.30 m. The phase of transition (Fig.
22e) shows squinch and intermediate arches resting upon a prominent cornice worked
out in bricks. The floor is covered with two graves having marble cenotaphs of almost
equal size.
 67

State of Preservation: These monuments were decorated mainly with inscribed and
plain marble slabs. But these in most cases have vanished. The buildings are in a very
bad state of preservation. These were the only representative buildings of the 20th
century in this area.

5. CHITRAL (NORTHERN AREA): The tomb architecture of this area is a

separate group by itself.

5.1. Shābor Wali Tomb (Appx-A, No.47): It is a rectangular wooden structure (Fig.
25a,b), 5.45 x 4.05 m, erected on a stone platform. The entrance (Pl. XXXXIIb) is
provided under a cusped arch. The rest of the structure is externally divided into four
cusped arches on each side (Pl. XXXXIIa). These arches are, up to the dado level,
screened by a wooden grill, but above that level they are blocked with wooden panels.
They are flanked by panels in a vertical row adorned with nice woodwork. The
entrance door is also decorated with multifoil woodwork in relief. The arches are
topped by two horizontal rows adorned by floral designs, screens, matted patterns,
honeycomb and geometrical designs on all the four sides. Some of the panels depict
birds in relief. The structure is covered with a wooden vaulted roof and a projected
eave (Pl. XXXXIIc).

Internally, the floor is paved with large size stone slabs; in the centre is the brick
paved grave of the saint. The tomb walls internally show plain wooden structure. For
the support of the roof are wooden columns: five on the east-west side and four on the
north-south side. The screens are blocked by wooden planks, which can be adjusted to
admit or block fresh air. The same arrangement in Persian and Pashtu is locally
known as Bastai. The corners of each side are adorned with a line in relief. These
columns are topped by wooden beams of the low domical wooden ceiling. The spaces
in-between the beams are covered by wooden rafters adorned with acanthus leaves in
relief. The joints of the rafters are covered with small pieces of wooden planks with a
decorative line. The ceiling is centred by an inverted hanging wooden fanus
(Chandlier) (Pl.XXXXIId). The point where it is fixed to the ceiling rafters is marked
by an acanthus leaves design looking like a lotus flower.

The building was erected by Mihtar of Chitral, Shujā ul Mulk, in the last quarter of
19th century AD.
 68

State of Preservation: It is a wooden structure of low weight and is well preserved.

5.2. Gumbazi Ziārat (Appx-A, No. 48): The building is square (Fig. 24) in plan and
built on a three metre high platform. The walls are built of locally available stones
fixed in mud mortar with thick mud plaster. The entrance is provided in the southern
side. Inside the chamber is a small grave. The roof was flat, comprising wooden
beams and rafters, but unfortunately, it has collapsed. The structure can be dated in
the 19th century AD as the saint buried here died at about the same time and the tomb
building was erected by his followers.

State of Preservation: The building is in a very bad state of preservation as the roof
has collapsed and the sidewalls of the grave chamber are exposed to rains and other
natural hazards.

5.3. Room Pāpo Tomb (Appx-A, No. 49): The building (Pl. XXXXIII) has mostly
collapsed and only the south, east and western walls of the grave chamber exist in a
dilapidated condition. The chamber is rectangular in plan, 9 x 8 m and 6 m high. The
walls are made of mud and wooden courses. The northern side, which accommodates
the entrance, has totally collapsed, while the rest of the three sidewalls are standing,
but even these, both externally and internally, are defaced.

Only the south side shows some architectural features. This wall is divided into two
sunk panels horizontally and then sub-divided into four vertical sunk panels. The
lower panels of the west side show some niches for lamps etc. The same arrangement
was repeated on all the four corners and sides. The rectangular structure was topped
by a flat roof of wooden beams and rafters covered with mud plaster. It has
completely collapsed. Externally and internally the tomb building was plastered with
mud, the inner side also shows some white wash traces of lime. The building may be
dated in the 1st quarter of 19th century AD.

State of Preservation: Very bad.

5.4. Muḥammad Ziā Wali Mazārāt (Appx-A, No. 50): It is rectangular (Fig. 23c) in
plan, 3.70 x 4.00 m, having thick mud walls with a flat roof. The entrance (Fig. 23a)
is provided in the north sidewall with a wooden doorway. Externally and internally
the walls are coated with a thick mud plaster. Inside (Fig. 23b) there is an unpaved
floor and two graves; the larger of which belongs to the saint, the other to his son.
 69

Both are covered by a rectangular wooden frame. The sidewalls of the structure are
white washed with lime. The ceiling is made of wooden beams fixed in rectangular
bars showing a matted pattern. The centre is kept open for light and fresh air. The
rooftop is covered with thick mud plaster while the opening is covered with wooden
planks to protect the interior from rainwater.

As the tomb building is comparable with other buildings of the area, it may be dated
sometime in the 19th century AD.

State of Preservation: Well preserved and looked after by the followers of the saint.

5.5. Nayat Zarīn Chārdalo Tomb (Appx-A, No. 51): It is rectangular (Fig. 27b) in
plan measuring 4.50 x 3.80 m, externally and 4.00 x 3.50 m, internally and stands
upon a 0.30 m high platform. It shows wooden columns at regular intervals. The
spaces in-between the columns are blocked by crossed wooden rafters looking like a
grill (Fig. 27a). In the middle of the south side is the doorway opening in a rectangular
frame measuring 1.50 x 0.50 m. The building is 2.30 m in height and is topped by a
vaulted roof comprising wooden beams and rafters with steel sheets.

The floor shows the use of modern cement accommodating in the middle a single
grave. The structure was built sometime in the first or second quarter of the 19 th
century AD during the rule of the Kathor family as narrated by the local residents.

State of Preservation: The building is well preserved and is looked after by the local
people.

5.6. Warkop Wooden Tomb (Appx-A, No. 52): It is rectangular (Fig. 26b) in plan
measuring 5.50 x 5.00 m, externally and 4.50 x 4.00 m, internally, and is built on a
0.30 m high platform. The entrance measuring 0.90 m in width is provided in the
middle of the western wall. The sidewalls are built of wooden columns at regular
intervals. The spaces in-between the columns are blocked by wooden rafter grill (Fig.
26a) which is topped by a horizontal row of rectangular panels decorated as gul-e nau
designs. This rectangular chamber, at a height of 3.50 m, is in its turn topped by a
vaulted roof of wooden beams and rafters, with a steel sheet cover.
 70

Internally, the grave chamber accommodates two graves one large and one small. The
floor is paved with modern cement. The tomb building may be dated to sometime in
the 19th century AD.

State of Preservation: The building is in a good state of preservation and is looked

after by the descendants of the persons buried therein.

Note: Nos. 1 – 52 refer to the numbers in our List of Monuments. See

Appendix-A
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CHAPTER-IV

ARCHITECTURAL AND DECORATIVE FEATURES

The decorative media employed in the tombs mainly comprised paintings, glazed
tiles, calligraphy, lacquer work, glass work, stucco and brickwork. Of these the first
three occur throughout whereas the last four are confined to the latest structures
erected during the British period. The most popular medium of the first three was
painting. Its use was confined to the inside of the grave chamber in the form of
murals, which technically may be described as tempera paintings. No frescoes –
paintings done rapidly in watercolour on wet plaster on a wall or ceiling, so that the
colours penetrate the plaster and became fixed as it dries – are reported.

This abundant use of the medium brings us face to face with the question: is the use of
paintings in such religious buildings admissible under Islamic law? There is no
specific mention of pictures in the Holy Qurān and the real import of the verse (Qur.
V. 92) quoted by later ΄Ulemas (theologians) in support of their utter condemnation of
pictures was the avoidance of idolatry. The theological basis of the censure on
pictorial art must therefore be sought for elsewhere.

A more distinct utterance upon this subject is found in the Traditions (Ahadith) of the
Prophet (PBUH), and it is from this theological source that the hostile attitude
prevailing throughout the Muslim world derives its sanction. If there is no clear
verdict in the Quran on the subject of paintings, it is very much there in the
Traditions. The Prophet (PBUH) is reported to have said that those who will be most
severely punished by God on the Day of Judgement will be the painters (see Bukhāri
(ed. Juyanboll), vol. V, p.104, (No.89)). Again (Bukhāri (ed. Juyanboll), vol. V, p.106
(No.97)), on the Day of Judgement the punishment of hell will be meted out to the
painter, and he will be called upon to breathe life into the forms that he has fashioned;
but he cannot breathe life into anything. The reason behind this total condemnation is
obvious. By fashioning the form of a living being the painter, it was believed,
attempted to assimilate himself to God by usurping His creative function. The futility
of the painter’s claim will be brought home to him when he fails to breathe life into
the form fashioned by him.
 72

The Arabic word for painter is “muṣawwar” which literally means “the one who
forms or fashions”. In a wider sense this equally applies to the sculptor because he
also makes forms looking like animals or human beings. The blasphemy in the
appellation is more apparent to the Muslim mind in that this word is applied to God
Himself in the Qurān (LIX, 24): “He is God, the Creator, the Maker, the Fashioner”
(muṣawwar).

The painter was not the only one to be condemned to hell for such a sin. There are
other sinners who will be likewise punished in company with the painter. (see
Bukhāri, ed. Krehl, vol. II, p. 43 fin). A certain Άwn b. Abi Juḥayfah relates:

“I saw my father buy a slave who was a cupper (i.e. Phlebotomist), and he ordered
him cupping instruments to be brought and broken to pieces. When I asked him the
reason for this, he said: ‘The Prophet forbade men to take the price of blood, or the
price of a dog, or the earning, of a maidservant, and he cursed the tattooing woman
and the woman who has herself tattooed, and the usurer and the man who lets usury
be taken from him, and he cursed the painter’ ”.

In the some other Traditions the painter is associated with the kind of abominations,
which severely degrade his position. It is said, “the angels will not enter a house in
which there is a picture or a dog” (Bukhāri, ed. Krehl, vol. II, P. 311 (ad fin) et saepe).
And then “Those who will be most severely punished on the Day of Judgement are
the murderer of a Prophet, one who has been put to death by a Prophet, one who leads
men astray without knowledge, and a maker of images or picture”. “A head will thrust
itself out of the fire and will ask, where are those who invented lies against God, or
have been the enemies of God, or have made light of God? Then men will ask, who
are these three classes of persons? It will answer, The sorcerer is he who has invented
lies against God; the maker of images or pictures is the enemy of God; and he who
acts in order to be seen of men, is he that has made light of God (‘Ali al – Muttaqī,
Kanz al – ΄Ummāl, vol. II, P. 200).

These utterances put by later theologians in the Prophet’s mouth are not borne out by
events that took place during his life and show a tolerant attitude. Some of these are
noted below.
 73

During his last illness, two of his wives – Umm Salmah and Umm Habibah – who had
been to Abyssinia and had seen pictures in a church, sitting round his bed, discussed
how impressed they were by the beauty of these pictures. The Prophet joins in the
conversation and explains that it is the custom of the Abyssinians, when a holy man
dies to build a house of prayer over his tomb, and paint such pictures in it. Such a
conversation in inconceivable by the deathbed, what to speak of the Prophet, even of a
Muslim saint of a later generation. In support of a tolerant view on the part of the
Prophet is the story which tells us that when, after his victorious entry into Macca, he
went in side the Ka΄ba, he placed his hand over a picture of Mary and ordered the rest
to be obliterated. Further, the Prophet does not appear to have objected to the figures
of men or animals, so long as they did not distract his attention while engaged in
prayer, and so long as they were in their proper place. The great danger to be avoided
was idolatry, any deviation from the absolute loyalty due to the One and Only God.
Similarly, the Prophet does not appear to have taken exception to the dolls which
΄Āisha, his youngest wife, brought into the house; on one occasion he asked her what
she was playing with, and she replied, “The horses (or horsemen) of Solomon (Ibn
Sad, Biographien, vol. VIII, P.42). Even the rigid Caliph ΄Umar used a silver censer,
with figures on it, which he had brought from Syria, in order to perfume the mosque
at Medina (Ibn Rustah, al-A΄lāq al-Nafīsah 1891: 66). When, subsequently, opinion
against paintings became hardened, the governor of Medina, Ibrāhīm b. Yaḥyā b.
Muḥammad, in AD 783 had the figures on this censer erased (Ibn Rustah, al – A΄lāq
al – Nafīsah 1891: 66). Primitive Muslim society, therefore, does not appear to have
been so iconoclastic as later generations became, when condemnation of pictorial and
plastic art won general approval in the Muslim Society.

In the third century of the Hijrah the Traditions took permanent and authoritative form
in the great canonical collections connected with the names of Bukhāri, Muslim and
others. No further doubt was possible for the faithful as to the illegality of painting
and sculpture. The hatred of idolatry caused a statue or a picture to be regarded with
suspicion. Its possible influence on the faithful by leading them to Shirk (or giving a
partner to God) was most abhorred by Muslim theologians. It was this abhorrence,
which guided the tomb builders of KP throughout the centuries. For the extensive use
of glazed tiles and calligraphy. What follows is the period wise of the decorative
features of these tombs.
 74

1. PRE-MUSLIM PERIOD: The Gandhāra and Udiyāna are the names of valleys
known in modern days as Peshāwar and Swāt. These valleys were first invaded by the
Aryans in the beginning of second millennium BC, later on they came under the
control of various ruling dynasties, like the Mauryans, Indo-Greeks, Indo-Scythians,
Kushāns, Sasaniāns, Kidārites and Hephtālites. From the Mauryan period (3rd cent.
BC) onward Gandhāra became the second home of Buddhism, which produced a
peculiar type of art known as Gandhāra Art. The earliest stupas such as the
Dharmārajika (Taxila) and the one at Butkaṛa-I are believed to have been associated
with the reign of Aśoka (3rd century BC) who declared Buddhism an official religion
and established a great number of stupas. Hence Buddhism in the time of Aśoka
struck deep roots in Gandhāra.

According to the archaeological and numismatic evidences Buddhist art initiated in

the time of the Indo-Scythians and rapidly spread and flourished under the Kushāns.
The whole area was densely covered with Buddhist activities. The climax period of
this art appears to be the 1st to 3rd century AD but it seems to have continued till about
the 5th century when the White Hun invaders gave it the deathblow. Hinduism as an
old religion also continued side by side. In some pockets, as Tucci remarks, Buddhism
survived till about the 13th century AD (Tucci 1940: 9-12).

The Buddhist stupa normally enshrines the relics of the Buddha but it soon became
the symbol of Buddhist religion. Architecturally stupa consists of a huge
hemispherical dome, surmounted by chatras generally placed above a harmika. The
lower part contains a circular drum and some times a square base beneath. The outer
part is used as a circumambulation path where worshippers walk around it. The
Buddhist cremated their dead bodies and buried the ashes in stupas in relic caskets.
This is why we have no tomb of the Buddhist period, because there was no
inhumation.

Only two shrines of this period belonging to the eight or ninth century AD (Rahman
1984: 123) have survived in a dilapidated form.

These are as follows: (1) the Balo Kili Gumbat near Barikoṭ (Swāt) (our No.1) and (2)
the Panjkoṭai Vihāra in Bunner (our No.2). Both the building, show a rectangular
ground plan, round drum and a nearly bulbous dome. Except for a few architectural
 75

features these are devoid of any decorative motifs. They have the same type of
vaulted roof of the ambulatory, brackets and bulbous dome. The idea of domical and
vaulted roofs was apparently borrowed from the Caitya Halls as chiselled out of living
rocks in India (about 3rd century BC) through the early centuries of the Christian era.
(Coomaraswamy 1985: 14-16).

i. Vaulted Roof: Vault is an architectural term for an arched roof/ceiling. Vaults are
most commonly made of brick, concrete or stone. The four main kinds of vaults are:
1. barrel vault, 2. groined vault, 3. ribbed vault and 4. dome (The World Book
Encyclopaedia 1992, U.V-20: 307). In the examples cited above, both the shrines
have vaulted roof above the ambulatory (Fig.1a). This roof is built with corbelled
courses of stone slabs comparable to type one (i. e. as barrel vault). This is the
simplest form of a single continuous unbroken arch in the form of a tunnel (The
World Book Encyclopaedia 1992, U.V-20: 307). This form of the vault first appeared
in ancient Egypt and the Near East (The New Encyclopaedia Britannica 1990, 12:
284).

ii. Bulbous Dome: Dome is a curved roof erected on a circular base much like a bowl
turned upside down. The ancient Romans used dome to top small circular temples as
the Pantheon in Rome. In the early 6th century AD the invention of pendentives
allowed architects to place dome over square buildings (The World Book
Encyclopaedia 1992, D-5: 302). Later on different shapes were added from time to
time specially in Indian Architecture and thereby developed so many different forms
of the dome.

Bulbous form of the dome is essentially an Indian one and many examples of it exist
in the Buddhist rock-cut temples. We assume that when Buddhism flourished as a
state religion, there were hundreds of domes built of clay, sun dried bricks and other
impermanent materials. The dagabas in the interior of the chaityas at Ajanta have
bulbous domes (Havell 1913: 24). Both the shrines under discussion are topped with
bulbous domes (Pl.Ia,b & Pl.II) of stone masonry.

iii. Brackets: An architectural device of wood, stone and other material that projects
from or over hangs a wall to carry a weight is called bracket the brackets were often
in the form of volutes or scrolls and could be carved, cast or moulded. They are some
 76

times entirely ornamental. Among the types of brackets are the corbel and the
console, but there are many other types that have no special name (The New
Encyclopaedia Britannica 1990, 12: 451)

In the shrines mentioned above the brackets (Pl.Ia) are ornamental and used on the
parapet of the vaulted roof of the ambulatories and neck of the domes as a running
series of architectural decorative feature.

The round drum, brackets and bulbous domes are very common features in the
Buddhist architecture in the same territory and be seen at such Buddhist sites as
Amluk-Dara (Stein 1972: pl. 13) and Shnaisha Gumbat (Rahman 1993: pl. IIa, b)

2. SULTANATE PERIOD: In 10th century AD when Maḥmūd of Ghazna initiated

his campaign against the rulers of Gandhāra, known to Albirūni as Hindu Shāhis (but
otherwise Oḍi Shāhi) and soon over whelmed them. Having overthrown the Oḍi
Shāhi, he extended his campaign to the other parts of the subcontinent but made no
effort to keep the whole conquered territory under his control, except the Peshāwar
valley and the Punjāb. Due to uncertain political conditions no building worth the
name was erected during this period in the Peshāwar valley (present Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa abbreviated as KP). The only tomb known of this period is the tomb of
Saif ad – Daula Maḥmūd in Zairān near Pāṛāchinār (our No.3).

The Ghaznavids were succeeded by the Ghorids who established the first Muslim
empire in the Sub-continent. The Ghorids’ expansion was spearheaded by a slave of
Shāhāb ad-Dīn Muḥammad Ghori, namely Qutb ad-Dīn Aibak who in a series of
battles extended his sway as for as Bengal. Qutb ad-Dīn fixed his capital at Delhi, a
small fortress then known as Qala΄-i-Rāi Pithorā. At Delhi Qutb ad-Dīn built a
mosque known as Quwwat al-Islām mosque and a tower called Qutb Minār. Among
the successors of Qutb ad-Dīn, only Iltutmish stands head and shoulders above the
other. His tomb at Delhi is the first example of a Muslim tomb in South Asia. The
tomb stands immediately behind the northwest corner of the mosque. Though small, it
is one of the richest examples of Hindu art applied to Muslim purposes that old Delhi
affords, and is extremely beautiful, though the builders still display a certain degree of
inaptness in fitting the details to their new purposes. The effect at present is injured by
the want of a roof which, judging from appearance, was never completed, if ever
 77

commenced. In addition to the beauty of its details, it is interesting as being the oldest
tomb known to exist in the subcontinent. Iltutmish died in AD 1236 (Fergusson 1891:
500)

By vigorous efforts and offensive operations Iltutmish, originally a Turkish Slave,

made the power of Delhi felt beyond the borders of what was then called Hindustān
(northern part of the Subcontinent) as distinguished from the Deccan (i.e. Southern
part). The standard for silver coinage introduced by him was destined to survive till
the remodelling of the coinage by Sher Shāh.

