Perceptions of Cooking Education among High School

Students

Sydney Hansen, Teresa Drake and Rachel L. Vollmer

Bradley University

Cooking is a basic life skill and promotes a more healthful diet. However, many young adults lack cooking
confidence. Eleven focus groups with 71 total participants were conducted to understand perceptions of
cooking education among high school students. Students who had taken cooking classes displayed cooking
confidence, developed additional non-cooking-related skills, and valued the courses. Students believed cooking is
a life skill, would like to learn more skills and about cultural cuisines, and thought cooking classes should be
offered, but not required for all high school students. Family and Consumer Sciences teachers and school
administrators could use the results in advocating for cooking classes.

Keywords: cooking; culinary arts; Family and Consumer Sciences; Home Economics; high school students

Americans are cooking less and eating out more (Kant, Whitley, & Graubard,
2015). US adults spend significantly less time cooking and preparing foods at
home, compared to the 1960s (Poti & Popkin, 2011; Smith, Ng, & Popkin, 2013).
Ready-to-eat foods prepared away from home, such as those from fast-food
restaurants, are typically more calorically dense and rarely meet dietary
guidelines for fruit, vegetable, and micronutrient recommendations (Bowman &
Vinyard, 2004). While education on the Dietary Guidelines for Americans is
readily available, the number of Americans who meet guidelines is low
(Casagrande, Wang, Anderson, & Gary, 2007). Nutrition and health education
seems to put an emphasis on what to do while neglecting to teach how to do it.
Many Americans know what they should be consuming, but do not know how
to implement a healthy diet due to barriers such as inability to cook or lack of
confidence in cooking skills (Stead et al., 2004).
While teachers have been interviewed to understand their perspectives on
cooking education (Slater, 2013), voices of high school students have yet to be
heard. This study aimed to understand high school students’ perceptions of
cooking education and how these perceptions may differ between students in
high schools with cooking classes and students in high schools without cooking
classes on campus.

Authors’ Note: Sydney Hansen, MS, RD, was a Graduate Student in the department of Family and
Consumer Sciences, Bradley University. Teresa Drake, PhD, RD, CHES, is an Assistant Professor in
the department of Family and Consumer Sciences, Bradley University. Rachel L. Vollmer, PhD, RD,
is an Assistant Professor in the department of Family and Consumer Sciences, Bradley University.
Please address correspondence to Teresa Drake, Department of Family and Consumer Sciences,
Bradley University, 1501 W. Bradley Avenue, Peoria, IL 61625; e-mail: tdrake@fsmail.bradley.edu.
Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, Vol. 47, No. 4, June 2019 359–374
DOI: 10.1111/fcsr.12305
© 2019 American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences
359
360 FAMILY AND CONSUMER SCIENCES RESEARCH JOURNAL

