Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Forouzan
(A Summary)
E-Reader Friendly Version
Reference:
http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0072967757/student_view0/chapter1/index.html
Chapter 1:
1. Data Communication is the transfer of data from on device to another via some form of
transmission medium.
2. A data communications system must transmit data to the correct destination in an
accurate and timely manner.
3. The five components that make up a data communications system are the message,
sender, receiver, medium, and protocol.
4. Text, numbers, images, audio, and video are different forms of information.
5. Data flow between two devices can occur in one of three ways: Simplex, Half-duplex,
or Full-duplex.
6. A network is a set of communication devices connected by media links.
7. In a point-to-point connection, two and only two devices are connected by a dedicated
link. In a multipoint connection, three or more devices share a link.
8. Topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of a network. Devices may be
arranged in a mesh, star, bus, or ring topology.
9. A network can be categorized as a Local Area Network (LAN), a Metropolitan Area
Network (MAN), or a Wide Area Network (WAN).
10. A LAN is a data communications system within a building, plant, or campus, or between
nearby buildings.
11. A MAN is a data communication system covering an area the size of a town or a city.
12. A WAN is a data communication system spanning states, countries, or the whole world.
13. An internet is a network of networks.
14. The Internet is a collection of many separate networks.
15. TCP/IP is the protocol suite for the Internet.
16. There are local, regional, national, and international Internet Service Providers (ISPs).
17. A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication; the key elements of a
protocol are Syntax, Semantics, and Timing.
18. Standards are necessary to ensure that products from different manufacturers can work
together as expected.
19. The ISO, ITU-T, ANSI, IEEE, and EIA are some of the organizations involved in
standards creation.
20. Forums are special-interest groups that quickly evaluate and standardize new
technologies.
21. A Request for Comment (RFC) is an idea or concept that is a precursor to an Internet
Standard.
Chapter 2: Network Models
1. The Five-layer model provides guidelines for the development of universally compatible
networking protocols.
2. The physical, data link, and network layers are the network support layers.
3. The application layer is the user support layer.
4. The transport layer links the network support layers and the user support layer.
5. The physical layer coordinates the functions required to transmit a bit stream over a
physical medium.
6. The data link layer is responsible for delivering data units from one station to the next
without errors.
7. The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet across
multiple network links.
8. The transport layer is responsible for the process-to-process delivery of the entire
message.
9. The application layer enables the users to access the network.
Chapter 3: Data and Signals
1. Data must be transformed into electromagnetic signals prior to transmission across a
network.
2. Data and signals can be either analog or digital.
3. A signal is periodic if it consists of a continuously repeating pattern.
4. Each sine wave can be characterized by its amplitude, frequency, and phase.
5. Frequency and period are inverses of each other. (F=1/t)
6. A time-domain graph plots amplitude as a function of time.
7. A frequency-domain graph plots each sine wave’s peak amplitude against its frequency.
8. By using Fourier analysis, any composite signal can be represented as a combination of
simple sine waves.
9. The spectrum of a signal consists of the sine waves that make up the signal.
10. The bandwidth of a signal is the range of frequencies the signal occupies. Bandwidth is
determined by finding the difference between the highest and lowest frequency components.
11. Bit rate and Bandwidth are proportional to each other.
12. The Nyquist formula determines the theoretical data rate for a noiseless channel.
13. The Shannon capacity determines the theoretical maximum data rate for a noisy
channel.
14. Attenuation, distortion, and noise can impair a signal.
15. Attenuation is the loss of a signal’s energy due to the resistance of the medium.
16. The decibel measures the relative strength of two signals or a signal at two different
points.
17. Distortion is the alteration of a signal due to the differing propagation speeds of each of
the frequencies that make up a signal.
18. Noise is the external energy that corrupts a signal.
19. We can evaluate transmission media by throughput, propagation speed, and
propagation time.
20. The wavelength of a frequency is defined as the propagation speed divided by the
frequency.
Chapter 4: Digital Transmission
1. Line coding is the process of converting binary data to a digital signal.
2. The number of different values allowed in a signal is the signal level. The number of
symbols that represent data is the data level.
3. Bit rate is a function of the pulse rate and data level.
4. Line coding methods must eliminate the dc component and provide a means of
synchronization between the sender and the receiver.