The mastery obtained by Iltutmish is clearly shown by the acceptance, as empress, in

deference to his wishes, of his daughter Razia, the only Muslim queen in her own
right who ever occupied the throne of Delhi. Her reign, however, was a short one of
three years. She was succeeded by her brother Nāṣir ad-Dīn Maḥmūd who was in turn
succeeded by his brother-in-law Ghiyās ad-Dīn Balban, a stern but enlightened and
efficient ruler. Balban’s reign of twenty-two years was passed in comparative quiet.
Balban was succeeded by his grandson Kaiqubad, but the dissolute habits of the
young Sultān hastened his end. In 689 H/AD 1290 the Turks gave place to a dynasty
of the Khaljis who occupied the throne of Delhi for a period of thirty years.

Jalāl ad-Dīn Khalji, the founder, was overthrown by his nephew, Άla ud-Dīn, who
made an attempt to enlarge the Quwwat al-Islām mosque and built a gateway called
the Άlāi Darwāza in 1310. It is therefore about a century more modern than the older
buildings of the place and displays a new style which shows that Hindu masons had
by this time learned to fit their exquisite style of decoration to the forms of their new
masters. Its walls are decorated internally with a diaper pattern of unrivalled
excellence, and the mode in which the square is changed into an octagon is more
simply elegant and appropriate than any other example of that period. The
pendentives accord perfectly with the pointed openings in the four other faces, and is
in every respect appropriately constructed (Fergusson 1891: 510).

Άla ad-Dīn’s son and successor Qutb ad-Dīn Mubārák left the affairs of the
administration in the hands of a convert Hindu of low birth. The latter seized the
opportunity to murder his master and proclaim himself Sultān with the title of Nāṣir
ad-Dīn Khusrū, but such presumption was not to be tolerated, and Khusrū proved no
 78

match for Ghāzī Beg Tughlaq, to whom Mubārák had entrusted the command of his
Frontier. Defeating Khusrū in 720 H/AD 1320. Tughlaq was prevailed upon to accept
the throne, and became the founder of a dynasty, which lasted for close on a hundred
years. The Tughlaq rule came to an end in AD 1414. We have some important
buildings of this period in Multān (Punjāb), which directly influenced and set a model
for other tombs as we can see the group of Lāl Māḥra Sharif tombs, near D. I. Khān
(Nos. 4-7). The death place of Shāh-i Hamadān marked by a memorial at Naukoṭ,
Mansehra probably also belongs to this period.

The Sayyid and then the Lodis who succeeded the Tughlaqs one after the other and
ruled till AD 1526 have left some buildings in Delhi but none in KP. Apparently these
Sultān s of Delhi were too much preoccupied with their own affairs at the capital and
had no time and energy to spend on the far-flung areas.

Three types of decoration are observed in these tombs/ shrines: (1) glazed tiles, (2)
architectural decoration and (3) architectural features.

A. Glazed Tiles Decoration: All the several kinds of clay tiles are made in much the
same way. Thin sheets of clay are pressed or moulded to shape and then fired in kilns
like burnt bricks. The tile may be left in a rough state or, it may be given a smooth
surface called glazing by dipping or spraying the tile with a material that joins with
the clay. Glazing can also be applied by throwing salt into the kiln or by treating the
clay with a chemical wash (The World Book Encyclopedia 1992, T-19: 286). Tile
making itself initiated some 1000 years ago. It seems blue tiles originated in the town
of Kāshān in Iran as suggested by the term Kāshi Sāzi. The art of Kāshi Sāzi began
and developed in the period of the Saljūk dynasty (Naqsh n.d: 7 - 8).

The Near East was the birthplace of the decorative tile, invented to protect the walls
made from baked or sun-dried bricks. Tiles were used indoors by the ancient
Egyptians, while the Sumerians, Assyrians and Persians also used them on outer walls
in the form of coloured glazed bricks with ornaments painted or moulded in relief
(Dar 1988: 72).

Mesopotamia and Persia were the cradle of the craft of making exterior wall tiles,
carved or moulded with bright monochrome glazes. The Persians brought perfection
 79

in the glazed brickwork and later on this art spread to Pakistan, India, North Africa
and Muslim Spain (Dar 1988: 73)

In Pakistan some of the monuments at Multān are decorated with the earliest type of
glazed and enamelled tiles. The earliest examples of such tiles in Multan are found in
the tomb of Bahā ul-Haque (d. AD 1262) (Khān 1990: 49: pl. 56,65), tomb of Bībī
Jiwindī and Ustād at Uchchh (Khān 1980: pl. Ia, IIa and IIIa). But in Lāl Māhṛa Sharif
tombs the enamelled and glazed tiles show greenish Persian blue colour (Dar 1988:
71).

In the monuments under discussion the enamelled glazed tile decoration is only
confined to the group of four tombs at Lāl Māhṛa Sharif (Pls.IV,V & VIIa,b). These
are richly decorated with Persian blue tiles having their own stylistic variation. These
tiles are arranged in different patterns like geometrical, X – shaped, chessboard, disc
patterns, stylized floral designs and scrolls.

B. Architectural Decoration: The Lāl Māhṛa Sharif tombs, both externally and
internally, are richly decorated with different terracotta designs – a unique
architectural decoration. These include stepped lozenge pattern, E-shaped and D-
shaped plugs, bead and reel borders (Pl.VIIb), chain pattern, net pattern and saw-tooth
pattern etc. The boundary wall in our No.8 shows recessed cross designs worked out
in masonry.

C. Architectural Features:

i. Plan: The tomb of Saif ad- Daula Maḥmūd is square in plan. Tombs No. I and II
in Lāl Māhṛa group also show a square plan (Figs.2b, 3a & 3b). This type is
characterized by solid masonry walls covered by a dome (Bunce 2004: fig. 2 (b)
and (c)). While tombs No. III and IV of the same group have the same square
plans but are characterized by four corner towers incorporated as part of the
square plan. Generally, this type has a qibla nich on the west wall. As a rule, this
type gives a multi–storey appearance, although single story buildings may also be
seen (Bunce 2004: fig. 3 (a)).
 80

ii. Pointed Arch: Pointed arch was originally derived from early Buddhist
shrines, first by giving the crown the pointed tip of the pipal leaf, like aura of
Indian Buddhist images (Havell 1913: 85).

Saif ad – Daula Maḥmūd’s tomb (Pl.IIIa,b), (Fig.2a) has high pointed sunk arches
in all the four sides, while all the entrances of the Lāl Māhṛa group (Pls.IV,V &
VII) open under pointed arches, which is a common feature of the Muslim
architecture.

iii. Dry Masonry and Cup Shape Dome: Saif ad-Dula Maḥmūd’s tomb is
characterized by dry masonry. The whole structure was superimposed by a cup
shaped dome. (Rahman 1989: 79)

iv. Mihrab: The mihrāb originated in the reign of the Umayyad ruler al-Walīd -I
(AD 705 - 715). The structure was adapted from the prayer niches common to the
oratories of Coptic Christian monks (The New Encyclopaedia Britannica 1990,
12: 451). Since then it has become a common feature of mosques and tombs in
Muslim architecture (Rogers 1976: 145).

v. Corner Turrets/ Towers: The corner turrets may be seen in tombs No. 3 and 4
(Pls.VI & VII), (Fig.4a, b) of the Lāl Māhṛa group and also in the enclosure wall
of Shāh-i Hamadān’s death place. These corner turrets are a characteristic feature
of the early Muslim mausoleums. The roots of the same may be traced to the pre-
Muslim buildings as reported from the Malākand Agency in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
(Rahman 1979: pls. IXb & XIII) and to the Salt-Range monuments in the Punjāb
(Stein 1937: 50).

3. MUGHAL PERIOD: The Mughal rule covers a long period of time between 1526
and 1857 when Bahādur Shāh II was deposed by the British. The decline of the
Mughal authority started just after the death of Aurangzeb ΄Ālamgīr in AD 1707. This
long period of history is replete with building activities in the territories under Mughal
control. The Mughal buildings throughout sub-continent have a distinctly common
style characterized by imposing facades, with four-centred arches, semi-domed high
alcoves, shouldered necks, inverted lotus tops, pinnacles, pilasters, ornament in
stone/marble carving, inlay, pietra-dura gilding and double dome are a great
structural contribution of this style to the Indo-Muslim architecture.
 81

This style did not formulate overnight and took years to do so. It was established in
1526 by Bābur, but during Akbar’s reign Mughal architecture took a significant step
forward. The great architectural tradition set down by Akbar was followed by
Jahangir (1605 – 27) and reached its climax during Shāhjahān’s reign (1628 – 58).
Then started its decline immediately afterwards. For further detailed discussion, the
Mughal architecture of the Indo-subcontinent may be divided into two distinct phases:
1. Early Mughal (1526 – 1707) and 2. Late Mughal (1707 – 1858). Thereafter the
building activities that took place in this part of the subcontinent were started and
completed by individual families of common people with their own resources without
royal patronage.

3.1. Early Mughal (1526 – 1707): At the beginning of this period come the reigns of
Bābur, Humāyūn and Akbar. Most of the extant buildings of these rulers are found in
the present days Bhārat (India) and only a few tombs can be seen in KP. Even these
were built by the nobility or descendants of the deceased on burial sites of some
saintly persons.

3.1.1. Reign of Humāyūn (1530 – 1538 & 1555 – 1556): Humāyūm ascended the
throne in 1530, but was pushed out of the country in 1538 by Sher Shāh Sūri. In these
eight years, he was continuously engaged in warfare with the seditions provincial
governors in addition to the pressure exerted by Sher Shāh Sāri (Sharma 1964: 303).
Under these circumstances expensive cultural pursuits such as architecture were not
possible. Only one tomb building of the reign of Humāyūn exists in the present days
KP and that is located in Peshāwar city. It is called the Άṣā-i-Sakhi Shāh-i Mardān. It
was built by Sayyid Abū Naṣr (Jaffar 1946: 109-110) a noble of the Mughal Emperor
Humāyūn (Das 1874: 149).

A. Architectural and Decorative Features:

i. Ground Plan: The tomb under discussion is square in plan (Fig.5c) with one
entrance on the south side. (Bunce 2004: fig. 2 (a))

ii. Arched Alcove: Internally each side of the tomb chamber has deep arched
alcove (Fig.5b) on each
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iii. Stucco Grill: The windows are blocked (Fig.5a) as blind windows by stucco
grill/screen/jali. This is a common feature and is amply noticed in other buildings
such as Jahāngīr’s tomb and Shalimār garden and in many buildings of wood
(Nasir, H 1992: 88: pl. 6). The history of this grill or screen is very old and has
its own story. This art is said to have arrived in this area along with the boat
makers, who accompanied the armies of different invaders (Qazalbash 1993:
141). But with the passage of time it became a common element of the building
art, which is plentifully visible in different parts of the province, especially in old
Peshawar city in Seṭhi Houses (Durrāni 2010: 171: fig: 119).

iv. Sunk Panel: Externally the square chamber (Fig.5a) is marked by tall sunk
pointed panels

v. Drum: The drum is octagonal in shape with decorative pattern of lozenges

worked out in masonry. Within the lozenges a beaded design is painted with
some single word each

vi. Dome: Hemispherical shape ribbed dome of recent ornamentation with

potsherds of modern pottery. This is the first ribbed dome of a tomb in the KP. It
may not be out of place to remark that the idea of a ribbed dome was borrowed
from Central Asia. But the technique of constructing a ribbed dome in this part
of the subcontinent is definitely indigenous. We have a very good example in the
entrance to the interior of the rock cut cave II of Ellura (6th / 7th centuries)
showing massive piers of a verandah finished off in a ribbed shape (Shah 2005:
19). The construction of same ribbed dome is continued till now and noticed not
only in the Muslim architecture but in Hindu architecture too (Hegewald 2007:
180,185: fig.2,9; Samad 2008: 34: fig.2,3&5). It appears to be an element of
cultural overlapping.

The top of the dome shows inverted lotus in relief (Pl.IX) with the pinnacle
having metallic crescent (Fig.5a). The lotus is a common feature of the Muslim
buildings but it is rooted in the pre-Muslim architecture and may be noticed in
numerous Buddhist and Hindu monuments. Lotus symbolizes life, while the
finial stick at the top is considered as the akāśāliṇga, an element used in Hindu
temples (Shah 2005: 23).
 83

vii. Pendentives: The square chamber is converted into circle with corner
pendentives arranged as ornamental sunk arches and other designs in high relief.
The pendentive in architecture, it may be remarked, is a triangular segment of a
spherical surface filing the upper corners of a room, in order to form, at the top, a
circular support for a dome. It was employed by Roman builders of the late
empire. It remained for the Byzantine architects, however, to recognize the
possibilities of the pendentive and fully develop it. One of the earliest examples
of the use of the pendentive is also of the largest, that of Hagia Sophia (AD 537)
at Istanbul (The New Ency. Brit. 1990, 09: 256).

viii. Phase of Transition: Shows two stages (Fig.5b), the lower one is octagonal
just above the corner pendentives, marked by squinches and intermediate arches.

ix. Decorative Panels and Arches: the squinches and intermediate arches in the
phase of transition are decorated by rectangular sunk panels with small pointed
arches (Fig.5b). These are separated from each other by elongated narrow arches
in relief, while empty spaces within the squinch arches are covered with a series
of pointed arches.

3.1.2. Reign of Akbar (1556 – 1605): After the death of Humāyūn his elder son
Akbar was enthroned. He was keenly interested in art and architecture. He established
his capital at Agra. He mostly used red sandstone in the construction of forts and
palaces. His trabeate mode of construction shows restrained ornamentation (Sharma
1964: 307). But during his reign he could merely initiate the construction of a fort at
Agra and other places but even projects could not create an atmosphere congenial for
architectural activities. The tombs attributed to the reign of Akbar in the KP were
built by nobles, governors or ancestors of the deceased on their own such as the tombs
of Sayyid Hanānā at Chiṛā, (No.11), Sakhi Ṣāḥib (No.12) and Shaikh Qutb ad-Dīn
(No. 10).

A. Architectural features:
i. Ground Plan: The first one (No.11) is rectangular in plan (Fig.6c) and the second
one (No.12) is square (Pl.XIa) with four entrances, one on each side (Bunce 2004: fig.
2 (c). The third one (No.10) (Pl.XII) is of octagonal plan. This type may be found
with one, three, four, seven or eight entrances to the central area. This type was used
 84

from 14th through the 16th centuries AD (Bunce 2004: fig. 4 (a)). The idea must have
probably been first employed in the Dome of the Rock at Jerusalem (Creswell 1958:
19: fig. 2) from it spread to other part of the Muslim world. In Pakistan the earliest
one is the anonymous tomb at Mithri, District Sibi in Balochistān datable to the 11th –
12th century AD (Hassan 2001: fig. 9) it then reached Multān in the Punjāb as
represented by the tomb of Shāh Rukn-i-΄Ālam which is octagonal in plan (Wheeler
1992: 67: fig. 13).

ii. Pointed Arches: The earlier two tombs (Nos.11,12) have pointed arches which are
used as an architectural feature, whereas sunk arches are merely a decorative feature
(Pl.Xa)

iii. Pendentives: Corner pendentives are used to support the phase of transition for
receiving a massive dome as also may be seen in No.11 (Pl.Xb).

iv. Drum and Dome: Shaikh Qutb ad – Dīn’s tomb (No.10) has sixteen-sided drum
with low hemispherical dome (Pl.XII). The construction of sixteen-sided drum with
low hemispherical dome is also as early as the octagonal plan.

v. Recessed Arches: Recessed arches are provided within the rectangular panels in
the facade of each entrance.

A. Decorative Features:

i. Gul-e nau Design: this design decorates the façade of Shaikh Qutb ad-Dīn’s tomb
above the recessed arches (Pl.XII).

ii. Acanthus Leaf: An acanthus leaf running design is applied to the battlemented
parapet. This feature may be traced to the Buddhist, Jain and Hindu structure and
sculptures. It was initially borrowed from the Western Asian art repertory. (Shah
2005: 25)

iii. Sunk Arches: The grave chamber of No.11 (Pl.Xa) and No.12 (Pl.XIa) have
sunk arches. The sixteen-sided drum of No.10 (Pl.XII) is relieved by sunk-arched
panels.
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iv. Multi-cusp, trefoil design and flat arches: Each of the flanking zones of the
row of five panels shows multi-cusp, trefoil design and flat arches

v. Inverted Lotus Flower: The summit of the low hemispherical dome of No.10
shows inverted lotus flower in stucco in high relief. It is used as a decorative motif in
the Muslim buildings. We usually find this motif executed in relief in the centre of
dome interior, where it is shown as eight petalled flowers. In Hinduism, it is the
symbol of the Sun and of creation, similarly in Jainism and Buddhism, it stands for
purity and perfection. (Shah 2005: 24)

A. Painted Decoration: The painted decoration is confined only to No.10

showing different motifs in polychrome.

i. Scroll Pattern: The cornice is decorated with running scroll pattern with bell-
shape motifs

ii. Floral Pattern: Floral patterns comprise poppy and lily flowers and are shown in
the phase of transition

iii. Geometrical Design: These floral patterns consist of intricate geometrical

designs. Geometric patterning of remarkable sophistication was developed in Iraq
and Iran in the 1000s and then spread elsewhere as geometry acquired an almost
mystical significance. (The World Book Encyclopaedia 1992: I.10: 468)

iv. Garland Pattern: The soffit of the dome is decorated by garland pattern, which
descend from the top to the springing point. The use of garland as a decorative
pattern may be traced back to the Buddhist period when it formed an essential item
for decoration the stupas. The best examples are reported from Butkara-III (Swat).
(Rahman 1990: 693-705; 1995: 5-15; Swati 1997: 115-130).

3.1.3. Reign of Jahāngīr (1605 – 1627): After the death of Akbar in 1605, his son
Salim ascended the throne at Agra under the name of Jahāngīr. By nature he was
pleasure loving and fond of natural beauty. Miniature paintings attracted him; the
development of the Mughal School of painting owes much to his direct patronage. He
was little interested in architecture (Sharma 1964: 313). He built roads, bridges and
sarais, but no tomb was built during his reign in the KP.
 86

3.1.4. Reign of Shāhjahān (1628 – 1658): Shājahān was enthroned after the death of
his father Jahangir. He inherited the artistic taste of his father, but his interest went
beyond. It was architecture, which gripped and gratified him and remained his life
long passion (Sharma 1964: 315) as evidenced in the mosques and palaces built by
him. He preferred marble to other materials and introduced delicate carvings in
marble as fine inlay (pietradura) and paintings. Most of the buildings built in this
period are in the present day Bhārat (India) and in Lahore (Pakistan). But, in the KP
we have only a few tombs assignable to this period. One of these, and the most
significant is the whole series is the tomb of Nawab Sa΄īd Khān (No.13). Others
include Shaikh Sultān Bābā’s tomb (No.14), tombs of Shaikh Imām al-Dīn and his
wife (Nos.15, 16) in and around Peshāwar. Tor Gumbat (No.17) and Spin Gumbat
(No.18) at Ṭhal and the tomb of Sultān Maḥmūd Khurd (No.19) may also belong to
this period.

