SINGLE FRACTURE OF BRITTLE SPHERES
by N. Arbiter, C. C. Harris and G. A. Stamboltzis
Fracture under low-velocity free-fall and double im-
pact and under slow compression have been investi-
gated. The pattern of breakage and the size distribu-
tion of resulting fragments of sand-cement and glass
spheres have been determined. Photoelasticity
methods were used to simulate the stress distribu-
tions in free-fall impact in order to explain the ob-
served patterns of breakage. Oblique fracture planes,
occurring only in free-fall impact, develop along
lines which coincide with the trajectories of maximum
compression as determined by mathematical analysis.
Breakage efficiencies for different modes of fracture
were compared for both types of spheres.
For the same specimen and loading system, static
loading and low-velocity dynamic loading induce
geometrically similar stress fields resulting in
reasonably similar fracture patterns and shapes of
fragments.
T his work had its origin in a desire to understand
three fundamental processes involved in auto-
genous comminution: namely; free-fall impact, double
impact, and slow compression.
To simplify the investigation, it is preferable to re-
duce the entire multi-stage fracture process to its
most elementary form; that is, to study products re-
sulting from a single-stage operation, such as the
breakage of a specimen under single fracture con-
ditions.
The goal of this research is to study the energy
utilization in the single fracture of brittle specimens
and to relate the pattern of breakage and the resultant
fragment size distribution with the nature of the ma-
terial, the specimen size, the manner of load applica-
tion, and the rate of loading.
Published works on single fracture have mainly
been concerned with tests on large (> l-in.) irregular
mineral pieces, especially coal and coke. These were
mainly friability tests employing a single blow on
closely sized pieces. 1 • 4 More recently, small mineral
N. ARBITER, Member AIME, is Professor, C . C . HARRIS
is Associate Professor, and G. A. STAMBOLTZIS, Member
AIME, is Research Fellow, Mineral Engineering Depart-
ment, Henry Krumb School of Mines, Columbia University,
New York, N .Y. TP 68883. Manuscript, March 20, 1968.
This paper was presented at the AIME Annual Meeting,
New York , N .Y ., February 25-29, 1968. Discussion of this
paper, submitted in duplicate prior to june 15, 1969, will
appear in SME Transactions, September 1969, and AIME
Transactions, 1969, Vol. 244.
118 - MARCH 1969 Society of Mining Engineers, AIME
specimens in the sieve range and glass spheres
been investigated. 5 • 7 Kick 8 has reported free-fa '
double impact tests with large large cast-iron, ceoe=-..
and clay spheres. The establishment of a minim -
breaking height independent of size in the free- fall
impact tests, and the direct proportionality betw~
the minimum work required for fracture and the vo
of the specimen in double impact tests were used _
Kick as an experimental proof of his classical lcnr -
"Proportional Resistances." In the present work.
spherical shapes were chosen because of their s ·
body geometry and consequent impact and stress
symmetry.
Because the study involves several physical pr·
ciples in connection with brittle-fracture, it may be
of interest in fields where the strength of materials
is of importance.
APPARATUS
The equipment for the free-fall impact testing is
illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2. This consisted of a
massive (17 x 17 x 3-in.) hard steel plate onto w
specimens were dropped and a specimen release
mechanism which could be set at any desired hei •
up to 10 ft above the plate so that the impact ve loc .
could be varied up to about 25 ft per sec.
Double impact breakage is characterized by two
points of loading situated at opposite poles. For ·
mode of breakage the apparatus was modified (Figs .
3, 4 and 5) so that a falling mass provided an impac:
of predetermined magnitude on a specimen resting
the plate. A spring-loaded device operated immedi-
ately after fracture to arrest the falling mass and
record its residual kinetic energy. Precautions were
taken to avoid secondary breakage.
Slow compression tests were performed on a con-
ventional hydraulic testing machine, the specimen
being held between two hardened parallel bearing
blocks. In the case of glass spheres, carbide bits
were used.
Photoelasticity studies were performed on two-
dimensional models held in a loading frame equippee
with a force gauge (Fig. 6). The models were viewee
in a polariscope and isochromatic fringe patterns
were recorded photographically.
SPECIMENS
Sand-Cement Spheres: A series of sand-cement spheres
were prepared by molding in spherical glass flasks.
TRANSACTIONS - VOL. -

NOTATION
Symbol
a = Radius of circle of contact
D = Sphere diameter
d = Diameter of circle of contact
E = Energy in Charles' equation
E = Impact energy
g(x) =Weight shape factor of fragments
H = Height of fall
H c = Critical height of fall
k = Size modulus
m = Distribution modulus
N(x) = Cumulative number of fragments greater
than size x
V = Volume of permanent deformation
W = Weight of specimen
w = Cumulative weight of fragments smaller
than size x
x = Nominal screen size (particle size)
Y = Fraction of material below size x
Z = Deformation
a = Exponent in Charles' equation
y = Angle between the trajectories of maximum
compression and the y-axis
1.1. = Poisson's ratio
Their composition and physical properties are sum-
marized in Table I. Several spheres of four different
diameters- 2.9, 3.3, 3.8, and 4.9 in. 8 were pre-
pared. All specimens were dried under similar condi-
tions and tested within 24-26 days after casting. It
will be noted from Table I that the material was of
low strength. This was a deliberate choice in keeping
with the low energy available for breakage in free-fall
impact from a maximum height of 10 ft.
Glass Spheres: Soda lime glass spheres of l-in.
nominal diameter were selected. Five specimens were
used in each test of (a) low-velocity double impact
and (b) slow compression. Care was taken to ensure
that similar specimens were used in each test. The
total weight of specimens employed in test (a) was
99.0 gm, and in test (b), 99.1 gm.
Typical values for the physical characteristics of
the glass, and averaged test data for the five 0.96-
in.-diam glass spheres crushed by slow compression
are given in Table II.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Sand-Cement Spheres:
PATTERN OF BREAKAGE - Fig. 7 shows consec-
utive frames from a high-speed film of a sphere
breaking in free-fall impact. Frame 3 shows that
fracture starts from the region of contact with the
TRANSACTIONS - VOL. 244 Society of Mining Engineers, AIME
plate and propagates through the sphere while further
fracture planes are developed. This sequence occurs
in all high-speed films of three different specimens
fractured by free-fall impact, and appears to be a gen-
eral result. Figs. 7 (insets A and B) and 8 show the
pieces of four different specimens reassembled after
breakage. In most cases, general breakage by oblique
fracture planes seems to have been preceded by at
least one meridian plane dividing the sphere into two
nearly equal parts. This plane could be the result
either of a single propagation, or of several which
have run together forming one plane. A general de-
scription of the breakage in both free-fall and double
impact can now be given. This has been arrived at by
study of high speed films and reassembled specimens,
and by considering the stress distribution existing in
an elastic sphere compressed against a rigid plane.
In the single-fracture of sand-cement spheres, the
load is initially distributed over the circular area of
contact between the specimen and the steel plate in
free-fall impact, or the two areas of contact in the
cases of double impact and slow compression. The
area of the circle of contact progressively increases
as the specimen continues to yield locally under the
high pressure existing in this region. Inspection of
specimens subjected to forces just below those
necessary to cause catastrophic failure shows that
the circle of contact is marked by minute, densely
distributed cracks, lying along the periphery of the
circle. The periphery is characterized by a sharp
change in the radius of curvature of the specimen,
which accounts for the cracking.
When catastrophic failure occurs, it starts along a
conical surface, the base of the cone corresponding
approximately to the area of contact of the specimen
and the steel plate at the instant of failure. Free-fall
impact results in one cone (Fig. 9), while double im-
pact and slow compression each produce two cones.
The surface of the cone is covered by a layer of pul-
verized material. The cones remain free from internal
fracturing. Their base angle measures 60° ± 5°. As
the cones are driven into the specimen, hoop-tension
is induced, which results in running cracks starting
from the periphery of the area of contact (Fig. 7).
These cracks lead to meridian fracture planes, con-
taining the axis of loading, which are designated by
M in Fig. 8 (A-1).
In free-fall impact, oblique fracture planes such as
those designated by 0 in Figs. 8 (A-2) and 9, develop
along trajectories of maximum compression (principal
stress). These constitute the second set of fracture
planes by which breakage is accomplished. Illustra-
tions of such fracture planes appear in Figs. 8 (A-2),
(A-3), (B-2), (B-3), and (C-2). Thus, the pattern of
breakage of a specimen depends directly upon the
number of fracture planes of each type which are pro-
duced. If both types of plane are present, two differ-
ent shapes are produced: (1) inverted pyramids formed
MARCH 1969 - 119
C-B =Concrete base. M = Specimen-release
mechanism.
P = Hardened steel plate.
1
P =Pointer.
B =Retaining plastic box.
Sv a Vertical scale.
C = Counterbalanced beam.

