The reproductive system is necessary for the production of new living organisms.

The ability to reproduce is a

basic characteristic of life. In sexual reproduction, two individuals produce offspring that have genetic characteristics
from both parents. The primary function of the reproductive system is to produce male and female sex cells and to
ensure the growth and development of offspring. The reproductive system is comprised of male and female
reproductive organs and structures. The growth and activity of these organs and structures are regulated by hormones.
The reproductive system is closely associated with other organ systems, particularly the endocrine system and urinary
system.

Male and Female Reproductive Organs

Both male and female reproductive organs have internal and external structures. Reproductive organs are
considered to be either primary or secondary organs. The primary reproductive organs are the gonads (ovaries and
testes), which are responsible for gamete (sperm and egg cell) and hormone production. The other reproductive
structures and organs are considered secondary reproductive structures. Secondary organs aid in the growth and
maturation of gametes and developing offspring.

Female Reproductive System Organs

Structures of the female reproductive system include:

 Labia majora - Larger lip-like external structures that cover and protect sexual structures.

 Labia minora - Smaller lip-like external structures found inside the labia majora. They provide protection for the
clitoris and for the urethra and vaginal openings.

 Clitoris - Very sensitive sexual organ located in front of the vaginal opening. It contains thousands of sensory
nerve endings and responds to sexual stimulation.

 Vagina - Fibrous, muscular canal leading from the cervix (opening of the uterus) to the external portion of the
genital canal.

 Uterus - Muscular internal organ that houses and nurtures female gametes after fertilization. Also called the
womb, the uterus is where a developing fetus resides during pregnancy.

 Fallopian tubes - Uterine tubes which transport egg cells from the ovaries to the uterus. Fertilization typically
occurs in these tubes.

 Ovaries - Female primary reproductive structures that produce gametes and sex hormones. There is one ovary
on each side of the uterus.
External Female Genitals

The external female reproductive structures are referred to collectively as the vulva. The mons pubis is a pad of fat
that is located at the anterior, over the pubic bone. After puberty, it becomes covered in pubic hair. The labia majora
(labia = “lips”; majora = “larger”) are folds of hair-covered skin that begin just posterior to the mons pubis. The thinner
and more pigmented labia minora (labia = “lips”; minora = “smaller”) extend medial to the labia majora. Although they
naturally vary in shape and size from woman to woman, the labia minora serve to protect the female urethra and the
entrance to the female reproductive tract.

The superior, anterior portions of the labia minora come together to encircle the clitoris (or glans clitoris), an organ
that originates from the same cells as the glans penis and has abundant nerves that make it important in sexual
sensation and orgasm. The hymen is a thin membrane that sometimes partially covers the entrance to the vagina. An
intact hymen cannot be used as an indication of “virginity”; even at birth, this is only a partial membrane, as menstrual
fluid and other secretions must be able to exit the body, regardless of penile–vaginal intercourse. The vaginal opening is
located between the opening of the urethra and the anus. It is flanked by outlets to the Bartholin’s glands (or greater
vestibular glands)

Oogenesis

Gametogenesis in females is called oogenesis. The process begins with the ovarian stem cells, or oogonia.

The unequal cell division of oogenesis produces one to three polar bodies that later degrade, as well as a single
haploid ovum, which is produced only if there is penetration of the secondary oocyte by a sperm cell.
 Folliculogenesis

Again, ovarian follicles are oocytes and their supporting cells. They grow and develop in a process
called folliculogenesis, which typically leads to ovulation of one follicle approximately every 28 days, along with death to
multiple other follicles. The death of ovarian follicles is called atresia, and can occur at any point during follicular
development. Recall that, a female infant at birth will have one to two million oocytes within her ovarian follicles, and
that this number declines throughout life until menopause, when no follicles remain. As you’ll see next, follicles progress
from primordial, to primary, to secondary and tertiary stages prior to ovulation—with the oocyte inside the follicle
remaining as a primary oocyte until right before ovulation.

Folliculogenesis begins with follicles in a resting state. These small primordial follicles are present in newborn
females and are the prevailing follicle type in the adult ovary (Figure 4). Primordial follicles have only a single flat layer of
support cells, called granulosa cells, that surround the oocyte, and they can stay in this resting state for years—some
until right before menopause.