A. Architectural and Decorative Features:

i. Ground Plan: Except for No. 13, which is octagonal (Pl.XIII) all the other
tombs comprising Shaikh Imām al–Dīn (Pl.XVI) and his wife (Pl.XVII), Tor
Gumbat (Fig.8c) and Spin Gumbat (Fig.9c) and the tomb of Sultān Maḥmūd
Khurd (Pl.XXa) have square plans. (Bunce 2004: fig. 2 (c)). But all of these have
four entrances. While the tomb of Shaikh Sultān Bābā (Fig.11c) has square plan
with four corner towers.

ii. Recessed Arches and Niches: The façade of each entrance in the Nawab Sa΄īd
Khān tomb (Fig.7a) contains a high recessed arch within a rectangular frame. The
external piers of the phase of transition corridor have recessed niches. The
arrangement of niches in the Muslim houses and palaces was a secular adaptation
of the shrines of Buddhist monasteries (Havell 1913: 6)

iii. Arched Panels: The flanking zone in the façade of Nawab Sa΄īd Khān’s tomb
(Pl.XIII) shows arched panels. Each side of the square chamber of Sultān
Maḥmūd Khurd’s tomb exterior has a row of pointed sunk arches.

iv. Alcoves: In Nawab Sa΄īd Khān’s tomb, smaller sides of the octagon contain a
deep pentagonal alcove (Fig.7a) within a rectangular frame in each case
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v. Staircase: In this group of tombs the approach to the upper story is provided
through a staircase in the thickness of the wall, only in the tomb of Nawab Sa΄īd
Khān and Shaikh Sultān Bābā (Fig.11a).

vi. Drum: The tombs of Nawab Sa΄īd Khān (Fig.7a) and Shaikh Sultān Bābā
(Fig.11a) have sixteen sided drums, while Tor Gumbat (Pl.XIV) and Spin Gumbat
(Pl.XVa) have round drums
vii. Pointed Arches: The square chambers of Tor Gumbat (Fig.8b) and Spin
Gumbat have tall sunk arches. Similar to the interior of Sultān Maḣmūd Khurd’s
tomb.

viii. Vaulted Passage: Access to the grave chamber of Shaikh Imām al–Dīn is
provided trough a roofed vaulted passage. The use of vaulted roof may be traced
to Gandhāran period as evidenced in different monasteries and shrines, like Balo
Kili Gumbat in Swāt (Rahman, A 1984: 123 – 131)

ix. Terracotta Grill: Windows provided in Shaikh Imām al-Dīn’s tomb is

blocked by a terracotta grill. The terracotta is a hard, durable kind of earthen were
and is widely used as architectural ornament and decorative garden sculptures,
because it can be moulded easily. (The New Encyclopaedia Britannica 1990, 19:
173).

x. Rectangular and square Panels: The exterior of Shaikh Sultān Bābā tomb
(Pl.XVIII) have rectangular and square panels sunk into plaster, while Sultān
Maḥmūd Khurd’s tomb (Pl.XXa,b) have only rectangular panels sunk in masonry

xi. Corner Turrets: Each corner of the square tomb chamber of Shaikh Sultān
Bābā (Pl.XVIII) has a corner turret tapering upward. These corner turrets are a
characteristic feature of the early Muslim mausoleums. The same is observed in
tombs No. III and IV in the Lāl Māhṛa group of four tombs. The roots of the same
may be traced to the pre-Muslim buildings as reported from Malākand Agency in
KP (Rahman 1979: pls. IXb & XIII) and from the Salt-Range in the Punjāb (Stein
1937: 50).
 88

xii. Dome: Nawab Sa΄īd Khān tomb has double dome (Fig.7b), which is an early
example of its kind in the KP (Rahman 1988: 560). An early attempt regarding
double dome was made in the subcontinent in Shihāb ud-Dīn Tāj Khān’s tomb
(AD 1501) but a clear picture of the first double dome is found in Sikandar Lodi’s
tomb (c. 1518) (Brown 1942: 28). The first in Pakistan with octagonal plan is the
tomb of Āṣif Khān (father-in-law of emperor Shāhjahān) at Lahore (Hassan
2001a: 123). The Spin Gumbat has pointed dome, Sheikh Sultān Bābā tomb’s has
a huge hemispherical dome (Shah 2001: 166), Shaikh Imām al–Dīn’s wife’s
tombs has squat dome (Rahman 1986: 120-124), while the tomb of Sultān
Maḥmūd Khurd has low squat dome and has a very close resemblance with Baṛā
Khān ka Gumbat at Delhi (Kotla Mubārák Put) (Brown 1942: 28: pl. CIV, fig. 2;
Jairazbhoy 2000: 67, pl. 122).

B. Painted Decoration: In this group of tombs, painted decoration is only

confined to Shaikh Imām al–Dīn and his wife’s tombs. The Tehkhānā (basement)
of Shaikh Imām al–Dīn is painted with a local variety of tempera in red yellow
and green colours (Rahman 1986: 121). The following motifs are included:

i. Flower Vases: Flower vases are painted at different places in the Tehkhānā.

ii. Fruit in Dishes: Melons and apples are painted in dishes

iii. Cusped Arches: Cusped shape arches are painted as decorative motifs

iv. Floral Scrolls: Floral scrolls pattern are used as decorative patterns. The rich
depiction of scrolls specially (vine scrolls) in Muslim buildings is traceable to the
pre-Muslim cultures of ancient India. (Shah 2005: 25). The scrollwork called
arabesque became common in Islamic art in all Muslim countries beginning in the
900s. (The world book Encyclopaedia 1992, T.19: 173)

v. Net Pattern: Net pattern is painted as decorative motif. This pattern is observed
in the Lāl Māhṛa Sharif group of four monuments in tombs No. I and II where the
effect is created by terracotta plugs (Ali 1988: 87)

vi. Cypresses: Cypress trees are generally depicted in secular buildings as

evidenced in Rang Maḥal at Vali in the Nowshera district (KP) (Shakir 1995: 130,
pl.3)
 89

vii. Birds and Fish Designs: In some places of Shaikh Imām al–Dīn’s tomb birds
and fish motifs are depicted. In paintings and relief work the designs are highly
stylized so that animals and birds have an abstract flat character that makes them
look more like symbols than life like pictures. On the whole designers preferred
floral motifs, but drew even these in an abstract style. (The World Book
Encyclopaedia 1992: I.10: 468)

viii. Floral Design: Above the phase of transition of Spin Gumbat is a running
floral design painted in red and green, but mostly hidden under the white wash.

Aurangzeb ΄Alamgīr imprisoned his father Shāhjahān and crowned himself as

emperor at Delhi in 1658. With his accession architecture and fine arts succumbed to
a deterioration and oblivion, from which they were never to emerge during the rule of
the Mughals, due to a substantial degree of dislike of such arts by the emperor. The
buildings erected in this period under the royal patronage are of red sandstone and
white marble with inlay of black colour.

3.1.5. Reign of Aurangzeb ΄Alamgīr (1658 – 1707): Architectural monuments of the

reign of Aurangzeb represent a distinct decline; the tomb of Rābiah Begam (1679) at
Aurangabad, for example, is a poor copy of the Tāj Mahal. However, the Royal
Mosque at Lahore (1673 – 74) is of much better quality retaining the grandeur,
dignity, refinement and delicacy of earlier works. The tomb of Ṣafdar Jang at Delhi
(c. 1754) was among the last important works produced under the Mughal dynasty
and had already lost the coherence and balance characteristic of mature Mughal
architecture. (The New Encyclopaedia Britannica 1990, 27: 771). The tombs built
during this period in KP include the Roshnāi tombs at Koṭla Muhsin Khān (No.20-
21), tomb of Άbd-al-Rashid (Bajuṛi Bābā), Peshāwar (No.22), the tombs of the
Shaikhs Allāh Dād and Karīm Dād (No.27-28), Sayyid Miān Fatḥ Shāh (No.26),
Nimawṛae Bābā Ziārat (No.29), tomb of Kākā Ṣāḥib (No.23), the tombs of Shaikh
Bābur Bābā (No.25) and Ziya ad-Dīn Shahid tomb (No.24).

A. Architectural and Decorative Features:

i. Ground Plan: The Roshnāi tombs (Fig.12c,f) and that of Ziyā ad–Dīn Shahid
(Fig.18b) are rectangular in plan. The Miān Fatḥ Shāh Ṣāḥib’s (Fig.14c) and
Nimawṛae Bābā (Fig.15b) tombs are octagonal in plan with four entrances, referred to
 90

as type-D (Bunce 2004: fig. 4 (a)). The tombs of Kākā Ṣāḥib (Fig.16b), Shaikh Bābur
Bābā (17c), Bajuṛi Bābā (Pl.XXII), Shaikh Allāh Dād (Fig.13c) and Shaikh Karīm
Dad (Fig.13f) are square in plan with one entrance referred as type-B (Bunce 2004:
fig. 2 (a) without Mihrab)

ii. Drum: It shows the following varieties: (a) Octagonal: (Roshnāi tomb-I (Fig.12b),
Kākā Ṣāḥib (Pl.XXVIa) and Shaikh Bābur Bābā (Pl.XXVIIa)), (b) Twelve sided:
(Roshnāi tomb-II (Pl.XXIb)), (c) Thirty-two sided: (Miān Fatḥ Shāh’s tomb
(Pl.XXVa)),
(e) Sixteen sided: (Nimawṛae Bābā)

iii. Dome/Roof: It has the following varieties: (a) Low dome (Roshnai tomb-I
(Pl.XXIa) and II and Bajauṛi Bābā (Pl.XXII)), (b) Ribbed dome (Kākā Ṣāḥib
(Pl.XXVIa), Shaikh Allāh Dād (Pl.XXIIIa) and Karīm Dād and Nimawṛae Bābā), (c)
Squat dome: (Shaikh Babur Bābā (Pl.XXVII)), (d) flat roof: (Ziyā ad–Dīn Shahid
(Fig.18a)).

iv. Staircase: Approach to the upper story is provided through a staircase in the
thickness of the wall in the tombs of Kākā Ṣāḥib’s, Bajuṛi Bābā, Miān Fatḥ Shāh and
Shaikh Bābur Bābā.

v. Sunk Panels with Decorative Cusped Arches: south side of Roshnāi tomb-I
(Pl.XXIa) has sunk panels with decorative cusped arches; in the tomb of Bajuṛi Bābā
(Pl.XXII) cusped arches are shown within rectangular panels

vi. Cusped and Multi-foil arches: Roshnāi tomb-II (Pl.XXIb) has decorative cusped
and multifoil arches. The arch is a pre-Muslim architectural tradition adapted into
Muslim architecture (Shah 2005: 22).

vii. Stucco Geometrical Designs: In both the Roshnāi tombs (Fig.12a,d) small niches
of the door alcoves show geometrical designs in stucco relief. Above the doorway of
Kākā Ṣāḥib’s is a geometrical pattern in a sunk-panel.

viii. Astral Design: Roshnāi Tombs-I (Pl.XXIa) and II above the doorways show
vertical rows of astral designs. Geometric patterning of remarkable sophistication
developed in Iraq and Iran in the 1000s and then spread elsewhere as geometry
 91

acquired an almost mystical significance. (The World Book Encyclopaedia 1992: I.

10: 468)

ix. Terracotta Grill: In the Roshnāi tombs (Pl.XXIa, Fig.12a,d) the windows and
arches on three sides are blocked by terracotta grill and so is the case with the tomb of
Bajuṛi Bābā. The terracotta is a hard, durable kind of earthenware and widely used to
make architectural ornaments and decorative garden sculptures, because it can be
moulded easily. (The New Encyclopaedia Britannica 1990, 19: 173)

x. Alcove: The doorway of Roshnāi tomb-I (Pl.XXIa) opens in an alcove and in tomb-
II (Fig.12d) the additional space is occupied by pentagonal alcoves. The tomb of
Bajuṛi Bābā, each side internally, shows sunk rectangular panel with cusped arched
alcove and externally (Pl.XXII) each wall has a tall rectangular panel containing
cinquefoil arched alcove

xi. Cornice: The square chamber of Bajuṛi Bābā’s tomb is marked by projected
cornice in concave shape to support the corners of the squinch arches in the phase of
transition.

xii. Tall sunk arches: Internally the square chambers of the Shaikhs Allāh Dād and
Karīm Dād’s tombs (13b, e) have tall sunk arches. Sectional elevation of Kākā Ṣāḥib
tomb’s (Fig.16a) shows tall sunk arches, one each in all the four sides.

xiii. Minarets: Minarets are added to each corner of the square chamber of the tombs
Shaikh Allāh Dād (Pl.XXIIIa) and Karīm Dād. Each corner of Sayyid Miān Fatḥ
Shāh’s (Pl.XXVa) octagonal tomb chamber is topped by a minaret. Kākā Sāhib’s
tomb façade (Pl.XXVIa) and each corner of the drum has minarets. Each corner of the
square chamber of Shaikh Bābur Bābā’s tomb (Pl.XXVII) and of the rectangular
chamber of Ziyā ad-Dīn Shahid’s tomb (Fig.18a) has minarets. Many scholars believe
that this form of the minaret is derived from the ancient lighthouse at Alexandria
(Egypt), which was completed in the 200s BC. Among the earliest minarets are those
at a mosque in Damascus (Syria) built in AD 707. Minarets are common in India,
North Africa and throughout the Middle East.

xiv. Pointed arches: The doorways in each side of the Nimawṛae Bābā octagonal
chamber open under pointed arches within sunk-rectangular panels.
 92

xv. Stucco Leaf Design: The drum of Nimawṛae Bābā’s tomb has running design of
acanthus leaf in stucco relief. Similar design may be noticed on the cornice of the
square chamber of Shaikh Bābur Bābā’s tomb. In Kākā Ṣāḥib’s tomb the squinch
arches are topped by acanthus leaves. A series of acanthus leaves in stucco relief are
noted in Shaikh Allāh Dād and Karīm Dād’s tombs.

xvi. Gul-e nau, Star chain, Mat pattern and Rosette: The facade of the tomb of
Kākā Ṣāḥib (Pl.XXVIb) is decorated with gul-e nau, star chain, mat pattern and
rosettes in stucco relief

xvii. Cusped arches: The doorways of the tombs of Miān Fatḥ Shāh (Pl.XXVa) and
Kākā Ṣāḥib opened under cusped arches. Shaikh Bābur Bābā,s (Pl.XXVIIa) tomb
chamber externally shows sunk cusped arches

xviii. Decorative panels: Kākā Ṣāḥib’s tomb chamber within the tall sunk arches of
each side has deep sunk decorative panels. Ziyā ad-Dīn Shahid’s tomb chamber has
rectangular and square decorative panels sunk into plaster in two rows

xix. Inverted Lotus: The dome of the tombs of Shaikh Bābur Bābā (Pl.XXVIIa),
Nimawṛae Bābā (Fig.15a), Miān Fatḥ Shāh (Pl.XXVa), Kākā Ṣāḥib and Shaikh Allāh
Dād (Pl.XXIIIa) and Karīm Dād is topped with inverted lotus flower in stucco relief.
It is used as a decorative motif in the Muslim buildings. We usually find this motif
executed in relief in the centre of the dome interior forming a large eight petalled
design.

xx. Scroll pattern: The chamber of Kākā Ṣāḥib’s tomb has stamped stucco designs
(Pl.XXVId) showing floral scroll pattern in high relief

xxi. Flower plants: Some panels in the tomb of Kākā Ṣāḥib show flower plants
(Pl.XXVIc) in vases executed in high relief. The scrollwork called arabesque became
common in Islamic art in all Muslim countries beginning in the 900s. (The World
Book Encyclopaedia 1992, T.19: 173)

xxii. Star shape pattern: Sunk panels in the tomb of Kākā Ṣāḥib show star shaped
stamped designs (Pl.XXVIe) in high relief
 93

xxiii. Mirror Work: Mirror work executed recently is confined only to the tomb
chamber of Miān Fatḥ Shāh. The use of mirror has Greco-Roman antiquity and was
employed as a medium of decoration through out the European Middle Ages. (The
New Encyclopaedia Britannica 1990: 8: 182). Mirrors were lavishly used in such
buildings of the Mughal period as Shish Mahal (Mirror Palace) in the Lahore fort

xxiv. Tiles Work: The dome ribs in the tomb of Kākā Ṣāḥib (Pl.XXVIa) are covered
with green tiles mosaic, while the neck of the dome has a running design of acanthus
leaves executed by Ara matti tiles.

B. Wood Work:

i. Fret work: Fretwork is noticed only on the doorway of Kākā Ṣāḥib’s tomb while it
comprises nicely executed eight star shaped designs

ii. Honeycomb Design: This design is to be seen above the doorway of Ziyā ad-Dīn
Shahid’s tomb

iii. Gul-e nau: On Ziyā ad-Dīn Shahid’s tomb doorway, below the honeycomb
design, the gul-e nau design is carved in two rows

iv. Rosettes: This pattern is carved only on the wooden frame of the doorway of Ziyā
ad-Dīn Shahid tomb

v. Scroll pattern: In the façade of Ziyā ad-Dīn Shahid’s tomb, bosses of the doorway,
wooden eaves (Pl.XXIII) and parapet are nicely decorated with floral scrolls.

C. Painted Decoration: Painted decoration in this group of monuments is confined to

the tombs of Kākā Ṣāḥib, Shaikh Bābur Bābā, Shaikh Allāh Dād and Shaikh Karīm
Dād. In the Bajuṛi Bābā’s tomb the painted decoration is hidden under a recent white
wash.

i. Loop pattern containing flower plants: The squinches and the under side of the
dome of Kākā Ṣāḥib’s tomb is richly decorated with loop patterns. Every loop has a
flower plant different from the other in polychrome.
 94

ii. Flower plants in vases: Some panels in the tombs of the Shaikhs Allāh Dād
(Pl.XXIIIb,d) and Karīm Dād in the square chambers and phase of transition are
decorated with flower plants in vases.

iii. Dishes containing fruits: The zone of transition of Kaka Sahib’s tomb (Pl.XXVIf)
shows dishes containing fruits, while the tomb chambers of the Shaikhs Allāh Dād
and Karīm Dād show fruits with knives and flower plants and in some cases a teapot
and cups. The fruits shown are mangoes, melons, strawberries, apples, grapes and
brinjal.

iv. Floral scrolls: The tombs of the Shaikhs Allāh Dād (Pl.XXIIId) and Karīm Dād
(Pl.XXIVc), in their chambers, show floral scroll pattern. The zone of transition of
Kākā Ṣāḥib’s tomb also exhibits the same pattern in polychrome.

v. Lotus flower: The underside of the dome of Shaikh Bābur Bābā’s tomb (Pl.XXIIb)
shows lotus flower with fringes in polychrome. It is also widely used as a decorative
motif in the Muslim buildings. We usually find this motif executed in relief in the
centre of dome interior.

D. Calligraphic Decoration: Calligraphy is a characteristic feature of Islamic art

made possible by the wide use of Arabic script, which can be moulded to create many
different styles. Common styles of Arabic calligraphy include Kufic, Naskh and
Nastaliq. These were initially developed in Iran and Turkey and then spread all over
the Islamic world. (The World Book Encyclopaedia 1992: C-ch. 3: 67). Calligraphic
decoration is very common in Muslim architecture and had been regarded as one of
the most favourite media of surface decoration. In the group of buildings under our
study calligraphic specimens are only found in the squinches, soffit of the dome and
the tomb chamber (Pl.XXIIIc) of Shaikh Allāh Dād. The squinch arches of Kākā
Ṣāḥib’s tomb show the words Ya Allāh (O, God) in black colour on red, blue and
white background, while the soffit of the dome is embellished by a disorderly
narration of the Attributes of God. Shaikh Allāh Dād’s tomb chamber (Pl.XXIIIc) has
one panel of gul-e nau design in three lines: (1) Bismillāh-ir Raḥman-ir-Raḥim, (2)
Bismillāh-ir-Raḥman-ir-Raḥim al-Ḥamdu li-Allāh Rabb-il-΄Ālamīn and (3) La ilā ha
il-Allāh-u Muḥammad ar-Rasūl Allāh. All these are written in the Naskh and
Nasta΄līq styles.
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3.2. Late Mughal Period (1707 – 1857): The decline of the Mughal Empire took
place with the death of Aurangzeb ΄Alamgīr in AD 1707. The country showed clear
sign of disintegration, although the feeble successors of the great Mughals continued
to rule over the dismembered dominions till 1857. This period is marked by mutual
dissensions, gradual entrenchment of foreign powers and raids by the Persian and
Afghān adventurers such as Nādir Shāh Afshār and Aḥmad Shāh Abdāli. The king
had neither the resources, nor inclination, to erect any major monuments. The only
example is the tomb of Ṣafdar Jang (Koch 1991: 132), who was the Viceroy of Oudh
under Muḥammad Shāh (1719 – 48) and later on Prime Minister under Ahmad Shāh
(1748 – 54). (Sharma 1964: 324). Due to unfavourable environment building
activities also slowed down so that only a few buildings of this period may be seen in
KP. One of them is the tomb of the Akhūnd Panjū Bābā at Akbarpura (No.30) near
Peshāwar and the second is the burial place of Doda Bābā (No.31).