P =Steel plate embedded in t e

2
f concrete base C-B.

F ig . 2 - B ase-con s tru ction prior to

pouri n g con cr ete .

Fig . 1 - General view of the appara tu s empl oyed in free-f all

impa c t tes ts .

120 - MARCH 1969 Society of Mining Engineers, AIME TRANSACTIONS - VOL. 244
 C-B = Concrete base.

51 = Steel plate {anvi 1).

Retaining plastic cylinder.
P-C =
H
B
R-C
=
=
=
Hammer.
Counterbalanced beam.
Recording cylinde r.
..
R = Guiding rod.
A-H = Arresting head.
c = Cantilever.
sv = Vertical scale.

Fig . 3 - General view of the apparatus employed in

double impact tests .

R-G x Rod guiding system.

• s
T-H •
= Spri ng.
Tracing head.
Fig . 4 -Counterbalan c ed beam, B .

sv =- Verti ca l scale.

• p
R-M
a

,.
Pointer.
Release mechanism.
Fig . 5 - Cantilever, C .

TRANSACTION S - VOL . 244 Society of Minin g Enginee rs, AIME MARCH 1969 - 121
by oblique pla nes only - as in Fig. 8 (C-2) - or by
obl ique and meridian planes - as in Figs. 8 (A-2),
(A-3), (B-2), and (B-3) - whose circula r outer ed ge is.
part of the surface of the sphere , (2) pieces formed

Table I. Composition and Properties

of Sand-Cement Spheres

Material Weight, %

Flin t-s h ot s and * 62 . 0

High-ea rly strength cemen t 17.0
P laster of P aris 5.6 s lidi"8 a . ...
Mixing water 15 .4
T otal 100.0
Pbo to e l ae t i oi t 1
C ompressive stre n gth, t psi 1000
- - - -+-+- ~=~:!~i a Ree in CR- )9,
Sp litting tensile stre n gth , t psi 110 l / 4 • thi ok sheet

Modulus of e l astic i ty, t psi 6 . 5 X 105

P oisso n' s ra tio* 0 . 15 Stee l eur t aoe t i .Da lJ'
Density, gm p e r cc ~-+--+-- gr o und , har dened, a.a.d
2. 60 pollahed
Apparen t de nsity, gm p e r cc 1.9
P o rosity, "lo 24
\. Disk ohor d ( n at )
• - 14 mesh , 93 '7. between 35 a n d 20 mes h , G . G . S . distributio n
parameters m = 5.3, k = 0 .0 26".
Fi ~ . 6 - Ph otoe l as ti c i ty m o de l and lo a din ~ d e vi ce for
t Mean values o f two 1. 3" diamete r cylindrical s p ecimens; he ight
to diamete r r atio - 2. In splitting tensile tests, h ei ght to s imulati on o f s tress fi e ld i n th e vi c init y o f th e c irc l e of
diamete r ra tio - 1. con ta c t pr odu ce d in free -l a ii impa c t .
:t: Mean value o f two 1.1 " diameter cylindri c al spec i mens ; hei ght
to diamete r ra tio - 2 .

Table II. Elast ic and Strength Parameters far Gla ss

A- Ela s tic and Strength Parameters for Soda Lime Glass at 20°C

Mo dulus of elastic ity 10. 5 - 11.0 X 10 6 lb pe r sq i n.

Static tensile strength 10 X 10 3 lb per sq in.
Modulus o f rupture 9 X 10 3 lb per sq in .
P oisson' s ratio 0. 21-0. 2 3

B - Relat ion Between Stati c and Dynam ic Break ing Strength for
Glass Beams Tested in Slow and Fast Bend ing

Modulus of Duration of Dynam i c to Stati c

Type of Rupture, Load, Rati os
Loading lb per sq in. sec Moduli Durat ions
3
St a tic 8. 13- 9 . 68 X 10 23.5-29 .0 1. 70 1/2, 240
to to
Dyna mic 13 . 79 -1 7.45 X 10 3 1.05 - 1.3 X 10- 2 1.80 1/ 2,230

C- Averaged Test Data for F i ve l-In. Nom inal Diameter Gla s s

Spheres Crushed by Slow Compression

We i ght of specime n 19 .82 gm

Breaking load 3 , 790 lb
De formation 12.18 X 10- 3 in.
Deformation rate 0.02 in. per min
Duration of loading 0.6 min
E nergy input 20 . 10 in. -lb

122 - MARCH 1969 Society of Mining Engineers, AIME T R ANSACTIONS - VOL. 2-

 The mechanism of fracture under slow compression
is the same as in double impact crushing. The sphere
splits in this case into two halves owing to running
cracks starting from the periphery of the areas of
contact, and resulting in one fracture plane only.
SIMULATION OF STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN
FREE-FALL IMPACT TESTS BY PHOTO-
ELASTICITY METHODS - This series of investiga-
tions were undertaken for the following reasons : (1)
to demonstrate the effect of the formation of the
circle of contact and the corner effect, due to plastic
deformation of the sphere, on the stress distribution
in the vicinity of the area of impact and (2) to explain
the formation of a greater number of fracture planes
with increasing height of fall in the free-fall experi-
ments under constant yield pressure conditions . These
investigations are necessary since there is reason
to believe that the mean pressure over the area of

Fig . 7- Breakage of 4 .9-in . -diam s and-cem e nt s ph ere by

free-fall impa c t . Photo g raph s 1 -10 show con secuti ve
frames from hi gh - speed c in ematog raph y, ta k en a t 2600
4- 1
frames p er s ec, showi ng the breakage o f s p ec im en No . 2 by
free-fa// impa c t . Photog raph s A and B sho w p i eces re-
a s sembled after breakage showi n g frac ture plan es . A is th e
/ e ft -hand hall of the sphere; B i s the right-hand hall.

by one oblique and two meridian planes - as in Figs.