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The most widely reported source of cooking education is from mother to child
(Caraher, Dixon, Lang, & Carr-Hill, 1999; Wolfson, Frattaroli, Bleich, Smith, &
Teret, 2017). However, more moms are keeping their children out of the cooking
and shopping process to avoid conflict and hassle (Beagan, Chapman, D’Sylva,
& Bassett, 2008). With home-based learning under threat, school-based cooking
programs are needed to support healthful behaviors among children and
adolescents.
Classroom-based cooking education has been in existence since the early 1900s
as part of home economics (Weigley, 1974). Internationally still referred to as home
economics, Family and Consumer Sciences (FCS) is the nomenclature used in the
United States to describe home economics education. FCS includes courses in
clothing and textiles, child development, parenting, and foods/cooking (American
Association of Family and Consumer Sciences, 2018). FCS cooking classes typically
include lessons on nutrition, food safety, knife skills, culinary terms, measuring
techniques, baking, and ethnic cuisines. Unfortunately, due to widespread
elimination of school-based cooking education programs, fewer Americans are
learning to cook in schools compared to the 1950s (Cunningham-Sabo & Simons,
2012; Wolfson et al., 2017), and more adults lack cooking confidence and
knowledge (Byrd-Bredbenner, 2004; Murray et al., 2016).
Research indicating positive effects of elementary school cooking programs is
plentiful (Demas, 1995; Liquori, Koch, Contento, & Castle, 1998; Walters &
Stacey, 2009); however, very few studies have assessed effectiveness of cooking
education within high schools. Slater (2013) assessed perceptions of cooking
education among Canadian home economics teachers. Interviews with Canadian
home economics teachers and superintendents revealed significant challenges
within their Home Economics Food and Nutrition (HEFN) program (Slater,
2013). Interviewees felt HEFN education was undervalued, curriculum renewal
was neglected, and family/home environment undermined HEFN education.
Interviewees also indicated students were coming into HEFN classes without
any basic cooking knowledge. They reported an increasing number of students
were not being exposed to cooking skills at home, such as knife skills, reading a
recipe, or using a stove. Therefore, students were thirsty for knowledge obtained
in HEFN classes. Finally, interviewees thought cooking and nutrition education
should be mandatory in some grades because of the lack of cooking education
at home (Slater, 2013).
High school students and adults share many of the same likes and dislikes
about cooking (Lang & Caraher, 2001; Lavelle et al., 2016; Stead et al., 2004).
Condrasky, Corr, Sharp, Hegler, and Warmin (2010) found that adolescents
participating in a cooking summer camp, Cook like a Chef, also disliked waiting
for food to cook and cleaning up afterward. While adults and adolescents
dislike the time and effort involved in cooking, they both agree cooking can be a
creative outlet and a stress-relieving activity. Specifically for adolescents, the
most favorable part of cooking is eating/tasting foods they prepare on their
own (Condrasky et al., 2010).
Cooking education may lead to improved health. Reciprocal determinism, a
construct of social cognitive theory (SCT), explains how changing personal
factors such as skill level can lead to changes in behavior and environment
(Baranowski, Perry, & Parcel, 2002). Likewise, changes in behavior and
Hansen et al. / PERCEPTIONS OF COOKING EDUCATION 361

environment can lead to personal changes such as health. Cooking education

can provide the behavioral capability and positive reinforcement needed for
students to develop self-efficacy in their ability to cook.

METHODOLOGY

Sample

After receiving approval from the Committee on the Use of Human Subjects at
Bradley University, the authors began the study. Purposeful, or selective,
sampling was used to recruit high school students from schools in a Midwestern
metropolitan area. Email inquiries were sent to principals and assistant
principals of 11 high schools in the metro area. Administrators from three public
school districts granted approval to recruit students from six schools, three that
offered elective cooking classes (cooking schools, CSs) and three that did not
offer cooking classes on campus (non-cooking schools, NCSs). Flyers and
parental consent forms outlining the study were provided to students during
class or lunch.
Focus groups were conducted at six public high schools within three school
districts in a Midwestern metropolitan area. Four schools were in the same
urban district, three NCSs and one CS, while two CSs were in the surrounding
rural area in separate districts. Three high schools offered a cooking class, and
three did not offer a cooking class on campus. The three schools that did not
offer a cooking class on campus had an option of an off-site culinary arts class
at a career and technical center. This site was included as one of the CSs.
Students who took this class would be bused to the career center and be
required to use two class periods to allow time for this. The cooking classes
offered ranged from basic cooking in small laboratory kitchens, to large-scale
food production in food service kitchens. Two CSs offered courses with a food
service emphasis, and the other CS offered a basic foods course. While all three
NCSs had an off-campus cooking class option available to students, focus group
participants at the NCS sites had not taken the course. See Table 1.
Criteria for participation at NCSs included students in grades 10–12 who had
not taken a high school cooking class. Criteria for participation at CSs were
restricted to students in grades 10–12 who had taken or were currently enrolled
in a high school cooking class. Freshman students (9th grade) were not eligible
to participate because their recent enrollment in high school may not have
allowed them time to participate in high school cooking classes. Students who
participated in the study were entered into a drawing for a chance to win one of
11 small cooking appliances. Parental consent and participant assent were
obtained for each participant.