A. Architectural and Decorative Features:

i. Ground Plan: Akhūnd Panjū Bābā’s tomb building, square plan (Fig.20c), may be
referred to as type-B (Bunce: 2004: fig. 2 (c)), while the Doda Bābā’s tomb, also
square in plan, but without mihrāb in the western wall

ii. Drum and Dome: Akhānd Panjā Bābā’s tomb (Pl.XXXI) has octagonal drum with
heavy ribbed dome, while Doda Bābā’s tomb (Pl.XXXa) has bell type dome, which is
derived from the lotus or bulbous dome by adding eaves with upward curve for
keeping the rain water off the walls of the building (Havell 1913: 93-94: fig. 18).

iii. Cusped arch: In both the tombs (Fig.20a, Pl.XXXb & Pl.XXXI) the main
entrance opens under a cusped arch placed within rectangular panel.

iv. Rectangular panels with sunk-arches and design: The area above the entrance
of Panjū Bābā’s tomb (Fig.20a & Pl.XXXI) is decorated with three pairs of
rectangular panels. The lower two rows have sunk arches, while the upper pair is
adorned with a gul-e nau design in relief. Each squinch arch of the phase of transition
shows three full and two half sunk arches within rectangular panels
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v. Lotus flower: The spandrels of the main entrance arch of Panjū Bābā’s tomb are
decorated with full lotus flowers. Summit of the dome shows an inverted lotus in
relief in stucco.

vi. Acanthus leaves: The parapet and the dome are decorated with acanthus leaves
and the springing point of the dome is marked by a series of acanthus leaf decoration
in high relief in Panjū Bābā (Fig.20a & Pl. XXXI)

vii. Pointed arch: Internally the central large rectangular panel marks the entrance
under a pointed arch in Panjū Bābā’s tomb. The Doda Bābā tomb (Pl.XXXd),
internally, above the dado level, on all the four sidewalls has tall sunk pointed arches,
one on each side.

viii. Circles with flowers: Panjū Bābā, internally shows rectangular sunk panels
ornamented with circles showing flowers in relief.

ix. Ornamental ribbed dome: The decorative sunk arches in squinches of the phase
of transition are surmounted by ornamental ribbed half domes with finial adorned in
relief in Panjū Bābā

x. Corner Turrets: Each corner of the square chamber in Doda Bābā (Pl.XXXb)
above the dado level up to the parapet shows corner turrets. These corner turrets are a
characteristic feature of the early Muslim mausoleums. The same is observed in
tombs III & IV of Lāl Māhṛa group of four tombs.

xi. Minarets: The parapet of Doda Bābā (Pl.XXXa) is topped by tapering cylindrical
minarets, one on each corner.

xii. Wooden Grill: The western side of Doda Bābā (Pl.XXXb) in the middle has low
arched rectangular blind window of wooden grill

xiii. Pendentives: The square chamber of Doda Bābā (Pl.XXXc) is converted into
octagon to receive the round base of the dome by corner pendentives. This is a very
common practice in architecture for receiving the low and lightweight domes as we
have a very good example of its use in the Hauz Mosque (Shakir 2002-03: 128-129).
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xiv. Star Shaped Sunk Design: In Doda Bābā (Pl.XXXa) a metre above the entrance
arch in the centre is a six-sided star shaped sunk design.

B. Painted Decoration: In Panjū Bābā painted decoration is restricted to the zone of

transition and the soffit of the dome. But in Doda Bābā merely to the soffit of the
dome.

i. Multiple floral and geometrical designs: In the phase of transition in Panjū Bābā
all the squinch and intermediate arches are decorated with painted multifoil floral and
geometrical designs. The soffit of the dome also has geometrical designs.

ii. Rope pattern: The phase of transition in Panjū Bābā above the projected
moulding, is decorated with a rope pattern in paint

iii. Ornamental arches having flower plants: The soffit of the dome in Panjū Bābā
above the springing point, is decorated with a series of ornamental arches having
flower plants in brown, blue and green colours

iv. Star pattern: Star pattern designs may also be seen in the soffit of the dome in
Panjū Bābā

v. Fruits design: The fruits depicted in Panjū Bābā on the soffit of the dome include
melon, mango, grapes, apples and pine apples.

vi. Floral and Stylized Leaf Designs: The top of the pointed sunk arches of square
chamber and the soffit of the dome in Doda Bābā (Pl.XXXd) are decorated in blue
and yellow colours with floral and stylized leaf designs.

C. Calligraphic Decoration: The calligraphic decoration is confined only to the phase

of transition in Akhūnd Panjū Bābā’s tomb. The intermediate arch in front of the main
entrance contains an Arabic inscription in Tughra style, but in some places there is a
leaf motif showing the word Allāh in Naskh. Some places show the Sūrah al-Ikhlāṣ
painted in blue colour.

4. BRITISH PERIOD: Unlike the Mughal the British decided not to permanently
settle in the Sub-continent or make it their home. Consequently they did not construct
any edifices of great architectural value for residential purposes. Nevertheless, they
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were endowed with good aesthetic tastes and artistic talents. Wherever they stayed,
they built beautified residences with flower and fruit gardens. Their penetration in the
Sub-continent was preceded by the advent of their religious missionaries, who almost
invariably established hospitals, churches and schools. Besides these institutions, they
set-up memorials, army mansions, military barracks, etc. and built roads and forts all-
over the Indian Sub-continent. (Jaffar 1946: 127). They did not build any
tomb/mosque simply because they did not need them. In KP they faced too much
resistance and most of their time and resources were spent on military actions etc.
Nevertheless, tombs were built in this period, but the sponsors were local people. The
material used in these tombs is typical British period burnt bricks and locally
available stone with lime mortar and in some cases cement. The tombs are located in
Nowshera, Derā Ismā´il Khān, Swābi and Kohāt districts of the KP province. These
are: the tombs of Miān Muḥammad Bārān (No.38), Murād Khān (No.39), Khwāja
Muḥammad Āmir (No.40), Ghālib Gul Bābā (No.32), Māst Bābā (No.33), Ḩalīm Gul
Bābā (No.34), Bāz Gul Bābā (No.35), Baḥādur Bābā (No.36) and Mirzā Gul Bābā
(No.37). These tombs are located in the Nowshera district. Miān Gul Bābā’s tomb
(No.41) is in Swabi. The tombs of Άbdur Raḥīm Shāh Bukhāri (No.42), Ādam Bābā
(No.43) and Durrāni tombs (Nos. 44-46) at Kohaṭ.

A. Architectural and Decorative Features:

i. Plan: Three types of ground plans are observed in this group of tombs:

a. Square: The tombs of Ghālib Gul Bābā (Pl.XXXII), Bāz Gul Bābā
(Fig.18b), Muḥammad Amīr (Fig.21), Miān Gul Bābā (Pl. XXVIIIa), Ādam
Bābā (Pl.XXXV), Durrāni tomb-II, Durrāni tomb-III (Fig.22g) and Sayyid
Άbdur Raḥīm Shāh Bukhāri (Fig.19d) are of square plan with a single
entrance, while Muḥammad Amīir’s chamber has three entrances without
mihrāb, referred to as type-B (Bunce 2004: fig. 2 (a))

b. Octagonal: The tomb of Miān Muḥammad Bārān is of octagonal shape

with a single entrance referred to as type-D (Bunce 2004: fig. 4 (a))

c. Rectangular: The tombs of Māst Bābā, Ḥalim Gul Bābā, Baḥādur

Bābā, Murād Khān and Durrāni tomb-I (Fig.22a) are of rectangular plan.
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These have flat roof except for the tombs Māst Bābā and Mirzā Gul Bābā,
which show ribbed dome.

ii. Drum: This group of tombs has five types of drum to receive the dome. Octagonal,
Round (high & low), Two-tiered circular and Sixteen sided:

a. Octagonal: The tombs of Ghālib Gul Bābā (Pl.XXXII), Bāz Gul Bābā and
Muḥammad Amīr have octagonal drum

b. Round (High & low): The tomb of Māst Bābā (Pl.XXXIII) has high round
drum and Durrāni tomb-III has low round drum

c. Two-tiered circular: The tomb of Miān Gul Bābā has two-tiered circular
drum.

d. Sixteen sided: The tomb of Άbdur Rahīm Shāh Bukhāri (Pl.XXIXa) has
sixteen-sided drum.

iii. Dome/Roof: The tombs under discussion show two types of roofs: (1) domed and
(2) flat. Type (1) may be divided into (a) ribbed high dome, (b) hemispherical ribbed
dome and (c) double dome

a. High Ribbed Dome: The tomb of Άbdur Rahīm Shāh Bukhāri (Pl.XXIXa)
shows a high ribbed dome.

b. Hemispherical Ribbed Dome: The tombs of Ghālib Gul Bābā (Pl.XXXII),

Māst Bābā (Pl.XXXIII), Bāz Gul Bābā, Mirzā Gul Bābā (Pl.XXXXI), Miān
Muḥammad Bārān, Muḥammad Amīr, Durrāni Tomb-II (Pl.XXXIX), and
tomb-III have ribbed domes. The first ribbed dome of a tomb in the Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa belong to the time of Humāyūn and is found in Άṣā-i Shāh-i
Mardān (Pl.IX) in Peshāwar.

c. Double Dome: The tomb of Miān Gul Bābā has double dome. It is the
second example of a double dome in KP.
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d. Flat Roof Structures: The tombs of Ḥalīm Gul Bābā (XXXVI), Murād
Khān and Durrāni Tomb-I fall in this category. The ceilings of these tombs are
built with wooden beams, rafters and planks with mud plaster flat roof.

iv. Minarets: Small size minarets may be seen in the following tombs: Each corner of
the square chamber of Ghālib Gul Bābā (Pl.XXXII) and Māst Bābā (Pl.XXXIII),
Ḥalīm Gul Bābā’s (Pl.XXXVI) grave chamber has similar minarets one in each corner
and two above the doorway. In Bāz Gul Bābā (Fig.18a) these are placed at the back of
the façade and each octagon of the octagonal drum. Miān Muḥammad Bārān’s grave
chamber has them in each corner of the octagon. In Murād Khān and Muḥammad
Amir each corner of the square chamber is similarly decorated. Similar is the case
with Ādam Bābā (Pl.XXXVa). Durrāni Tomb-I (Fig.22b), each corner of the grave
chamber, Tomb-II (Pl.XXXIX) each corner of the square chamber, Tomb-III façade
ends and each corner of the chamber and Άbdur Raḥīm Shāh Bukhāri’s tomb
(Pl.XXIXa), two above the doorway and each corner of the grave chamber, have
minarets.

v. Corners pilaster: The grave chambers of Māst Bābā (Pl.XXXIII) and Miān Gul
Bābā (Pl. XXVIIIa) have corner pilasters.

vi. Pendentives: These may be seen in Muḥammad Amīr and in the tomb of Miān
Gul Bābā. In the latter however they look like Corinthian capitals.

vii. Staircase: The tombs of Ghālib Gul Bābā, Māst Bābā, Bāz Gul Bābā, Miān
Muḥammad Bārān and Άbdur Raḥīm Shah Bukhāri have proper staircase in the
thickness of the wall

viii. Merlons: Māst Bābā’s tomb (Pl.XXXIII) parapet has a running series, while
Ḥalīm Gul Bābā’s tomb (Pl.XXXVI) chamber in the parapet has ornamental merlons.
Muḥammad Amīr’s tomb chamber has a series of merlons above the parapet. The
parapet of Durrāni tomb-I has similar merlons

ix. Phase of Transition: The phase of transition in Muḥammad Amīr has corner
pendentives, Ādam Bābā has deep corner squinches, all the rest have corner squinches
and intermediate arches except for Miān Gul Bābā which has both the arrangements:
pendentives, squinches and intermediate arches.
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x. Sunk pointed Arches: Each wall, internally, of Ghālib Gul Bābā and above the
squinch arches, each octagonal side of Khwaja Miān Muḥammad Bārān, the phase of
transition in Muḥammad Amīr, Ādam Bābā (Pl.XXXVa), internally and externally,
and Άbdur Raḥīm Shāh Bukhāri’s tomb (Fig.19b & Pl.XXIXa) chamber externally
have sunk pointed arches as a decorative feature

xi. Sunk Cusped Arches: Internally the grave chamber of Άbdur Raḥīm Shāh
Bukhāri’s tomb (Fig.19b) have sunk cusped arches within sunk rectangular panels

xii. Sunk Trefoil Arches: Internally western side of Muḥammad Amīr’s tomb
chamber has three sunk trefoil arches

xiii. Sunk panels: The grave chamber of Ghālib Gul Bābā internally has rectangular
and square, Ḥalīm Gul Bābā internal western wall has two rows and the façade
relieved by sunk panels. Murād Khān externally and Άbdur Raḥīm Shah Bukhāri
tomb chamber, internally, have rectangular sunk panels

xiv. Arched niches: Internally each side the Ghālib Gul Bābā tomb has large arched
niches.

xv. Arches and Alcove: Bāz Gul Bābā tomb entrance has cusped arch and internally
shows deep alcove (Fig.18a & Pl.XXXVIIIa), Muḥammad Amīr’s tomb entrances
open under trefoil arches and, internally, show tall pointed alcoves. Miān Gul Bābā’s
tomb entrance opens under a cusped arch and, internally, shows horse shoe arch.
Ādam Bābā’s entrance has a segmental arch. In Miān Muḥammad Bārān grave
chamber, internally, each side is relieved by an alcove.

xvi. Mihrab: The western sidewall of Khwaja Miān Muḥammad Bārān’s grave
chamber accommodates a mihrāb (Prayer niche)

xvii. Column: The entrance of Durrāni tomb-I (Fig.22b) is topped by a square tall
column rising in five stage with pyramidal crown. The concept of column is deeply
rooted in the ancient religious literature of the sub-continent. Literary references to
the column can be traced back to the Rig Vedic times, yet archaeological evidences
are traceable to the Muryan period (i. e. 4th century BC) (Shah 2005: 21). We also
have free standing Aśokan columns and the Qutb Minār at Delhi.
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xviii. Acanthus leaves: Internally all the four sides of Ghālib Gul Bābā Ḥalīm Gul
Bābā (Pl.XXXVIIc) and the neck of the drum of Miān Muḥammad Bārān tomb have a
running series of acanthus leaf design, which may also be seen on the arches of Māst
Bābā’s grave chamber

xix. Stucco Stamped Designs: In Ghālib Gul Bābā and Māst Bābā stamped designs
consist of rosette patterns and floral designs in running series. In Ḥalīm Gul Bābā
(Pl.XXXVIIa,b) stamped star shaped design prevails on dado level and the same
designs are also noted in Bahadur Bābā’s tomb chamber.

xx. Stucco Scroll pattern: The bosses, spandrels and pendentives in Muḥammad
Amīr are adorned with scroll pattern in relief.

xxi. Geometrical Design: The soffit of the alcove in Bāz Gul Bābā shows
geometrical design in plaster. In Murād Khān externally geometrical designs are
associated with rectangular panels in relief.

xxii. Lotus Flower: All the domes are topped by inverted lotus flower of stucco
plaster in high relief Bāz Gul Bābā’s dome, in the centre of the soffit, has a large lotus
flower with applied painted coat in polychrome.

xxiii. Sun Flower: The lotus flower of Bāz Gul Bābā (Pl.XXXVIIIb) dome soffit is
surrounded by a series of projected sunflowers in stucco.

B. Mirror/Glass Work: Ghālib Gul Bābā and Māst Bābā and Miān Gul Bābā show
glass mosaics and mirror work of recent time.

C. Wood Work: In Ḥalīm Gul Bābā’s tomb chamber an acanthus leaves decoration
series is carved in wood. The doorway frame of Adam Bābā’s (Pl.XXXVb) grave
chamber is adorned with rosettes and tiny acanthus leaves in relief. The door of Άbdur
Raḥīm Shah Bukhāri’s tomb and ceiling of Murād Khān’s tomb (Pl.XXXIV) are
adorned with fretwork.

D. Lacquer Work: The ceiling of Murād Khān’s tomb, in addition to fretwork, is

lavishly decorated with lacquer work (Pl.XXXIV) showing geometrical designs.
Lacquer a coloured, highly polished and opaque type of varnish. Most true lacquer
work is Chinese or Japanese in origin, although the technique was copied by
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European craftsmen in the 18th and 19th centuries and then spread to the rest of the
world.

The history of lacquer work in China goes back to as far as the earliest legends of
Chinese history. Lacquer work of fine quality continued to be made until the 19 th
century, when it declined both in quality and importance. The art was taken to Japan
from China via Korea in the middle of the 6th century, when the lacquer tree as well as
Buddhism was also introduced. (The New Encyclopaedia Britannica 1990. vol. 7: 88).

E. Painted Decoration: Painted decoration is confined to the tomb of Ghālib Gul

Bābā, Māst Bābā, Ḥalīm Gul Bābā, Bāz Gul Bābā, Baḥādur Bābā, Miān Muḥammad
Baran, Muḥammad Amīr, Miān Gul Bābā and Άbdur Raḥīm Shāh Bukhāri having
multiple designs in polychrome of tempera. All these deign are very closely compared
with surface decoration of Muhābat Khān Mosque, Peshāwar, Miān ΄Umar Ṣāḥib
Mosque at Chamkani (Shah, I 1995: 63), Sarv-wālā maqbara, Lahore (18th cent.)
(Khān 1964: 27), Wazir Khān Mosque, Lahore (Chughtai 1975: 66; Misbah, G: 108)
and Kanjrī kī tomb near Aṭṭock (Hassan 2001a: 115).