8(A-1), (B-1) , and (C-1). If meridian planes only are
present, lune-shaped pieces (spherical wedges) are
formed as shown in Fig. 8 (D).
Impacts of low energy , but with a critical value ex-
ceeded, result in meridian fracture planes only, as in
Fig. 8 (D) . With increasing impact energy, as indi-
cated by the height of fall , the number of meridian
planes increases while oblique fracture planes start
to develop. If sufficient energy is available , multiple
oblique planes are developed. In this case, the cen-
tral inverted pyramid usually splits into two or more
pieces, as may be seen by comparing Figs . 8 (A-2), F ig . 8 - Brea kage of 4 . 9 -in . -diam sand-cem ent s phe r es by
(A-3), (B-2), and (B-3) with (C-2). Both types of free -fa ll impa c t . Th e p ieces we r e rea ssembl e d after break-
planes have a clean, debris free , surface indicating age to sh ow fra cture plan es. Photo g raph s labeled A and B
sho w t y pi cal r esults o f dupli ca t e tes t s . Ph otograph s
fracture by cleavage. l a be l ed A a r e s p ecim en N o . 2 after free -fa ll im pact from a
In double impact crushing, failure starts in a way h eight o f 11 7 in . L ower and upp er h alf o f s ph e re in A-1 a r e
similar to that in free-fall impact fracture, except shown in A -2 and A -3 , resp ec tive l y . B ph o t ogra ph s a r e
that two cones are formed. In this case, breakage is s p ecimen N o . 5 afte r fall from h ei gh t o f 1 20 in . L ower and
accomplished by meridian planes only, and the speci- uppe r h a lf of s ph e re in B-1 a r e shown in B -2 and B -3 , re-
s p ec ti ve ly . C ph o t ograph s sh ow s p ec im en No . 7 a fter fall
men splits into several spherical wedges. This mode from 92 i n . Th e l ower part o f th e s ph er e in c ludin g the
of breakage is easily visualized and therefore not centra l con e ( C-1 ) is sho wn in C -2 . D photogra ph is s pec i-
illustrated. m en N o . 10 a ft er f a ll from 45 in .

TRANSACTIONS - VOL. 244 Soc iety of Mining Engineers, AIME MARCH 1969 - 123
 5" explaining the behavior of plastically deformed
spheres under low velocity impact. 9

11 In the following discussion , it is necessary to bear

in mind that, with a given specimen in free-fall im-
pact experiments , the area of the circle of contact in-
creases with increasing height of fall , being propor-
tional to the square root of thi s height.
As an approximate qualitative simulation of the
stress distribution around the region of impact, two-
dimensional models of the shape shown in Fig. 6 -
fabricated from Columbia Resin CR-39 sheet, 1/ 4 in.
~.
N thick - were loaded statically under constant pres-
sure. This was obtained by applying a load propor-
tional to the chord-length flat portion of the disk
(Figs. 6 and 12). The isochromatics for the three
models employed are shown in Fig. 12.
' By studying the order and the pattern of isochro-
matics , one may draw the following conclusions :
Fi ~ . 9 - Typi cal br eaka~ e patte rn of s and-cem ent s ph e re (1) At the ends of the chord (corners of the flat por-
broken by free -fall i mpac t . C i s th e c on e of impac t, R is
tion of disk) there is a high concentration of isochro-
th e re~ ion a round th e con e (shaded) from wh i ch fin es a r e
produ ced, and 0 indi cates oblique fra c ture planes . Drawn matics. The maximum fringe order at these points
approx im a t e ly t o sca l e to c orrespond w ith a 5- in . -dia m increases almost linearly with the load or the chord
s ph e re dropp e d from 10 ft . length , indicating that in the three-dimensional case
the maximum shear stress increases as area of the
circle of contact increases. This suggests that the
contact (mean dynamic yield pressure) remains con- periphery of the circle of contact is under a high
stant during yielding. This is suggested by the fol- stress which increases with an increasing area of
lowing considerations : (1) the ratio between the im- contact and , therefore, hei ght of fall. Thus , the ob-
pact energy and the volume of permanent deformation served failure along a conical surface, which forms
remains approximately constant and has dimensions the cone of impact, probably starts from the periphery
of pressure (Fig. 10), (2) sand-cement spheres sub'- of the circle of contact where the maximum stress
jected to slow compression exhibit a linear relation- concentration exists . It is interesting to note that the
ship between the area of the circles of contact (plas- isochromatic fringe pattern in the vicinity of the
tically deformed flattened parts of the sphere) and circle of contact (Fig. 12) is similar to that obtained
the corresponding load (Fig. 11), and (3) constant near the end-planes of a cylindrical specimen under
dynamic yield pressure is the basic assumption for ordinary compression. In both cases , with coarse-
grained brittle materials , cracking starts from the
edges and works inwards , concentrating along a
conical surface. The fact that a certain minimum
6 00 height of fall (critical height of fall) is necessary to
Sphere diameter
inches initiate failure , on the other hand, can be explai ned
C))
5 00
v 2.9
() 0
by the above increase in stress concentration with in-
c 3.3
.0. 3.8 creasing area of contact and, therefore, height of fall.
!! 0 • •9
'
~
400
• 4.9 (without breoltoge) (2) Cracks, and consequently fracture planes , start to
w develop from the region around the cone of impact,
,..
~ 8, 960 lblfn 2 where a more intense stress field exists. The ob-
"..,a: 300 0
served increase in the fringe order and fringe concen-
..,
z -1

.
~
<.> 200
...
.~
'b~
roo
tration with i ncreas ing chord l ength in the above-
mentioned region (Fig. 12) indicates a corresponding
0..
~ "'. increase in the shear stresses and generally in the
10 0 magnitude of the principal stresses with increasing
area of contact and , therefore, height of fall. This
can reasonably explain the observed greater fragmen-
tation of a specimen under constant yield pressure
VO LU ME OF PERMANENT DEFORMAT ION V, i n 3 conditions with increasing height of fall.