Data Collection

Focus groups were used to collect data for this qualitative study. Focus group
questions from Slater (2013) were used as a guide to develop new questions for
this study. Semi-structured interview protocols were developed for schools with
cooking classes and schools without cooking classes. Questions were designed to
solicit information about attitudes toward cooking education both in and outside
362 FAMILY AND CONSUMER SCIENCES RESEARCH JOURNAL

TABLE 1: Characteristics of High Schools Where Participants Were Recruited

District 1 2 3

High School NCS1 NCS2 NCS3 CS1 CS2 CS3

Student enrollment 1,251 1,385 840 80 1,067 330

Race/ethnicity (%)
White 45.5 13.6 10.0 26.3 80.7 95.5
Black 31.0 65.8 67.7 61.3 10.4 0.3
Hispanic 7.0 11.1 16.5 8.7 3.4 2.7
Asian 5.1 0.7 0.1 0.0 0.8 0.3
Mixed race 11.0 8.5 5.4 3.7 4.5 1.2
Native American 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0
Other 0.4 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0
Eligible for free lunch (%) 37.5 71.0 80.0 65.0 37.0 13.0
Low-income students (%) 44.0 77.0 86.0 * 44.0 24.0

NOTE: *Data not available.

SOURCES: Illinois Report Card (2017); National Center for Education Statistics (2016).

of school and included questions such as “tell me about your experiences

learning how to cook” and “what would you like to learn about cooking/food.”
Two pilot focus groups were conducted with undergraduate students, one with
students who had taken a cooking class in high school or college, and one with
students who had not. Minor revisions were made to the order in which
interview questions were asked. The pilot study was also approved by the
Committee on the Use of Human Subjects, and consent was obtained from each
participant.
The primary researcher facilitated all focus groups along with a research
assistant to take notes. Participants were informed that the discussion would be
recorded. After confirming consent and assent, participants were asked to
complete a questionnaire that included their age, gender, and race/ethnicity.
Questions were asked in a semi-structured manner. Duration of the focus
groups was approximately 45 min. Focus groups were audio-recorded and
transcribed verbatim.

Data Analysis

Content analysis of transcripts was performed by three researchers trained in

qualitative research. Recurring codes were used to construct categories or
themes among CSs versus NCSs. After coding data independently, the three
researchers came together to reach consensus and finalize themes.

RESULTS

Sample Characteristics

Six focus groups were conducted at CSs, and five focus groups were conducted
at NCSs. There were 71 participants (30 were from NCSs, 41 were from CSs).
Participants were between 14 and 19 years old (M = 16.8, SD = 1.18). Slightly
over half (52%) were female; 48% were male. The race/ethnicity of the
Hansen et al. / PERCEPTIONS OF COOKING EDUCATION 363

participants was 48% White, 27% African American, 11% mixed race, 7%
Hispanic, 3% Asian, 3% Other, and 1% Native American. See Table 2.

Themes

Themes that emerged were organized by: (i) common themes found in both CSs
and NCSs, (ii) themes unique to NCSs, (iii) themes unique to CSs, and (iv)
themes found only in food service-specific courses within the CSs. While NCS
and CS refer to the broader categories of groups, NCS1 or CS3, for instance, are
used to specify the school from which quotes or data originated. See Table 3.

Themes Found in Both Cooking Schools and Non-Cooking Schools

Cons of cooking. Participants in both NCSs and CSs shared common dislikes
about cooking including time it takes to prepare meals, cleaning up afterward,
waiting for food to finish cooking, messing up a recipe, and the effort it takes to
cook.
Pros of cooking. Both NCS and CS participants enjoyed cooking because it is
“fun” and allowed experimentation with foods. Students also viewed cooking as
a calming experience or “mental release.” Above all, their favorite aspect was
getting to eat the foods they cooked.
Learning interests. There was mutual interest in learning to cook cultural
cuisines among both NCS and CS groups. Students were also interested in
learning about the cultural background of those foods. In addition, both groups
wanted to learn how to make healthy foods taste delicious.
Lack of trust from family. Students in both NCSs and CSs felt their parents did
not trust them to cook at home. Both groups shared parental beliefs that the
teenagers would hurt themselves if they attempted to cook. Words like
“nagging” and “demanding” were used to describe their experiences cooking
with parents at home.
Cooking is a life skill. Cooking was deemed necessary for survival when going
to college or living alone, as well as for raising a family. Students in both NCSs
and CSs also made associations between cooking and health. One participant
said, “It’s just healthier and cheaper to cook your own food” (CS1). Students
also placed an emphasis on learning food safety as a means of producing safe
foods.