5. Line coding methods can be classified as unipolar, polar, or bipolar.
6. NRZ, RZ, Manchester, and Differential Manchester encoding are the most popular
polar encoding methods.
7. Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) is a popular bipolar encoding method.
8. Block coding can improve the performance of line coding through redundancy and error
correction.
9. Block coding involved grouping the bits, substitution, and line coding.
10. 4B/5B, 8B/10B, and 8B/6T are common block coding methods.
11. Analog-to-Digital conversion relies on PCM (Pulse Code Modulation).
12. PCM involves sampling, quantizing, and line coding.
13. The Nyquist Theorem says that the sampling rate must be at least twice the highest –
frequency component in the original signal.
14. Digital transmission can be either parallel or serial in mode.
15. In parallel transmission, a group of bits is sent simultaneously, with each bit on a
separate line.
16. In serial transmission, there is only one line and the bits are sent sequentially.
17. Serial transmission can be either synchronous or asynchronous.
18. In asynchronous serial transmission, each byte (group of 8 bits) is framed with a start
bit and stop bit. There may be a variable-length gap between each byte.
19. In synchronous serial transmission, bits are sent in a continuous stream without start
and stop bits and without gaps between bytes. Regrouping the bits into meaningful bytes is the
responsibility of the receiver.
Chapter 5: Analog Transmission
1. Digital-to-analog modulation can be accomplished using the following:
Amplitude Shift keying (ASK): The amplitude of the carrier signal varies.
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): The frequency of the carrier signal varies.
Phase Shift Keying (PSK): The phase of the carrier signal varies.
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM): both the phase and amplitude of the carrier
signal vary.
2. QAM enables a higher data transmission rate than the other digital-to-analog methods.
3. Baud rate and bit rate are nor synonymous. Bit rate is the number of bits transmitted
per second. Baud rate is the number of signal units transmitted per second. One signal unit
can represent one or more bits.
4. The minimum required bandwidth for ASK and PSK is the Baud rate.
5. A regular telephone line uses frequencies between 600 and 3000 Hz for data
communication.
6. ASK modulation is especially susceptible to noise.
7. FSK modulation requires more bandwidth than ASK and PSK because it uses two
carrier frequencies.
8. PSK and QAM modulation have two advantages over ASK:
They are NOT susceptible to noise.
Each signal change can represent more than one bit.
9. Trellis coding is a technique that uses redundancy to provide a lower error rate.
10. The 56K modems are asymmetric; they download at a rate of 56 Kbps and upload at
33.6Kbps.
11. Analog-to-Analog modulation can be implemented by using the following:
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Phase Modulation (PM)
12. In AM radio, the bandwidth of the modulated signal must be twice the bandwidth of the
modulating signal.
13. In FM radio, the bandwidth of the modulated signal must be 10 times the bandwidth of
the modulating signal.
Chapter 6: Bandwidth Utilization: Multiplexing and Spreading
1. Multiplexing is the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data
link.
2. Frequency – Division Multiplexing (FDM) and Wave-Division Multiplexing (WDM)
are techniques for analog signals, while Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) is for digital
signals.
3. In FDM, each signal modulates a different carrier frequency. The modulated carriers are
combined to form a new signal that is the n sent across the link.
4. In FDM, multiplexers modulate and combine signals while demultiplexers decompose
and demodulate the signal.
5. In FDM, guard bands keep the modulated signals from overlapping and interfering with
one another.
6. Telephone companies use FDM to combine voice channels into successively larger
groups for more efficient transmission.
7. Wave-Division Multiplexing is similar in concept to FDM. The signals being
multiplexed, however, are light waves.
8. In TDM, digital signals from n devices are interleaved with one another, forming a frame
of data (bits, bytes, or any other data unit).
9. Framing bits allow the TDM multiplexer to synchronize properly.
10. Digital signal (DS) is a hierarchy of TDM signals.
11. T lines (T-1 to T-4) are the implementation of DS services. A T-1 line consists of 24
voice channels.
12. T lines are used in North America. The European standard defines a variation called E
lines.
13. Inverse multiplexing splits a data stream from one high-speed line onto multiple lower-
speed lines.
Chapter 7: Transmission Media
1. Transmission Media lie below the physical layer.
2. A guided medium provides a physical conduit from one device to another.
3. Twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and optical fiber are the most popular types of
guided media.
4. Twisted-pair cable consists of two insulated copper wires twisted together. Twisting
allows each wire to have approximately the same noise environment.