Fi ~ . 10 -Impa c t en e r~y vs . vo lum e o f perman ent d e f o rm a -

The amplitude of stress pulses produced in free-fall
ti on in fre e-fall i mpac t fra c ture o f s and-cement s ph er es . impact increases with increas ing rate of strain, which
V is cal cula t e d from th e r e lat i on ship : V
4
=
TTd / 32D . in turn increases with increasing impact velocity or

124- MARCH 1969 Society of Mining Engineers, AIME TRANSACTIONS - VOL . 244
height of fall. This increase in the magnitude of
stresses (dynamic effect) is another reason for the
greater fragmentation of specimens with increasing
height of fall.
TRAJECTORIES OF MAXIMUM COMPRESSION IN
FREE-FALL IMPACT TESTS - Oblique fracture
planes in free-fall impact fracture of sand-cement
spheres reasonably develop along the trajectories of
maximum compression in the case of static loading.
The equation for these trajectories as developed by
Fuchs 10 for the trajectories of maximum compression
of an elastic sphere in contact with a plate is
dy
tan y =- = ..J ¢ 2 (y,z) + 1- cf> (y,z)
dz
where y and z are orthogonal coordinates, z coin-
ciding with the axis of loading; y is the angle be-
tween the trajectory lines of principal compression
and the y axis, and ¢ is a function defined as
(u 2 + a 2z 2) (a 2 + u)
cf>(y,z) = - - - -- -
2yz2a2 Vu
+ -
Z ~1 - Ji.)U
+ (1 + Jl)
Vu a2 +u
where a is the radius of the circle of contact, Jl is
Poisson's ratio of the material , and u is a function of
coordinates defined outside the circle of contact
(z f, 0) as
Fig. 13 shows the pattern of oblique fracture planes
(vertical sections through the axis of impact normal
to the oblique fracture plane accumulated from several
spheres) superimposed over the trajectories of maxi-
mum compression, in the case of 4. 9-in.-diam sand-
cement spheres dropped from a height of approximately
118 in. The trajectories were obtained by numerical
integration of Eq. 1, with a = 0.65 in. and Jl = 0.15.
The numerical solution was carried out on an IBM
7094 digital computer, using Heuns third order ap-
proximation.10"11
SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF FRAGMENTS - The upper
size limit of the sand was 14 mesh and inspection
showed that the sand particles suffered no degra-
dation. Consequently, meaningful size distribution
measurement terminated at 14 mesh. For all methods
of breakage, the over-all size distribution expressed
as cumulative weight percent vs . size can be repre-
sented in a Gates-Gaudin-Schuhmann log-log plot by
two straight lines having different slopes (Figs. 14,
TRANSACTIONS - VOL. 244
15 and 16). The entire product can, therefore, be sep-
arated into a residue (coarse product) with a distribu-
tion modulus of between 2.5 and 5.0, depending di-
rectly upon the number of exoclastic pieces, and a
complement (fine product) with a fairly constant dis-
tribution modulus ranging between 0.2 and 0.3. The
complement results from the region around the cone
(Fig. 9), and from the fracture surfaces produced by
branching. For purposes of comparison, limestone
spheres 3.7 in. in diam were broken under free-fall
impact from a height of 120 in. and size analysis was
performed down to 100 mesh. The lower size limit in
the case of limestone results from a finer grain size
than that of the sand-cement spheres. Between 3 and
(1)
1 in. the line had a slope of n = 4 .0; between 1 in.
and 35 mesh the slope was n = 0.27. These values
are similar to those for sand-cement spheres. Below
35 mesh and down to 100 mesh, however , the slope
was n = 1.7.
The energy input and size distribution parameter for
free-fall impact fracture of 4. 9- and 3 .8-in.-diam sand-
cement spheres are given in Figs. 14 and 15, respec-
tively . Because the residue consists of few pieces,
the points are somewhat scattered, especially for low
energy levels. The best line drawn is meant to indi-
cate trends only.
In free-fall impact fracture, a decrease in energy
input produces a coarser residue with a slightl y
1000
"'
.0
0
<t
0
.J
w
>
en
en 500
w
a:
Q.
~
0
u
0
DEFORMAT ION, Z INCHES
Fi~ . 11.- Compress i ve l o ad vs . d eformat i on in slow com -
pressi on of 3 .3-in . -di am s and- cement s ph er e Z i s ca l c ula t ed
2
from the r e lationship : Z =. d / 4D . Note that d e formation Z
i s proportional to th e area of th e c irc l e of contac t .
Society of Mining Engineers , AIME MARCH 1969 - 125
Fig . 12 -Isochromatic fringe pattern in photoelasti city models . Di scs with load evenly distributed along a chord ( flat)
under constant pressure (load proportional to chord length).

126- MARCH 1969 Society of Mining Engineers, AIME TRANSACTIONS - VOL. 244
greater distribution modulus (Figs. 15 and 16). With
3.3-in.-diam spheres, an energy input of 155.6 in.-lb,
produced a residue with size distribution parameters
of k = 2 .0 in. and m = 3.70 (Fig. 16). An energy input
of 77.8 in.-lb produced a coarser residue (k = 2.3 in.)
with a slightly greater distribution modulus (m =
3 .84). Different energy levels were obtained by alter-
ing the height of fall.
By comparison, where free-fall impact fracture
yielded residue distribution parameters of k = 2.0 in.
and m = 3 . 70, double impact crushing with the same
energy input produced a coarser residue (k = 2.5 in.)
with a slightly smaller distribution modulus (m =
3 .50). There is no basis for attributing significance
to differences in the distribution modulus since, as
already pointed out, the residue consisted of only a
few pieces.
The distribution modulus of the complement seems
to be insensitive to both variations in energy and the
method of breakage, though its size modulus is
strongly dependent on energy input.
BREAKAGE EFFICIENCY - Breakage efficiency,
defined in terms of the mass of fragments below a
certain size per unit energy, is listed in Tables III
and IV for the different methods of breakage employed.
The weight of material, w, below a certain size, x,
in the complement of sand-cement spheres broken by
free-fall impact could be correlated with the effective
impact energy W (H - H c) by the equation
(2)
where H c is the critical height of fall required to
cause breakage and c is a constant, both being
characteristic of the material. The application of Eq.
2 to the experimental results is illustrated in Fig. 17.
Charles 12 and others 13 - 15 have shown that for both
single fracture and comminution in tumbling mills ,
energy density E/ W (energy per unit mass) is related
to the distribution modulus by the equation
E/W = Ck- a. (3)
where C is a constant for the conditions of breakage,
and frequently a = m. Thus, substituting for k from
the G-G-S equation and putting a = m, the fraction of
material below size x is given by the equation
w xm
y (4)
IV km
E
xm (5)
we
that is
1 Fig. 13 _ Free-fa ll impact fracture of 4 .9 -in . -diam sand-
w (6)
c superimposed over trajectorie s of maximum compr ession
Eq. 6 is analogous to Eq. 2. When consistent units
a re employed , Cc = 1.
TRANSACTIONS - VOL. 244 Society of Mining Engineers, AIME
From Tables III and IV and from Eq. 2 written in
the form
(7)
it can be seen that the efficiency of breakage, w/ WH,
in free-fall impact fracture (1) increases with in-
creasing height of fall, but at a diminishing rate and
(2) is independent of the size of the specimen when
the height of fall is constant, at least for the sizes
tested (2.9 to 4.9 in.).
Double impact, compared with free fall impact of the
same energy has approximately the same breakage ef-
ficiency for sizes below 3 mesh (Table IV).
Slow compression crushing of 3 .3-in.-diam spheres
required about half as much energy (20.3 in.-lb) to in-
itiate fracture as free-fall impact (41.4 in.-lb). The
minimum energy requirement in free-fall impact was
calculated by multiplying the weight of the specimen
by the critical height of fall (32 in.). Slow compres-
sion also produced a significantly smaller amount of
fine product than free-fall and double impact, since a
smaller amount of energy was involved. Reference to
Table IV shows that slow compression showed a
slightly improved efficiency for the 14-mesh size.
The increased efficiency for the 3-mesh size is due
to the shift in the distribution curve and to a slightly
greater distribution modulus of the complement (Fig.
16). It should be noted that the above results were
obtained with rather weak brittle specimens which
can produce fines even when the specimen splits only
into two. Stronger specimens under slow compression
Oblique fracture plan•• Uia of ia-paot
Trajaotoriea
of a&ziaua
ooapra1aion
..,...
0 '
-· --
7
cement s ph er es. Patt ern of obliqu e fra c ture planes are
(s tatic loading) . V e rti cal sec tions through sph ere diam-
eter (ax is of impact) normal to the oblique fra ctu re plane
ac cumulated from seve ral s ph ere s .
MARCH 1969- 127
 material enclosed by the circles of contact and he
100
conical surfaces is under severe triaxial compress!
Height lmpoct Number It is finely comminuted and highly compacted, and t·
offoll Energy of piecei 1--- - - r - -- - j
indle s in- lb in re si due is opaque and white.
e 11 8.06 51 2.02 13• From the above-mentioned polar regions, fracture
0 46.29 200.00 3
w • me an values for five spe ci me ns .
surfaces propagate along the axis of loading and e x-
!::! tend through a core whose axis coincides with the
"'a:w axis of loading. This core is under a more or less
0
z uniform tension, normal to the axis of loading, for
::> 10
>- most of its length except for the two small conica l
z
w
u
areas mentioned before. 16 A compression exists in
a: the direction of the axis of loading with a minimum
w
Cl