Themes Unique to Non-Cooking Schools

Lack of confidence. Non-cooking school students displayed a lack of confidence
in their cooking abilities. Students repeatedly mentioned they tend to burn food
or themselves when trying to cook. As one participant expressed, “None of it
really turned out well, so I wasn’t really. . .cooking, just like burning stuff”
(NC1). They also felt incapable of producing a healthy meal that tasted good.
When asked whether they would take a cooking class if offered at their schools,
students expressed concerns about being graded on their cooking skills and how
that might negatively affect their grade point average (GPA).
Limited cooking experience. Non-cooking school participants reported having
learned some cooking skills during adolescence from mom, dad, grandma,
YouTube, or work. Although they reported learning how to cook, their cooking
 364

TABLE 2: Characteristics of Participants from Non-Cooking Schools (NCSs) and Cooking Schools (CSs)

NCS CS

Characteristics NCS1 (n = 18) NCS2 (n = 8) NCS3 (n = 4) Total (n = 30) CS1 (n = 12) CS2 (n = 12) CS3 (n = 17) Total (n = 41)

Age (mean  SD) 16.7  0.96 15.5  1.60 16.5  1.29 16.4  1.27 17.5  1.00 16.6  1.08 17.2  0.80 17.1  1.00
Gender (%)
Female 11.1 75.0 75.0 36.7 75.0 66.7 52.9 63.4
Male 88.9 25.0 25.0 63.3 25.0 33.3 47.1 36.6
Race/ethnicity (%)
White 44.4 12.5 – 30.0 16.7 50.0 100.0 61.0
Black 33.3 50.0 – 33.3 50.0 25.0 – 22.0
Hispanic – 25.0 50.0 13.3 8.3 – – 2.4
Asian 11.1 – – 7.0 – – – –
Mixed race 5.6 12.5 50.0 13.3 8.3 25.0 – 9.7
Native American 5.6 – – 3.0 – – – –
Other – – – – 16.7 – – 4.8
FAMILY AND CONSUMER SCIENCES RESEARCH JOURNAL
Hansen et al. / PERCEPTIONS OF COOKING EDUCATION
TABLE 3: Summary of Themes within NCSs and CSs with Example Quotes
Themes
Common themes
Cons of cooking
Pros of cooking
Learning Interests
Lack of trust from family
Cooking is a life skill
Non-cooking schools
Lack of confidence
Limited cooking experience
Class expectations
Cooking class should not be
required in high schools
Cooking schools
Enhanced skills
Confidence/accomplishment
Non-cooking skills gained
365
Example Quotes
I don’t like when I start cooking and it doesn’t turn out the way I
thought and then I don’t want to eat it anymore (NCS2)
I just don’t like the effort (CS3)
[Cooking] is fun and it takes your mind off a lot of things so it’s
like, a great stress relief, as well as eating it (NCS2)
I just like being able to put different ingredients with different
things. . . or make something original (CS2)
I want to make healthy food that tastes bad, actually taste good
(NCS1)
Culture I think is really interesting and why they eat things like
that and what’s available to them in their region (CS2)
I wanna [sic] learn how to do [knife skills], but my mom doesn’t
let me. She says that I might hurt myself (NCS2)
My dad wouldn’t let me near hot surfaces (CS3)
Yeah I feel like you kind of need some knowledge in cooking to
actually survive (NCS1)
I think that cooking is a good life skill you should know (CS2)
Getting better at cracking eggs. I can’t do that by myself very well
(NCS1)
I would take [cooking class] IF it’s graded on effort, cause um,
you don’t always cook so well (NCS2)
I just remember the first thing I tried to cook. Like I was like, 11
or 12, I tried to cook eggs and I burned them they were black.
I’ll like, stir rice or whatever every once in a while. But yeah still
learning (NCS2)
I don’t know much, like I don’t need to be doing anything fancy,
but I feel like I don’t know how to fend for myself (NCS1)
If [cooking class] was on campus I would take it (NCS1)
Not make [cooking class] so that it’s like every semester is
cooking, cooking, cooking, because people are just going to
start not taking it serious their grade point average is going to
drop (NCS2)
I feel like if you try to make people go in there they’re just going
to screw around and kind of make it worse for everyone who
actually wants to be there (NCS1)
I don’t think that [a mandatory cooking class] is a good idea. . . I
feel like it deteriorates the overall value of having the ability to
choose your own electives (NCS2)
In class we like, fine-tuned the skills that we already knew how to
learn from our parents (CS2)
I joined culinary to um, help me like, learn more and expand on
my skill set (CS1)
I like how we’re bringing out how talented we are (CS2)
This class makes me feel better about myself. I wasn’t really like
that much confident about myself, but now I’m like really
confident (CS1)
Social skills is a BIG one. Like, we have to serve people for our
restaurant on Thursdays. I just had to learn like, hospitality and
like, social skills (CS1)
I feel like it [the cooking class] shows people how to like, work
together and manage having so many people in one little area
back in the kitchen (CS2)
(continued)
366 FAMILY AND CONSUMER SCIENCES RESEARCH JOURNAL