5. Twisted-pair cable is used in telephone lines for voice and data communications.
6. Coaxial cable has the following layers (starting form center): a metallic rod –shaped
inner conductor, an insulator covering the rod, a metallic outer conductor (Shield), an insulator
covering the shield, and a plastic cover.
7. Coaxial cable can carry signals of higher frequency ranges than twisted-pair cable.
8. Coaxial cable is used in cable TV networks and traditional Ethernet LANs.
9. Fiber-optic cables are composed of a glass or plastic inner core surrounded by cladding,
all encased in an outside jacket.
10. Fiber-optic cables carry data signals in the form of light. The signal is propagated along
the inner core by reflection.
11. Fiber-optic transmission is becoming increasingly popular due to its noise resistance,
low attenuation, and high-bandwidth capabilities.
12. Signal propagation in optical fibers can be multimode (multiple beams from a light
source) or single-mode (essentially one beam from a light source).
13. In Multimode Step-index propagation, the core density is constant and the light beam
changes direction suddenly the interface between the core and the cladding.
14. In Multimode Graded-index propagation, the core density decreases with distance
from the center. This causes a curving of the light beams.
15. Fiber-optic cable is used in backbone networks, cable TV networks, and Fast Ethernet
networks.
16. Unguided media (usually air) transport electromagnetic waves without the use of
physical conductor.
17. Wireless data can be transmitted through ground propagation, sky propagation, and line-
of-sight propagation.
18. Wireless data can be classified as radio waves, microwaves, or infrared waves.
19. Radio waves are omnidirectional. The radio wave band is under government regulation.
20. Microwaves are unidirectional; propagation is line of sight. Microwaves are used for
cellular phone, satellite and wireless LAN communications.
21. The parabolic dish antenna and the horn antenna are used for transmission and
reception of microwaves.
22. Infrared waves are used for short-range communications such as those between a PC
and a peripheral device.
Chapter 8: Switching
1. A home computer can access the Internet through the existing telephone system or
through a cable TV system.
2. DSL supports high-speed digital communications over the existing telephone local loops.
3. ADSL technology allows customers a bit rate of up to 1 Mbps in the upstream direction
and up to 8 Mbps in the downstream direction.
4. ADSL uses a modulation technique called DMT which combines QAM and FDM.
5. SDSL, HDSL, and VDSL are other DSL technologies.
6. Theoretically, the coaxial cable used for cable TV allows Internet access with a bit rate of
up to 12 Mbps in the upstream direction and up to 30 Mbps in the downstream direction.
7. An Hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) network allows Internet access through a combination
of fiber-optic and coaxial cables.
8. The coaxial cable bandwidth is divided into a video band, a downstream data band, and
an upstream data band. Both upstream and downstream bands are shared among subscribers.
9. Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification (DOCSIS) defines all protocols
needed for data transmission on an HFC network.
10. Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) is a synchronous high-data-rate TDM network
for fiber-optic networks.
11. SONET has defined a hierarchy of signals (similar to the DS hierarchy) called synchronous
transport signals (STSs).
12. Optical carrier (OC) levels are the implementation of STSs.
13. A Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET) frame can be viewed as a matrix of nine
rows of 90 octets each.
14. A SONET system can use the following equipment:
a. STS multiplexer—combines several optical signals to make an STS signal.
b. Regenerator—removes noise from an optical signal.
c. Add/drop multiplexer—adds STSs from different paths and removes STSs from a path.
15. SONET is backward compatible with the current DS hierarchy through the virtual tributary
(VT) concept. VT's are a partial payload consisting of an m-by-n block of octets. An STS
payload can be a combination of several VT's.
16. STSs can be multiplexed to get a new STS with a higher data range.
1. Flow control is the regulation of the sender’s data rate so that the receiver buffer does not
become overwhelmed.
2. Error control is both error detection and error correction.
3. In Stop-and-Wait ARQ, the sender sends a frame and waits for an acknowledgment from
the receiver before sending the next frame.
4. In Go-Back-N ARQ, multiple frames can be in transit at the same time. If there is an
error, retransmission begins with the last unacknowledged frame even if subsequent frames have
arrived correctly. Duplicate frames are discarded.
5. In Selective Repeat ARQ, multiple frames can be in transit at the same time. If there is an
error, only the unacknowledged frame is retransmitted.