>-
RES I DUE absolute value several times that of tension at the
r
~
center of the sphere, and much higher values near e
w
'J areas of contact. 16 The material of this core is fine ·
w COMPLEMENT disintegrated- though it is much coarser than that o•
::: 0
the cones- into elongated prismoidal and sphenoida
>-
~
~
::>
particles with their longest dimension parallel to the
~
::> axis of loading, and is the main source of the fine
u
part of the distribution (below 10 mesh Tyler).
The material outside this region breaks into a sma •
number of lune-shaped (exoclastic) fragments, which
are responsible for the main mass of the fragments
forming the residue. This is in agreement with the
0 .1
INCHES I 5 fact that uniaxial tension (hoop tension) predominates
I I 9· 1 I I I
14 10 8 6 4 3 MESH ( TYLER ) in this region. 16 These tensile stresses assume their
NOM I NAL SCREEN SI ZE , X maximum value at the surface of the sphere, and re-
sult in a small number of meridian fracture planes.
Fig . 14- Size distribution of fragments of 4 .9-in . -diam
s and-cement spheres broken by free -fall impa c t .

I0 0 t -;::::::;::=;:;::;:::=;:::=;::,=;::;=;::::::;:;;;==.=;=:::::;::;=:::::::;-r---rt
Number of Energy Heig~u
Number Distribution modulus. m
crack without splitting into separate pieces and pro- spe cimens input offall of piece$ f----....,----1
tested ln-l b inchet inresidue Re~idue Complement
duce a negligible amount of fines. • 2 260.39 !19.69 10 3. 16 0.25
Gla ss Sphere s: 0 2 1so.oo n.sa 7 3.•2 0.29

PATTERN OF BREAKAGE- In both tests, the • Mean YO iue of speci mens tflted .

load is initially distributed over two small polar "'

'::!
circular areas of contact between the specimen and "'a:
the crushing surfaces. Failure first occurs around "'z
0
10
:>
these areas of contact as encircling spalling with an ...z
angle to the axis of loading of approximately 70° as "'a:u
found by Bergstrom. 6 This conchoidal spalling frac- "'
ture occurred at about 80% of the final breaking load
Q.

...
:J:
•
<.?
in slow compression tests, the specimen deforming ,.
i;j

elastically at least up to the point of spalling. The

"';:::>
same type of encircling spalling with about the same
angle to the axis of impact was observed in free-fall
..
.J
::>
::f
impact tests with 1 1/ 4-in.-diam soda lime glass ::>
u
spheres , as well as with 2- and 3-in.-diam pyrex
spheres . In all these tests , employing a 10-ft height
of fall , the impact energy was inadequate to cause
general fracture of the specimen. After impact, the
spheres remained unbroken except for spalling.
INCHES I I 9·1 I I I I 3
From the study of fragmentation, the shape of frag- M ESH (TYLER! 14 10 d 6 4 3 2
ments and the reassembled specimens , it seems that NOM IN AL SC RE E N SI ZE , X

failure of the sphere starts along conical fracture

surfaces with bases corresponding approximately to Fig . 15- S iz e di s tribution of fragm ents of 3. 8-in . -diam
the areas of contact at the instant of fracture. The s and- cem ent s ph e r es brok en by free -fall i mpa c t .

128 - MARCH 1969 Society of Mining Engineers , AIME TRANSACTIONS - VOL . 244
 SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF FRAGMENTS - Slow com-
pression and low-velocity double impact of 1-in.-diam
glass spheres resulted in sensibly similar size dis-
tributions and shapes of fragments. As the log-log
plot in Fig. 18 shows , only values for the fine sizes
(below 3 mesh) lay on a reasonably straight line. A
sharp upward break, characterized by an increase in
slope to about 2, distinguishes the residue from the
complement. The residue consisted of a few lune-
shaped exoclastic fragments as reported by Gilvarry
and Bergstrom. 7
Double impact, having an energy input about double
that of slow compression, resulted in a small increase
in the distribution modulus of the complement, a de-
crease in its size modulus, and a slight decrease in
the mean size of residue (Fig. 18). The distribution
modulus observed for the complement is greater in
double impact crushing (m = 1 .16) than in slow com-
pression (m = 1.05) owing to the production of a
two methods of breakage. These comparisons were
based on measurements of the longes t and shortest
dimension , lyi ng in the plane of obs ervation , of
samples of 400 particles in the - 10 +35-mesh Tyler
size range. The mean longe st to shorte s t dimens ion
ratios were found to be 1.88 and 1.86 for the slow
compression a nd low-velocity impact crushing, re-
spectively .
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SIZE DISTRIBUTION
BY NUMBER AND WEIGHT -The relationship be-
tween number, weight and shape factor distribution is
dw/ dx = - g (x)x 3 (dN ( x )/ dx) (8)
where w is the cumulative weight of particles smaller
than size x, N (x) is the cumulative number of parti-
100

1~: I
smaller weight of fragments in the finer size ranges. Testlng method
[ n.rgy
input
Numb.uof Height
1opeci!M ... of Fall
lnche1
The cause of this is attributed to a loading-time or I n-Ib te1 ted