Folliculogenesis. (a) The maturation of a follicle is shown in a clockwise direction proceeding from the primordial
follicles. FSH stimulates the growth of a tertiary follicle, and LH stimulates the production of estrogen by granulosa and
theca cells. Once the follicle is mature, it ruptures and releases the oocyte. Cells remaining in the follicle then develop
into the corpus luteum. (b) In this electron micrograph of a secondary follicle, the oocyte, theca cells (thecae folliculi),
and developing antrum are clearly visible. EM × 1100. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan
Medical School © 2012)
The male reproductive system consists of sexual organs, accessory glands, and a series of duct systems that provide a
pathway for fertile sperm cells to exit the body. Male reproductive structures include the penis, testes, epididymis,
seminal vesicles, and prostate gland.

Male Reproductive System Organs

The male reproductive system consists of sexual organs, accessory glands, and a series of duct systems that provide
a pathway for fertile sperm cells to exit the body.

 Penis - Main organ involved in sexual intercourse. This organ is composed of erectile tissue, connective tissue,
and skin. The urethra extends through the length of the penis, allowing urine and sperm to pass.

 Testes - Male primary reproductive structures that produce male gametes (sperm) and sex hormones.

 Scrotum - External pouch of skin that contains the testes. Because the scrotum is located outside of the
abdomen, it can reach temperatures that are lower than that of internal body structures. Lower temperatures
are necessary for proper sperm development.

 Epididymis - System of ducts that receive immature sperm from the testes. Its function is to develop immature
sperm and to house mature sperm.

 Ductus Deferens or Vas Deferens - Fibrous, muscular tubes that are continuous with the epididymis and provide
a pathway for sperm to travel from the epididymis to the urethra

 Ejaculatory Duct - Duct formed from the union of the ductus deferens and seminal vesicles. Each ejaculatory
duct empties into the urethra.

 Urethra - Tube that extends from the urinary bladder through the penis. This canal allows for the excretion of
reproductive fluids (semen) and urine from the body. Sphincters prevent urine from entering the urethra while
semen is passing through.

 Seminal Vesicles - Glands that produce fluid to nurture and provide energy for sperm cells. Tubes leading from
the seminal vesicles join the ductus deferens to form the ejaculatory duct.

 Prostate Gland - Gland that produces a milky, alkaline fluid which increases sperm motility. The contents of the
prostate empty into the urethra.

 Bulbourethral or Cowper's Glands - Small glands located at the base of the penis. In response to sexual
stimulation, these glands secrete an alkaline fluid which helps to neutralize acidity from urine in the urethra and
acidity in the vagina.

Similarly, the female reproductive system contains organs and structures that promote the production, support, growth,
and development of female gametes (egg cells) and a growing fetus.
 Anatomy of Testes

Reproductive System: Gamete Production

Gametes are produced by a two-part cell division process called meiosis. Through a sequence of steps, the replicated
DNA in a parent cell is distributed among four daughter cells. Meiosis produces gametes with one half the number
of chromosomes as the parent cell. Because these cells have one half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell,
they are called haploid cells. Human sex cells contain one complete set of 23 chromosomes. When sex cells unite
at fertilization, the two haploid cells become one diploid cell that contains 46 chromosomes.

The production of sperm cells is known as spermatogenesis. This process occurs continuously and takes place within the
male testes. Hundreds of millions of sperm must be released in order for fertilization to take place. Oogenesis (ovum
development) occurs in the female ovaries. In meiosis I of oogenesis, daughter cells are divided asymmetrically. This
asymmetrical cytokinesis results in one large egg cell (oocyte) and smaller cells called polar bodies. The polar bodies
degrade and are not fertilized. After meiosis I is complete, the egg cell is called a secondary oocyte. The haploid
secondary oocyte will only complete the second meiotic stage if it encounters a sperm cell and fertilization begins. Once
fertilization is initiated, the secondary oocyte completes meiosis II and is then called an ovum. The ovum fuses with the
sperm cell, and fertilization is complete. The fertilized ovum is called a zygote.
Overview of a Sperm cell

Reproductive System Diseases

The reproductive system can be impacted by a number of diseases and disorders. This includes cancer that may
develop in reproductive organs such as the uterus, ovaries, testicles, or prostate. Disorders of the female reproductive
system include endometriosis (endometrial tissue develops outside of the uterus), ovarian cysts, uterine polyps, and
prolapse of the uterus. Disorders of the male reproductive system include testicular torsion (twisting of the testes),
hypogonadism (testicular under-activity resulting in low testosterone production), enlarged prostate gland, hydrocele
(swelling in the scrotum), and inflammation of the epididymis.