The standard tempera pigment is a natural emulsion made of egg yolk, thinned with
water. The second is oil tempera made with water-in-oil pigment instead of the more
oil-in-water emulsion. But it did not find favour with artists. Among the man made
emulsions are the ones prepared with a whole egg and linseed oil, gum and wax. The
tempera paint is applied on a wet surface. The technique of tempera is particularly
suited to linear style of painting and its soft glowing colour quality is not easily
duplicated by any other means of painting. The colour dries up at once and the paint
layer becomes quite water resistant. No positive date can be assigned to the first use
of egg yolk as a binder of colour. The earliest European forerunners of a controlled
egg-tempera medium are found among the religious paintings of Byzantine era
(Mayer 1988: 390). It is developed in the 13th and 15th centuries in Italy (Mayer 1962:
509). In the later part of 19th century and the early part of the 20th century were both
pure and oil glazed tempera, which occupied a significant position among the
standard 20th century techniques.

i. Floral Design: The tomb chamber of Ghālib Gul Bābā, under side of the dome of
Māst Bābā, Baḥādur Bābā tomb chamber sidewalls internally have floral designs. In
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the tomb of Khwaja Miān Muḥammad Bārān the dome soffit has floral designs. The
façade of the tomb of Miān Gul Bābā and Άbdur Raḥīm Shāh Bukhāri (Pl.XXIX)
show similar painted designs

ii. Geometrical Design: The tomb chamber of Ghālib Gul Bābā has geometrical
designs in polychrome. Māst Bābā’s phase of transition has eight painted bands
showing geometrical designs. Dome soffit of Khwaja Miān Muḥammad Bārān’s tomb
has geometrical decoration. Miān Gul Bābā and also Άbdur Raḥīm Shāh Bukhāri
(Pl.XXIXb) (Pl.XXXVIIIa) has geometrical decoration.

iii. Lotus Flower: The under side of the dome in Ghālib Gul Bābā in the centre and
Māst Bābā show lotus flower one each in polychrome.

iv. Loop pattern containing flower plants: Squinches of Bāz Gul Bābā’s tomb are
very nicely decorated with loop pattern. Every loop has a flower plant different from
the other

v. Flower plants in vases: All the four sides of Ḥalīm Gul Bābā (Pl.XXXVIId,e)
have flower plants in vases. Arched panels, alcoves above the dado level and squinch
arches in Bāz Gul Bābā’s tomb have the same flower plants in vases. The tomb
chamber of Άbdur Raḥīm Shāh Bukhāri (Pl.XXIXb) is also embellished by this
pattern.

vi. Dishes containing fruits: All the four sides in Bāz Gul Bābā, Ḥalīm Gul Bābā
(PlXXXVIIe,f) have the same motif which includes apples, mangoes, melons, grapes
and brinjal in black. The tomb of Άbdur Raḥīm Shāh Bukhāri (Pl.XXIXb), in addition
to the above, also shows pomegranates. The squinch arches in Ghālib Gul Bābā have
knives as well. All these are painted in polychrome.

vii. Stylized leaf pattern: A running leaf pattern rather stylized is found around each
decorative panel in Ḥalīm Gul Bābā’s tomb, painted in blue colour (Pl.XXXVIId,e)

viii. Star pattern: The squinch arches of Ghālib Gul Bābā’s tomb are painted with
star shaped designs.
ix. Tea pot with cups: The squinch arches of Ghālib Gul Bābā’s tomb also show
painted teapot, cups with floral decoration.
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x. Scroll pattern: This pattern is executed on bosses of the decorative panels

(Pl.XXXVIId) in Ḥalīm Gul Bābā’s tomb. The squinch arches in the same tomb are
flanked by the same pattern.

F. Calligraphic Decoration: In the tomb chamber of Ghālib Gul Bābā some panels
are decorated with Sūrah al-Ikhlāṣ and Kalima written in Tughra with the words
Allāh and Muḥammad (PBUH). In the middle of the north sidewall of Ḥalīm Gul
Bābā’s tomb (Pl.XXXVIIg) is very nicely executed Muslim creed formula in four
lines in a square panel. The word Muḥammad (PBUH) in the last line is written twice
from two different directions in the Nasta΄līq style. Several inscription in Persian and
Arabic in Naskh and Nasta΄līq styles are recorded on the main entrance of Durrāni
tomb-I while tomb-II had inscribed stone slabs which are no longer there but the
hooks for fixing them can still be seen. The façade of tomb-III in the same place has
carved slabs, bearing inscriptions in Persian and Arabic in the Naskh and Nasta΄līq,
styles.

5. CHITRAL (NORTHERN AREA): The tomb architecture of this area is a

separate group by itself. The extant buildings are datable to the 19th century AD. The
people living in the northern regions of Pakistan specially Chitral represent different
religious communities. They are Sunnīs, Shi΄ahs, Ismā´ilis and Nūrbakhshis.
Integration in the world of Islam found its visible expression in the architecture of
religious buildings such as mosques, tombs and khānqāhs in the last centuries.
(Jettmar 1992: 13).

A. Architectural Features:

i. Plan: Two type of ground plans are observed in this group of tomb buildings

a. Square plan: Only the Gumbazi Ẓiārat at Ghast Bālā has square plan
(Fig.24) in this group

b. Rectangular plan: Room Pāpo tomb (Pl.XXXXIII) at Reishun, Shabor

Wali tomb (Fig.25b) at Jung Bazar, Muḥammad Ẓiā Wali Mazārāt (Fig.23c) at
Sanoghar, Warkop wooden tomb (Fig.26b), Nayat Zarīn Chārdalo tomb
(Fig.27b) at Rāin are of rectangular plans.
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ii. Structure: Three types of structures are observed in this group; Mud with stone,
Mud with wood courses and wooden structure. While the ceiling/roof is of two types;
one is a wooden beam and rafters with mud plaster flat roof. The second is of wooden
beams and rafters with steel sheet vaulted roof.

a. Mud with stone: is used in the Gumbazi Ẓiārat and Muḥammad Zia Wali
Mazārāt

b. Mud with wood courses: is used only in Room Pāpo tomb (Pl.XXXXIII)

c. Wooden: Shābor Wali tomb (Pl.XXXXIIa,b), Warkop wooden tomb

(Fig.26a) and , Nayat Zarīn Chārdalo tomb (Fig.27a) are wooden structures
with supporting columns at regular intervals.

d. Flat Roof: The tomb of Gumbazi Ẓiārat, Room Pāpo tomb (Pl.XXXXIII)
and Muḥammad Ẓiā Wali Mazārāt (Fig.23a,b) have flat roof of mud
plaster with wooden beams and rafter ceiling

e. Vaulted Roof: Tomb of Shābor Wali (Fig.25a), Warkop (Fig.26a) and

Nayat Zarīn Chārdalo tomb (Fig.27a) have vaulted roof of steel sheet covered
with wooden beams and rafters ceiling.

f. Column: The grave chambers in Shābor Wali (Pl.XXXXIIc), Warkop

(Fig.26a) and Nayat Zarīn Chārdalo (Fig.27a) tombs have wooden columns at
regular intervals for the support of the vaulted roof and wooden structure.

g. Entrance: All the tombs of the group under discussion have single door of
wooden frame with single wooden door-leaf (Pl.XXXXIIb).

h. Cusped Arch: The entrance to the tomb chamber of Shābor Wali, provided
under a cusped arch (Pl.XXXXIIb); the rest of the structure being divided
externally into four blind cusped arches (Pl.XXXXIIa,c).

B. Decorative Features:
All the decorative motifs given below are very commonly in many tombs and
mosques as noticed in monuments at Nowshera (Shakir 1999: 83, 89, 92: pl. IIa) in
mosques at Swat (Dani 1989: 34, 62; Rahman 1989: 162-176).
 107

i. Sunk panels: In the Room Pāpo tomb, externally all the four sides have two
horizontal sunk panels one each side while each panel is further divided into four
vertical sunk panels (Fig.26a)

ii. Niches: Some of these niches are meant for keeping oil lamps (Pl. XXXXIII).

iii. Wooden Grill: Above the dado (Pl.XXXXIIb) level the cusped arches of Shābor
Wali grave chamber are screened with a wooden grill while the tomb of Nayat Zarīn
Chārdalo (Fig.27) and Warkop (Fig.26) the spaces left vacant in-between the columns
are blocked with wooden grill of cross bar rafters.

iv. Floral Design: The cusped arches of Shābor Wali grave chamber are topped by
two horizontal rows (Pl.XXXXIIc) on all the four sides. Some panels have floral
design in relief.

v. Mat pattern: In Shābor Wali tomb chamber some panels have mat pattern while
the ceiling shows rectangular cross bars (Pl.XXXXIId). Muḥammad Ẓiā Wali Mazārāt
also shows mat pattern

vi. Honey Comb Design: In Shābor Wali tomb chamber some panels are adorned
with honeycomb designs in relief

vii. Geometrical Design: Some panels in the same tomb are decorated with
geometrical designs.

viii. Wooden screen: In Shābor Wali tomb chamber (Pl.XXXXIIc) some panels are
depict with wooden screen

ix. Depiction of Birds: Two panels in the above-mentioned tomb (Pl.XXXXIIc) are
adorned with birds in relief.

x. Acanthus Leaf Design: In Shābor Wali tomb chamber, spaces in-between the
beams supporting ceiling are covered by wooden rafters adorned with acanthus leaves
in relief, while the point where the fanus (chandelier) (Pl.XXXXIId) in centre of the
ceiling is fixed is marked by a lotus flower in relief.

xi. Gul-e-nau Design: The sidewalls of Warkop wooden tomb are topped by a
horizontal row of rectangular panels decorated as gul-e nau designs.
 108

CHAPTER-V

CONCLUSIONS

Included in the present investigation are 52 monuments found in different parts of the
KP province of Pakistan. All the monuments are not in good state of preservation;
some are represented merely by stump of walls, which cannot be subjected to any
detailed analysis. This particularly is the case with D.I. Khān where, except for the
Lāl Māḥra group of tombs, most of such burials could not withstand the ravages of
time and have gone into ruins. But they could not be dropped out of this survey, for
otherwise it would have given the impression that such tombs did not exist there.
Moreover, even in their dilapidated condition there is enough to know about the
materials used and the mode of laying bricks employed in their construction.

The present investigation is confined to the territorial limits of the KP province with
extremely rare excursion in the adjacent areas. A word about the geographical
position of the KP may not be out of place here. The KP is located on the main
highway linking South Asia with Central Asia. It is along this highway that invaders
as well as peaceful caravans had been trafficking in the past bringing merchandize to
sell but also, not infrequently, bringing armies of robbers whose visitations left the
land bleeding for many years.

The KP province consists of seven administrative divisions. Starting from the south
we have the Dera Ismā΄il Khān division which has always been facing the brunt of
invaders pouring down the Gomal Pass. Destiny of the Bannu division which lies
adjacent to D.I. Khān have always been linked with the latter. Peshawar division lies
in the centre of the KP. Although comparatively more fertile and well peopled, it lies
in front of the Khyber Pass, which on several occasions provided easy passage to the
invading hosts. The Mardan division – the heartland of Gandharān civilization – with
numerous stupas and monasteries the looted cultural assets of which have filled
museums in many parts of the world. The Malākand is the northern most division and
had been frequently overrun by armies marching along the Kunaṛ into Bajauṛ and then
Swāt. It is along this route that Alexander marched the army under his directed
command in 325 BC. On the east is the Hazara division, which lies on the highway
linking Kashmīr with KP and Punjāb. Thus no area in the KP had been safe enough
for cultural pursuits. Costly cultural activities such as architecture and even this for
 109

the dead alone could hardly appeal to the minds of the people who did not possess
enough resources nor uninterrupted peace to undertake expensive projects. This is one
of the major factors behind meagre representation of tombs in pre-British periods.

Another factor was the custom of land swapping among the Yusufzais and the
associated tribes. It was early in the 16th century that the Yusufzais and some other
tribes who allied with the former succeeded in pushing out the Shalmānis from
Charsada, the Jahāngiriān Sultans from Swāt and the Dilazaks from a vast tract of
land extending from Charsada to the river Indus on the east. The land thus acquired
was equitably distributed by Shaikh Malli among the Yusufzais and the allied tribes.
It was such an impressive exercise that everyone felt happy. This distribution was
based on the principle of land swapping, which means that not only tribes but also
families within them had to change land after a certain period of time. This custom
discouraged the construction of any kind of permanent building for nothing valuable
was left behind when the land changed hands. Housetops were dismantled and logs
used in the roofs were transported to their new destinations. Not a penny was invested
in the improvement of residential buildings, which could not be retrieved. This is a
bleak period of the architectural history of KP.

But, sooner or later, tomb building had to come; it could not be avoided. The Pakhtun
(or Pashtun) society in general shows great honour and reverence for those who, by
notoriety for superior holiness and piety and performance of miracles during life, earn
the title of Zburg (Buzurg) or saint. The memory of these Zburgs is perpetuated by
holy shrines that mark the supposed or real sites of some of their holy deeds, miracles
or places of their death. Whatever their origin they are all held sacred, and each
possesses its own peculiar virtues and qualities for benefiting both men and animals.
Some shrines cure fever; others opthalmia, and so on. Some have the power of
rendering women and cattle of the same gender prolific; others vouchsafe the desires
of intriguing lovers. Some protect their devotees from evil eye and a host of
calamities; others ensure riches and worldly prosperity. Such shrines are named
Ziarats and are known after the saint whose memory they perpetuate. As soon as
peace and order was restored by the Mughals in some areas and subsequently by the
British in the whole of KP, the ziārats, enjoying popular accord of the people, sprang
up like mushrooms.
 110

The story of tomb architecture in KP is not that of a steady evolution from humble
beginnings to sophisticated structures. It rather reflects meagre resources available to
the people and interrupted pattern of life. The simple tribesmen who lived under tent
or behind the mud walls mainly because of disturbed political condition and also
because of frequent swapping of land, inspite of the overwhelming reverence they had
for their saints and Zburgs, could not build permanent structures over their graves for
a long time. When, after a long stretch of time – for, only six such buildings (Appx-A,
Nos. 3-8) may be dated to the pre-Mughal period – they were able to undertake such
constructions, they largely depended upon locally available burnt brinks generally
known as Waziri bricks, and on large size Chaukas. No stone, although not very far
away, was used in these buildings. The binding material was lime mortar, which was
later on replaced with modern cement. Walls were in general plastered and decorated
with painted designs consisting of geometrical and floral patterns, flower vases, tea
sets, fruit dishes along with knives for peeling and cutting fruit such as melon (Appx-
A, Nos. 15, 26, 27 etc.) banana, apples.

The act of building imposing structures for the dead was never encouraged in the
early centuries of Islam, for, it was feared that people very often superstitious, would
in the course of time start worshipping these buildings. The earliest existing
mausoleum in Islam and probably the first ever built is Qubbat as- Sulaibīya in Iraq. It
was built by the Greek mother of the Caliph al-Muntasir in June AD 862. She
requested and obtained permission to erect a mausoleum for her son. In this domed
structure lie buried not only al-Muntasir but also two more caliphs, namely al-
Mu΄tazz and al-Muhtadi (Creswell 1958:288). This building is in a very bad state of
preservation, nevertheless its octagonal form externally and square internally is quite
evident. The first and the earliest existing mausoleum in KP is that of Saif ad- Daula
Maḥmūd son of Sultān Ibrāhīm of the Ghaznavid dynasty. He was appointed governor
of the Ghaznavid possessions in India in 469 H / AD 1076-7 (Bosworth 1922:65)
Nizami ‘Aruzi states that malicious rumours had reached Sultān Ibrāhīm that his son
Maḥmūd was in treasonable communication with the Seljūq monarch and was
contemplating moving to the Seljūq lands, accordingly. Ibrāhīm imprisoned Maḥmūd
in Nāy, together with various of the latter’s retainers (Bosworth 1922:65). When did
he die is not known. Therefore, the tomb may approximately be dated towards the end
of 11th century. It is square in form.
 111

Thus, two traditions regarding tomb building – octagonal and square – were available
in the world of Islam Muslim architecture was in fact was already a developed art
when the Ghaznavid Turks reached KP. The use of concrete and mortar was known
and the techniques of building true arches and domes had been developed. The
problems that faced the earliest Indian Muslims builders were to discover suitable
structural material, master builders possessing the necessary experience and skill, and
styles in which patterns known to them could be adapted to the physical environment
in India. It was most unfortunate that, inspite of religious prohibitions, the temples
were pulled down to provide building material. This vandalism cannot be excused
even if we admit the fact that stone of suitable quality was scarce, and that it was
almost normal practice to use the material of old buildings to construct new ones. As
regards master builders they were primarily stonemasons, and it must have taken
several generations for them to acquire the skills and the proficiency necessary to
utilize fully the new architectural techniques. The adaptation of these techniques to
the physical environment is the determining factor of the aesthetic quality of any
specimen of the architect’s art. No such building has survived in the KP, even if it
ever existed.

Besides the tomb of Saif ad- Daula Maḥmūd, the earliest in our list, are Appx-A, Nos.
4 to 8. Four of these are located in Lāl Māḥra (D.I. Khān) and one (Appx-A, No. 8) in
Hazara. Two tombs (No. I and II) in the Lāl Māḥra group follow the square ground
plan of the tomb of Saif ad- Daula with a Mihrāb in the western wall. But Nos. III and
IV in the same group add an additional feature namely, corner turrets, one in each
corner. This may be taken to suggest that these are somewhat later than Nos. I & II.
Tile decoration comprising blue terracotta plugs is also better and more variegated
than that of the earlier group. The enclosure walls of Shāh-i Hamadān’s death place
(our Appx-A, No. 8) shows plain walls and corner turrets as noted above. It may be
interesting to note that the tomb of Iltutmish, the earliest known at Delhi shows an
altogether different scheme of decoration, stone carving being its characteristic
feature. Even if this skill was at all available in D. I. Khān, the influence of tile
decoration of Multān and Uchh appear to have dominated the field.

The Mughal period has, for the sake of study, been divided into two phases. Phase I
covering the period between 1526 to 1707. The death of Aurangzeb, the last great
 112

emperor of the Mughal dynasty in AD 1707, pushed the empire into a worst kind of
disorder and anarchy in which Hindu rājās, disaffected Mughal governors, Marhattas
and also the European Trading Companies made a bid to capture power. Our Phase II
covers the period between 1707 and 1857.

In phase I fall the reigns of Zahir ad- Dīn Bābur, Nāṣir ad- Dīn Humāyūun, Jalāl ad-
Dīn Akbar Nur ad-Dīn Jahāngīr, Shāhāb ad- Dīn Shāhjahān and Aurangzeb ´Ālamgīr.
The Άṣā-i Sakhi Shāh-i Mardān tomb in Peshāwar, the earliest of the tombs of the
Mughal period in KP – built perhaps in the reign of Humāyūn, follows the square
variety, as noted above, but rises in three distinct stages in elevation comprising a
grave chamber, a drum and a dome. The drum is in the middle and transforms the top
of the square chamber into sixteen sides and then into a circle to revive the round base
of the dome, which covers the whole structure. The phase of transition shows not only
pendentive but also squinch and medial arches. In the context of KP this certainly is
advancement as compared to the pre-Mughal architecture in which the phase of
transition in general shows pendentives. The imposing size of buildings of the Mughal
period entailed huge sums of money for the purchase of materials such as burnt
bricks, line mortar, wood and payment to technical craftsman and labour. In order to
save material large size alcoves, sunk-arches and arched windows were introduced in
the walls. To discourage unnecessary traffic into the tomb, the windows were blocked
by stucco grill in imitation of the Mughal white marble grills found elsewhere. In this
particular case the drum is externally octagonal whereas the hemispherical dome
shows broad ribs.

To the time of Akbar (1556-1605) three tombs (Appx-A, Nos. 10-12) could be
assigned. Of these the first two follow the same old square type but the third shows
octagonal ground plan and is therefore the first of its kind in KP. In the neighbouring
Punjāb the octagonal type had already been adopted in the construction of the tombs
of Baḥā ad- Dīn Zakariyā and Shāh Rukn –i ΄Ālam, the most magnificent examples of
this type in Pakistan. In the example found in KP mural painting make their first
appearance in the buildings of this kind. Sayyid Hanāna (Appx-A, No. 11) and Sakhi
Ṣāḥib (Appx-A, No. 12) show the traditional square type of ground plan.

Of the group of tombs (Appx-A, Nos. 13-19) attributed to the period of Shāhjahān, the
most impressive and the loftiest is that of the Nawab Sa’īd Khān. It belongs to the
 113

group of octagonal tombs. The imposing height of this building, which overawes the
on-lookers, was achieved through the introduction of two shells, which make up the
dome. This type of dome is generally called double dome. Here we have the first
example of this kind of dome in the KP province. The others in this group follow the
square type. Tomb (Appx-A, No. 14) is characterised by the extensive use of sun-
dried bricks and mud, while (Appx-A, No. 15) is uniquely provided with a high
platform in the centre of which stands the dome upon an equally high drum. (Appx-A,
No. 16) is a small rectangular structure having flat roof. A thick coating of yellowish
lime plaster is still visible on the walls. Tor Gumbat (Appx-A, No. 17) and Spin
Gumbat (Appx-A, No. 18) are relatively small but nevertheless domical structures.
(Appx-A, No. 19) shows the use of stone slabs in the walls. This feature is common to
other buildings as well in the territory covered at present by the Hazara division.