I'· I
.& Slow comp..tition 20.28 2 . I

stress-duration effect. 6 Free-fall impoc:t

0 . n.76
I5S. ~2
2
3
60.28
120.00
In both tests, fragments in the complement are pris-
moidal and sphenoidal. Their shapes change from "'c;;
N
• Oouble lm poct ~~~.~2 ·

•weight of foiling mau • .5.36 It:..

lmpoct Number Ohtribution
3 29.01

~ulu. , m I
,o
I
R ESirUE
flaky to more regular forms, and they become more "'"' Yelochy of pi eces
0
z ft/~ec. lnreJidue * Residue Complement I~
elongated as size diminishes. The shapes of the fine 10

Ij
:::> ... •• 2 • 0.31
...z
fragments ( -10 mesh) produced mainly from the cen-
t ral core of the s phere are reasonably similar for the "'ua:
l1
0
•
17.97
25.36
12.• 7
6
7
•
3.&.4
3.70
3.~
0.29
0.24
0.2• 0 I
..
"' •.v.on w luet of 1pec1mem te1ted. A
...
"'
~
"'30
··~•
I
I

I
I
Table Ill. Breakage Effic ie ncy of Free- Fall Impact "'
......~
COM PLE MENT
- ~ I
Fracture as a Funct ion of He ight of Fall ...J
:::> .A-A
.a-
..l!r-...IY
l
Number ~
- ...IY
----
~ --
:::>
of Breakage u

Spec i- Specimen Energy He ight Eff iciency *

(gm per in.- lb) x 10 2
mens
Tested
Oiam,
in.
Input,
in .-l b
of Fall,
in. 3 mesh 14 mesh
~
5 4 . 90 512 .02 118.06 8 .92 6 .02 0 .1
I NCH E S I I P·' I I 5
1 4 .89 200.00 46 .29 3. 60 2. 25 MESH (TYLER) 14 10 B 6 4

2 6.05 NOM I NAL SCREEN SI ZE, X

3.87 260.39 119 .67 9 . 01
2 3.80 150.00 72. 53 5.40 3.23
3 3.2 5 155 .52 119.94 8 .94 5 .92 Fi~. 16 - Size di s t'ri bution s o f fragments o f 3 .3 -in .-di am
2 3.25 77 .76 60.28 7 .07 4. 12 san d-ceme nt s ph e r es broken unde r s in ~ l e frac ture
con di ti on s .

Table IV . Efficien cy of Different Methods of Breakage of 3. 3-ln .- Diam Sand-Cement Spheres

Breakage Effic ie ncy *

Number of
{gm per in. -lb) x 10 2
Specimens Method of Energy Input, Height of Fall ,
Tested Breakage in . - lb in. 3 mesh 14 mesh

2 Sl ow com pression 20.28 11.56 6.13

3 Doubl e i mpa c t 155.52 29. 01 9 . 08 6 . 04
3 Free-fall i mpac t 155.52 120.00 8 .94 5.92

*Mass o f fragm e nt s small er than stated size , per unit energy.

T RANSACTIONS - VOL. 244 Society of Mining Engineers, AIME MARCH 1969 - 129
 -2
• 10 put for the five spheres tested by low-velocity double
Siz.e fof efficiency
., impact and by slow compression is shown in Table
oueu.ment
lnc:hti Tyler m.sh VI. Compared with slow compression, low-velocity
3 '<J 0.525
0 0.263
(11.2 ft per sec) impact crushing required about 80%
e:,

...
0.131 6
0 0.046 14
more energy to initiate fracture and showed about
.,( double the energy requirement to produce substan-
"'
N
.,
., ll ~ !t
Meon voluet of S lpecirtten5
• • 3 tially similar size distributions (Fig. 18). This can
"' VIJ4() 2 be attributed to the following causes: (1) greater in-
-~ 2
">-
ternal cracking not leading to fragmentation and de-
tachment -which has been observed in lune-shaped
"'"'z
;;: pieces near the regions of impact, (2) possible higher
z 0
0 residual kinetic energy in the fragments as compared
>- 0
.,
u
with slow compression , and (3) energy losses into the
...
0:
hammer-sphere-anvil system due to vibration and to
>-
"
C> possible plastic deformation localized at the points
"'~ of impact.

0 10 20 30 40
~0. 25 ( H-Hc )
Filfl . 17- Cumulative weilflht fraction unders ize as a
fun c tion of fraJ!lment size and heilflht of fall in free-fall
impact fra c ture of sand-cement spheres .
cles greater than size X and (x) is the Weight shape a can reasonably describe a certain part of the distribu-
factor. Eq. 8 has been confirmed with data obtained
from the slow compression crushing of glass
spheres. 17 In general, the following relationships
have been found to apply
DISCUSSION
Size Distribution Considerations: Size distributions
50 60 70 80 resulting from the single fracture of brittle spheres
by slow compression or low-velocity impact cannot
be described in their entirety by simple one- or two-
parameter equations proposed for single fracture. The
fact that disposable parameters are to be determined
by curve-fitting procedures means that parts of the
distribution curves can be described, but without
physical significance. Nevertheless, such equations
tion with physical significance. The basic physical
requirement underlying these equations is that the
mm 0 .1 10

N(x) = bx-n - c (9)

"'
a(x) = px- s (10)
N
Cll

"'"'
0

w =
rx]m
w [k (11)
z
::>
>-
z
"'
u

where k and m are the size and distribution moduli,

."'
"'10

>- It
/

"
respectively, and b, c, n, p, and s are parameters
,
C> COI\!PLEMENT -"-/

characteristic of the distribution. All are positive. It "'

~ /

can be shown from theory that "'

>
/
;: ~
<[ /

., "'
..J
m + n +s=3 (12) ::>
~
/
::>
u I

bnp
and, (xf - xf") (13) INCHES 0 .01 0 .1
m MESH (TYLER) 48 35 28 20 14 10 8 6 4 3

NOMINAL SCREEN SI ZE, X

where w 1, 2 is the weight between sizes x 1 and x 2 Ene<gy Energy Siz.emoduiUI Oiltribution mod... lu&, m
(x 2 > x 1). Extremely accurate agreement between ex- left input
I n-Ib
deMity
in·lb/ grom
lc, lnc.hes
Complement Complement J Residue
perimental values and theory have been found. 17 •
BREAKAGE EFFICIENCY - The distribution of
0
Slow compression
Double impact •
20. 10
42. 14
1.01
2.13
•we ight of impacting bod y 2.6 lb&, impact wlocity 11.2 h/ Mc.
0."
0.73
1.05
1.16 I 2.15
2.10

energy in low-velocity double impact averaged for Filfl. 18- Size di stribution of fralflments for 1-in .-diam
five specimens is shown in Table V. lfllass spheres c ru shed by low-velocity double impact and
Comparison between the mean values of the energy in- by slow compression .