TABLE 3: (continued)

Themes Example Quotes

Sense of community
Appreciation for teachers
Include variety/technical skills
Not required but offered in all
high schools
Food service courses
Professional outlook
Opportunity
Like, this class helps you bond with other people, I mean you
could have enemies and you could become friends. It boosts
you up (CS1)
We’re all a foods family (CS2)
And I think a big part of what we owe is to our [teacher]. She’s
taught us all a lot about food and she’s just a great teacher
overall (CS2)
She’s teaching me. . . and she sits there and guides you and your
parents doesn’t [sic] (CS1)
I want to try. . . more range of food because we make a lot of the
same stuff because it’s for the [school] lunches (CS2)
I would like to learn like, batonnet. . . specific ways to cut things
(CS3)
I feel like all schools should at least offer [cooking class] (CS2)
Making it [cooking class] a required class it would be like you’d
have people who don’t want to be here and will blatantly show
that they do not wanna [sic] do it and so it’s gonna [sic] hinder
everybody else (CS1)
I don’t feel like we’re just kids that are [cooking], I actually feel
like we’re a part of [the lunch program] (CS2)
I learned how to deal with problems with serving like, the
customer is always right. You do not want to get upset or you
can lose a customer (CS1)
I feel like it’s an opportunity that everybody should take, because
you meet a lot of new people and um, it opens yourself up to
like, so many outside jobs (CS1)
It was a great experience to really learn how to cook and learn
how a kitchen works, and we actually had the opportunity not
too long ago she had us take our food sanitation test. The
school paid for it too. See I never would have gotten it if I hadn’t
taken the class, but now I have it, it’s a great asset (CS2)

experience was limited and basic. They reported using basic equipment, such as
mixing bowls, blender, and a microwave. They said they were able to cook only
basic meals, such as spaghetti, macaroni and cheese, sandwiches, eggs, toast,
and smoothies. They said that they knew only basic components of food safety
including handwashing, not eating raw meat or eggs, and not pouring water on
grease fires.
Cooking class expectations. Non-cooking school students would prefer a high
school cooking class that did not take up multiple class periods so they could
still have time in the school day for other courses. Reputation of the teacher(s)
also played a big role in whether or not they would take a cooking class. They
would prefer primarily hands-on cooking with minimal time spent on lectures
or bookwork, and to be graded on effort only (pass or fail). While they were not
as interested in learning about nutrition, they were interested in learning how to
make healthy foods taste good. They were most interested in learning basic
cooking techniques, quick and easy recipes, and skill in using knives, cooking
cultural foods, and baking.
Hansen et al. / PERCEPTIONS OF COOKING EDUCATION 367

Cooking class should not be required in high schools. Participants emphasized

that requiring students to take a cooking class would ruin the class for students
truly interested in learning how to cook. They suggested that requiring students
to take a cooking class would decrease desirability of taking such a class and
poor grades could result. They felt that students should have a choice in the
classes they take.