Ascribed to the time of Aurangzeb ´Ālamgīr is a group of ten tombs (Appx-A, Nos.
20-29). Of these only (Nos. 26 and 29) show octagonal form, all the rest fall in the
category of square or rectangular tombs. Ziyā ad- Dīn Shahid’s tomb (our No. 29) has
a flat roof, which in an earlier example, we find in the tomb of Shāh Yusuf Gardezi at
Multān. (Appx-A, Nos. 21,23,25,27 and 28) are all modest domical buildings with the
entrance only on one side.

In the later Mughal period (1707-1857) fall the tombs of the Akhūnd Panjū Bābā and
Doda Bābā. The earlier belongs to the category of square tombs and shows an
octagonal drum super imposed by a hemispherical ribbed dome. While the later has
square chamber with corner pendentives and a bell shaped dome.

Falling in the British period (1857-1947) are the tombs bearing (Appx-A, Nos. 32-46).
These are mainly found in the districts of D.I. Khān, Kohāt, Nowshera and Swābi. Of
these tombs (Appx-A, Nos. 32, 35, 41,42,43,45 and 46) are built in the traditional
style characterised by a dome, and square grave chamber with only one entrance
(Appx-A, No. 40). However it has three entrances. Only the tomb of Miān Gul Bābā
(Appx-A, No. 41) is double-domed. This is the second example of a double dome in
KP. The tomb of Miān Muḥammad Bārān (Appx-A, No. 38) stands unique in this
group for having an octagonal ground plan and only one entrance. The group
characterised by a flat roof is represented by (Appx-A, Nos. 24, 34 and 44). The tomb
of Baḥādur Bābā (Appx-A, No. 36) is covered with a modern steel domed roof.
 114

Six tombs (Appx-A, Nos. 47-52) from Chitral have also been included in the
discussion but their mediocrity calls for no comments. The extensive use of wood in
buildings of such a flimsy character suggests easy availability of this material in
Chitral.
 115

Appendix-A

LIST OF MONUMENTS BROUGHT UNDER DISCUSSION

PRE-MUSLIM PERIOD

1. Balo Kili Gumbat: Loc: Jahāngīr Kandak Valley, Barikot (Swat)

Date: C. 8th or 9th Century AD
Ref: Stein 1930: 14; 1972: Pls. 11-12; Barger and
Wright 1941: 16-17; Rahman 1984: 123)
2. Pajktai Vihāra: Loc: Sunigram near Krappa defile (Buner) above the
village Panj Kotai
Date: C. 8th or 9th Century AD
Ref: Sein 1898: 33-34, fig.VII; Khattak 1997: 80)

SULTANATE PERIOD

3. Saif-ud-Daula Maḥmūd’s Tomb: Loc: Zairān, Pārāchinār

Date: C. 10th century AD
Ref: Rahman 1989: 79-83)
4. Lāl Māḥra Sharif-I: Loc: Lal Mahra Sharif, D.I. Khan
Date: C. 13th or 14th century AD
Ref: Khan 1984: 29-37; Ali 1988: 20-37; Hasan 2001:
168-169)
5. Lāl Māḥra Sharif-II: Loc: Lāl Māḥra Sharif, D.I. Khan
Date: C. 13th or 14th century AD
Ref: Khan 1984: 29-37; Ali 1988: 20-37; Hasan 2001:
168-169)
6. Lāl Māḥra Sharif-III: Loc: Lāl Māḥra Sharif, D.I. Khan
Date: C. 13th or 14th century AD
Ref: Khan 1984: 29-37; Ali 1988: 20-37; Hasan 2001:
168-169)
7. Lāl Māḥra Sharif-IV: Loc: Lāl Māḥra Sharif, D.I. Khan
Date: C. 13th or 14th century AD
Ref: Khan 1984: 29-37; Ali 1988: 20-37; Hasan 2001:
168-169)
8. Shāh-i Hamadān: Loc: Naukot Village, Mansehra
Date: C. 14th century AD
Ref: Stein 1930: 17-24

MUGHAL PERIOD

9. Άṣā-i Sakhi Shāh-i Mardān: Loc: Inside the Sar Āsia Gate, Peshāwar City
Date: C. 16th century AD
Ref: Jeffar 1946: 106-110; Das !874: 149; Shah 1994:
233-240)
10. Shaikh Qutb ad- Dīn’s Tomb Loc: Gumbat Kili Dilaẓāk Road, Peshāwar
Date: C. 16th century AD
Ref: Rahman 1984a: 107; 1981: 42)
11. Sayyid Hanāna: Loc: Chara Village, D.I. Khan
Date: C. 16th century AD
12. Sakhi Ṣāhīb: Loc: West of Chara Village, D.I. Khan
 116

Date: C. 16th century AD

13. Nawāb Sa´īd Khān’s Tomb: Loc: Mission Hospital, Peshāwar City
Date: C. 17th century AD
Ref: Rahman 1981: 42; 1983: 555)
14. Tomb of Shaikh Sultān Bābā: Loc: Tira Bālā Village, northwest of Peshāwar City
Date: C. 17th century AD
Ref: Dani 1969: 190; Shāh 2001: 162)
15. Shaikh Imām ad- Dīn Tomb: Loc: Old Michni Road near Narai Khwaṛ at the back
of the KP Agricultural University, Peshāwar
Date: AD 1652-53
Ref: Rahman 1986: 117-127)

16. Tomb of Shaikh Imām ad- Dīn’s wife: Loc: Old Michni Road near Narai Khwaṛ at the back
of the KPK Agricultural University, Peshāwar
Date: AD 1652-53
Ref: Rahman 1986: 117-127)
17. Tor Gumbat: Loc: Near Kurram Bridge, Thal
Date: C. 17th century AD
Ref: Khan 1993: 189-190; Ali 2005: 115; Rahman
2007: 96)
18. Spin Gumbat: Loc: Near Kurram Bridge, Ṭhal
Date: C. 17th century AD
Ref: Ali 2005: 115; Rahman 2007: 96)
19. Sultān Mahmūd Khurd Tomb: Loc: Guli Bagh, Mansehra
Date: C. 17th century AD
20. Roshnāi Tomb-I: Loc: Koṭla Muhsin Khān, Peshāwar City
Date: C. 17th century AD
Ref: Rahman 1987: 391-398)
21. Roshnāi Tomb-II: Loc: Koṭla Muhsin Khn, Peshāwar City
Date: C. 17th century AD
Ref: Rahman 1987: 391-398)
22. Bajauṛi Bābā’s Tomb: Loc: Kohāt Road near Dabgari, Peshāwar City
Date: C. 17th century AD
Ref: Shah 2004: 117-119)
23. Tomb of Kākā Ṣāḥib: Loc: Ziārat Kākā Ṣāḥib Town, Nowshera
Date: AD 1661
Ref: Shakir 1994: 255-261)
24. Shaikh Ẓiyā ad-Dīn Shahīd: Loc: Ziārat Kākā Ṣāḥib Town, Nowshera
Date: C. 17th century AD
Ref: Shakir 1995a: 73-76; Khān nd: 1307; Afghani
1967: 592; Kākā Khel 1986: 203-347)
25. Shaikh Bābur Bābā’s Tomb: Loc: Dāg Ismā΄il Khel, Nowshera
Date: AD 1699
Ref: Shakir 1996: 87-89)
26. Miān Fatḥ Shāh’s Tomb: Loc: Sher Koṭ Village, Kohāt
Date: C. 17th century AD
Ref: Ali 2005: 112; Rahman 2007: 93)
27. Tomb of Shaikh Allāh Dād: Ref: Ziārat Shaikh Allāh Dād Village, Kohāt
Date: C. 17th century AD
Ref: Shakir 1998: 59-61; Ali 2005: 113; Rahman
2007: 94)
28. Tomb of Shaikh Karīm Dād: Loc: Ziārat Shaikh Allāh Dād Village, Kohāt
 117

Date: C. 17th century AD

Ref: Shakir 1998: 59-61; Ali 2005: 113; Rahman
2007: 94)
29. Nimawaṛae Bābā: Loc: Near Turangzai Village, Charsadda
Date: C. 17th century AD
30. Akhūnd Panjū Bābā: Loc: Akbarpura Village, Peshāwar
Date: AD 1806
Ref: Shah 1999: 71-75)
31. Doda Bābā: Loc: Doda Village, Nawagai Bajauṛ Agency
Date: AD 1798
Ref: Ali 2005: 75)

BRITISH PERIOD

32. Ghālib Gul Bābā’s Tomb: Loc: Maṛoba Nizāmpur, Nowshera

Date: C. 19th century AD
Ref: Shakir 1997-98: 49-52)
33. Māst Bābā’s Tomb: Loc: Shaikhi Village, Nowshera
Date: C. 20th century AD
Ref: Shakir 1995: 233-236)
34. Ḥalīm Gul Bābā: Loc: Ziārat Kākā Ṣāḥib Town, Nowshera
Date: C. 19th or 20th century AD
Ref: Shakir 1993: 193-195)

35. Bāz Gul Bābā: Loc: Ziārat Kākā Ṣāḥib Town, Nowshera
Date: AD 1814
Ref: Shakir 1995: 73-76)
36. Bahādur Bābā: Loc: Kanā Khel, Nowshera
Date: AD 1954
Ref: Shakir 1996b: 105-108)
37. Mirzā Gul Bābā: Loc: Jalozai at Shaikhano Village, Nowshera
Date: C. 20th century AD
Ref: Shakir 1996a: 124-126)
38. Tomb of the Khwaja Miān Loc: Kolachi Town, D.I. Khān
Muḥammad Bārān: Date: C. 19th century AD
Ref: Ali 2005: 21)
39. Murād Khān’s Tomb: Loc: Kolachi Town, D.I. Khān
Date: C. 19th century AD
Ref: Ali 2005: 21)
40. Khwaja Muḥammad Āmīr’s tomb: Loc: Aṭṭal Sharif Village, D.I. Khān
Date: AD 1944
41. Miān Gul Bābā: Loc: Tordheri Village, Swābi
Date: AD 1919
Ref: Shah 1996: 49-60)
42. Tomb of Άbd al- Raḥīm Shāh Loc: Shwai, Shakardarra Road, Kohāt
Bukhari: Date: C. 19th century AD
Ali 2005: 114; Rahman 2007: 94)
43. Ādam Bābā: Loc: Karbogha Village, Kohāt
Date: C. 19th century AD
Ref: Shakir 2006: 127-128)
44. Durrāni Tomb-I: Loc: Shah Pur, Kohāt City
Date: AD 1887
 118

Ref: Ali 2000: 125-139; Ali 2005: 111; Rahman 2007:

95)
45. Durrāni Tomb-II: Loc: Shāh Pur, Kohāt City
Date: C. 19th century AD
Ref: Ali 2000: 125-139; Ali 2005: 111; Rahman 2007:
95)
46. Durrāni Tomb-III: Loc: Shāh Pur, Kohāt City
Date: C. 19th century AD
Ref: Ali 2000: 125-139; Ali 2005: 111; Rahman 2007:
95)

CHITRAL (British Period)

47. Shābor Wali’s Tomb: Loc: Jang Bazar, Chitral City

Date: C. 19th century AD
Ref: Ali 2005: 98)
48 Gumbazi Bābā: Loc: Ghust Bālā Village, Sur Laspur, Chitral
Date: C. 19th century AD
Ref: Ali 2005: 99)
49. Room Pāpo: Loc: Reishon Village, Chitral
Date: C. 19th century AD
Ref: Ali 2005: 97)
50. Muḥammad Ẓiā Wali’s Tomb: Loc: Sanoghar Village, Chitral
Date: C. 19th century AD
Ref: Ali 2005: 99)
51. Nayat Zarīn Chārdalo: Loc: Rāin Village, Chitral
Date: C. 19th century AD
Ref: Ali 2005: 99)
52. Wirkop Wooden Tomb Loc: Wirkop Village, Chitral
Date: C. 19th century AD
Ref: Ali 2005: 99)
 119

Appendix-B

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No.
1. Swāt Balo Kili Gumbat
A: Sectional Elevation
B: Ground Plan
2. Pārāchinār (Zairān) Tomb of Saif ad-Dula Maḥmūd
A: Front Elevation
B: Ground Plan
3. D.I. Khān Lāl Māḥra Sharif Tomb-I & II
A: Tomb-I: Ground Plan
B: Tomb-II: Ground Plan
4. D.I. Khān Lāl Māḥra Sharif Tomb-III & IV
A: Tomb-III: Ground Plan
B: Tomb-IV: Ground Plan
5. Peshāwar Άṣā-i Sakhi Shāh-i Mardān Tomb
A: Front Elevation
B: Sectional Elevation
C: Ground Plan
6. D.I. Khān Tomb of Sayyid Hanāna
A: Front Elevation
B: Sectional Elevation
C: Ground Plan
7. Peshāwar Tomb of Nawab Said Khān
A: Front Elevation
B: Sectional Elevation
8. Hangu (Ṭhal) Tor Gumbat
A: Front Elevation
B: Sectional Elevation
C: Ground Plan
9. Hangu (Ṭhal) Spin Gumbat
A: Front Elevation
B: Sectional Elevation
C: Ground Plan
10. Peshāwar Shaikh Imām ad- Dīn’s Tomb
Sectional Elevation
11. Peshāwar (Tirai Bālā) Shaikh Sultān Bābā’s Tomb
A: Front Elevation
B: Sectional Elevation
C: Ground Plan
12. Peshāwar Roshnāi Tombs-I & II
A: Roshnāi’s Tomb-I: Front Elevation
B: Roshnāi’s Tomb-I: Sectional Elevation
C: Roshnāi’s Tomb-I: Ground Plan
D: Roshnāi’s Tomb-II: Front Elevation
E: Roshnāi’s Tomb-II: Sectional Elevation
F: Roshnāi’s Tomb-II: Ground Plan
13. Kohāt Shaikh Allāh Dād and Karīm Dād’s Tomb
A: Shaikh Allāh Dād Tomb: Front Elevation
B: Shaikh Allāh Dād Tomb: Sectional Elevation
C: Shaikh Allāh Dād Tomb: Ground Plan
D: Shaikh Karīm Dād Tomb: Front Elevation
E: Shaikh Karīm Dād Tomb: Sectional Elevation
 120

Figure No.
F: Shaikh Karīm Dād Tomb: Ground Plan

14. Kohāt Sayyid Miān Fatḥ Shāh’s Tomb

A: Front Elevation
B: Sectional Elevation
C: Ground Plan
15. Charsadda Nimawṛae Bābā
A: Sectional Elevation
B: Ground Plan

16. Nowshera Tomb of Kākā Ṣāḥib

A: Sectional Elevation
B: Ground Plan
17. Nowshera Shaikh Bābur Bābā’s Tomb
A: Front Elevation
B: Sectional Elevation
C: Ground Plan
18. Nowshera Tombs of Zia ad-Din Shahid and Baz Gul Baba
A: Sectional Elevation
B: Ground Plan
19. Kohāt Sayyid Άbdur Raḥīm Shāh Bukhāri’s Tomb
A: Front Elevation
B: Sectional Elevation
C: Top Plan
D: Ground Plan
20. Peshāwar (Akbarpura) Akhūnd Panjū Bābā’s Tomb
A: Front Elevation
B: Sectional Elevation
C: Ground Plan
21. D.I. Khān Aṭṭal Sharif Tomb
Ground Plan
22. Kohāt Durrāni Tombs-I, II & III
A: Durrāni Tomb-I: Ground Plan
B: Durrāni Tomb-I: Front Elevation
C: Durrāni Tomb-II: Front Elevation
D: Durrāni Tomb-III: Front Elevation
E: Durrāni Tomb-II & III: Sectional Elevation
F: Durrāni Tomb-II & III: Top Plan
G: Durrāni Tomb-II & III: Ground Plan
23. Chitral (Sanghar) Muḥammad Ziā Wali Tomb
A: Front Elevation
B: Sectional Elevation
C: Ground Plan
24. Chitral (Ghast Bālā) Gumbazi Ziārat
Ground Plan
25. Chitral Shābor Wali Tomb
A: Front Elevation
B: Ground Plan
26. Chitral (Tor Koh) Workop Wooden Tomb
A: Front Elevation
B: Ground Plan
27. Chitral (Rāin) Nayat Zarīn Chārdalo Tomb
A: Front Elevation
B: Ground Plan
 121

Appendix-C

LIST OF PLATES
S. No. Plate No. Plate
1. Pl. I Swāt: Balo Kili Gumbat
A: Side view
B: Front view
2. Pl. II Buner: Panjkotai Vihāra, general view
3. Pl. III Pārāchinār (Zairān): Saif ad- Daula Maḥmūd’s Tomb
A: Showing pointed sunk arch
B: Showing arch and an arched window
4. Pl. IV D.I. Khān: Lāl Māḥra Sharif Tomb-I, general view
5. Pl. V D.I. Khān: Lāl Māḥra Sharif Tomb-II, general view
6. Pl. VI D.I. Khān: Lāl Māḥra Sharif Tomb-III
A: General view
B: Corner squinch, pendentive and internal decorative motifs
7. Pl. VII D.I. Khān: Lāl Māḥra Sharif Tomb-IV
A: General view
B: Showing interior decorative motifs
8. Pl. VIII Mansehra (Naukot): Death place of Shah Hamadan memorial
A: General view
B: Another view of the eastern side
C: Showing corner turret and the recent fortification wall
D: Southeastern corner turret showing brickwork
9. Pl. IX Peshawar: Άṣā-i Sakhi Shāh-i Mardān Tomb, general view
10. Pl. X D.I. Khān (Chiṛa): Sayyid Hanāna Tomb
A: Showing interior pointed arch in the southern sidewall
B: Interior showing corner details for supporting the dome
11. Pl. XI D. I. Khān: Sakhi Ṣāḥib Tomb
A: General view
B: Eastern wall showing sunk arches details
12. Pl. XII Peshawar (Dilazāk): Shaikh Qutb ad- Dīn Tomb, general view
13. Pl. XIII Peshawar: Nawāb Sa´īd Khān Tomb, front view
14. Pl. XIV Hangu (Ṭhal): Tor Ghumbat
A: General view
B: Details of the western sidewall
C: Showing details of the interior northeastern corner
D: Showing corner squinch in phase of transition
15. Pl. XV Hangu (Thal): Spin Gumbat
A: General view
B: Showing entrance and details of the façade
16. Pl. XVI Peshawar: Shaikh Imām al – Dīn Tomb, general view
17. Pl. XVII Peshawar: Shaikh Imām al – Dīn wife’s Tomb, general view
18. Pl. XVIII Peshawar: (Tirai Bala): Shaikh Sultān Bābā Tomb, showing general view
and details of the exterior
19. Pl. XIX Mansehra (Guli Bagh): Sultān Maḥmūd Khurd Tomb, general view
 122