FEMALE

Endometriosis – a condition involving colonization of the abdominal/pelvic cavity with islands of endometrial tissue.
Endometrium is the lining layer of the uterus which sloughs off with each menstruation. If endometrial tissue flushes up
the uterine tube and spills into the abdomen (peritoneal cavity), the clots of endometrial tissue can attach to abdominal
organs such as the bladder, rectum, intestinal loops and then cycle along with the uterus in response to monthly
changes in ovarian hormones. Bleeding into the abdomen irritates the lining membrane, the peritoneum, and causes
abdominal pain.

Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) – although males have a closed abdominal cavity, the female abdominal cavity has a
direct anatomical path from the outside world via the female reproductive tract. Bacteria can make their way up the
vagina, through the uterus, and traverse the uterine tubes which open into the abdominal cavity. Inflammation of the
lining of the abdominal cavity, the peritoneum, causes abdominal pain. Although there are many potential causes of PID,
gonorrheal infection is one of them. Chronic Inflammation of the uterine tubes can occlude them resulting in infertility.

Prolapsed uterus – the uterus is almost directly above the vagina. In fact, the cervix, the neck region, of the uterus
extends into the upper vagina. Ligaments hold the uterus in proper position so that it does not prolapse or herniate into
the vagina. Severe prolapse can result in the uterine cervix protruding from the vaginal opening. Surgical repair is
typically required to restore the uterus to its proper anatomical position.

Obstetrician – literally “midwife” in Latin. A physician specializing in the diagnosis and management of pregnancy and
delivering babies.

Gynecologist – a physician specializing in diseases of the female reproductive system and surgery of this area. Most
physicians currently specialize in combined practice of OB/GYN.

Episiotomy – a surgical procedure cutting into the perineal area, the area between the vagina and anus in order to
prevent tearing of tissues when the baby’s head traverses the vaginal opening.

Hysterosalpingogram – special X-rays of the uterus and uterine tubes involving passing an opaque dye backwards up
through the uterus to determine if the tubes are patent. Since the tubes are open into the abdominal (peritoneal) cavity,
if patent, dye should spill out of the end of the tubes and be manifest on the X-ray.

Colposcopy – using a magnifying instrument to inspect the interior of the vagina and cervix, the entrance to the uterus.

Dilation and curettage (D & C) – dilating the cervix, the entrance into the uterus, and passing instruments that enable
scraping off superficial layers of the endometrium. May be done as an early therapeutic abortion, or following a normal
pregnancy to remove residual tissue remaining in the uterus, or may be done as a diagnostic procedure to examine
lining tissue of the uterus.

Mammoplasty – Surgical reconstruction of the breast may involve breast enlargement or reduction or cosmetic
reconstruction after mastectomy
Pudendal block – An anesthetic administered to block sensation around the lower vagina and perineum. This facilitates
performing an episiotomy (see above) allowing passage of the baby’s head while avoiding uncontrolled tearing of
tissues.

MALE

Hypospadias – literally “below the fleshy spike.” A condition in which the external urinary meatus (opening) opens
anywhere below the tip of the penis rather than at the tip.

Hydrocele – a fluid filled sac partially surrounding the testis. Manifests itself as a swelling on the side of the scrotum.

Varicocele – dilated and twisted veins of the testis, sort of “hemorrhoids” of the scrotum! Manifests itself as a swelling
on the side of the scrotum which may look and feel like a “bag of worms.” May be surgically corrected if causing
discomfort. This condition may also cause reduced sperm count and male sterility due to sluggish blood flow elevating
testicular temperature.

Cryptorchidism – literally “hidden testicle.” A condition of lack of descent of one or both testes into the scrotum. If not
corrected, usually by surgery, before puberty, can lead to sterility and increased risk of testicular cancer.

Benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH) – swelling of the prostate gland which surrounds the base of the male bladder and
urethra causing difficulty urinating, dribbling, and nocturia.

Transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP) – the surgical cure for BPH. An instrument inserted through the penile
urethra is used to partially cut away the prostate to relieve obstruction of the urinary tract.

Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) – PSA is a marker protein for prostate cell secretions which can be detected with a lab
test. A rising PSA may be an early sign of prostate cancer, although there may be other causes including false positive
tests

SEXUALIY TRANSMITTED DISEASES

Sexually transmitted infections (STI), also referred to as sexually transmitted diseases (STD) and venereal diseases (VD),
are illnesses that have a significant probability of transmission between humans by means of human sexual behavior,
including vaginal intercourse, oral sex, and anal sex. While in the past, these illnesses have mostly been referred to as
STDs or VD, in recent years the term sexually transmitted infections (STIs) has been preferred, as it has a broader range
of meaning; a person may be infected, and may potentially infect others, without having a disease. Some STIs can also
be transmitted via the use of IV drug needles after its use by an infected person, as well as through childbirth or
breastfeeding.