Themes Unique to Cooking Schools

Enhanced skills through cooking classes. While the majority of students in
cooking classes had previous cooking knowledge learned at home, they felt high
school cooking classes improved their skills and that they learned correct
techniques. CS students reported having more cooking opportunities under the
supervision of their teachers compared to cooking at home because of the lack
of trust from their parents. Knife skills were one of the skills that many
participants mentioned had improved dramatically since taking a cooking class.
Students also reported working with equipment they had not been exposed to at
home such as a stand mixer, commercial dish room, meat slicer, smoker, and
various knives.
Confidence and sense of accomplishment. Students in cooking classes felt more
independent and confident in the kitchen. For example one participant said,
“I’m more confident like, when I go home, to make things” (CS3). Students had
surprised and impressed family members with their new cooking skills. One
student even had the opportunity to cater for a family friend including pricing,
cooking, and delivering the foods. In addition, these students had enough
confidence to correct or teach their parents.
Non-cooking skills gained. In addition to learning new cooking techniques in
class, CS students also developed skills such as teamwork, time management,
problem solving, handling mistakes, independence, customer service, and
communication/social skills.
Sense of community. CS students especially enjoyed the social aspects of
cooking. Students emphasized that they formed new and unexpected friendships
through their cooking classes. They frequently used “we” and “our” to describe
their class experiences. CS students bonded over their cooking experiences and
laughed at memories and inside jokes. In addition to developing a sense of
community inside the classroom, students noted how cooking at home made
them feel connected to their family members.
Appreciation for teachers. Students expressed respect and appreciation for their
FCS/culinary arts teachers. Many of them felt the teacher was what made their
cooking classes so enjoyable. Students even appreciated the tougher discipline
and critiques from their teachers because they were able to learn from their
mistakes.
Cooking class should include variety and technical skills. Cooking school students
desired a longer class period than 45 min to practice their skills and prepare
more complex recipes. Compared to NCS students, CS students desired to learn
more technical skills such as batonnet (a specialized knife technique), cake
decorating, and barbequing. These students desired more variety within the
recipes and ingredients used. They were interested in cooking from scratch,
healthy meals, quick meals, and incorporating unique fruits and vegetables into
the curriculum.
368 FAMILY AND CONSUMER SCIENCES RESEARCH JOURNAL

Cooking class should not be required, but SHOULD be offered in all high
schools. Cooking school students felt that requiring a high school cooking class
might negatively impact their experiences, as well as their teachers’ experiences
in the cooking classes they have grown to love. While CS students were not in
favor of a compulsory cooking class, they stressed that cooking classes should at
least be offered in every high school, so that all students had the option if
interested.

Themes Unique to Food Service Courses

Professional outlook/perspective. Cooking school students from food service
classes mentioned learning more professional skills such as meal presentation,
customer service, and working in high-pressure environments. These students
viewed cooking as a potential career and mentioned culinary job opportunities
and their goals within that realm.
Opportunity. Students in food service production classes emphasized what a
great opportunity taking the class had been. Some had the opportunity to
participate in cooking competitions and received scholarship awards. Both food
service classes paid for their students to take the examination for the ServSafe:
Food Protection Manager Certification. These students expressed gratitude for
that opportunity and felt it would be beneficial when applying for future jobs,
whether in the culinary field or not.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Many of the themes revealed in this study can be explained using social
cognitive theory (SCT). While some themes were expected such as students who
had taken cooking courses were taught the knowledge and skills to cook
(behavioral capability) and they received positive reinforcement from their
instructors, other themes provided a more nuanced look into students’
perceptions. For instance, not only did students receive positive reinforcement in
class as expected, they were often negatively reinforced at home by parents.
While they developed self-efficacy regarding cooking, their self-efficacy for
teamwork and communication was also developed. Both groups described value
in being able to cook for oneself (value expectancy). However, addressing fear of
being graded (emotional coping response), as well as the barrier of time in their
schedules, may be needed to increase enrollment in cooking classes.
Results of this study indicate that high school students value cooking
education, but have different experiences learning to cook in a school setting
versus at home. Most of the participants had learned, at minimum, basic
cooking skills primarily from mom, dad, and grandma, and less often from
media sources or community-based cooking classes. While both NCS and CS
students reported having some degree of home-based cooking education, the
two groups did not have the same level of confidence in their cooking abilities.
The higher self-efficacy that CS students had was advantageous because the
more confident one is in their ability to cook, the more likely they are to cook
for themselves (Dixon, Condrasky, Sharp, & Corr, 2013).
When cooking at home was discussed, both groups reported a lack of trust
from their parents. Mothers in particular have admitted to doubting their teens’
Hansen et al. / PERCEPTIONS OF COOKING EDUCATION 369

ability to cook efficiently and healthfully, and they had prevented their
teenagers from participating in grocery shopping or home cooking (Beagan
et al., 2008). Teenagers in the same study reported inability to meet their
mothers’ standards in the kitchen (Beagan et al., 2008). With a lack of trust from
parents, comes a lack of cooking opportunities at home and this might explain
NCS students’ inexperience and lack of confidence in their cooking abilities. It
appears to be evident from this study and others (Slater, 2013), that adolescents
are not getting sufficient cooking education at home.
While both NCS and CS students expressed a lack of trust from parents, trust
can be gained through improved cooking skills and confidence. After taking a
cooking class, CS students were able to teach their parents what they had
learned, as well as describe incorrect home cooking practices. Students have
more opportunity in cooking classes versus at home where they may be limited
due to this lack of trust or resources. Increased exposure, knowledge, and skills
gained in cooking classes compared to learning at home provide reasons for its
importance in schools.