130 - MARCH 1969 Society of Mining Engineers, AIME TRANSACTIONS - VOL. 244
 pre-existing microflaws are not selectively activated
by the stress field. A uniform stress field existing
throughout the entire volume of the specimen is hardly
fulfilled under single fracture conditions. Some parts
of the specimen, however, are under a more or less
uniform stress field, or some portions of the total
amount of fragments are produced by the same break-
age mechanism. These are the portions described by
the equations.
In the single fracture of sand-cement spheres the
size distribution of a small amount of material be-
tween 14 mesh and 0 .525 in. has a distribution modu-
lus between 0.2 and 0.3. It is noted that attrition (in-
cluding both chipping and abrasion) also produces
small amounts of material having a comparatively low
distribution modulus. 25 Chipping is a repeated break-
age process in which prominences such as edges and
corners are broken from the specimen and the frag-
ments are therefore produced by fracture surfaces
developed near the surface of the specimen. In single
fracture, the fragments are produced by almost simul-
taneously developed fracture surfaces intersecting
each other at a small angle or by a branching of
running cracks. Thus, in both cases fragments are
produced by fracture surfaces developed near pre-
formed surfaces -external in the case of chipping,
and internal in single fracture.
Stress-Wave Effects: In the free-fall impact fracture
of sand-cement spheres, there is strong evidence that
Table V. Distribution of Energy in Low-Velocity
Double Impact Crushing of 1-ln.-Diam Glass Spheres
Energy
in.-lb Percent
Kinetic energy of the falling mass at
the moment of impact 61.53 100.0
Energy input into the hammer-sphere-
anvil system 42.14* 68.5
Residual kinetic energy of the falling
mass immediately after breakage 19.39* 31.5
*Mean vaJues for 5 specimens .
Tobie VI. Size Distribution Parameters vs. Energy Input in
Single Fracture of 1-ln.-Diom Glass Spheres
Energy Input,
Method of Breakage in.-lb
Double impact 42.14
Slow compression 20.10
Slow compression* 16.00
•Mean values for 36 specimens; calculated from data given by Gilvarry and Bergstrom.l8
TRANSACTIONS - VOL. 244 Society of Mining Engineers, A1ME
oblique fracture planes, centered at the point of im-
pact, can be caused by the divergent quasi-spherical
stress waves that are generated. These fractures can
be attributed to the transient lateral motions (exten-
sions) produced by these waves. With such waves,
the direction of the particle velocity changes from
point to point along the expanding wave front, causing
tension in the lateral direction. The number of frac-
tures produced increases with increasing amplitude
of the stress-pulse, which in turn increases with in-
creasing impact velocity or with height of fall in free-
fall impact. In a few specimens (four out of 25), a
small inverted pyramid with dimensions comparable
to those of the cone of impact formed in the upper
part of the sphere. In contrast to the surface of the
cone of impact, the surface of the inverted pyramid
was free of pulverized material, indicating formation
by tension (cleavage). These pyramids were formed
by oblique fracture planes generated by the inter-
ference of fronts and reinforcement of the tension
stress pulses reflected from the upper spherical
boundary.
Under the present experimental conditions charac-
terized by low-velocity impact (11.2 ft per sec in
double impact crushing of glass spheres and up to
25 ft per sec in free-fall impact of sand-cement
spheres), stress-wave effects seem to play a minor
role in determining the general pattern of breakage
and, therefore, the size distribution of resulting
fragments.
Comparison Between Static and Dynamic Loading: An
impact produced by the free fall of a body of consider-
able mass from a moderate height generates stress
pulses of relatively long duration with fronts that are
not too steep. 19 - 21 The pattern of stresses produced
by these pulses has a form similar to that obtained
under static loading. 21 - 23 Such pulses appear to have
the same effect as a static stress field, except that
the stress-concentration factor is increased in the
case of dynamic loading. 23 Thus , fractures produced
by such pulses are more like those produced by static
loading. 24
This investigation has shown (1) that the size dis-
tributions and shapes of fragments of five 1-in.-diam
glass spheres crushed by slow compression and low-
0
~r$'
~
~
o"',,c.;~.,.,.,_.
('1 ~ -c-
~ «., 0 ~
Size Modulus Lo c.; ,eo '-<>
f-..tv ~ ~ J"
' .,. 1(/
of Complement Distribution Modulus, m
k, in. Complement Residue ~ t:;i5 ~ 0
" 0~ ~ . /·
0.73 1.16 2.10 ~ c.; t) ~ ._~ ,
0.85 1.05 2.15 <-Q "
0.98 1.05 2 .35 ~
MARCH 1969 - 131
 velocity (11.2 ft per sec) double impact are sensibly
similar, and (2) that the pattern of oblique fracture
planes (vertical sections through the axis of impact,
normal to the fracture plane) of sand-cement spheres
broken by free-fall impact is reasonably similar to
the pattern of trajectories of maximum compression in
the case of an elastic sphere in contact with a plate
(static loading). 10
From all these considerations, one can conclude
that for the same specimen and loading system, static
loading a nd low-velocity dynamic loading induce
geometrically similar stress fields. These result in
sensibly similar fracture patterns and shapes of the
resulting fragments. Size distributions are also simi-
lar. In the case of double impact crushing of glass
spheres, the small increase observed in the distribu-
tion modulus of the complement as compared with that
observed in slow compression is due to the produc-
tion of a smaller weight of fragments in the finer
size-ranges. The cause of this is attributed to a
loading-time effect.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
(1) In all cases, breakage starts from the region of
contact between the sphere and the loading surfaces,
and failure along a conical surface whose base is the
circle of contact is generally observed.
(2) In free-fa ll impact tests of sand-cement spheres:
(a) T he volume of pe rma nent deformation is propor-
tional to the energy input and, for the sizes tested
(2.9-4.9 in.), independent of specimen size. (b) Merid-
ian fracture planes starting from the periphery of the
circle of contact are developed by the wedging action
of the cone of impact, while oblique fracture planes
are developed from the region around the cone follow-
ing the trajectories of maximum compression. (c) With
low energy inputs, meridian fracture planes divide the
sphere into a few spherical wedges. As the height of
fall increases, oblique fracture planes develop and
pieces are formed by combinations of meridian and
oblique fracture planes. (d) When meridian planes
terminate at previously developed oblique planes, a
large inverted pyramid is formed directly above the
cone of impact.
(3) In slow compression and double impact tests,
breakage is caused by the wedging action of the