S. No. Plate No. Plate

20. Pl. XX Mansehra (Guli Bagh): Sultān Maḥmūd Khurd Tomb
A: A view of the tomb showing southwestern corner details
B: Showing details of tomb chamber western wall exterior
21. Pl. XXI Peshawar: Roshnāi Tombs-I & II
A: Roshnāi Tomb-I North side view showing details
B: Roshnāi Tomb-II General view
22. Pl. XXII Peshawar: Abd al- Rashid (Bajuṛi Baba) tomb, northeast corner view
showing details of the exterior
23. Pl. XXIII Koḥāṭ: Shaikh Allah Dād Tomb
A: General view
B: Shaikh Allah Dād tomb, showing interior painted decoration,
fruit and dish with flower vase
C: Shaikh Allah Dād Tomb, calligraphic specimen
D: Shaikh Allah Dād tomb, showing painted decoration in
polychrome soffit of the dome
24. Pl. XXIV Koḥāṭ: Shaikh Karīm Dād Tomb
A: Showing domical niche in stucco and painted floral decoration
in the background
B: Corner pendentive with stucco and painted decoration and
stylized stucco acanthus leaves
C: Shaikh Karīm Dād Tomb, soffit of the dome showing rich floral
decoration
25. Pl. XXV Koḥāṭ: Miān Fatḥ Shāh Tomb
A: General view
B: Showing floral decoration of the phase of transition
26. Pl. XXVI Nowshera: Kākā Sāḥib Tomb
A: View of the dome
B: Façade showing details of stucco work
C: Decorative panel showing floral scrolls in stucco relief
D: Soffit of arch showing floral scrolls in stucco relief
E: Panel showing starts in stucco relief
F: Showing a series of painted decoration fruits and dishes
27. Pl. XXVII Nowshera: Shaikh Bābur Bābā’s Tomb
A: General view
B: Soffit of the dome showing painted decoration
28. Pl. XXVIII Nowshera: Ziā ad- Dīn Shahid Tomb, wooden eave showing floral scrolls
in relief
29. Pl. XXVIII a. Swabi:Miān Gul Bābā’s tomb from southeast corner showing details of the
dome, façade and corner pilaster
30. Pl. XXIX Koḥāṭ: Sayyid ´Abdur Raḥīm Shāh Bukhari Tomb
A: Showing façade view of the tomb
B: Soffit of the dome showing a variety of floral painted patterns
31. Pl. XXX Bajauṛ Agency: Doda Bābā’s Tomb
A: Faccade and general view of the tomb
B: Showing architectural details of entrance, corner and parapet
C: Showing details of painted decoration and arrangement of the
phase of transition
D: Soffit of the dome showing floral painted decoration
32. Pl. XXXI Peshawar: Akhūnd Panjū Bābā Tomb, general view
33. Pl. XXXII Nowshera: Ghālib Gul Bābā Tomb, general view
 123

S. No. Plate No. Plate

34. Pl. XXXIII Nowshera: Mast Bābā Tomb, general view
35. Pl. XXXIV D.I. Khān: Murād Khān Tomb, ceiling showing details lacquer work
36. Pl. XXXV Koḥāṭ: Ādam Bābā Tomb
A: General view
B: Showing details of entrance under a segmental arch
C: Showing corner squinch and base of the missing dome
37. Pl. XXXVI Nowshera: Ḥalīm Gul Bābā’s Tomb, showing façade eave and
minarets from the southwestern corner
38. Pl. XXXVII Nowshera: Ḥalīm Gul Bābā’s Tomb
A: Star shape design on dado level in stucco relief
B: Rosettes and other floral stamp designs in stucco relief
C: Running series of acanthus leaves in stucco relief
D: Panel showing flower plant in vase with acanthus leave border
E: Painted panel showing fruits in dish with flower plants in
stylized vase in polychrome
F: Painted panel showing dish on stand with fruits
G: Panel showing calligraphic specimen
39. Pl. XXXVIII Nowshera: Bāz Gul Bābā’s Tomb
A; Soffit of alcove showing details stucco and painted decoration
B: Soffit of the dome, showing decorative motives
40. Pl. XXXIX Koḥāṭ: Durrani Tomb-II, showing details and view of the backside
41. Pl. XL Nowshera: Baḥādar Bābā’s Tomb, view from the northeast corner
42. Pl. XLI Nowshera: Mirzā Gul Bābā’s Tomb showing details of the dome
and façade
43. Pl. XLII Chitral: Shābor Wali Tomb
A: South side of the dome and general view
B: Eastern side of the tomb showing entrance and detail of the
façade
C: Showing top of the dome and finical
D: Soffit of the dome showing details of architectural features
44. Pl. XLIII Chitral: Room Pāpo Tomb, a view of the interior
 124

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 131

INDEX

96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105,
A 113
Bābās, 2
Ábd Allāh b. Zubair, 7 Bābur, 8, 11, 14, 16, 18, 30, 46, 47, 81, 89, 90,
Abyssinia, 73 91, 92, 93, 94, 112
Achaemenians, 9 Baḥā ad- Dīn Zakariyā, 112
Ādam Bābā, 98, 100, 101 Bahā al-Ḥalīm, 6
Ādam Wāhan, 6 Bahā-ad-Dīn Uchi, 6
Afghān, 95 Bahādur, 17, 18, 58, 80
Afghānistān, 14, 18, 19 Baḥādur Bābā, 98, 103, 113
Afshār, 95 Bahawalpur, 6
Agra, 83, 85 Bajauṛ, 13, 15, 52, 108
Ahadith, 71 Bajauṛi, 13, 43, 90
Aḥmad Shāh Abdāli, 13, 95 Bajuṛi Bābā, 90, 93
Aḥmad Shāh Durrāni, 18 Balban, 77
Āisha, 8, 73 Balkh, 4
Ajanta, 75 Balo Kili Gumbat, 9, 22, 74, 87
Akbar, 11, 12, 30, 33, 34, 50, 81, 83, 85, 112 Balochistān, 84
Akbarpura, 15, 95 Balūchistān, 6
Akhūnd Panjū, 15, 50, 52, 95, 97, 113 Bannu, 12, 108
Akhūnd Panjū Bābā, 50 Bārakzai, 19
Akoṛa, 19 Barikot, 9, 22
al-A΄lāq al-Nafīsah, 73 Bāyazīd, 13
Albirūni, 76 Bāz Gul, 17, 46, 57, 58, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102,
Alexander, 9, 108 103, 104
Ali al – Muttaqī, 72 Bela, 6
Allāh, 7, 13, 48, 49, 54, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, Bengal, 76
97, 105 Bībī Jawindī, 6
al-Mu΄tazz, 110 Bihār, 12
al-Muhtadi, 3, 110 Boddhisattva, 9
al-Muntasir, 3, 110 Bokhara, 4
al-Mǘtazz, 3 Bokhāri, 13
al-Walīd -I, 80 bowli, 18, 64
Amluk-Dara, 76 British, 2, 15, 16, 19, 20, 21, 35, 58, 66, 71,
Ara matti, 93 80, 97, 109, 113
arabesque, 88, 92 Buddha, 9, 74
Arabic, 52, 61, 62, 65, 66, 72, 94, 97, 105 Buddhism, 8, 9, 74, 75, 85, 103
Aryans, 9, 74 Bukhārā, 19
Áṣā – i – Sakhi Shāh – i Mardān, 11 Bukhāri, 19, 71, 72, 73, 99, 100, 101, 102
Ashraf Khān, 14 Buner, 9
Aśoka, 74 Butkaṛa-I, 74
Assyrians, 78 Butkara-III, 85
Aṭṭal Sharīf, 16 Buzurg, 2, 109
Aṭṭock, 18, 103 Byzantine, 83, 103
aura, 80
Aurangabad, 89
C
Aurangzeb, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 17, 30, 44, 45,
47, 50, 80, 89, 95, 111, 112, 113 Caitya, 75
Aurangzeb ´Ālamgīr, 13 Central Asia, 4, 9, 11, 21, 82, 108
Azad Gul, 14 Chach, 18
Azraqi, 7 Chahārbāgh, 3
Azuri, 27 Chapriāl, 18
Charāṭ, 14
B Charsada, 14, 49, 109
chatras, 74
Bābā, 2, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 35, 43, Chawka, 41
46, 47, 49, 50, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 61, Cherāṭ, 18
63, 64, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95,
 132

Chiṛā, 12, 83 Gur Emir, 4

Chitral, 2, 20, 21, 67, 105, 114
CHITRAL, 67, 105 H
Christian, 75, 80
Christianity, 8 Habasha, 3
cinquefoil, 44, 91 Habashiya, 3
Hadis, 7
Hagia Sophia, 83
D
D. I. Khan, 12, 23 Ḥ
Dabgari, 34, 43
Dāg Ismā΄il Khel, 14, 46 Ḥalīm Gul, 17, 56, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104,
dagabas, 75 105
Dāmān, 18
Delhi, 5, 10, 16, 17, 40, 76, 77, 78, 88, 89, Ḩ
101, 111 Ḩalīm Gul Bābā, 98
Derā Ismā΄il Khān, 16, 23, 53
Dharmārajika, 74 H
Dilazāk, 12, 32
Dipalpur, 5 harmika, 74
Dodā, 15 Hauz Mosque, 96
Doda Bābā, 95, 96, 97, 113 Hayātullāh Ṣāḥib, 54
Dost Muḥammad Faqīr Ṣāḥib, 17, 55 Hazara, 41, 108, 111, 113
Durrāni, 19, 64, 65, 66, 82, 98, 99, 100, 101, Haẓro, 19
105
Ḥ
E Ḥaẓro, 18
Egypt, 75, 91
Egyptians, 78 H
Ellura, 82 Hephtālites, 74
Herat, 4
F Hijrah, 73
fanus, 67, 107 Hindu, 1, 5, 10, 76, 77, 78, 82, 84, 112
Faqīr Madad Khān, 16, 60 Hindu Shāhis, 1, 76
Farmān, 13 Hindustān, 19, 77
Firuz Shah Tughluq, 5 Hulagu, 4
Humāyun, 30
G Humāyūn, 11, 81, 83, 99, 112
Hund, 10
Gandhāra, 1, 9, 22, 74, 76 Hūns, 9
Gardiz, 13
Gawalior, 17 I
Gawhar Shād, 4
Ghālib Gul, 16, 53, 54, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, Ibn Kasir, 3
103, 104, 105 Ibn Rustah, 73
Ghast Bālā, 20, 105 Ibn-i Asir, 3
Ghāzī, 78 Ibrāhīm, 10, 19, 73, 110
Ghāzi Bābā, 15 Ikhlas, 52
Ghazna, 1, 10, 76 Iltutmish, 5, 76, 77, 111
Ghaznavid, 10, 23, 110, 111 India, 1, 4, 5, 8, 10, 12, 16, 17, 20, 75, 79, 81,
Ghaznavids, 76 86, 88, 91, 110, 111
Ghazni, 12 Indian subcontinent, 1
Ghorids, 76 Indo-Greeks, 9, 74
Ghurids, 10 Indo-Pak subcontinent, 10
Giyas-al-Dīn Tughluq, 5 Indo-Scythians, 9, 74
Gul Muḥammad, 18 Indus, 10, 12, 109
gul-e nau, 32, 35, 50, 69, 92, 93, 94, 95, 107 Iran, 78, 85, 90, 94
Gul-e nau, 84, 92, 93 Iraq, 18, 85, 90, 110
Guli Bāgh, 12, 40 Ismā´il Sāmāni, 4
Gumbazi, 20, 68, 105, 106 Ismā´ilis, 105
Gumbazi Ziārat, 20, 68 Isma΄īlies, 20
 133

Ismáīl Khel, 18 KP, 1, 2, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 73, 76, 78, 81,
Istanbul, 83 82, 83, 86, 87, 88, 89, 95, 98, 99, 108, 109,
110, 111, 112, 113
J Krappa, 22
Kufic, 94
Jagir, 18, 20 Kulāchi, 16
Jahāngīr, 12, 22, 82, 85, 112 Kulyāb, 11
Jahāngiriān, 109 Kunaṛ, 108
Jahāniyān Jahān Gasht, 6 Kurram, 12, 38
Jain, 84 Kushāns, 9, 74
Jalāl ad-Dīn, 11, 77, 112
Jalāl ad-Dīn Akbar, 11, 112
L
Jalozai, 18
Jamādi al Awwal, 17 Lāāl Māhra Sharīf, 11
Jang Bāzār, 21 Lahore, 12, 17, 86, 88, 89, 93, 103
Jayapāla, 10 Lāl Māhṛa, 23, 25, 26, 28, 33, 79, 80, 87, 88,
96
K Lāl Māḥra, 78, 108, 111
Lāl Māhṛa Sharif, 23, 33, 79, 88
Ka´bah, 7 lily, 33, 85
Kābul, 12, 13, 14, 47 Lodis, 11, 78
Kaiqubad, 77
Kākā Khels, 14, 19
M
Kākā Ṣāḥib, 2, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 44, 45, 56,
89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94 Ma΄zullah Khān, 13
Kalima, 54, 105 Macca, 73
Kāna Khel, 17 Madina, 8
kanal, 18 madrassa, 17
Kandak, 22 Mahābat Khān, 12
Kanjrī kī tomb, 103 Maḥmūd, 1, 8, 10, 12, 23, 40, 76, 77, 79, 80,
kanjur, 38, 39, 40, 64 86, 87, 88, 110, 111
Kanz al – ΄Ummāl, 72 Māi Mehrabān, 6
Karbogha, 19 Makka, 7
Karīm Dād, 13, 48, 49, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94 Malākand, 80, 87, 108
Kaṛmān, 10 Mamāṇo Ghundai, 19
Kāshān, 78 Mamlūk, 10
Kāshi Sāzi, 78 Mansehra, 11, 23, 29, 40, 41, 78
Kashmīr, 11, 108 Mānsehra, 12
Kastīr Gul, 14 Maṛoba, 16
Kathor, 21, 69 Mas’ud, 3
Khajūr wāli Masjid, 15 Māst Bābā, 98, 99, 100, 102, 103, 104
Khalji, 10, 77 Maśūd, 10
Khanewal, 10 Mauryan, 74
Khānqāh, 14, 30 Medina, 73
khānqāhs, 105 Mela, 17
Khat-e Tāj, 61 Meshad, 4
Khaṭṭak, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19 Mesopotamia, 79
Khost, 19 Miān Fatḥ Shāh, 14, 89, 90, 92, 93
Khurāsān, 6 Miān Gul Bābā, 63, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103,
Khurd, 12, 40, 86, 87, 88 104
Khushḥāl Khān, 14 Miān jī Ṣāḥib, 19
Khwāja Miān Muḥammad Baran, 16 Miān Muḥammad Bārān, 98, 99, 100, 101,
Khwāja Muḥammad Āmir, 16, 98 102, 104, 113
Khwaṛ, 38 Michni, 36
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, 1, 9, 30, 63, 76, 80, 99 mihrāb, 24, 27, 28, 59, 80, 95, 98, 101
Kidārites, 74 Mihrāb, 25, 111
Kiyāni, 19 Mihtar, 20, 21, 67
Kohat, 12 Mīr Abu Nāṣir, 30
Kohāt, 13, 16, 19, 41, 43, 47, 48, 53, 64, 98, Mirza Gul Bābā, 18
113 Mirzā Gul Bābā, 59, 98, 99
Koṭla, 13, 41, 89 Misripur, 15
Koṭla Muḥsin Khān, 13, 41 Mithri, 84
 134

Mohala i – Shāhzadgan, 20 O
Mohallah Rukhāni, 13
Oḍi Shāhi, 76
Mongol, 4
Oudh, 95
Muázzam Shāh ´Ālam Bahādur, 14
Mughal, 2, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 30, 34, 43, 50,
80, 81, 85, 89, 93, 95, 97, 110, 111, 112, P
113 Pakhli, 12, 40
Muḥammad (PBUH), 7, 54, 105 Pakistan, 1, 5, 6, 10, 29, 79, 84, 86, 88, 105,
Muḥammad Amir, 100 108, 112
Muḥammad b. Hārūn, 6 Palosi Pirān, 12
Muḥammad b. Qāsim, 6 Palosi Pīrān, 36
Muḥammad Dilshād, 6 Pana Koṭe, 18
Muḥammad Jamhūr Jān Sadozai, 19 Pānipat, 11
Muḥammad Shāh, 19, 95 Panjkotai Vihāra, 9, 22
Muḥammad Ziā Wali Mazārāt, 20, 68 Panjkoti, 22
Muḥammad Ẓiā Wali Mazārāt, 105, 106, 107 Pārāchināṛ, 23
Muhayy ad-Dīn Aurangzeb Alamgīr, 11 Pāṛāchinār, 12, 76
Muḥibullah Khān, 13 Parthians, 9
Muḥsin Khān, 13, 41 Pashtun, 2, 109
Multan, 5, 6, 11, 12, 17, 79 Persia, 4, 79
Multān, 78, 79, 84, 111, 113 Persian, 7, 15, 17, 61, 65, 66, 67, 79, 95, 105
Muqālāt-i Qudusia, 17 Persians, 78, 79
Muqāmāt-i Qutbia, 17 Peshawar, 10, 30, 32, 34, 35, 82, 108
Murād Khān, 16, 59, 60, 98, 100, 101, 102 Peshāwar, 11, 12, 13, 15, 18, 19, 30, 34, 36,
Muryan, 101 38, 41, 50, 63, 74, 76, 81, 86, 89, 95, 99,
Muslim, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 22, 41, 71, 72, 103, 112
73, 76, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, pietra-dura, 81
90, 92, 94, 96, 105, 111 pipal, 80
Muslims, 1, 7, 8, 15, 111 Pīr, 2, 13, 16, 60
Muṣtafā, 15 poppy, 33, 85
Pre-Muslim, 2
N PRE-MUSLIM, 22, 74
prince Mua´ẓẓam Shāh ΄Ālam Baḥādur, 47
Nādir Shāh, 12, 95
Punjāb, 1, 10, 11, 76, 78, 80, 84, 87, 108, 112
Nagara hāra, 18
Narai Khwaṛ, 36
Naṣīr ad Din Humāyūn, 11 Q
Nāṣir ad-Dīn Khusrū, 78 Qala΄-i-Rāi Pithorā, 76
Naskh, 52, 61, 62, 65, 94, 97, 105 Qandahār, 12
Nasta΄līq, 94, 105 Qasr al –´Āshiq, 3
Nastaliq, 61, 65, 94 Qazalbash, 82
Naukot, 11, 23, 29, 30 qibla, 79
Naukoṭ, 78 Qubbat, 3, 9, 110
Nawab Sa΄īd Khān, 34, 86, 87, 88 Qubbat as-Sulaibiya, 3
Nawab Sáīd Khan, 12 Qurān, 7, 8, 71, 72
Nawāb Sáīd Khan, 3 Qutb ad – Dīn Aibak, 10
Nāwagai, 15 Qutb ad-Dīn Aibak, 76
Nāy, 110 Qutb ad-Dīn Mubārák, 78
Nayat Zarīn Chārdalo, 21, 69, 105, 106, 107 Qutb Minār, 76, 101
Nimawṛae, 14, 49, 89, 90, 91, 92 Quwwat al-Islam, 5
Nimawṛae Bābā Miāngān, 14 Quwwat al-Islām, 76, 77
Ningrahār, 18
Nizami ‘Aruzi, 110 R
Niẓāmpur, 16, 55
Nowshera, 14, 16, 17, 18, 44, 46, 53, 88, 98, Rābiah Begam, 89
106, 113 Rahman, 9, 10, 11, 13, 74, 76, 80, 85, 87, 88,
Nūr ad-Din Jahāngīr, 11 106
Nūrbakhshi, 20 Rāin, 21, 105
Nūrbakhshis, 105 Ramazān, 17
Rang Maḥal, 88
Razia, 77
Reshon, 21
 135

