ITEM NO.

1 : GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS AND ROADS

Geometric design of roads, or as it is simply known, geometric design, is a type of

study in road engineering that deals with the geometrical features of the roadway.

AASHTO has established guidelines for geometric design of roads applicable to rural

and urban roads. Local roads can be defined as a road whose main function is to provide

access to residences, businesses, and property owners.

Local rural roads consists of a two-lane local roads and the general design

considerations for this type of road are shown below and are based on AASHTO

guidelines 2001
ITEM NO. 2 : DESIGN SPEED

Design speed is a speed established to determine the various geometric design

features of the roadway. The design speed should be a logical one with respect to the

functional classification of highway, anticipated off-peak 85thpercentile speed,

topography, the adjacent land use, and any planned improvements for the facility,

including future projects on adjacent segments. Once established, many of the critical

elements of the highway are related to the design speed.

The design speed is either:maximum functional class speed ora speed based on the

anticipated (post-construction) off-peak 85thpercentile speed within the range

of functional class speeds.Refer to Chapter 5, Section 5.2 to determine of the

off-peak 85thpercentile speed.

The use of different design speeds for continuous segments of a

facility should be kept to a minimum to better assure consistency of

design features such as vertical and horizontal alignment. However,

significant changes in highway environment or terrain may necessitate a different design

speed for different highway segments within the project (i.e., rural vs. urban, flat vs.

mountainous, a large change in side road or driveway density, a large

change in building offsets, etc.).

ITEM NO. 3 : LANE WIDTH

The highway lane is the portion of the traveled way used for a single line of vehicles.

Shared lanes (wide curb lanes) are designed to accommodate bicycles

and motor vehicles. A shared lane is a right-hand lane thatprovides enough width

for bicyclists and motorists to operate within the lane,with minimal need for

motorists to encroach into the adjacent lane to pass bicyclists.

Bicycling is a factor in determining the appropriate lane and shoulder width

standards in urban areas. In an urban context, bicyclists are most often accommodated

using a shared lane (wide curb lane) with a width between 13 ft. and 15 ft. This facility

most easily fits into the limited widths typical of urban rights of way. Bicyclists may be

accommodated on a 5 ft. minimum width shoulder or bicycle lane if enough space is

available.
ITEM NO. 4 : SHOULDER WIDTH

The shoulder is the portion of the roadway contiguous with the traveled way.

Narrow shoulders less than 3’wide adjacent to curbing are sometimes called curb

off-sets.

The width of shoulder isthe actual width that can be used for an evasive maneuver.

Areas behind curbing (turfed, stabilized, or paved) are not considered part of the

shoulder since the edge of the useable shoulder must be flush with the traveled way.

Therefore, curbs located closer to the edge of the traveled way than the

required shoulder width require the shoulder to be justified as a

nonstandard feature. The area behind curbing (turfed, stabilized, or

paved) may be useful for disabled vehicles and as part of the clear zone.
ITEM NO. 5 : HORIZONTAL CURVE RADIUS

The minimum radius is a limiting value of curvature for a given design speed and is

determined from the maximum rate of superelevation and the maximum

side-friction factor selected for design. The highway and turning roadway radii

used for curve and superelevation design is measured from the inner edge of

the traveled way. On two-lane facilities, the radius may be measured to the

centerline of the two travel lanes as the difference in radii is small.

Note that the radius shown on plan sheetsis for construction purposes and is

measured to the horizontal control line, which often follows the roadway centerline or the

median edge of traveled way

ITEM NO. 6 : SUPERELEVATION

Superelevation is the cross slope of the pavement at a horizontal

curve, provided to partially counterbalance the centrifugal force on a vehicle

traveling around that curve. A number of factors influence the maximum allowable

rate of superelevation, including climate and character (i.e., urban, suburban,

or rural). In New York, superelevation rates of 4%or 8% are typically

required,depending on the specific roadway design classification. 6% may be used

instead of 8% in certain situationsidentified below. The required superelevation rates are

shown below, in Exhibit 2-1b.