6. Flow control mechanisms with sliding windows have control variables at both sender
and receiver sites.
7. Piggybacking couples an acknowledgment with a data frame.
8. The bandwidth-delay product is a measure of the number of bits a system can have in
transit.
9. High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a protocol that implements ARQ
mechanisms. It supports communication over point-to-point or multipoint links.
10. HDLC stations communicate in normal response mode (NRM) or asynchronous balanced
mode (ABM).
11. HDLC protocol defines three types of frames: the information frame (I-frame), the
supervisory frame (S-frame), and the unnumbered frame (U-frame).
12. HDLC handle data transparency by adding a 0 whenever there are five consecutive 1s
following a 0. This is called bit stuffing.
Chapter 12: Multiple Access
1. The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) was designed to provide a dedicated line for users who
need Internet access via a telephone line or a cable TV connection.
2. A PPP connection goes through these phases: idle, establishing, authenticating (optional),
networking, and terminating.
3. At the data link layer, PPP employs a version of HDLC.
4. The Link Control Protocol (LCP) is responsible for establishing, maintaining,
configuring, and terminating links.
5. Password Authentication Protocol (PAP) and Challenge Handshake Authentication
Protocol (CHAP) are two protocols used for authentication in PPP.
6. PAP is a two-step process. The user sends authentication identification and a password.
The system determines the validity of the information sent.
7. CHAP is a three-step process. The system sends a value to the user. The user manipulates
the value and sends its result. The system verifies the result.
8. Network Control Protocol (NCP) is a set of protocols to allow the encapsulation of data
coming from network layer protocols; each set is specific for a network layer protocol that
requires the services of PPP.
9. Internetwork Protocol Control Protocol (IPCP), an NCP protocol, establishes and
terminates a network layer connection for IP packets.
1. The IEEE 802.11 standard for wireless LANs defines two services: basic service set
(BSS) and extended service set (ESS). An ESS consists of two or more BSSs; each BSS must
have an access point (AP).
2. The physical layer methods used by wireless LANs include frequency-hopping spread
spectrum (FHSS), direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), orthogonal frequency-division
multiplexing (OFDM), and high-rate direct sequence spread spectrum (HR-DSSS).
3. FHSS is a signal generation method in which repeated sequences of carrier frequencies
are used for protection against hackers.
4. One bit is replaced by a chip code in DSSS.
5. OFDM specifies that one source must use all the channels of the bandwidth.
6. HR-DSSS is DSSS with an encoding method called complementary code keying (CCK).
7. The wireless LAN access method is CSMA/CA.
8. The network allocation vector (NAV) is a timer for collision avoidance.
9. The MAC layer frame has nine fields. The addressing mechanism can include up to four
addresses.
10. Wireless LANs use management frames, control frames, and data frames.
11. Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology that connects devices (called gadgets) in a small
area.
12. A Bluetooth network is called a piconet. Multiple piconets form a network called a
scatternet.
13. The Bluetooth radio layer performs functions similar to those in the Internet model's
physical layer.
14. The Bluetooth baseband layer performs functions similar to those in the Internet model's
MAC sublayer.
15. A Bluetooth network consists of one master device and up to seven slave devices.
16. A Bluetooth frame consists of data as well as hopping and control mechanisms. A frame
is one, three, or five slots in length with each slot equal to 625 (microseconds)µs.
1. A repeater is a connecting device that operates in the physical layer of the Internet model.
A repeater regenerates a signal, connects segments of a LAN, and has no filtering capability.
2. A bridge is a connecting device that operates in the physical and data link layers of the
Internet model.
3. A transparent bridge can forward and filter frames and automatically build its forwarding
table.
4. A bridge can use the spanning tree algorithm to create a loopless topology.
5. A backbone LAN allows several LANs to be connected.
6. A backbone is usually a bus or a star.
7. A virtual local area network (VLAN) is configured by software, not by physical wiring.
8. Membership in a VLAN can be based on port numbers, MAC addresses, IP addresses, IP
multicast addresses, or a combination of these features.
9. VLANs are cost- and time-efficient, can reduce network traffic, and provide an extra
measure of security.
1. Cellular telephony provides communication between two devices. One or both may be
mobile.
2. A cellular service area is divided into cells.
3. Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) is a first-generation cellular phone system.