cones and by the hoop-tension existing in the periph-
eral part of the specimen. This tension assumes its
• maximum value at the s urface of the sphere. The
sphere splits into several spherical wedges together
with the two cones in the case of sand-cement
spheres. In the case of glass spheres, the cones are
finely comminuted, while the material of the central
core along the axis of loading disintegrates into
elongated prismoidal and sphenoidal particles.
(4) Over the measured range, the size distribution
curves can be approximated by two straight lines in a
log-log plot. This is to be expected, since two differ-
132- MARCH 1969 Society of Mining Engineers, AIME
ent breakage mechanisms are operative. The coarse
region consists of a few exoclastic fragments with a
small difference in size, and consequently gives a
high distribution modulus (-v2 to 5). The fine mate na
is mainly endoclastic. In the case of sand-cement
spheres, it has a distribution modulus '"" 0.25, and is
produced from the region around the cones of impac
and from the fracture surfaces by branching. In the
case of glass spheres, it is produced mainly from the
central core of the sphere and has a distribution mod-
ulus that is slightly greater than unity.
(5) In the free-fall impact fracture of sand-cement
spheres, the weight of material in the complement
smaller than a certain size is proportional to the ef-
fective impact energy and independent of the speci-
men size. This corresponds to findings for multi-
event breakage and tumbling mill grinding. The
breakage efficiency increases with increasing heigh
of fall, but at a diminishing rate.
(6) With sand-cement spheres, approximately the
same breakage efficiency resulted from (a) free-fall
impact with a height of fall of 10 ft, (b) low-velocity
double impact of the same energy but with a 2.5-ft
height of fall, and (c) slow compression. Free-fall
impact required about double the energy to initiate
fracture that slow compression did.
(7) In the case of l-in. glass spheres, low-velocity
double impact required at least 60% more energy than
slow compression to initiate fracture and needed
about double the energy to produce substantially
similar products.
(8) Slow compression and low-velocity impact in-
duce geometrically similar stress fields, and result
in sensibly similar fracture patterns and shapes of
fragments.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thanks are expressed to the Union Carbide Corp.
and to The American Iron and Steel Institute for fel-
lowship support. The authors appreciate useful dis-
cussions with Professor ] . T. F . Kuo and the kind
assistance given by Dr. R. Agarwal in the photo-
elasticity studies and by Mr. G. B. Anderson during
the slow compression tests.
REFERENCES
1
Bennett,] .G., "Broken Coal ," Journal of the In s titute of
Fuel, Vol. 10, October 1936 , p. 22.
2
aennett, J.G ., Brown , R . L ., and Crone, H . G., ''Broken Coal-
11, " Journal of the Institute of Fue l, Vol. 14, No. 77, Apr.
1941,p. 111.
3
GUmore , R. , Nicolls ,]., and Connell , G., "Coal Friability
Tests," Canada Department of Mines, Report No. 762 , 1935 .
4
Geer, M., and Yancey, H. , " Expressio n and Interpretation of
the Size Composition of Coal ," AIME Transaction s, Vol. 130,
1938, p. 250.
5 aergstrom, B . H ., Sollenberger, C . L ., and Mitchell, W., "En e rg y
Aspects of Single Particle Crushing," AIME Transa ctions,
Vol. 220, 196!, p. 367.
6 aergstrom, B.H. , and Sollenberger, C . L ., ''Kinetic Energy
TRANSACTIONS - VOL. 244
 Effect In Single Particle Crushing," AIME Transactions, Vol.
220 , 1961. p . 373.
7 18
Gllvarry, j .j., and Bergstrom, B. H., "Fracture of Brittle
Solids. II. Distribution Function for Fragment Size In Single
Fracture (Experimental)," Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 32 ,
Mar. 1961, p. 400.
8 Kick , F . , The Law of Proportional Resistances, Arthur Fellx
Publishers , Leipzig, Germany , 1885.
9 Andrews, J.P. , "Theory of Colllslon of Spheres of Soft
Metals," Philosophical Magazine, Series 7, Vol. 9, No. 58,
Apr. 1930, p . 593.
1
°Fucha, Siegmund, "Principal Stress Trajectories of a Sphere on
Contact with a Plate" (In German), Physik. Zeitschr, Vol.
142, 1913, p. 1282.
11
Levy , H., and Baggott, E . A . , Numerical Solutions of Differen-
tial Equations, Dover, 1950, p. 10 I.
12
Charles, R .J . , " Energy-Size Reduction Relationships ln Com-
minution, " AIME Transactions, Vol. 208 , 1957, p. 80.
13
Agar, G. and Charles , R .J . , "Size Distribution Sh!lt In Grind-
Ing," AIME Transactions, Vol. 220 , 1961, p. 390.
14
Fueretenau, O.W ., and Somasundaran, P. , "Comminution Kin--
etics," Intematlonal Mineral ProcessinQ Conference, Cannes,
Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1963, Paper 3B, p. 25.
15
Berlloz , L .M., and Fuerstenau, D .W. , "A Test of the Charles
Energy-Size Reduction Relationship, " AIME Transactions ,
Vol. 238, 1967, p. 282.
16
Frocht, M., and Guernsey, R . , "A Special Investigation to
Develop a General Method for Three-Dimensional Photoelastic
Stress Analysis," NASA Report 1148, Nov. 1953.
17
Harria, C . C., and Stamboltzls, G., "Relationship between
TRANSACTIONS - VOL. 244 Society of Mining Engineers, AIME
Particle Size Distributions by Number and Weight, " Powder
Technology, Vol. 2, 1968 / 69, p . 58.
GUvarry, j.j. , and Bergstrom, B.H., "Fracture and Comminu-
tion of Brittle Solids (Theory and Experiment)," AIME Trans-
actions, Vol. 220, 1961, p. 380.
19
R!ley, W. F ., and Durelll, A .J . , "Stress Distribution on the
Boundary of an Elliptical Hole in a Large Plate During Passage
of a Stress Pulse of Long Duration , " International Journal of
Mechanical Sciences, Vol. 2 , No.4 , Apr. 1961 , p . 213.
20
oureUI, A.J ., and Riley, W. F . , "Stress Distribution on the
Boundary of a Circular Hole in a Large Plate During Passage
of a Stress Pulse of Long Duration," Journal of Applied
Mechanics, Vol. 28, No . 2, June 1961, p. 245.
21
Flynn, P . D ., and Frocht, M. M. , ''On Saint Venant'a Principle
under Dynamic Conditions , " Experimental Mechanics, Vol. 19,
No. 1, Jan. 1961, p. 16, Discussion by Durell!, A .j . , and
Dally, j . W., p. 20.
22
Tandanand, S . , and Hartman, H . L ., "Investigation of Dynamic
Failure by High-Speed Photography, " Rock Mechanics, Pro-
ceedings of the Fifth Symposium on Rock Mechanics held at the
Unive.rsity of Minnesota, May 1962, edited by Fal.r hurst, C.,
Pergamon Preas, 1963, p. I.
23
Clark, G . B., and Caudle, R .D ., "Failure of Homogeneous Rock
under Compressive Loading," State ol Stress in the Earth's
Crust, Proceedings of the International Conference, Santa
Monica, June 1963, American Elsevier Publishing Co . , Inc.,
New York , 1964, p. 301.
24
Kolsky, H., Stress Waves In Solids, Dover Publications , Inc. ,
New York, 1963, p. 195.
25
crabtree, D .O . , Klnaaevlch, R . S ., Mular, A . L . , Meloy, T . P . ,
and Fueratenau, D . W. , 14 Mechaniama of Size Reduction ln Com-
minution Systems. Part I. Impact , Abrasion and Chipping
Grinding, " AIME Transactions, Vol. 229, 1964, p. 201.
MARCH 1969- 133