 The actual superelevation provided for each curve is determined using the

appropriate emaxtable (Exhibits 2-11 through 2-14a) referenced in Section 2.7 of this

chapter. Exhibits 2-11 and 2-11a are for use on low-speed urban highways and

streets since they minimize the use of superelevation by maximizing the use of

side friction (refer to Method 2 in Chapter 3 of AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design

of Highways and Streets, 2011). Exhibits 2-12 through 2-14a use superelevation to

gradually increase the side friction demand (refer to Method 5 in Chapter 3 of AASHTO’s

A Policy on Geometric Designof Highways and Streets, 2011). When curves occur on

grades steeper than 5%, refer to Chapter 3 of AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design

of Highways and Streets, 2011, for further guidance.

ITEM NO. 7 : STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE ( VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL)

Sight distanceis the length of roadway ahead visible to the driver. The minimum

sight distance available on a roadway should be sufficiently long to

enable a vehicle traveling at or near the design speed to stop before

reaching a stationary object in its path. There are three types of

stopping sight distanceto consider. These are stopping sight distance for crest vertical

curves, stopping sight distance for sag vertical curvesunder bridgesor other

vertical sight obstruction (also called "headlight sight distance"), and stopping

sight distance for horizontal curves.Sag vertical curve sight distance is not a critical

design element where sight lines are unrestricted.

The effect of grades on vertical curve stopping sight distance is not considered when

determining the minimum values. For two-way facilities the sight distance

available on downgrades is generally larger than on upgrades. The unadjusted

stopping sight distance, more or less, provides an average of the downgrade and

upgrade values. For one-way roadways without wide shoulders or multiple travel lanes

to accommodate evasive maneuvers, an adjustment for grade is desirable.

The effect of concrete barriers and other visual obstructions must

be considered when determining horizontal sight distance. A concrete barrier

placed on the inside of a horizontal curve will restrict sight distance around that curve.

This is a common problem on curvilinear freeways. Refer toChapter 5of this manual,

Section 5.7.2,for additional information on sight distance.

ITEM NO. 8 : MAXIMUM GRADE

The maximum grade is the maximum allowable rate of change in vertical alignment

of a highway. Since the rate of grade has a direct effect on the operating speed of

vehicles on a highway, the maximum grade is chosen to encourage uniform operating

speeds throughout the traffic stream while providing a cost-effective design.

ITEM NO. 9 : CROSS SLOPE

Cross slope is the minimum value of sustained transverse slope of

a travel laneandpaved shoulder. For non-superelevated sectionsof the

traveled way,this cross slope is commonly called "normal crown." The purpose

of travel lane cross slope is to provide positive drainage from the pavement.
ITEM NO. 10 : VERTICAL CLEARANCE

Vertical clearance is the minimum vertical clear distance to an obstruction over any

part of the traveled way and shoulders.

Minimum vertical clearances for model trains have many implications when planning

and building a layout. Of course, you'll need to make sure that all of your tunnel portals,

signal bridges, structures, and other overhead obstructions are high enough.
ITEM NO. 11 : DESIGN LOADING STRUCTURAL CAPACITY

Design loading structural capacity is the ability of a bridge to carry its dead load and

a given live load. The live load (which includes impact effects) is expressed in terms of

standard AASHTO truck configurations or equivalent uniform lane loads.

ITEM NO. 12 : TURN-AROUNDS

Turn-around design should consider both critical and design vehicles and should be

provided at or near the end of single-lane roads, and at management closure points,

such as gates or barricades. If intermediate turn-arounds are necessary, signing should

be considered if they create a hazard to other users. The turn-around should be

designed to allow the design vehicle to turn with reasonably safe maneuvering.
ITEM NO. 13 : ROAD WIDTH

The primary consideration for determining the basic width of the road bed is the

types of vehicles expected to be utilizing the road. Secondary considerations are the

general condition of the traveled way, design speed, and the presence or absence of

shoulders and ditches. Tables 5 and 6 list recommended widths for single- and

double-lane roads, respectively.