4. Digital AMPS (D-AMPS) is a second-generation cellular phone system that is a digital
version of AMPS.
5. Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) is a second-generation cellular phone
system used in Europe.
6. Interim Standard 95 (IS-95) is a second-generation cellular phone system based on
CDMA and DSSS.
7. The third-generation cellualr phone system will provide universal personal
communication.
8. A satellite network uses satellites to provide communication between any points on earth.
9. A geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO) is at the equatorial plane and revolves in phase with
the earth.
10. Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites are medium-Earth-orbit (MEO) satellites that
provide time and location information for vehicles and ships.
11. Iridium satellites are low-Earth-orbit (LEO) satellites that provide direct universal voice
and data communications for handheld terminals.
12. Teledesic satellites are low-Earth-orbit satellites that will provide universal broadband
Internet access.
1. Virtual circuit switching is a data link technology in which links are shared.
2. A virtual circuit identifer (VCI) identifies a frame between two switches.
3. The three phases in virtual circuit switching are setup, data transfer, and teardown.
4. The setup phase can use the permanent virtual circuit (PVC) approach or the switched
virtual circuit (SVC) approach.
5. Frame Relay is a relatively high-speed, cost-effective technology that can handle bursty
data.
6. Both PVC and SVC connections are used in Frame Relay.
7. The data link connection identifier (DLCI) identifies a virtual circuit in Frame Relay.
8. Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a cell relay protocol that, in combination with
SONET, allows high-speed connections.
9. A cell is a small, fixed-size block of information.
10. The ATM data packet is a cell composed of 53 bytes (5 bytes of header and 48 bytes of
payload).
11. ATM eliminates the varying delay times associated with different-sized packets.
12. ATM can handle real-time transmission.
13. A user-to-network interface (UNI) is the interface between a user and an ATM switch.
14. A network-to-network interface (NNI) is the interface between two ATM switches.
15. In ATM, connection between two endpoints is accomplished through transmission paths
(TPs), virtual paths (VPs), and virtual circuits (VCs).
16. In ATM, a combination of a virtual path identifier (VPI) and a virtual circuit identifier
identifies a virtual connection.
17. The ATM standard defines three layers:
a. Application adaptation layer (AAL) accepts transmissions from upper-layer services and
maps them into ATM cells.
b. ATM layer provides routing, traffic management, switching, and multiplexing services.
c. Physical layer defines the transmission medium, bit transmission, encoding, and electrical-
to-optical transformation.
18. The AAL is divided into two sublayers: convergence sublayer (CS) and segmentation and
reassembly (SAR).
19. There are four different AALs, each for a specific data type:
a. AAL1 for constant-bit-rate stream.
b. AAL2 for short packets.
c. AAL3/4 for conventional packet switching (virtual circuit approach or data-gram approach).
d. AAL5 for packets requiring no sequencing and no error control mechanism.
1. There are two popular approaches to packet switching: the datagram approach and the
virtual circuit approach.
2. In the datagram approach, each packet is treated independently of all other packets.
3. At the network layer, a global addressing system that uniquely identifies every host and
router is necessary for delivery of a packet from network to network.
4. The Internet address (or IP address) is 32 bits (for IPv4) that uniquely and universally
defines a host or router on the internet.
5. The portion of the IP address that identifies the network is called the netID.
6. The portion of the IP address that identifies the host or router on the network is called the
hostID.
7. There are five classes of IP addresses. Classes A, B, and C differ in the number of hosts
allowed per network. Class D is for multicasting, and class E is reserved.
8. The class of a network is easily determined by examination of the first byte.
9. Unicast communication is one source sending a packet to one destination.
10. Multicast communication is one source sending a packet to multiple destinations.
11. Subetting divides one large network into several smaller ones.
12. Subnetting adds an intermediate level of hierarchy in IP addressing.
13. Default masking is a process that extracts the network address from an IP address.
14. Subnet masking is a process that extracts the subnetwork address from an IP address
15. Supernetting combines several networks into one large one.
16. In classless addressing, there are variable-length blocks that belong to no class. The entire
address space is divided into blocks based on organization needs.
17. The first address and the mask in classless addressing can define the whole block.
18. A mask can be expressed in slash notation which is a slash followed by the number of 1s
in the mask.
19. Every computer attached to the Internet must know its IP address, the IP address of a
router, the IP address of a name server, and its subnet mask (if it is part of a subnet).