Rig Vedic, 101 Shāhdand, 15

Roman, 83, 93 Shāhi, 10, 76
Romans, 75 Shāh-i Hamadān, 78, 80, 111
Rome, 75 Shāhjahān, 12, 13, 34, 63, 81, 86, 88, 89, 112
Room Pāpo, 21, 68, 105, 106, 107 Shāhzadgān, 20
Roshanāi, 13 Shaidu, 18
Roshania, 13 Shaikh Abd al – Ḥalīm, 14
Rushnāi, 41 Shaikh Allāh Dād, 13, 48, 49, 90, 91, 92, 93,
94
S Shaikh Babur Baba, 14
Shaikh Bahā al-Dīn Zakariya, 5
Sabuktigān, 10 shaikh Imam al – Dīn, 12
Sabuktigīn, 10 Shaikh Imām al–Dīn, 36, 38, 86, 87, 88, 89
Sadozai, 19, 20, 65 Shaikh Karīm Dad, 90
Shaikh Kārīm Dād, 13
Ṣ Shaikh Qutb ad – Dīn, 12, 32, 84
Ṣafdar Jang, 89, 95 Shaikh Qutb ad-Dīn, 83, 84
Shaikh Qutb ad–Dīn, 33
S Shaikh Rukn al-Dīn, 5
Shaikh Άjāib al – Dīn, 13
Said Khan Qureshi, 6 Shaikhāno, 18
Saif ad – Daula Maḥmūd, 10, 76 Shaikhs, 2, 13, 89, 91, 94
Sakhi Ṣaḥib, 34 Shaikhs Allāh Dād, 13
Sakhi Ṣāḥib, 12, 83, 112 Shakardara, 19
Saljūk, 78 Shalimār, 82
Salt-Range, 80, 87 Shalmānis, 109
Samarkand, 4 Shams Sabzwāri, 6
Samarra, 3 Shāpur, 19
Sanoghar, 20, 105 Sharia, 5
Sar Āsia, 30 Sher Kot, 14
sarais, 1, 11, 86 Sher Koṭ, 47
Sarv-wālā, 103 Sher Shāh, 5, 77, 81
Sasaniāns, 74 Shewaki, 19
Sāsānians, 9 Shi΄ahs, 105
Sayyid Abū Naṣr, 11, 81 Shi΄as, 20
Sayyid Àlī Hamadāni, 11 Shihāb ud-Dīn Tāj Khān, 88
Sayyid Burhān al – Dīn, 15 Shiraz, 4
Sayyid Darwesh, 30 Shirk, 73
Sayyid Hanāna, 33, 112 Shish Mahal, 93
Sayyid Hanānā, 12, 83 Shnaisha, 76
Sayyid Miān Fatḥ Shāh, 13, 47, 89, 91 Shu΄ana, 18
Sayyid Murād, 18 Shu΄lana, 18
Sayyid Άbd al – Wahāb, 50 Shujā ul Mulk, 67
Sayyid Άbd al-Raḥīm Shāh Bukhāri, 19 Shujā΄ ul–Mulk, 20
Sayyids, 11 Sibi, 84
Seljūq, 110 Sikh, 19, 35
serai, 18 Sindh, 11
Sha´bān, 16 Solomon, 73
Sha΄bān, 18, 60, 63 South Asia, 9, 76, 108
Shābor Wali, 67, 106, 107 Spin Gumbat, 12, 38, 39, 86, 87, 88, 89, 113
Shabor Wali tomb, 21, 105 Stein, 9, 22, 76, 80, 87
Shāh Gardez, 6
Shah Hamadan, 23, 30 Ṣ
Shāh Nazar Khān, 16
Shāh Rukn – i ´Ālam, 11 Ṣūba, 12, 13
Shāh Rukn –i ΄Ālam, 112 Ṣūfis, 17
Shah Rukni ´Ālam, 5
Shāh Rukn-i-΄Ālam, 84 S
Shāh Ṣāḥib, 17, 55, 89 Suhrawardiya, 5
Shāhāb ad-Dīn Muḥammad Ghori, 76 Sulbīya, 9
Shāhāb ad-Dīn Shāhjahān, 11 Sultan Áli Akbar, 5
 136

Sultān Ibrāhīm, 110 Udiyāna, 74

Sultān Jān Sadozai, 65 Umar, 73
Sultan Maḥmūd Khurd, 40 Umayyad, 80
Sultān Muḥammad Jamhūr, 65 Umm Habibah, 73
Sulṭān Shādmān Khān, 12 Umm Salmah, 73
Sultanate, 2, 5 Ummayyad, 8
Sumerians, 78
Sunnis, 20 V
Sunnīs, 105
Sūrah al-Ikhlāṣ, 97, 105 Vali, 88
Swabi, 98 Vihāra, 22, 74
Swābi, 15, 18, 63, 98, 113
Swat, 85, 106 W
Swāt, 9, 10, 74, 87, 108, 109 Warkop, 21, 69, 105, 106, 107
Syria, 73, 91 Wazir Khān, 103
waziri, 45, 46, 47, 49, 50, 55, 57, 58, 64
T wazīri, 15
Tabari, 3 White Huns, 9
tahkhānā, 37, 38
Taimūr Shāh, 19 Y
Tāj Mahal, 89 Yusufzais, 109
Tamerlane, 4
Tarakai, 15 Z
Taxila, 74
Tehkhānā, 88 Zahīr ad – Dīn Bābur, 11
tehsildar, 20 Zain al – ΄Ābidīn, 17
tempera, 38, 71, 88, 103 Zairān, 23, 76
zakāt, 14
Ṭ Zburg, 2, 109
Ziārat Kākā Ṣāḥib, 14, 44
Ṭhaṭṭa, 12 Ziarats, 2, 109
Ziyā ad – Dīn, 14, 17
T Ziyā ad-Dīn Shahid, 45, 46, 57, 91, 92, 93
Tigris, 3 Ziyā ad–Dīn Shahid, 89
Tira’i Bālā, 12 Ziyā ad–Dīn Shahid, 90
Tor Gumbat, 12, 38, 39, 40, 86, 87, 113
Torderi, 18 Α
Tordheri, 18, 63 Άbd al – Rashīd, 13
Tucci, 9, 74 Άbd al – Άzīz Miān, 18
Tughlaq, 78 Άbd al Ghafūr, 19
Tughlaqs, 11, 78 Άbd al-Rashīd, 43
Tughra, 52, 54, 97, 105 Άbdal Qādir, 13
Turangzai, 14, 49 Άbdul Qādir Khān Khaṭṭak, 13
Turk, 12, 40 Άbdur Raḥīm Shāh Bukhāri, 63, 98, 100, 101,
Turkish, 5, 10, 77 103, 104
Turkistān, 4 Άla ud-Dīn, 77
Turks, 9, 77, 111 Άlāi, 77
Άli Gohar, 14
U Άṣā, 30, 99, 112
Uch, 6, 7 Άṣā-i-Sakhi Shāh-i Mardān, 81
Uchh, 111 Άṣā-i-Sakh-i-Shāh-i Mardān, 30
Udabhāndapura, 10 Άwn b. Abi Juḥayfah, 72
Uḍigrām, 10
Figure 1: Swāt: Balo Kili Gumbat

A: Sectional Elevation

B: Ground Plan
(After Stein)
 Figure 2: Pāṛāchinār: (Zairān)
Tomb of Saif ad- Daula Maḥmūd

A: Front Elevation

B: Ground Plan (After Rehman, A)

 Figure 3: D.I. Khān (Lāl Māhṛa
Sharif): Tombs I & II: Ground Plans

A: Tomb-I: Ground Plan

B: Tomb-II: Ground Plan

(After Khan, N.A)

 Figure 4: D.I. Khān (Lāl Māhṛa
Sharif): Tombs III & IV: Ground
Plans

A: Tomb-III: Ground Plan

B: Tomb-IV: Ground Plan

(After Khan, N.A)
Figure 5: Peshāwar: Asa-i-Sakhi
Shah-i Mardān Tomb

A: Front Elevation

B: Sectional Elevation
C: Peshāwar: Ground Plan of Asa-i-Sakhi Shah-i Mardān Tomb
Figure 6: D.I Khān (Chiṛa): Tomb of Sayyid Ḥanāna

A: Front Elevation

B: Sectional Elevation
C: D.I Khān (Chiṛa): Ground Elevation of Sayyid Ḥanāna Tomb
Figure 7: Peshāwar: Tomb of Nawāb Sa´īd Khān

A: Front Elevation

B: Sectional Elevation

(After Rehman, A)
Figure 8: Hangu (Ṭhal): Tor Gumbat

A: Front Elevation

B: Sectional Elevation
C: Hangu (Ṭhal): Tor Gumbat: Ground Plan
Figure 9: Hangu (Ṭhal): Spin Gumbat

A: Front Elevation

B: Sectional Elevation
C: Hangu (Ṭhal): Spin Gumbat: Ground Plan
Figure 10: Peshāwar: Shaikh Imām ad- Dīn’s Tomb

Sectional Elevation

(After Rehman, A)
Figure 11: Peshāwar (Tirai Bāla): Shaikh Sultān Bābā’s Tomb

A: Front Elevation

B: Sectional Elevation
C: Peshāwar (Tirai Bāla): Shaikh Sultān Bābā’s
Tomb: Ground Plan
Figure 12: Peshāwar: Roshanāi Tombs-I & II

A: Roshanāi Tomb-I: Front Elevation

B: Roshanāi Tomb-I: Sectional Elevation

(After Rehman, A)
C: Roshanāi Tomb-I: Ground Plan

(After Rehman, A)
D: Roshanāi Tomb-II: Front Elevation

E: Roshanāi Tomb-II: Sectional Elevation

(After Rehman, A)
F: Roshanāi Tomb-II: Ground Plan

(After Rehman, A)
Figure 13: Kohāt: Shaikh’s Allah Dād and Karīm Dād’s Tombs

A: Shaikh Allah Dād Tomb: Front Elevation

B: Shaikh Allah Dād Tomb: Sectional Elevation

 C: Shaikh Allah Dād Tomb: Ground Plan

D: Shaikh Karīm Dād Tomb: Front Elevation

E: Shaikh Karīm Dād Tomb: Sectional Elevation

F: Shaikh Karīm Dād Tomb: Ground Plan

Figure 14: Kohāt: Sayyid Miān Fatḥ Shāh’s Tomb

A: Front Elevation

B: Sectional Elevation
C: Sayyid Miān Fatḥ Shāh’s Tomb: Ground Plan
Figure 15: Charsadda: Nimawṛae Bābā

A: Sectional Elevation

B: Ground Plan
Figure 16: Nowshera: Tomb of Kākā Ṣāḥib

A: Sectional Elevation

B: Ground Plan
Figure 17: Nowshera: Shaikh Bābur Bābā’s Tomb

A: Front Elevation
B: Shaikh Bābur Bābā’s Tomb: Sectional Elevation

C: Shaikh Bābur Bābā’s Tomb: Ground Plan

Figure 18: Nowshera: Tombs of Ẓia ad-Dīn Shahīd and Bāz Gul Bābā

A: Sectional Elevation

B: Ground Plan
Figure 19: Kohāt: Sayyid ´Abdur Raḥīm Shāh Bukhāri’s Tomb

A: Front Elevation

B: Sectional Elevation
C: Sayyid ´Abdur Raḥīm Shāh Bukhāri’s Tomb: Top Plan

D: Sayyid ´Abdur Raḥīm Shāh Bukhāri’s Tomb: Ground Plan

Figure 20: Peshāwar (Akbarpura): Akhūnd Panjū Bābā Tomb

A: Front Elevation

B: Sectional Elevation
C: Akhūnd Panjū Bābā Tomb: Ground Plan
Figure 21: D.I. Khān: Aṭṭal Sharif Tomb

Ground Plan
Figure 22: Kohāt: Durrāni Tombs-I, II & III

A: Durrāni Tomb-I: Ground Plan

B: Durrāni Tomb-I: Front Elevation
C: Durrāni’s Tomb-II: Front Elevation

D: Durrāni’s Tomb-III: Front Elevation

Tomb-II

Tomb-III

E: Durrāni’s Tomb-II & III: Sectional Elevation

Tomb-II

Tomb-III

F: Durrāni’s Tomb-II & III: Top Plan

Tomb-II

Tomb-III

G: Durrāni’s Tomb-II & III: Ground Plan

Figure 23: Chitrāl (Sanoghar): Muḥammad Ẓia Wali Tomb

A: Front Elevation

B: Sectional Elevation

C: Ground Plan
Figure 24: Chitrāl (Ghast Bāla): Gumbazi Ẓiārat

Ground Plan
Figure 25: Chitrāl: Shābor Wali Tomb

A: Front Elevation

B: Ground Plan
Figure 26: Chitrāl (Tor Koh): Warkop Wooden Tomb

A: Front Elevation

B: Ground Plan
Figure 27: Chitrāl (Rain): Nayat Ẓarin Chārdalo Tomb

A: Front Elevation

B: Ground Plan
Pl. I. Swāt: Balo Kili Gumbat

A: Side View

B: Front View
Pl. II. Buner: Panjkotai Viḥāra

General View
Pl. III. Pāṛāchinār (Zairān): Saif ad- Daula Maḥmūd’s Tomb

A: Showing pointed sunk arch

B: Showing arch and an arched window

Pl. IV. D.I. Khān: Lāl Māhṛa Sharif Tomb-I: General View

Pl. V. D.I. Khān: Lāl Māhṛa Sharif Tomb-II: General View

 Pl. VI. D.I. Khān: Lāl Māhṛa Sharif Tomb-III

A: General View

B: Corner Squinch, pendentive and internal decorative motifs

Pl. VII. D.I. Khān: Lāl Māhṛa Sharif Tomb-IV

A: General View

B: Showing interior decorative motifs

Pl. VIII. Mansehra (Naukot): Death place of Shāh Hamdān, Memorial

A: General View

B: Another View of the eastern side

C: Shāh Hamadān death place: Showing corner turret and the recent
reconstructed fortification wall

D: Shāh Hamadān death place: Southeastern

corner Turret showing brickwork
Pl. IX. Peshāwar: ´Aṣā-i Sakhi Shāh-i Mardān Tomb, General View
 Pl. X. D.I. Khān (Chiṛa) Sayyid Ḥanāna Tomb

A: Showing interior pointed arch in the southern sidewall

B: Interior showing corner details for supporting the dome

Pl. XI. D.I. Khān: Sakhi Ṣāḥib Tomb

A: General View

B: Eastern wall showing sunk arches details

Pl. XII. Peshāwar (Dilazāk): Shaikh Qutb ad- Dīn Tomb, General View

Pl. XIII. Peshāwar: Nawāb Sa´īd Khān Tomb, Front View

Pl. XIV. Hangu (Ṭhal): Tor Ghumbat

A: General View

B: Details of the western sidewall

 C: Tor Gumbat: Showing details of the interior
northeastern corner

D: Tor Gumbat: Showing corner squinch in phase of transition

 Pl. XV. Hangu (Ṭhal): Spin Gumbat

A: General View

B: Showing entrance and details of the façade

 PL. XVI. Peshāwar: Shaikh Imām al- Dīn Tomb, General View

Pl. XVII. Peshāwar: Shaikh Imām al- Dīn wife’s Tomb, General View
 Pl. XVIII. Peshāwar (Tirai Bala): Shaikh Sultān Bābā Tomb,
showing general View & details of the exterior

Pl. XIX. Mansehra (Guli Bagh): Sultān Maḥmūd Khurd Tomb, general view
Pl. XX. Mansehra (Guli Bagh): Sultān Maḥmūd Khurd tomb

A: A view of the tomb showing southwestern corner details

B: Showing details of tomb chamber western wall exterior

Pl. XXI. Peshāwar: Roshanāi Tombs-I & II

A: Roshanāi Tomb-I: North side view showing details

B: Roshanāi Tomb-II: General View

Pl. XXII. Peshāwar: ´Abd al- Rashīd (Bajuṛi Bābā) tomb, northeast
corner view showing details of the exterior
Pl. XXIII. Kohāt: Shaikh Allah Dād Tomb

A: General view

B: Shaikh Allah Dād Tomb, showing interior painted

decoration, fruit and dish with flower vase
C: Shaikh Allah Dād Tomb, calligraphic specimen

D: Shaikh Allah Dād Tomb, showing painted decoration

in polychrome soffit of the dome
 Pl. XXIV. Kohāt: Shaikh Karīm Dād Tomb

A: Showing domical niche in stucco and painted floral decoration in the background

B: Corner pendentive with stucco and painted

decoration and stylized stucco acanthus leaves
C: Shaikh Karīm Dād Tomb, soffit of the dome showing rich floral decoration
Pl. XXV: Kohāt: Miān Fatḥ Shāh Tomb

A: General View

B: Showing floral decoration of the phase of transition

Pl. XXVI: Nowshera: Kākā Ṣāḥib Tomb

A: View of the Dome

B: Façade showing details of stuccowork

C: Kākā Ṣāḥib Tomb: Decorative panel
showing floral scrolls in stucco relief

D: Kākā Ṣāḥib Tomb: soffit of

arch showing floral scrolls
in stucco relief
 E: Kākā Ṣāḥib Tomb: Panel showing
stars in stucco relief

F: Kākā Ṣāḥib Tomb: Showing a series of painted decoration fruits and dishes
Pl. XXVII. Nowshera: Shaikh Bābur Bābā’s
Tomb

A: General View

B: Soffit of the dome showing painted decoration

Pl. XXVIII. Nowshera: Ẓiā ad- Dīn Shahīd Tomb, wooden eave showing floral scrolls in relief

Pl. XXVIII (a). Swābi: Miān Gul Bābā’s tomb from southeast corner
showing details of the dome, façade and corner pilaster
 Pl. XXIX. Kohāt: Sayyid ´Abdur Ṛahīm Shāh Bukhāri Tomb

A: Showing façade view of the tomb

B: Soffit of the dome showing a variety of floral painted patterns

 Pl. XXX: Bajauṛ Agency: Doda Bābā’s Tomb

A: Façade and general view of the tomb

B: Showing architectural details of entrance, corner and parapet

 C: Doda Bābā Tomb: showing details of painted decoration
and arrangement of the phase of transition

D: Doda Bābā Tomb: Soffit of the dome showing floral painted decoration
Pl. XXXI. Peshāwar: Akhūnd Panjū Bābā Tomb, general view

Pl. XXXII. Nowshera: Ghālib Gul Bābā Tomb, general view

 Pl. XXXIII. Nowshera: Māst Bābā Tomb, general view

Pl. XXXIV. D.I. Khān: Murād Khān Tomb, ceiling showing detail lacquer work
 Pl. XXXV. Kohāt: Ādam Bābā Tomb

A: General View

B: showing details of entrance under

a segmental arch

C: showing corner squinch and

base of the missing dome
Pl. XXXVI. Nowshera: Ḥalīm Gul Bābā’s Tomb, showing
façade eave and minarets from the southwestern corner
 Pl. XXXVII. Nowshera: Ḥalīm Gul Bābā’s Tomb

A: Star shape design on dado level in stucco relief

B: Rosettes and other floral stamp designs in stucco relief

C: Running series of acanthus leaves in stucco relief

 D: Ḥalīm Gul Bābā’s Tomb, panel
showing flower plant in vase with
acanthus leave border

E: Ḥalīm Gul Bābā’s Tomb, painted panel

showing fruits in dish with flower plants in
stylized vase in polychrome
F: Ḥalīm Gul Bābā’s Tomb, painted panel
showing dish on stand with fruits

G: Ḥalīm Gul Bābā’s Tomb, panel showing

calligraphic specimen
Pl. XXXVIII. Nowshera: Bāz Gul Bābā’s Tomb

A: Soffit of alcove showing detail stucco and painted decoration

B: Soffit of the dome, showing decorative motives

 Pl. XXXIX. Kohāt: Durrāni Tomb-II showing
details and view of the backside

Pl. XL. Nowshera: Baḥādar Bābā’s Tomb,

view from the northeast corner

Pl. XLI. Nowshera: Mirzā Gul Bābā’s Tomb

showing details of the dome and façade
 Pl. XLII. Chitrāl: Shābor Wali Tomb

A: South side of the dome and general view

B: Eastern side of the tomb showing entrance and detail of the façade
 C: Shābor Wali Tomb: Showing top of the dome and finical

D: Shābor Wali Tomb: Soffit of the dome showing details of architectural features
Pl. XLIII. Chitral: Room Pāpo Tomb, a view of the interior