The presence of a ditch permits a narrower traveled way width since the ditch

provides the necessary clearance on one side. Except for additional widths required for

curve widening, limit traveled way widths in excess of 4.4 m (14 ft) to roads needed to

accommodate off -highway haul and other unusual design vehicles. Double-lane roads

designed for off-highway haul (all surface types) should conform to the following

standards:
ITEM NO. 14 : DESIGN ELEMENTS

A road design standard consists of such elements as the definitive lengths, widths,

and depths of individual segments (e.g., 4.3 meter traveled way, 0.6 meter shoulders,

3/4:1 cutslopes, 1 meter curve widening, 15 cm of crushed aggregate surfacing). Figure

6 illustrates the road structural terms that will be used throughout the rest of this

handbook. Selection of the appropriate road design standard is critical to the overall

efficiency of the road network to be installed, and certain elements will have a more rigid

standard than others depending on the location of the road or road segment. The entire

range of values for each standard must be evaluated and selected according to their

appropriateness for a given segment. Then, the various design elements must undergo

testing to ensure that the final design meets the previously agreed upon management

objectives. For instance, on steeper grades vertical alignment has a greater effect on

travel speed than horizontal alignment. Therefore, surfacing and horizontal alignment

should not be improved to increase speed where the road gradient is the controlling

element.
ITEM NO. 15 : CLIMBING LANES

Climbing lanes should have the same lane width as the adjacent

travel lanes. The minimum shoulderwidth for a climbing lane is 4 ft., or the

shoulder width of the highway, whichever is less. Desirably the climbing lane

shoulder should match the shoulder for the adjacent segments of

highway. All other critical design elements (grades, stopping sight distances, etc.) are

the same as applies for the adjacent roadway.

ITEM NO. 16 : TUNNELS

The design criteria used for tunnels should not differ materially from

those used for grade separation structures.For tunnels on interstates and other

freeways, refer to AASHTO’s A Policy on Design Standards –Interstate System, 2016

(page 8) for design standards.For tunnels on other roadways, contact the Office of

Design for further guidance.

ITEM NO. 17 : SHARED ROADWAY

A roadway thatis open to both bicycle and motor vehicle travel

upon which no bicycle lane is designated. Examples may include roads with

wide curb lanes and roads with shoulders. Refer to Section 2.6.2.1 of this chapter for

discussion of shared lanes in urban areas; refer to various tables within Section 2.7 of

this chapter,and Chapters17and 18of this manual for shoulder / lane width guidance.
ITEM NO. 18 : CRITICAL DESIGN CRITERIA/ ELEMENTS

Design criteria consist of a detailed list of considerations to be used in negotiating a

set of road standards. These include resource management objectives, environmental

constraints, safety, physical environmental factors (such as topography, climate, and

soils), traffic requirements, and traffic service levels. Objectives should be established for

each road and may be expressed in terms of the area and resources to be served,

environmental concerns to be addressed, amount and types of traffic to be expected, life

of the facility and functional classification. Additional objectives may also be defined

concerning specific needs or problems identified in the planning stage.

ITEM NO. 19 : ALTERNATIVE ROUTES

An official alternate route is a special route in the United States that provides

an alternate alignment for a highway. They are loop roads and found in many road

systems in the United States including the U.S. Highway system and various state and

countyroute systems.
ITEM NO. 20 : ROAD RECONNAISANCE

Erosion and sedimentation rates are directly linked to total road surface area and

excavation. The closer the road centerline follows the natural topographic contour, the

smaller the erosional impact will be. On low-volume roads it is permissible and even

advisable to use non-geometric alignment standards, or the "free alignment method".

The beauty of this system is its ability to permit design decisions to be made in the field

while allowing for tighter control in areas with critical grades and alignments such as

draws, switchbacks, steep topography, or ridges, and less control in areas where

resource risks are minimal. Clearing and excavation quantities are substantially reduced

compared to conventional geometric alignment methods. More time is spent "on the

ground" in the road location step and preliminary survey so that major alignment

changes are not necessary during the design phase.

Two types of tag or grade line are run by the road locator. On more gentle ground the

tag or grade line follows closely, or is identical to the proposed road center line (Figure

12).