20. DHCP is a dynamic configuration protocol with two databases.
21. The DHCP server issues a lease for an IP address to a client for a specific period of time.
22. Network address translation (NAT) allows a private network to use a set of private
addresses for internal communication and a set of global Internet addresses for external
communication.
23. NAT uses translation tables to route messages.
24. The IP protocol is a connectionless protocol. Every packet is independent and has no
relationship to any other packet.
25. Every host or router has a routing table to route IP packets.
26. In next-hop routing, instead of a complete list of the stops the packet must make, only the
address of the next hop is listed in the routing table.
27. In network-specific routing, all hosts on a network share one entry in the routing table.
28. In host-specific routing, the full IP address of a host is given in the routing table.
29. In default routing, a router is assigned to receive all packets with no match in the routing
table.
30. A static routing table's entries are updated manually by an administrator.
31. Classless addressing requires hierarchial and geographic routing to prevent immense
routing tables.
1. The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a dynamic mapping method that finds a
physical address, given an IP address.
2. An ARP request is broadcast to all devices on the network.
3. An ARP reply is unicast to the host requesting the mapping.
4. IP is an unreliable connectionless protocol responsible for source-to-destination delivery.
5. Packets in the IP layer are called datagrams.
6. A datagram consists of a header (20 to 60 bytes) and data.
7. The MTU is the maximum number of bytes that a data link protocol can excapsulate.
MTUs vary from protocol to protocol.
8. Fragmentation is the division of a datagram into smaller units to accommodate the MTU
of a data link protocol.
9. The fields in the IP header that relate to fragmentation are the identification number, the
fragmentation flags, and the fragmentation offset.
10. The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) sends five types of error-reporting
messages and four pairs of query messages to support the unreliable and connectionless Internet
Protocol (IP).
11. ICMP messages are encapsulated in IP datagrams.
13. The destination-unreachable error message is sent to the source host when a datagram is
undeliverable.
14. The source-quench error message is sent in an effort to alleviate congestion.
15. The time-exceeded message notifies a source host that (1) the time-to-live field has
reached zero or (2) fragments of a message have not arrived in a set amount of time.
16. The parameter-problem message notifies a host that there is a problem in the header field
of a datagram.
17. The redirection message is sent to make the routing table of a host more effective.
18. The echo-request and echo-reply messages test the connectivity between two systems.
19. The time-stamp-request and time-stamp-reply messages can determine the roundtrip time
between two systems or the difference in time between two systems.
20. The address-mask request and address-mask reply messages are used to obtain the subnet
mask.
21. The router-solicitation and router-advertisement messages allow hosts to update their
routing tables.
22. IPv6, the latest verstion of the Internet Protocol, has a 128-bit address space, a resource
allocation, and increased security measures.
23. IPv6 uses hexadecimal colon notation with abbreviation methods available.
24. Three strategies used to make the transition from version 4 to version 6 are dual stack,
tunneling, and header translation.
Chapter 21: Network Layer: Address Mapping, Error Reporting, and Multicasting
1. The average data rate, peak data rate, maximum burst size, and effective band-width are
qualitative values that describe a data flow.
2. A data flow can have a constant bit rate, a variable bit rate, or traffic that is bursty.
3. Congestion control refers to the mechanisms and techniques to control congestion and
keep the load below capacity.
4. Delay and throughput measure the performance of a network.
5. Open-loop congestion control prevents congestion; closed-loop congestion control
removes congestion.
6. TCP avoids congestion through the use of two strategies: the combination of slow start
and additive increase, and multiplicative decrease.
7. Frame relay avoids congestion through the use of two strategies: backward explicit
congestion notification (BECN) and the forward explicit congestion notification (FECN).
8. A flow can be characterized by its reliability, delay, jitter, and bandwidth.
9. Scheduling, traffic shaping, resource reservation, and admission control are techniques to
improve quality of service (QoS).
10. First-in, First-out (FIFO) queuing, priority queuing, and weighted fair queuing are
scheduling techniques.
11. Leaky bucket and token bucket are traffic shaping techniques.
12. Integrated Services is a flow-based QoS model designed for IP.
13. The Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) is a signaling protocol that helps IP create a
flow and makes a resource reservation.
14. Differential Services is a class-based QoS model designed for IP.
15. Access rate, committed burst size, committed information rate, and excess burst size are
attributes to control traffic in Frame Relay.