Marketability of High School Cooking Classes

Although enrollment in cooking classes is affected by many factors such as

course and instructor availability, and scheduling around mandated coursework,
participants in this study contributed an abundance of ideas that could be useful
in increasing student interest in cooking classes. To appeal to high school
students, cooking classes should be mostly hands-on learning. Students were
very interested in cooking cultural cuisines, and also learning about the cultures
themselves. Cultural cooking lessons can help reinforce information from other
subjects, such as geography and social studies.
When it comes to healthy eating, high school students were less interested in
learning fundamentals of nutrition and more interested in learning how to prepare
good tasting healthy foods. Perceptions among students in both groups were that
“healthy” foods are not as palatable as “unhealthy” foods. Raghunathan, Naylor,
and Hoyer (2006) found perceived healthiness and tastiness are inversely
correlated among adult consumers as well. Hands-on learning in school cooking
classes could bridge the gap between nutrition knowledge and application
because it allows students to experiment with healthy foods and discover ways to
prepare both nutritious and delicious meals. Using class titles that are all
encompassing such as “foods” or “culinary” might be an effective approach to
gaining high school students’ interest in taking a cooking class. While nutrition
may not be the desired focus for a high school cooking class, subtle but important
nutrition information should be incorporated throughout food production and/or
food science lessons (National Association of State Administrators of Family and
Consumer Sciences, 2018). Finally, having an engaging teacher was important to
participants in this study and it was shown that enthusiastic teachers positively
affected student perceptions of other courses, such as social studies (Chiodo &
Byford, 2004).

Attitude toward Cooking Classes

Enjoyment of cooking classes was prominent among CS students. They enjoyed

experimenting and the sense of community they had with classmates. They also
370 FAMILY AND CONSUMER SCIENCES RESEARCH JOURNAL

reported a sense of accomplishment and confidence in their skills. Lukas and

Cunningham-Sabo (2011) found that fourth graders also found school cooking
classes to be enjoyable because of the hands-on tasks and opportunity to share
cooking experiences with their peers. This positive attitude toward cooking
emerges when self-perceived cooking skills are higher; the greater food
preparation knowledge and skill one has, the more positive their cooking
experience will be (Byrd-Bredbenner, 2004). Although enjoyment was high,
participants expressed reservations about compulsory cooking classes that might
jeopardize their positive experiences.
Students in this study and teachers in a previous study (Slater, 2013) believed
cooking is a life skill. This notion of cooking as a life skill is prominent within
the literature (Caraher & Lang, 1999; Foley, Spurr, Lenoy, De Jong, & Fichera,
2011; Lang & Caraher, 2001; Ternier, 2010). Having the ability to cook can help
fulfill the physiological need to eat but can also promote a healthful diet.
Larson, Perry, Story, and Neumark-Sztainer (2006) found that young adults who
frequently prepared meals at home were more likely to meet dietary guidelines
than those that rarely did so. Compared to foods prepared at home, pre-
prepared foods purchased outside of the home have been shown to be higher in
total fat, saturated fat, and calories, while being lower in fiber, calcium, and iron
(Poti & Popkin, 2011). Participants in this study made the connection between
cooking and health, viewing the act of cooking meals at home as a healthier and
more affordable option compared to dining out.