16. Quality of service in ATM is based on service classes, user-related attributes, and
network-related attributes.
1. In the client-server model, the client runs a program to request a service and the server
runs a program to provide the service. These two programs communicate with each other.
2. One server program can provide services for many client programs.
3. Clients can be run either iteratively (one at a time) or concurrently (many at a time).
4. Servers can handle clients either iteratively (one at a time) or concurrently (many at a
time).
5. A connectionless iterative server uses UDP as its transport layer protocol and can serve
one client at a time.
6. A connection-oriented concurrent server uses TCP as its transport layer protocol and can
serve many clients at the same time.
7. When the operating system executes a program, an instance of the program, called a
process, is created.
8. If two application programs, one running on a local system and the other running on the
remote system, need to communicate with each other, a network program is required.
9. The socket interface is a set of declarations, definitions, and procedures for writing cleint-
server programs.
10. The communication structure needed for socket programming is called a socket.
11. A stream socket is used with a connection-oriented protocol such as TCP.
12. A datagram socket is used with a connectionless protocol such as UDP.
13. A raw socket is sued by protocols such as ICMP or OSPF that directly use the services of
IP.
1. Domain Name System (DNS) is a client-server application that identifies each host on the
Internet with a unique user-friendly name.
2. DNS organizes the name space in a hierarchical structure to decentralize the
responsibilities involved in naming.
3. DNS can be pictured as an inverted hierarchial tree structure with one root node at the top
and a maximum of 128 levels.
4. Each node in the tree has a domain name.
5. A domain is defined as any subtree of te domain name space.
6. The name space information is distributed among DNS servers. Each server has
jurisdiction over its zone.
7. A root server's zone is the entire DNS tree.
8. A primary server creates, maintains, and updates information about its zone.
9. A secondary server gets its information from a primary server.
10. The domain name space in the Internet is divided into three sections: generic domains,
country domains, and inverse domains.
11. There are seven traditional generic labels, each specifying an organization type. Recently
some new labels have been added.
12. Each country domain specifies a country.
13. The inverse domain finds a domain name for a given IP address. This is called address-
to-name resolution.
14. Name servers, computers that run the DNS server program, are organized in a hierarchy.
15. The DNS client, called a resolver, maps a name to an address or an address to a name.
16. In recursive resolution, the client may send its request to multiple servers before getting
an answer.
17. In iterative resolution, the client may send its request to multiple servers before getting an
answer.
18. A fully qualified doman name (FQDN) is a domain name consisting of labels beginning
with the host and going back through each level to the root node.
19. A partially qualified domain name (PQDN) is a domain name that does not include all the
levels between the host and the root node.
20. There are two types of DNS messages: queries and responses.
21. There are two types of DNS records: question records and resource records.
22. Dynamic DNS (DDNS) automatically updates the DNS master file.
23. DNS uses the services of UDP for messages of less than 512 bytes; otherwise, TCP is
used.
1. The protocol that supports email on the Internet is called Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
(SMTP).
2. The UA prepares the message, creates the envelope, and puts the message in the
envelope.
3. The email address consists of two parts: a local address (user mailbox) and a domain
name. The form is localname@domainname.
4. The MTA transfers the email across the Internet.
5. SMTP uses commands and responses to transfer messages between an MTA client and an
MTA server.
6. The steps in transferring a mail message are connection establishment, message transfer,
and connection termination.
7. Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension (MIME) is an extension of SMTP that allows the
transfer of multimedia and other non-ASCII messages.
8. Post Office Protocol, version 3 (POP3) and Internet Mail Access Protocol, version 4
(IMAP4) are protocols used by a mail server in conjunction with SMTP to receive and hold
email for hosts.
9. File transfer protocol (FTP) is a TCP/IP client-server application for copying files from
one host to another.
10. FTP requires two connections for data transfer: a control connection and a data
connection.
11. FTP employs ASCII for communication between dissimilar systems.
12. Prior to the actual transfer of files, the file type, data structure, and transmission mode are
defined by the client through the control connection.
13. Responses are sent from the server to the client during connection establishment.
14. There are three types of file transfer:
a. A file is copied from the server to the client.
b. A file is copied from the client to the server.
c. A list of directories or file names is sent from the server to the client.
15. Most operating systems provide a user-friendly interface between FTP and the user.
16. Anonymous FTP provides a method ofr the general public to access files on remote sites.
1. The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the main protocol used to access data on the
World Wide Web (WWW).
2. The World Wide Web is a repository of information spread all over the world and linked
together.
3. Hypertext and hypermedia are documents linked to one another through the con-cept of
pointers.
4. Browsers interpret and display a Web document.
5. A browser consists of a controller, client programs, and interpreters.
6. A Web document can be classified as static, dynamic, or active.
7. A static document is one in which the contents are fixed and stored in a server. The client
can make no changes in the server document.
8. Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) is a language used to create static Web pages.
9. Any browser can read formatting instructions (tags) embedded in an HTML document.
10. A dynamic Web document is created by a server only at a browser request.
11. T he Common Gateway Interface (CGI) is a standard for creating and handling dynamic
Web documents.
12. A CGI program with its embedded CGI interface tags can be written in a language such
as C, C++, shell script, or Perl.
13. The server sends the output of the CGI program to the browser.
14. The output of a CGI program can be text, graphics, binary data, status codes, instructions,
or an address of a file.
15. An active document is a copy of a program retrieved by the client and run at the client
site.
16. Java is a combination of a high-level programming language, a run-time environment,
and a class library that allows a programmer to write an active document and a browser to run it.
17. Java is used to created applets (small application programs).
18. Java is an object-oriented typed language with a rich library of classes.
1. Audio/video files can be downloaded for future use (streaming stored audio/video) or
broadcast to clients over the Internet (streaming live audio/video). The Internet can also be used
for live audio/video interaction.
2. Audio and video need to be digitized before being sent over the Internet.
3. Audio files are compressed through predictive encoding or perceptual encoding.
4. Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) is a method to compress pictures and graphics.
5. The JPEG process involves blocking, the discrete cosine transform, quantization, and
lossless compression.
6. Moving Pictures Experts Group (MPEG) is a method to compress video.
7. MPEG involves both spatial compression and temporal compression. The former is
similar to JPEG, and the latter removes redundant frames.
8. We can use a Web server, or a Web server with a metafile, or a media server, or a media
server and RSTP to download a streaming audio/video file.
9. Real-time data on a packet-switched network require the preservation of the time
relationship between packets of a session.
10. Gaps between consecutive packets at the receiver cause a phenomnon called jitter.
11. Jitter can be controlled through the use of timestamps and a judicious choice of the
playback time.
12. A playback buffer holds data until they can be played back.
13. A receiver delays playing back real-time data held in the playback buffer until a threshold
level is reached.
14. Sequence numbers on real-time data packets provide a form of error control.
15. Real-time data are multicast to receivers.
16. Real-time data traffic sometimes requires a translator to change a high-bandwidth signal
to a lower-quality narrow-bandwidth signal.
17. A mixer combines signals from different sources into one signal.
18. Real-time multimedia traffic requires both UDP and Real-Time Transport Protocol
(RTP).
19. RTP handles timestamping, sequencing, and mixing.
20. Real-time Transport Control Protocol (RTCP) provides flow control, quality of data
control, and feedback to the sources.
21. Voice over IP is a real-time interactive audio/video application.
22. The Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) is an application layer protocol that establishes,
manages, and terminates multimedia sessions.
23. H.323 is an ITU standard that allows a telephone connected to a public telephone
network to talk to a computer connected to the Internet.
1. Cryptography is the science and art of transforming messages to make them secure and
immune to attack.
2. Encryption renders a message (plaintext) unintelligible to unauthorized personnel.
3. Decryption transforms an intentionally unintelligible message (ciphertext) into
meaningful information.
4. Cryptography algorithms are classified as either symmetric-key methods or public-key
methods.
5. In symmetric-key cryptography the same secret key is used by the sender and the
receiver.
6. Substitution ciphers are either monoalphabetic or polyalphabetic.
7. The P-box, S-box, and product block are methods used by block ciphers.
8. DES is a symmetric-key method adopted by the U.S. government, but it has been
replaced by Triple DES or other methods.
9. Operation modes to handle long messages include ECB mode, CBC mode, CFM, and
CSM.
10. In public-key cryptography, the public key is used by the sender to encrypt the message;
the private key is used by the receiver to decrypt the message.
11. One of the commonly used public-key cryptography methods is the RSA algorithm.