Benefits of High School Cooking Classes

CS students also valued the ability to apply practical skills learned in cooking
classes at home or at their food service jobs. Furthermore, the school setting
promoted hands-on learning where students could experiment with recipes and
try new foods they may have been reluctant to purchase on their own for fear of
not liking them. Beyond culinary-specific skills, high school cooking classes
fostered cooking confidence, a sense of community and accomplishment, and
development of professional skills such as problem solving, teamwork, time
management, and improved social skills. Cooking classes expose students to
important kitchen skills, including knife skills, kitchen safety, health knowledge,
and awareness of a variety of foods (Lukas & Cunningham-Sabo, 2011). Not
only are cooking skills useful day-to-day, but they are also positively correlated
with the consumption of a healthy diet (Hartmann, Dohle, & Siegrist, 2013) and
having adequate cooking skills in early adulthood can predict better nutrition-
related outcomes 10 years later (Utter, Larson, Laska, Winkler, & Neumark-
Sztainer, 2018).
In order for these benefits to reach more students, cooking classes should be
offered in all high schools. Students in this study agreed that cooking classes
should be offered, although they disagreed on reasons for wanting them to be
elective. While similar percentages of students were enrolled in home economics
or FCS courses in the 1950s and early 2000s, the duration of these courses had
decreased (Werhan & Way, 2006), and in the subsequent 10 years, enrollment
dropped in those courses by 38% according to data from a survey of the 2011–
2012 academic year (Werhan, 2013). A 2017 national survey of American adults
revealed that the least common means of learning how to cook was in schools
or formal cooking classes, with only 12% of those surveyed learning this way
Hansen et al. / PERCEPTIONS OF COOKING EDUCATION 371

(Wolfson et al., 2017). Further research is needed to understand why more

people are not taking school cooking classes, but potential reasons could be due
to negative perceptions, competition with other elective courses, or absence of
cooking programs in some schools. Regardless, there is strong support from the
public for teaching cooking skills in public schools (Wolfson et al., 2017).
While the benefits of a high school cooking class for students are clear, lack of
sufficient funds and shortage of FCS teachers might prevent high schools from
offering cooking classes. However with strong public support for cooking
education in schools (Wolfson et al., 2017), parents, teachers, and community
members may be motivated to advocate for high school cooking classes. For
schools without sufficient space for a cooking laboratory, on- or off-site food
service facilities may be an option to conduct cooking lessons. Mini-lessons to
spark interest could also be implemented in courses such as math, science, or
social studies. Simple recipes involving measuring, mixing, cutting, and use of
electric appliances can be integrated into other academic subjects. However,
these lessons would not take the place of FCS/culinary arts courses taught by
highly qualified instructors.
Furthermore, students in cooking classes in this study learned problem
solving, teamwork, time management, and they improved their social skills, all
skills that are applicable and useful across academic subjects. Lukas and
Cunningham-Sabo (2011) found that students enrolled in an elementary school
cooking program had a positive experience with the integration of cooking
concepts into academic subjects. In this way, school cooking classes have the
potential to promote student success in other academic subjects due to the
utilization of mathematics, sciences, and global perspectives.

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH

Schools in this study varied among demographics and socio-economic status

(SES) of the students. Despite attempts to recruit schools with similar
characteristics, two schools were more rural while four schools were in an urban
setting. The rural schools had higher percentages of white students and lower
numbers of low-income students than three of the urban schools. These
differences may have affected results. For instance, children from lower SES
families have been shown to cook at home more often and cook more
complicated recipes than children from higher SES families (Kirby, Baranowski,
Reynolds, Taylor, & Binkley, 1995). Because children’s cooking exposure and
experiences are different across family SES groups, children are likely to have
different perceptions of cooking depending on their background.
Data were also limited to one geographic area so caution should be taken
with generalizing these findings to all high school students. Finally, some
participants in the focus groups talked more than others, although the facilitator
was careful to elicit responses from quieter participants and from those that
seemed to have different perspectives. Lastly, self-selection bias may have
occurred due to preexisting interests or experiences with cooking.
Insight provided from high school students in this study can be used to
strengthen existing FCS/culinary arts programs or to create new programs.
These findings could justify, explain, or influence administrators or school
boards on decisions regarding cooking classes.
372 FAMILY AND CONSUMER SCIENCES RESEARCH JOURNAL

Future research should evaluate effectiveness of cooking classes taught in

high schools, and the impact of cooking classes taught in middle schools
compared to high school cooking classes. Also, future studies could explore
younger students’ perceptions of cooking education as some participants
expressed learning to cook earlier than high school. Long-term studies are also
needed to evaluate nutrition outcomes in adulthood for students who
participated in school-based cooking classes.

AUTHORS’ CONTRIBUTIONS

Ms. Sydney Hansen planned and conducted the study, including data analysis
and writing the manuscript, as part of her graduate thesis. Dr. Drake and
Dr. Vollmer supervised the study, helped in the analysis of data, and
contributed to revising the manuscript for publication.

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